Flexible Electronic Skin

Seminar report submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

KALINGA INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY, BHUBANESWAR

Submitted To
Professor N.K.Rout
Submitted By
Saikat Mazumdar
ROLL NO: 1604103
ETC - 2

(1)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I feel it as a great privilege in expressing my deepest and most sincere
gratitude to my supervisor Dr. N.K. Rout, for his excellent guidance throughout our seminar
work. His kindness, dedication, hard work and attention to detail have been a great inspiration
to me. My heartfelt thanks to you sir for the unlimited support and patience shown to me. I
would particularly like to thank him for all his help in patiently and carefully correcting all the
following report details.

I am also very thankful to our Director Professor Dr. Arun Kumar Ray and Dean Professor
Suprava Pattnaik, for their support and suggestion during our course of the seminar in the
final year of our undergraduate course.

Saikat Mazumdar

(2)
 ABSTRACT

Electronics plays a very important role in developing simple devices used for any purpose. In
every field electronic equipments are required. The best achievement as well as future example
of integrated electronics in medical field is Artificial Skin. It is ultrathin electronics device
attaches to the skin like a sick on tattoo which can measure electrical activity of heart, brain
waves & other vital signals. Artificial skin is skin grown in a laboratory. It can be used as skin
replacement for people who have suffered skin trauma, such as severe burns or skin diseases, or
robotic applications. This report focuses on the Artificial skin(E-Skin) to build a skin work
similar to that of the human skin and also it is embedded with several sensations or the sense of
touch acting on the skin. This skin is already being stitched together. It consists of millions of
embedded electronic measuring devices: thermostats, pressure gauges, pollution detectors,
cameras, microphones, glucose sensors, EKGs, electronic holographs. This device would
enhance the new technology which is emerging and would greatly increase the usefulness of
robotic probes in areas where the human cannot venture. The sensor could pave the way for a
overabundance of new applications that can wirelessly monitor the vitals and body movements
of a patient sending information directly to a computer that can log and store data to better
assist in future decisions. This report offers an insight view of the internal structure, fabrication
process and different manufacturing processes.

(3)
 CONTENT

Title Page No.

Acknowledgement 2

Abstract 3

Introduction 5

History and Commercialization 6

Architecture 7-8

Fabrication 9-13

Results and Analysis 14-15

Future Scope 16

Advantages and Disadvantages 17

Conclusion 18-19

References 20

(4)
 INTRODUCTION
1

Electronics plays a very important role in developing simple devices used for any purpose. In
every field electronic equipments are required. The best achievement as well as future example
of integrated electronics in medical field is Artificial Skin. It is ultrathin electronics device
attaches to the skin like a sick on tattoo which can measure electrical activity of heart, brain
waves & other vital signals. Evolution in robotics is demanding increased perception of the
environment. Human skin provides sensory perception of temperature, touch/pressure, and air
flow. Goal is to develop sensors on flexible substrates that are compliant to curved surfaces.
Researcher’s objective is for making an artificial skin is to make a revolutionary change in
robotics, in medical field, in flexible electronics. Skin is large organ in human body so artificial
skin replaces it according to our need. Main objective of artificial skin is to sense heat, pressure,
touch, airflow and whatever which human skin sense. It is replacement for prosthetic limbs and
robotic arms. Artificial skin is skin grown in a laboratory. There are various names of artificial
skin in biomedical field it is called as artificial skin, in our electronics field it is called as
electronic skin, some scientist it called as sensitive skin, in other way it also called as synthetic
skin, some people says that it is fake skin. Such different names are available but application is
same it is skin replacement for people who have suffered skin trauma, such as severe burns or
skin diseases, or robotic applications & so on. An artificial skin has also been recently
demonstrated at the University of Cincinnati for in-vitro sweat simulation and testing, capable
of skin-like texture, wetting, sweat poredensity, and sweat rates.

Fig. Artificial Skin

(5)
 HISTORY AND COMMERCIALIZATION

Electronic skin or e-skin is a thin material designed to mimic human skin by recognising
pressure and temperature. In September 2010, Javey and the University of California,
Berkeley developed a method of attaching nanowire transistors and pressure sensors to a
sticky plastic film. In August 2011, Massachusetts-based MC10 created an electronic patch for
monitoring patient's vital health signs which was described as 'electric skin'. The 'tattoos' were
created by embedding sensors in a thin film. During tests, the device stayed in place for 24
hours and was flexible enough to move with the skin it was placed on. Javey's latest electronic
skin lights up when touched. Pressure triggers a reaction that lights up blue, green, red, and
yellow LEDs and as pressure increases the lights get brighter.
Artificial skin identified by different name in a same way it is developed in different
laboratories such as in MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), in Tokyo led by Takao
Someya, The Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology, and so on. In
this report we see the different methods of manufacturing of artificial skin of different scientist
& its application with its future scope.
Another form of artificial skin has been created out of flexible semiconductor
materials that can sense touch for those with prosthetic limbs. The artificial skin is anticipated
to augment robotics in conducting rudimentary jobs that would be considered delicate and
require sensitive touch. Scientists found that by applying a layer of rubber with two parallel
electrodes that stored electrical charges inside of the artificial skin, tiny amounts of pressure
could be detected. When pressure is exerted, the electrical charge in the rubber is changed and
the change is detected by the electrodes. However, the film is so small that when pressure is
applied to the skin, the molecules have nowhere to move and become entangled. The
molecules also fail to return to their original shape when the pressure is removed.
Sensitive skin, also known as sensate skin, is an electronic sensing skin placed on the
surface of a machine such as a robotic arm. The goal of the skin is to sense important
environmental parameters—such as proximity to objects, heat, moisture, and direct touch
sensations. Examples of a sensitive skin have been made by a group in Tokyo led by Takao
Someya.

(6)
 Architecture of E - Skin
With the interactive e-skin, demonstration is takes place an elegant system on plastic that can
be wrapped around different objects to enable a new form of HMI. Other companies, including
Massachusetts-based engineering firm MC10, have created flexible electronic circuits that are
attached to a wearer's skin using a rubber stamp. MC10 originally designed the tattoos, called
Biostamps, to help medical teams measure the health of their patients either remotely, or
without the need for large expensive machinery.
Fig below shows the various parts that make up the MC10 electronic tattoo called the
Biostamp. It can be stuck to the body using a rubber stamp, and protected using spray-on
bandages. The circuit can be worn for two weeks and Motorola believes this makes it perfect
for authentication purposes.

Fig. Architecture of artificial skin

Large-area ultrasonic sensor arrays that could keep both robots and humans out of trouble.
An ultrasonic skin covering an entire robot body could work as a 360-degree proximity sensor,
measuring the distance between the robot and external obstacles. This could prevent the robot
from crashing into walls or allow it to handle our soft, fragile human bodies with more care.
For humans, it could provide prosthetics or garments that are hyperaware of their surroundings.
Besides adding multiple functions to e- skins, it’s also important to improve their electronic
properties, such as the speed at which signals can be read from the sensors. For that, electron
mobility is a fundamental limiting factor, so some researchers are seeking to create flexible
materials that allow electrons to move very quickly. Ali Javey and his colleagues at the
University of California, Berkeley, have hadsome success in that area. They figured out how
to make flexible, large-area electronics by printing semiconducting nanowires onto plastics
and paper. Nanowires have excellent electron mobility, but they hadn’t been used in large-area
electronics before. Materials like the ones Javey developed will also allow for fascinating new
functions for e-skins. My team has developed electromagnetic coupling technology for e-skin,
which would enable wireless power transmission. Imagine being able to charge your
prosthetic arm by resting your hand on a charging pad on your desk. In principle, any sort of
conductor could work for this, but if materials with higher electron mobility are used, the
transmission frequency could increase, resulting in more efficient coupling. Linking sensors
with radio-frequency communication modules within an e-skin would also allow the wireless

(7)
 transmission of information from skin to computer—or, conceivably, to other e-skinned
people. At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, John Rogers’s team has taken the
first step toward this goal. His latest version of an ―electrical epidermis contained the
antenna and ancillary components needed for radio- frequency communication. What’s more,
his electronics can be laminated onto your skin in the same fashion as a temporary tattoo. The
circuit is first transferred onto a water-soluble plastic sheet, which washes away after the
circuit is pressed on. Doctors could use these tiny devices to monitor a patient’s vital signs
without the need for wires and bulky contact pads, and people could wear them discreetly
beyond the confines of the hospital. Rogers and his colleagues tried out a number of
applications for their stick-on electronics. In their most astonishing iteration, they applied
circuitry studded with sensors to a person’s throat where it could detect the muscular activity
involved in speech. Simply by monitoring the signals, researchers were able to differentiate
among several words spoken by the test subject. The user was even able to control a voice-
activated video game. Rogers suggested that such a device could be used to create covert,
subvocal communication systems.

Fig. E-Skin attaches to hand

Skins that know what we’re saying without having to say it, skins that can communicate
themselves, skins that extend our human capacities in directions we haven’t yet imagined—the
possibilities are endless. And while some readers may worry about e-skins being used to
invade the privacy of their bodies or minds, I believe the potential benefits of this technology
offer plenty of reasons to carry on with the work. For example, the car company Toyota has
already demonstrated a smart steering wheel that measures the electrical activity of the driver’s
heart; imagine a smart skin that can warn a patient of an oncoming heart attack hours in
advance. Human skin is so thin, yet it serves as a boundary between us and the external world.
My dream is to make responsive electronic coverings that bridge that divide. Instead of cold
metal robots and hard plastic prosthetics, I imagine machines and people clothed in sensitive e-
skin, allowing for a two- way exchange of information. Making our mechanical creations seem
almost warm and alive and placing imperceptible electronics on humans will change how
people relate to technology. The harmonization of people and machines: This is the cyborg
future that e-skins could bring. Bendable sensors and displays have made the tech rounds
before, but a team of engineers at the University of California-Berkeley have found a way to
combine the two. Ali Javey and his lab have successfully created e-skin, a pressure-sensitive
circuit array that is thin, flexible, and luminescent. His research can be found in the
journal Nature Materials.
(8)
 Fabrication of E - Skin

1) By using zinc oxide with vertical nanowires

Fig. Zinc oxide with vertical nanowires e-skin

U.S. and Chinese Scientists used zinc oxide vertical nanowires to generate sensitivity.
According to experts, the artificial skin is "smarter and similar to human skin." It also offers
greater sensitivity and resolution than current commercially available techniques. A group of
Chinese and American scientists created experimental sensors to give robots artificial skin
capable of feeling. According to experts, the sensitivity is comparable to that experienced by
humans. Trying to replicate the body's senses and indeed its largest organ, the skin, has been
no mean feat but the need for such a substitute has been needed for a while now, especially in
cases of those to whom skin grafts have not worked or indeed its use in robotics. To achieve
this sensitivity, researchers created a sort of flexible and transparent electronics sheet of about
eight thousand transistors using vertical nanowires of zinc oxide. Each transistor can directly
convert mechanical motion and touch into signals that are controlled electronically, the
creators explained."Any mechanical movement, like the movement of an arm or fingers of a
robot, can be converted into control signals," the Professor Georgia Institute of Technology
(USA), Zhong Lin Wang. This technology "could make smarter artificial skin similar to
human skin," said Zhong, after stating that it provides greater sensitivity and resolution. The
system is based on piezoelectricity, a phenomenon that occurs when materials such as zinc
oxide are pressed. Changes in the electrical polarization of the mass can be captured and
translated into electrical signals thereby creating an artificial touch feeling.

2) By using Gallium Indium

The development of highly deformable artificial skin with contact force (or pressure) and
strain sensing capabilities is a critical technology to the areas of wearable computing, haptic
interfaces, and tactile sensing in robotics. With tactile sensing, robots are expected to work
more autonomously and be more responsive to unexpected contacts by detecting contact
(9)
forces during activities such as manipulation and assembly. Application areas include haptics
humanoid robotics, and medical robotics.

Fig. By using Gallium indium (GaIn) e-skin

We describe the design, fabrication, and calibration of a highly compliant artificial skin
sensor. The sensor consists of multilayered mircochannels in an elastomer matrix filled with a
conductive liquid, capable of detecting multiaxis strains and contact pressure. A novel
manufacturing method comprised of layered molding and casting processes is demonstrated to
fabricate the multilayered soft sensor circuit. Silicone rubber layers with channel patterns, cast
with 3-D printed molds, are bonded to create embedded microchannels, and a conductive
liquid is injected into the microchannels. The channel dimensions are 200 μm (width) × 300
μm (height). The size of the sensor is 25 mm × 25 mm, and the thickness is approximately 3.5
mm. The prototype is tested with a materials tester and showed linearity in strain sensing and
nonlinearity in pressure sensing. The sensor signal is repeatable in both cases. The
characteristic modulus of the skin prototype is approximately 63 kPa. The sensor is functional
up to strains of approximately 250%
A highly elastic artificial skin was developed using an embedded liquid conductor. Three
hyper-elastic silicon rubber layers with embedded microchannels were stacked and bonded.
The three layers contain different channel patterns for different types of sensing such as multi-
axial strain and contact pressure. A novel manufacturing method with layered molding and
casting techniques was developed to build a multi-layered soft sensor circuit.
For strain sensing, the calibration results showed linear and repeatable sensor signal. The
gauge factors of the skin prototype are 3.93 and 3.81 in x and y axes, respectively, and the
minimum detectable displacements are 1.5 mm in x-axis and 1.6 mm in y-axis. For pressure
sensing, the prototype showed repeatable but not linear sensor signals. The hysteresis level
was high in a high pressure range (over 25 kPa). The sensor signal was repeatable in both
cases.

(10)
3) By using Organic Transistors

Fig. E-Skin by using organic transistors

In July they reported the success of our experiments in the journal Nature. They fabricated
organic transistors and tactile sensors on an ultrathin polymer sheet that measured
1 micrometer thick—one-tenth the thickness of plastic wrap and light enough to drift
through the air like a feather. This material can withstand repeated bending, crumple like
paper, and accommodate stretching of up to 230 percent. What’s more, it works at high
temperatures and in aqueous environments—even in saline solutions, meaning that it can
function inside the human body. Flexible electronics using organic transistors could serve a
range of biomedical applications. For example, they’ve experimented with electromyography,
the monitoring and recording of electrical activity produced by muscles. For this system,
they distributed organic transistor-based amplifiers throughout a 2-μm-thick film. This
allowed us to detect muscle signals very close to the source, which is key to improving the
signal-to-noise ratio, and thus the accuracy of the measurements. Conventional techniques
typically use long wires to connect sensors on the skin with amplifier circuits, which results
in a pretty abysmal signal-to-noise ratio. And they can imagine more medically urgent
applications of such a system. In collaboration with the medical school at the University of
Tokyo, we’re working on an experiment that will place our amplifier matrix directly on the
surface of an animal’s heart. By detecting electric signals from the heart with high spatial
resolution and superb signal-to-noise ratios, we should be able to zoom in on the exact
location of problems in the heart muscle that can lead to heart attacks.
Skin is essentially an interface between your brain and the external world. It senses a tap on
the shoulder or the heat from a fire, and your brain takes in that information and decides how
to react. If we want bionic skins to do the same, they must incorporate sensors that can match
the sensitivity of biological skins. But that is no easy task. For example, a commercial
pressure-sensitive rubber exhibits a maximum sensitivity of 3 kilopascals, which is not
sufficient to detect a gentle touch. To improve an e-skin’s responsiveness to such stimuli,
researchers are experimenting with a number of different techniques. Zhenan Bao and her
colleagues at Stanford University created a flexible membrane with extraordinarily good touch
sensitivity by using precisely molded pressure- sensitive rubber sandwiched between
electrodes. A novel design of the thin rubber layer, using pyramid-like structures of
micrometer size that expand when compressed, allowed the material to detect the weight of a
(11)
fly resting on its surface. With such structures embedded in it, a bionic skin could sense a
breath or perhaps a gentle breeze. This kind of sensitivity would be a great benefit in a
prosthetic hand, for example, by giving the wearer the ability to grip delicate objects. In the
most recent application of Bao’s technology, her team turned the pressure sensors around so
that instead of detecting external stimuli, they measured a person’s internal functions. The
researchers developed a flexible pulse monitor that responds to each subtle surge of blood
through an artery, which could be worn on the inner wrist under a Band-Aid. Such an
unobtrusive monitor could be used to keep track of a patient’s pulse and blood pressure while
in the hospital or during surgery.
4) By Organic Light Emitting Diode

Fig. E-skin using OLED

Javey and colleagues set out to make the electronic skin respond optically. The researchers
combined a conductive, pressure-sensitive rubber material, organic light emitting diodes
(OLEDs), and thin-film transistors made of semiconductor-enriched carbon nanotubes to
build an array of pressure sensing, light-emitting pixels. Whereas a system with this kind of
function is relatively simple to fabricate on a silicon surface, ―for plastics, this is one of the
more complex systems that has ever been demonstrated, says Javey. The diversity of
materials and components that the researchers combined to make the light-emitting pressure-
sensor array is impressive, says John Rogers, a professor of materials science at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Rogers, whose group has produced its own
impressive flexible electronic sensors (see ― Electronic Sensors Printed Directly on the Skin),
says the result illustrates how research in nanomaterials is transitioning from the fundamental
study of components and simple devices to the development of ―sophisticated, macroscale
demonstrator devices, with unique function. In this artist's illustration of the University of
California, Berkeley's interactive e-skin, the brightness of the light directly corresponds to
how hard the surface is pressed. Semiconducting material and transistors are fitted to flexible
silicon to mimic pressure on human skin. The team is working on samples that respond to
temperature. Scientists have created what's been dubbed the world's first interactive
'electronic skin' that responds to touch and pressure. When the flexible skin is touched, bent
or pressed, built-in LED’s light up - and the stronger the pressure, the brighter the light. The
researchers, from the University of California, claim the bendy e-skin could be used to restore
(12)
feeling for people with prosthetic limbs, in smart phone displays, car dashboards or used to
give robots a sense of touch. Scientists from the University of California have created what's
been dubbed the first 'electronic skin' that responds to touch and pressure by lighting up using
built-in lights.

(13)
 Results & Analysis by Application

In this report general information about electronic skin is shown and also a fabrication of
electronic skin is given. From them we can say that electronic skin

 Reduces Number of Wires

 Compact in Size
 Attachment and Detachment is easy
 More Flexible
 Light in Weight
 It replaces present system of ECG and EEG
 It gives sense to a robot
 Wearable
 Ultrathin
 Twistable and Stretchable
 Easy to handle

So, some applications are given below to know the depth and use of electronic skin

 When the skin has been seriously damaged through disease or burns then human skin is
replaced by Artificial skin.
 It is also used for robots. Robot senses the pressure, touch, moisture, temperature,
proximity to object.
 It can measure electrical activity of the heart, brain waves, muscle activity and other
vital signals.

dddddddddddddddddddFffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
f Fig. E-Skin can monitor heart

(14)
 By using interfacial stress sensor we also measure normal stress & shear stress.

 Localized electrical stimulation: This is a ―smart bandage’’. Temperature is changes across

a wound

Fig. Smart bandage using e-skin

(15)
 Future Scope

 Bendable sensors and displays have made the tech rounds before.

 We can predict a patient of an oncoming heart attack hours in advance.

 In future even virtual screens may be placed on device for knowing our body functions.

 Used in car dashboard, interactive wallpapers, smart watches.

(16)
 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Electronic Skin:

 Possibly can return feeling to patients with transplants

 Can make robots more sensitive, enabling them to carry out a variety of new functions

 Use of tiny electronic wires allows skin to generate impulses, similar to that of the body's own
Nervous System

 Increases flexibility of artificial skin (compared to others of different materials)

 Could lead to advancements in medical equipment

Disadvantages of Electronic Skin:

 As it is not readily available, could be extremely expensive

 Maitenance could be even more costly

 Defects in robots with the electronic skin could lead to accidents (with new functions)

 Connecting skin to brain may be difficult in some patients

 Although the idea of using it as human transplants is in the works, it may be more difficult in
practice
 Conclusion
In the past decade, the pace of e-skin development has accelerated dramatically owing to the
availability of new materials and processes. As a result of this progress, the capabilities of e-
skin are rapidly converging. Interest in e-skin has been driven by its potential to: 1. enable
highly the development of interactive and versatile robots that are capable of performing
complex tasks in less structured environments. 2. facilitate conformable displays and optics.
and 3. revolutionize healthcare by providing biometric prostheses, constant health
monitoring technologies, and unprecedented diagnostic and treatment proficiency. Sensors
and circuits have already exceeded the properties of biological skin in many respects.
Electronic devices have been fabricated that stretch many times further than skin, flexible
tactile sensors have been demonstrated that possess vastly superior spatial resolution to
human skin, and tactile and temperature sensors are available with enhanced sensitivity over
their natural counterpart. Despite rapid progress, there is a continuing need for further
development before the goal of integrating multiple functionalities into large-area, low-cost
sensor arrays is realized. From a design standpoint, e-skin requires active circuitry to address
large numbers of devices with minimal wiring complexity and fast scan rates. Furthermore,
the ability to mimic the mechanical properties of human skin (e.g., flexibility and
stretchability) is critical in order to accommodate the various movements of the user. This
can be accomplished through the use of intrinsically stretchable materials or rigid device
islands tethered together through flexible interconnects. While the latter leverages the
extensive optimization of rigid devices, the former may have advantages in terms of cost and
robustness. One of the most important functions of skin is to facilitate the sense of touch,
which includes normal force sensing for grip optimization, tensile strain sensing for
proprioception, shear force sensing for object manipulation, and vibration sensing for slip
detection and texture analysis. While the commonly used transduction methods (such as
piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, optical, and wireless) are readily available,
advancements in device structures and materials have produced dramatic improvements in
tactile sensor performance. For example, improvements in processes to create
microstructured and nanostructured materials have presented exciting opportunities for
smaller devices suitable for high-density arrays with low power consumption and excellent
performance. However, further optimization of materials and device configurations is still
necessary. For example, the piezoresistive composites that are currently used in some
integrated systems display viscoelasticity that may potentially be overcome using matrixfree
structures of nanomaterials. Different transduction methods provide different sensing
capabilities, thus allowing integrated systems to mimic the multifunctional nature of human
tactile sensing capabilities. For example, large strains can be reliably measured using
piezoresistive devices, capacitive devices can provide high sensitivity to normal forces, and
piezoelectrics can measure vibrations. Integration and readout is one of the most important
development areas for large area sensor arrays. Active matrices have been developed that
provide a method of multiplexing large arrays with fast addressing and minimal crosstalk
between pixels. Future work will probably involve continuing efforts to improve the
(18)
performance and reduce the cost of tactile devices integrated with transistor matrices.
Furthermore, integrating multiple functionalities (such as temperature, shear, and vibration
sensing) with active matrix arrays is an area of tremendous opportunity. Several highly
integrated e-skins demonstrating multiple functionalities for applications such as biomedical
devices, robotics, and optoelectronics have been recently reported. One particular challenge
in the future of e-skin will be neural interfacing. Work has already begun to overcome this
obstacle, and recently, a neurally controlled robotic arm capable of 3D reach and grasp
movements was reported. Additionally, a bionic ear has been demonstrated with the
capability to receive RF signals beyond that of the human ear. The rapid pace of progress in
e-skin technology suggests that the fabrication of a more complex e-skin with properties far
surpassing those of their organic equivalent will soon be possible.

(19)
 References

IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol.12,No.8, August 12 Massachusetts engineering firm MC 10

Nature materials
ICap Technologies, http://www.icaptech.com/.
Artificial Skin - used, first, blood, body, produced, Burke and Yannas Create Synthetic Skin, Graftskin.

Discoveries in medicine.com. 2010-03-11. Retrieved 2013-10-17. How is artificial skin made?:

Information from". Answers.com.
Retrieved 2013-10-17.
Robotic Tactile Sensing. Springer. p. 265. ISBN 978-94-007-0578-4. Park, B. Chen, and R. J. Wood (Oct.
2011), Soft artificial skin with multimodal sensing capability using embedded liquid conductors,
Proc. IEEE Sensors Conf., Limerick, Ireland, pp. 1–3.
S. P. Lacour (Aug. 2005) et al., Stretchable interconnects for elastic electronic surfaces, Proc. IEEE, vol.
93, pp. 1459–1467.

IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol.12,No.8, August 12 Massachusetts engineering firm MC 10

Nature materials
ICap Technologies, http://www.icaptech.com/.
Artificial Skin - used, first, blood, body, produced, Burke and Yannas Create Synthetic Skin, Graftskin.

Discoveries in medicine.com. 2010-03-11. Retrieved 2013-10-17. How is artificial skin made?:

Information from". Answers.com.
Retrieved 2013-10-17.
Robotic Tactile Sensing. Springer. p. 265. ISBN 978-94-007-0578-4. Park, B. Chen, and R. J. Wood (Oct.
2011), Soft artificial skin with multimodal sensing capability using embedded liquid conductors,
Proc. IEEE Sensors Conf., Limerick, Ireland, pp. 1–3.
T. P. Lacour (Aug. 2005) et al., Stretchable interconnects for elastic electronic surfaces, Proc. IEEE, vol.
93, pp. 1459–1467.

(20)