Guidelines for Essay Writing

Taking Notes

I. Keep careful notes at every stage of preparation in the writing of your essay,
preferably in a file or bound notebook. Ensure that your notes are properly
referenced. Do not just scribble down a few ideas but keep a careful record of
every book or article that you read and every thinker that you cite. Try to order
your notes coherently.

II. In the event of suspected plagiarism, the person responsible for the module
might ask to see notes pertaining to the essay in question. For a definition of
plagiarism, please consult the School Handbook. Remember that plagiarism is
the presenting of someone else's words or ideas as if they were your own. You
should always acknowledge someone else's words or ideas in an appropriate
manner.

IV. You should always make clear when you use an idea expressed or developed by
someone else, even if you are not quoting their words directly. This can be done either by
an indication in the main text of your essay or by a footnote or endnote reference to
specific page numbers. See the following guidelines on citation styles. 

Preparing to Write your Essay

V. Before you start preparing for your essay, pause and ask yourself:

 (a) What is this question or problem really about?

 (b) What different elements does the question or problem entail?
 (c) What is the best way of answering the question or addressing the
problem?

In asking yourself these questions, you will be alerting yourself to matters of both
substance and methodology.

The Introduction of the Essay

VI. Every essay should have an introduction. An introduction can function

variously in an essay. However, unless you have good reason to vary from
normal practice, you should use the introduction to comment on (a), (b) and (c)
above. Try to write a draft introduction relatively early in the essay-writing
process, but amend it occasionally as your ideas clarify and your learn more
about what the essay entails. It is difficult to write good introductions to essays
because they require careful thought and attention. They are very important,

1
however, as they quickly convey to your reader a sense of whether you are in
control of your subject-matter and methodology. Always return to your
introduction in the final stages of preparation for the essay, in order to ensure
that it conveys accurately the substance of and methods employed in the essay.
You might also want to use the introduction to indicate briefly what your
conclusions are likely to be.

Remember, the introduction might be the part of the essay that you write last!

The Structure of the Essay

VII. Every essay should have a clear structure. The structure might change and
develop as the preparation for your essay nears completion. If so, this will
probably be due to your gaining a clearer idea of the direction of the argument
and nature of the conclusions to be reached. As you try to plan the structure, ask
yourself:

 Where is this essay going? (I.e.: What is the question about? What am I
going to argue? What am I seeking to demonstrate?)
 How am I going to get there? (I.e.: How am I going to argue my case or
demonstrate my points?)
 What do I need to establish along the way? (Do certain 'building-blocks'
need to be put in place before I can construct the argument properly?)
 What signposts do I need to put in place to help my reader understand
what I am doing or arguing?

It is often helpful to sketch possible structures for your essay in your notes. As
you do this, think carefully about how each paragraph follows from the previous
one.

Definitions of Terms

VIII. You should always provide a clear working-definition of terms or titles that
are significant in your essay, e.g., utilitarianism, deontology, teleology, virtue,
empiricism, the Human Genome Project, surrogacy, secularisation. You should
also explain terms which might seem familiar but which might mean different
things to different people, e.g., covenant, freedom, capitalism, authority,
feminism, tradition, community.

Engagement with Primary and Secondary Literature

IX. Every essay should have extensive engagement with primary material, i.e., a
text written by a major thinker. Thus, if you are writing an essay on the moral
theory of Augustine, you should pay careful attention to one or more texts written
by Augustine. This is very important.

2
X. Every essay should include some engagement with secondary material, i.e.,
books or articles written by commentators on primary material. Thus, if you are
writing an essay on the moral theory of Augustine, you should consult the
writings of scholars who have considered his work. These scholars may be either
contemporary or non-contemporary. Preferably they should be both. Thus, you
might want to consider what Aquinas or Luther said about a passage by
Augustine, as well as consulting what more recent thinkers, e.g., Carol Harrison
or John M. Rist.

Fair Treatment of Sources

XI. When discussing a particular thinker and analysing their ideas, you should
always present their ideas as objectively as possible before beginning your
analysis. Thus, for example, you should not suggest that J.S. Mill's idea of justice
is inadequate because it gives insufficient attention to need for liberation from
oppression or to the uniqueness of persons without, first, explaining the main
characteristics of Mill's ideas about justice, e.g., its different 'spheres' and his
distinction between perfect and imperfect obligations. Present the views of a
thinker before embarking upon your analysis. This applies to both primary and
secondary material.

Substantiation of Every Claim

XII. This is a vitally important point and I cannot emphasise it strongly enough.
You should always provide substantiating evidence for every point that you
make. E.g., if you are claiming that the divorce rate in England and Wales has
risen during the past 50 years, you should consult Social Trends: Pocketbook
(London: Stationery Office for the Office for National Statistics, 1999) or a similar
publication. If you are claiming that Martin Luther took issue with Desiderius
Erasmus's teaching about free will, you should make detailed reference to The
Bondage of the Will or other relevant writings by him. An unsupported assertion
is not enough!

The Conclusion

XII. Every essay should have a clear and concise conclusion. It should
summarise what you have done in the essay and how you have done it. It should
also state clearly your major findings or reasoned judgements.

XIII. Every essay must have a bibliography in which you list the books and articles which
you have consulted. Ensure that you cite all books accurately and in full, including the
place and date of publication, as shown above. Ensure that you include the volume
number and, if appropriate, date of publication of journals. Be consistent in your citation
of books and articles

3
Introduction
This module introduces you to the process of essay writing - from
analysing the question through to the final redrafting and editing. This
diagram summarises the process. Click on each of the stages to find out
more. Don't forget that the first place to start is at the essay question itself.

4
The Question

Analysing the question is the most

crucial part of the essay writing
process. Here are the steps to
follow:

1. Set time frames for specific

tasks
2.Read the essay question
carefully
3. Underline the key words and
check their meaning

4. Highlight the action words

5. Mindmap the essay question

6. Establish a structure

7. Reread the essay question.

5
Example
Here is an example of where a student has used a mindmap to analyse an
essay question "Aboriginal poverty can only be understood in the light of
institutionalised racism" Discuss.

6
Information Gathering

According to the time you have

allocated for this task, follow the
following steps:

1. Access a variety of resources

2. Read effectively and make clear

notes

3. Record details to include in

references

7
Planning

The planning stage of the process

involves buiilding on the mindmap
you created when you analysed the
question. Here are the key steps:

1. Mindmap your research

2. Refine your essay structure

3. Re-read the essay question

8
Writing

You should have allocated a large

amount of time for this part of the
process and it should occur well before
the due date.

1. Use your mindmap and essay plan.

2. Expand each idea into a paragraph.

3. Arrange the paragraphs logically.

4. Write the introduction and conclusion

last.

9
Editing

The time allocated to this final

stage in the process is often the
difference between a pass and a
distinction; or a pass and a fail. If
possible the editing should occur in
the week prior to the due date.

1. Check that all parts of the

question have been answered

2. Check the structure is there a

clear beginning, middle and end?

3. Check that each paragraph is

linked.

4. Check that the conclusion fulfils

the promise you made in the
introduction.

5. Check grammar and spelling.

6. Reference using the required

format.

Redrafting Checklist

1. Have I answered the question?

10
 2. Have I done sufficient research to enable me to carefully answer the question?
3. Do I have an introduction that states what I believe the question to mean, the
position I am working towards and the areas that will be covered in the essay?
4. Does the body include all parts of the question?
5. Have I constructed each paragraph of the body so that it contains several
sentences of evidence to back up the topic sentence which begins the paragraph?
6. Does the conclusion restate your attitude to the topic and refer the reader back
to the topic?
7. Check the length. More than 10% over/under word length may be unacceptable.
8. Check title page. It should include your name, course, lecturer, topic, length, due
date and anything else your lecturer requires.
9. Have I cited sources for ideas and direct quotations using the method required
by your lecturer?
10. Does my essay satisfy lecturers's requirements? For example:
 writing on one side of the page
 large margins

11. Is my writing correct at the surface level of:

 spelling?
 punctuation?
 grammar, including one idea per paragraph is it legible? (It is
useful to ask a friend to check on these aspects! They see things
we don't see! Otherwise try reading the essay aloud).

12. Is the reference list accurately and correctly set out according to the lecturer's
requirements?

Essay Structure

11
Sample Essays

12
The following sample essays may be downloaded. They have been graded as either
Distinctions or High Distinctions and contain comments from lecturers or tutors. Some of
the samples also contain assessment criteria and marking schedules. Please note that
these sample essays have been written for different subjects and the requirements and
assessment criteria vary substantially.

Interpersonal Communication (Effective Writing

Subject: Effective Writing (EL1010)

Topic: “Interpersonal Communication”.

Grade Awarded: Distinction

Lecturer’s Comments: Where you have not used the primary source you
should indicate this e.g. Phillips in Francis 1992.
AREA CRITERIA COMMENTS
INTRODUCTION (10)  Subject matter and direction Clear focus
clearly shown and defined.
 Clear link to question

CONTENT - BASIC (10)  Evidence of basic Base reading well understood.

reading/data/understandings Clear definitions consistently used.
appropriate to topic.
CONTENT - REACTION (10)  Evidence of personal reactions Very little personal reaction on
to basic ideas. example 3.
 Depth analysis of major ideas
CRITICAL ANALYSIS (10)  Evidence of wider reading and Excellent reading beyond the base
critical analysis. set. Not a lot of critique through
 Contributions and conclusions culture introduced.
drawn.
PRESENTATION (10)  Correct grammar, punctuation Well written with useful headings
and spelling. and coherent argument.
 Acceptable and consistent
referencing format.
 Reference list up to date and
relevant.
 Originality, format and style.
 Development of a logical
thesis clearly linked to the
question asked.

(Note: This sample is provided in the exact form it was submitted and
corrections and comments made in the text by the lecturer are not included.)

13
 To function effectively in today’s society people must communicate with one
another. Yet for some individuals communication experiences are so unrewarding that they
either consciously or unconsciously avoid situations where communication is required.
(McCroskey & Richmond, 1979) The term ‘communication apprehension’ was coined by
James McCroskey (1976a) and is defined as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety
associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons”
(McCroskey, 1984). In the last two decades communication apprehension and related
constructs, such as reticence and unwillingness to communicate, have received extensive
research and theoretical attention by scholars in communication and psychology. In 1984,
Payne and Richmond listed over 1000 entries in a bibliography of publications and papers in
this area (Payne & Richmond, 1984). Overwhelmingly the underlying theme of the articles
has been the negative effects that these constructs can have on academic and social success.
It has been forwarded that two out of ten people suffer some form of communication
apprehension (CA). The focus of this paper is on communication apprehension as a
construct and on how it affects the behaviour and lifestyle of an individual.

Although constructs such as CA, communication reticence, and unwillingness-to-

communicate have often been treated in literature as interchangeable, (McCroskey, 1982)
particularly in earlier work, some researchers have found the need to distinguish between
them. Reticence was originally thought of in relation to CA, particularly in connection with
stage fright, and anxiety was identified as the causative agent that produced the characteristic
behavior patterns. (McCroskey, 1977b; McCroskey, 1982) However during the 1970’s the
constructs of reticence and CA evolved and changed to become quite disparate. According
to McCroskey (1982) the contemporary view is that reticent people are those who do not
communicate competently. Phillips (1984) further states that reticent people “avoid
communication because they believe they will lose more by talking than remaining silent”
(p.52). So while the construct of reticence was initially the same as CA, reticence is now
perceived as a concept that represents a broad range of communicative incompetence while
CA relates to communicative incompetence that stems from anxiety or fear. (McCroskey,
1982)

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 The unwillingness-to-communicate construct, which was introduced by Burgoon
(1976, as cited in McCroskey, 1982) focuses on the individual's unwillingness to
communicate with others. This construct was an attempt to look beyond the concepts of CA
and reticence (as it was perceived at the time) and along with fear and anxiety, considers low
self-esteem, introversion, anomia1 and alienation. “Thus this construct can be viewed as
intermediary between CA and the contemporary view of reticence. More simply, reticence is
concerned with people who do not communicate effectively; unwillingness-to-communicate
is concerned with one of the reasons that people may not do so (i.e., they do not want to);
and, [although it is highly associated with ineffective communication], CA is concerned with
one of the reasons that people may be unwilling-to-communicate.” (McCroskey, 1982, p.4)

Types of Communication Apprehension

A person may be apprehensive in one situation but not in another. Additionally, as
communication does not confine itself to just talk, a person may, for example, be
apprehensive about communicating by engaging in talk but feel quite comfortable about
writing. McCroskey & Richmond (1987) identify four types of communication
apprehension: traitlike, context-based, receiver-based, and situational. Traitlike CA
concerns mainly oral communication and refers to a relatively stable and enduring
predisposition of an individual towards experiencing fear and/or anxiety across a wide range
of communication contexts. Context-based refers to a relatively enduring, personality-type
CA that an individual experiences in a specific context. For example a person may
experience high levels of CA when speaking in groups but be not in dyadic interactions or
when speaking to others who are from a different cultural group. Receiver-based CA
depends on the person or type of person or group that is involved in the communication. For
example, being fearful or anxious when communicating with the boss or with strangers but
not with friends (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). Situational CA depends upon changes in
the environment in which communication takes place.

1
Anomia refers to difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or
attribute. (Carlson, 1994)

15
Causes of Communication Apprehension
Causes of Traitlike CA. When we consider the aetiology of human behaviour
generally two primary explanations are hereditary and the environment. In other words, we
can either be born with certain characteristics or we can acquire them through learning.
While no specific “CA gene” has ever been identified, as a result of studies on infants and
twins, most writers today agree that there may be a hereditary component. (McCroskey,
1982; McCroskey, 1984) It is argued that children are born with certain personality
predispositions or tendencies which affects how they will react to environmental stimuli.
However, although heredity may have an impact on traitlike CA most researchers propose
that the patterns of reinforcement that an individual experiences in the environment are the
dominant components. (McCroskey, 1982; McCroskey, 1984) The notion is that children
make attempts at communication and if they are positively reinforced they will be
encouraged to communicate more but if they are negatively reinforced the child will
communicate less.

Causes of Situational CA. While many different elements have been forwarded as
causes of situational CA some of the main ones are novelty, formality, subordinate status,
conspicuousness, unfamiliarity, dissimilarity, the degree of attention from others, evaluation
and prior history (McCroskey, 1984). When an individual is presented with a novel situation
(ie: one that is unfamiliar or occurs infrequently such as an interview) concerns such as how
to behave can result in anxiety. Formal situations tend to be more restrictive with more rigid
behaviour rules and CA increases because of the narrower confines. Similarly, CA can
result when a person is in a subordinate position because the person with the higher status
defines the boundaries of acceptable behaviour. Generally, the more conspicuous a person
feels, or the more unfamiliar the situation, the more CA is likely to be experienced. Likewise
people often feel less apprehensive with others who are most like themselves. Sometimes,
however, an individual will be more apprehensive with similar peers because they become
more concerned with how they will be evaluated by them and the feeling of being evaluated
in any situation often leads to anxiety. Studies have shown that the majority of people are
most comfortable with a moderate degree of attention. (McCroskey, 1984) When individuals
are ignored or stared at the level of CA often rises. The level of CA also often rises where a
prior history of failure increases the likelihood of failure again. (McCroskey, 1984). Clearly,

16
some of these causal elements stem from reticence due to inexperience and/or communicative
incompetence within certain contexts, while others are the result of learning or conformity to
social norms and expectations.

Effects of Communication Apprehension

It has been argued that “learning proceeds best when [an] organism is in a state of
tension” (Phillips, nd, as cited in Devito, 1985, p.325) so it should be noted that while the
effects of CA for the individual generally tends to be negative CA is not always detrimental.
Low levels of fear can energise us to try harder and learn more. However, as CA is
heightened, feelings of discomfort tend to increase and the willingness to communicate
declines (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). Hence, “high CA is seen as a potential inhibitor
of the development of both communication competence and communication skill and as a
direct precursor of negative communication affect. Low CA, on the other hand, is seen as a
facilitator of the development of communication competence and communication skill and as
a precursor of positive communication affect”. (McCroskey, 1982, p.21) Studies have
shown high CA can impact on a person’s behavior, relationships, the perceptions of others,
occupational choice and employment opportunities and education. (McCroskey, 1976b;
McCroskey & Richmond, 1979; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987; Richmond, 1984)

Behaviour. Many studies have shown that the behaviours of people with high CA
actually discourage interaction (McCroskey, 1976b). When approached, mannerisms such as
averting eyes, staring into drinks, appearing generally anxious, aloof and unfriendly are all
typical (Richmond, 1984). In this way high communication apprehensive’s attempt to avoid
communication. When avoidance is not possible they will contribute far fewer ideas, make
less relevant comments and agree with the ideas of others more often. (McCroskey, 1976b;
McCroskey & Richmond, 1987; Richmond, 1984). Compared to low communication
apprehensive’s, in small groups high communication apprehensive’s also tend to use more
pauses and rhetorical interrogatives (such as “you know”) in speech; exhibit more tension;
and participate less (McCroskey, 1976b; Richmond, 1984). High communication
apprehensive people also tend to physically locate themselves where they are less likely to
have interaction (McCroskey, 1976a; McCroskey, 1976b). In rooms they choose seats that

17
are to the sides and rear and avoid influential seats and, in wider society, choose housing that
is more remote from centres of interaction. (McCroskey, 1976a; McCroskey, 1976b)

Relationships. As the behavioural response of CA is to avoid and\or discourage

interaction with others it is not surprising that CA has been linked to feelings of loneliness,
isolation, low self esteem and the ability to discuss personal problems ( Daly & Stafford,
1984; McCroskey, Daly, Richmond & Falcione, 1977; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987;
Richmond, 1984; Scott & Rockwell, 1997). High communication apprehensive individuals
have difficulty in forming and maintaining close relationships and when they are formed will
try to ‘hang on to the relationship for dear life’ (Richmond, 1984). Compared to low
communication apprehensive’s, they interact less with peer strangers, have fewer friends, are
less likely to accept blind dates, are more likely to engage in exclusive dating, are more
devastated on relationship breakups and have more difficulty in re-establishing new
relationships (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey & Sheahan, 1978; Richmond, 1984).
Characteristically, compared to low communication apprehensive people, high
communication apprehensive’s are perceived to be less socially attractive and less attractive
by members of the opposite sex, less likely to be opinion leaders or leaders in a group and
less successful in the social environment. (McCroskey, 1976b; McCroskey, Richmond, Daly
& Cox, 1975)

Occupational Choice and Employment Opportunities. For the communicative

apprehensive individual prospects of employment, retention and advancement are all
significantly lowered. (Richmond, 1984) High communication apprehensive’s are less likely
to receive job interviews, be offered employment, or retain their positions than are other
people (McCroskey & Richmond, 1979). Research indicates that high communication
apprehensive people tend to self select jobs with low communication requirements even
though they may offer less status and lower incomes; have less desire for advancement; are
less satisfied with their jobs and their supervisors; and find it more difficult to establish good
relationships with co-workers than do low communication apprehensive people (McCroskey,
1976b; McCroskey & Richmond, 1979). They are also perceived as being less productive,
less competent and needing more training than low communication apprehensive people
(McCroskey & Richmond, 1979).

18
 Education. High CA has been found to have a significant impact on an individual’s
learning and education (McCroskey, 1977a; McCroskey & Daly, 1976). Students who are
highly apprehensive tend to score lower on standardised achievement tests, have lower Grade
Point Averages and benefit less from personalised instruction than low communication
apprehensive students (McCroskey, 1977a; McCroskey & Daly, 1976). Literature has
suggested that CA can even affect language acquisition (Asker, 1995). High communication
apprehensive students will try to avoid classes which involve communication; have a higher
school drop out rate and experience lower teacher expectations than others (McCroskey &
Daly, 1976). McCroskey (1976a) has suggested that communication apprehension “may be
the single most pervasive handicap confronting children in our schools and citizens in our
society” (p.3).

Culture
While communication exists in all cultures and subcultures communication norms
and expectations may be vastly diverse as a function of culture. For instance, in the United
States and many other western nations oral communication is highly valued with positive
social evaluation while silence is often perceived as representing high CA. In other cultures,
however, silence may be an integral part of the communication process. In Apache culture,
for example, strangers who come together in an environment such as work may remain silent
for several days and young Apache women are explicitly taught that silence is a sign of
modesty (Devito, 1985). In Papua New Guinea individuals learn to remain silent in the
presence of an elder as a sign of respect (Francis, 1992). They believe that overriding the
talk of an elder may endanger key relationships and networks within the whole group. Thus,
one’s communication norms and competencies are culture-bound. Unfortunately, the
majority of the studies in communication have been carried out in the United States and have
rarely made allowance for the differences in communication styles between cultures.
“Consequently remaining silent is considered a problem and silent cultures are interpreted as
representing a high prevalence of communication apprehension.” (McCroskey &
Sallinen-Kuparinen, 1991, p.56).

19
 However, CA may still play a part when different cultural groups come together.
When individuals find themselves in situations where their culture or sub-culture is in the
minority they are said to be ‘culturally divergent’ (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990). To be
effective communicators in another culture the onus is generally on the culturally divergent
individual to adjust to the communicative norms of the dominant group. Culturally divergent
individuals may be likened to people who have deficit communication skills. Because they
do not have effective communication skills, they tend to be much less willing to
communicate at all for fear of failure and possible negative consequences. This may be
particularly so when speaking a second language. For example, one study found that 43 % of
Puerto Rican students experienced CA when speaking their second language, English,
compared to only 11% when they were speaking their native language, Spanish (McCroskey,
Gudykunst & Nishida, 1985). Therefore, the difference between the culturally divergent
person and the skill-deficit one is that a culturally divergent individual may have excellent
communication skills in their own culture and within the confines of their own culture CA
may not be a problem (McCroskey & Richmond, 1990; McCroskey & Richmond, 1987).

The conclusion that we can draw from the research and studies that have been
conducted so far is that communication is an ongoing process that involves constant changes
within the people involved and their environment. When communicating with others,
individuals are influenced and affected by many variables and CA may be the result of any
number of different causes. The degree of CA that an individual experiences can vary
depending on their personality and the context of situation. Nonetheless, the notion that high
levels of CA negatively affects an individual’s success both academically and socially
appears to be supported by the research.

20
References:

Asker, B. (1995). Identifying orally reticent students. Aston University: Dept of

Languages & European Studies. (Online). Available: sol.aston.ac.uk/lsu/sub8ba.html
[1 Jan 1998]

Daly, J.A. & Stafford, L. (1984). Correlates and consequences of social-communicative

anxiety. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A. Daly (Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness,
reticence, and communication apprehension. (pp. 125-143). London: Sage
Publications Inc.

DeVito, J.A. (1985). Human communication: the basic course. (3rd edn) Sydney: Harper
& Row Publishers.

Francis, D. I. (1992). Why didn’t you say that? Papua New Guinean nationals’
participation in decision-making in a tertiary education institution. PHD Thesis.
Townsville: James Cook University.

McCroskey, J.C. (1976a). The effects of communication apprehension on nonverbal

behavior. Communication quarterly, 24, 39-44.

McCroskey, J.C. (1976b). The problems of communication apprehension in the classroom.

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McCroskey, J.C. (1977b). Oral communication apprehension: a summary of recent theory

and research. Human communication research, 4, 78-96.

McCroskey, J.C. (1982). Oral communication apprehension: a reconceptualization.

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McCroskey, J.C., & Daly, J.A. (1976). Teachers’ expectations of the communication
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McCroskey, J. C., Daly, J.A., Richmond, V.P., & Falcione, R.L. (1977). Studies of the
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McCroskey, J.M., Gudykunst, W.B., & Nishida, T. (1985). Communication apprehension
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McCroskey, J.C. & Richmond, V.P. (1979). The impact of communication apprehension on
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McCroskey, J.C. & Richmond, V.P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J.C.

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McCroskey, J. C. & Richmond, V.P. (1990). Willingness to Communicate: Differing

Cultural Perspectives. Southern communication journal 1990, 56, 1, fall, 72-77.

McCroskey, J.C., Richmond, V.P., Daly, J.A, & Cox, B.G. (1975). The effects of
communication apprehension on interpersonal attraction. Human communication
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McCroskey, J.C. & Sallinen-Kuparinen, A.. (1991). Willingness to Communicate,

Communication Apprehension, Introversion, and Self-Reported Communication
Competence: Finnish and American Comparisons. Communication research reports,
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McCroskey, J.C. & Sheahan, M.E. (1978). Communication apprehension, social

preference, and social behavior in a college environment. Communication quarterly, 26,
41-45.

Payne, S.K. & Richmond, V.P. (1984). A bibliography of related research and theory. In
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Phillips, G.M. (1984). A Perspective on Social Withdrawal. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A.
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Richmond, V.P. (1984). Implication of Quietness: Some Facts and Speculations. In J.C.
McCroskey & J.A. Daly (Eds.). Avoiding communication: shyness, reticence, and
communication apprehension. (pp. 145-155). London: Sage Publications Inc.

Scott, C.R. & Rockwell, S.C. (1997). The effect of communication, writing, and technology
apprehension on likelihood to use new communication technologies. Communication
education, 46, 44-62.

22
 Essays

An essay is a short piece of writing that discusses, describes or analyzes

one topic. It can range in length from one paragraph to more than twenty. It
can be about anything, and be written in almost any style. It can be serious
or funny, straight-forward or symbolic. It can describe personal opinions,
or just report information.

The Structure of an Essay

The following is an explanation of the structure of a five-paragraph essay.  It is
important to remember that an essay  can be any length.  This is just an example of
one kind of essay which can be adapted for your own writing purposes.  If you are
writing an essay for class, you should always ask your instructor which essay format
and length he/she prefers.

Your essay should start with an introductory paragraph.  There

are actually many different ways to begin an essay; therefore, the
format of the introductory paragraph is flexible. Often, essays begin
with a general introductory statement.  This statement could be an
anecdote, description, striking statistic, a fact that will lead to your
thesis, etc. Beginning this way, you will use the first few sentences to
prepare, or "lay the groundwork" for your thesis, and use the last
sentence of the first paragraph to present your thesis.  However, your
thesis statement can be anywhere in your introduction.  In a longer
essay, you can even wait to present your thesis until the second
paragraph or later.  Also for a longer essay, you should begin to
introduce a few supporting ideas in the first couple of paragraphs. 
These supporting ideas should be the topics that you will discuss in
full in your body paragraphs.  For a short essay, presenting
supporting ideas during the introduction is optional.

Your second paragraph generally begins the body of the paper. 

(For a longer paper, the body of the paper may not begin until the
third paragraph or later).  This paragraph should begin with a topic
sentence that introduces the first supporting idea (the support for your
thesis).  You should use the middle of the paragraph to discuss your
support, give examples, and analyze the significance of these
examples.  Your last sentence of the body paragraph could be used

23
to draw a conclusion for that supporting idea, or to transition into the
next paragraph.

Your next two body paragraphs should follow the same format
as your first body paragraph.  They should each have a separate
topic sentence and supporting ideas, but the three paragraphs should
work together to prove your thesis.  If you are writing a longer paper,
you will have more than three body paragraphs, but they should all
follow this format.

The form of your conclusion, like your introduction, is flexible. 

One good way to conclude a paper is to begin the last paragraph with
a statement that reflects on what has been stated and proved, without
repeating it exactly.  Then you should briefly restate your key points
to gently remind the reader how well you proved your thesis.  Your
conclusion should end with a statement or idea that leaves a strong
impression and provokes further thought.

24
 Structure of an Essay: Outline
This is an outline of what a five paragraph essay looks like. To view a 
"written text" version of a five paragraph essay/outline,

I.  Introduction
 Introductory statements
 Thesis statement
 Introduce supporting ideas (optional)

II. Body
 First supporting idea

                    Transition, topic sentence

                    Discussion, examples, and analysis

                    Conclusion (optional)

 Second supporting idea

                    Transition, topic sentence

                    Discussion, examples, and analysis

                    Conclusion (optional)

 Third supporting idea

                    Transition, topic sentence

                    Discussion, examples, and analysis

                    Conclusion (optional)

III. Conclusion
 Transition, statement reflecting back on thesis
 Restate key points
 Ending statement that provokes thought (optional)

25
 The Hazards of Moviegoing
By John Langan
From College Writing Skills with Readings

Although I love movies, going to see them

Introduction/Thesis
drives me slightly crazy.

First of all, getting to the movie can take

a lot of time. I have a thirty five-minute
drive down a congested highway. Then,
with a popular film, I usually have to wait
in a long line at the ticket booth. Another
problem is that the theater itself is seldom
a pleasant place to be. A musty smell
suggests that there has been no fresh air
in the theater since it was built. Half the
Body
seats seem to be failing apart. And the
floor often has a sticky coating that gets
on your shoes. The worst problem of all is
some of the other moviegoers. Kids run
up and down the aisle. Teenagers laugh
and shout at the screen. People of all ages
loudly drop soda cups and popcorn tubs,
cough and burp, and elbow you out of the
armrest on either side of your seat.

All in all, I would rather stay home and

wait for the latest movie hits to appear on
Conclusion
TV in the safety and comfort of my own
living room.

26
 Outline for an One-Paragraph Essay

I. Introduction:
A. Thesis statement: ____________________
II. Body:
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
III. Conclusion

A. Restate topic: ____________________

27
  Sample Outline for a One-Paragraph Essay

This is in relation to "The Hazards of Movie going" (the paragraph)

I. Introduction:
A. Thesis statement: I love going to the movies but
there are problems going there.
II. Body:
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Time getting
there
1. long drive
2. long lines
B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): The
theater
1. smelly
2. broken seats
3. sticky floors
C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): Other
moviegoers
1. kids running
2. noisy teenagers
3. people of all ages
a. make noises dropping cups and
popcorn tubs
b. cough and burp
c. elbowing one another
III. Conclusion

A. Restate topic: I prefer staying at home where it

is comfortable and safe.

28
 One Paragraph Essay Sample
My Job in an Apple Plant
By John Langan
From English Skills with Readings

Introduction/Thesis

Working in an apple plant was the worst job I ever had.

Body

First of all, the work was physically hard. For ten hours a night, I took
cartons that rolled down a metal track and stacked them onto wooden
skids in a tractor trailer. Each carton contained twelve thirty-two-
ounce cans or bottles of apple juice, and they were heavy. The second
bad feature of the job was the pay. I was getting the minimum wage at
that time, two dollars an hour, plus the minimum of a nickel extra for
working the night shift. Even after working over sixty hours a week, I
still did not take home much more than one hundred dollars. The
worst feature of the apple plant job was the working conditions.
During work we were limited to two ten-minute breaks and an unpaid
half hour for lunch. Most of my time was spent outside on the truck-
loading dock in near-zero-degree temperatures. And I was very lonely
on the job, since I had no interests in common with the other truck
loaders. I felt this isolation especially when the production line shut
down for the night, and I worked by myself for two hours cleaning the
apple vats. The vats were an ugly place to be on a cold morning.

Conclusion

The job was a bitter one to have.

29
 Five Paragraph Essay Sample:

The Hazards of Moviegoing

Introductory
paragraph I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the
Oscar in 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My
(Thesis) friends, though, have stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies.
The problems in getting to the theater, the theater itself, and the
behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often wait for a movie
to show up on TV.
First
supporting First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a home
paragraph equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive idea on a
humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is still a
thirty-minute drive to the theater down a congested highway, followed by
the hassle of looking for a parking space. And then there are the lines.
After hooking yourself to the end of a human chain, you worry about
whether there will be enough tickets, whether you will get seats together,
and whether many people will sneak into the line ahead of you.
Second
supporting Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are
paragraph confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are in one of the
run-down older theaters, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom-
cleaned carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather
seats, and half the seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a
strange angle. The newer twin and quad theaters offer their own problems.
Sitting in an area only one-quarter the size of a regular theater, moviegoers
often have to put up with the sound of the movie next door. This is
especially jarring when the other movie involves racing cars or a karate
war and you are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether the theater
is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber
cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the floor
because they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda,
hardening bubble gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes.
Third Some of the patrons are even more of a problem than the theater itself.
supporting Little kids race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs.
paragraph Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to the screen,
whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act
as if they were at home in their own living rooms and comment loudly on
the ages of the stars or why movies aren't as good anymore. And people of
all ages crinkle candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop
popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the floor. They also cough
and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for repeated trips to the
rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on either

30
 side of your seat.

Concluding
paragraph After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not
going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in
getting to the movies and dealing with the theater itself and some of the
patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV service installed in my
home. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I'll be more
relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room.

Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay

Title: ____________________

I. Introduction
A. Introductory statement
B. Thesis statement: ____________________  
II. Body
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________

C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):

____________________
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
III. Conclusion
A. Closing statement

B. Restate thesis: ____________________

31
 Sample Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay

This is in relation to "The Hazards of Movie going"

Title: The Hazards of Moviegoing

I. Introduction
A. Introductory statement
B. Thesis statement: I like watching
movies but I prefer watching them
at home.

II. Body
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): just
getting to the theater presents
difficulties
1. bad weather
2. long drive and limited parking
space
3. long waiting to buy ticket
B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
facing the problems of the theater
itself
1. old theater's problems such
as smelly carpet, worn-out
seat, etc
2. new theater's problems such
as smaller size, noise from
next movie theater, etc
3. both floors will be rubber-like
dirty at the end of the movie

C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):

Some of the patrons are annoying

32
 1. bad behavior such as running,
talking loud, etc
2. human noise and disturbance

III. Conclusion
A. Closing statement

B. Restate thesis: I prefer to watch

movies at home where it is
comfortable, clean and safe.

Five Paragraph Essay Sample: My Job in an Apple Plant

Introductory
paragraph In the course of working my way through school, I have taken many jobs I
would rather forget. I have spent nine hours a day lifting heavy automobile
(Thesis) and truck batteries off the end of an assembly belt. I have risked the loss of
eyes and fingers working a punch press in a textile factory. I have served
as a ward aide in a mental hospital, helping care for brain-damaged men
who would break into violent fits at unexpected moments. But none of
these jobs was as dreadful as my job in an apple plant. The work was
physically hard; the pay was poor; and, most of all, the working
conditions were dismal.
First
supporting First of all, the job made enormous demands on my strength and energy.
paragraph For ten hours a night, I took cartons that rolled down a metal track and
stacked them onto wooden skids in a tractor-trailer. Each carton contained
twelve heavy cans or bottles of apple juice. A carton shot down the track
about every fifteen seconds. I once figured out that I was lifting an average
of twelve tons of apple juice every night. When a truck was almost filled, I
or my partner had to drag fourteen bulky wooden skids into the empty
trailer nearby and then set up added sections of the heavy metal track so
that we could start routing cartons to the back of the empty van. While one
of us did that, the other performed the stacking work of two men.
Second
supporting I would not have minded the difficulty of the work so much if the pay had
paragraph not been so poor. I was paid the minimum wage of that time, two dollars
an hour, plus the minimum of a nickel extra for working the night shift.
Because of the low salary, I felt compelled to get as much overtime pay as
possible. Everything over eight hours a night was time-and-a-half, so I
typically worked twelve hours a night. On Friday I would sometimes work
straight through until Saturday at noon -- eighteen hours. I averaged over

33
 sixty hours a week but did not take home much more than one hundred
dollars.
Third
supporting But even more than the low pay, what upset me about my apple plant job
paragraph was the working conditions. Our humorless supervisor cared only about
his production record for each night and tried to keep the assembly line
moving at a breakneck pace. During work I was limited to two ten-minute
breaks and an unpaid half hour for lunch. Most of my time was spent
outside on the truck loading dock in near-zero-degree temperatures. The
steel floors of the trucks were like ice; the quickly penetrating cold made
my feet feel like stone. I had no shared interests with the man I loaded
cartons with, and so I had to work without job companionship. And after
the production line shut down and most people left, I had to spend two
hours alone scrubbing clean the apple vats, which were coated with a
sticky residue.
Concluding
paragraph I stayed on the job for five months, hating all the while the difficulty of the
work, the poor money, and the conditions under which I worked. By the
time I quit, I was determined never to do such degrading work again

34
 Writing PERSONAL
Essays
Ellen Beck
September 29, 2004

What is an Essay?
• An essay is a composition that
discusses, describes or explains one
topic. It can be serious or funny. It
can describe personal feelings or
state your opinion or it can just
explain facts.

35
 The BASIC Structure
of an Essay
1. Introduction with thesis
2. Supporting Idea 1
3. Supporting Idea 2
4. Supporting Idea 3
5. Conclusion
It is important to remember that an essay can be any length. For
example, some essays are one paragraph and others are 25
paragraphs. If you are writing an essay for class, you should always
ask your instructor about the length of the essay.

The Introduction
I. Introduction

• Introductory statements

• Thesis statement

• Introduce supporting ideas (optional)

36
 The Body
II. Body
– First supporting idea
• Transition, topic sentence
• Discussion, examples, and analysis

– Second supporting idea

• Transition, topic sentence
• Discussion, examples, and analysis

– Third supporting idea

• Transition, topic sentence
• Discussion, examples, and analysis

The Conclusion
III. Conclusion
– Transition, statement reflecting back
on thesis

– Restate key points

37
 Let’s Get Personal
PERSONAL ESSAYS are
• About YOU
• Written using “I”

These essays are about you—your life,

your experiences, your feelings, your
thoughts.

Sample: My Job in an Apple Plant

By John Langan
• Working in an apple plant was the worst job I ever had. First of
all, the work was physically hard. For ten hours a night, I took
cartons that rolled down a metal track and stacked them onto
wooden skids in a tractor trailer. Each carton contained twelve
thirty-two-ounce cans or bottles of apple juice, and they were
heavy. The second bad feature of the job was the pay. I was
getting the minimum wage at that time, two dollars an hour, plus
the minimum of a nickel extra for working the night shift. Even
after working over sixty hours a week, I still did not take home
much more than one hundred dollars. The worst feature of the
apple plant job was the working conditions. During work we were
limited to two ten-minute breaks and an unpaid half hour for
lunch. Most of my time was spent outside on the truck-loading
dock in near-zero-degree temperatures. And I was very lonely on
the job, since I had no interests in common with the other truck
loaders. I felt this isolation especially when the production line
shut down for the night, and I worked by myself for two hours
cleaning the apple vats. The vats were an ugly place to be on a
cold morning. The job was a bitter one to have.

38
 Quick Review
The BASIC Structure of an Essay
1. Introduction
2. Supporting Idea 1
3. Supporting Idea 2
4. Supporting Idea 3
5. Conclusion

Writing Argumentative Essays

An essay is a short piece of writing that discusses, describes or analyzes one topic. It can discuss a
subject directly or indirectly, seriously or humorously. It can describe personal opinions, or just report
information. An essay can be written from any perspective, but essays are most commonly written in
the first person (I), or third person (subjects that can be substituted with the he, she, it, or they
pronouns).

There are many different kinds of essays. The following are a some of the most common ones:

39
 Descriptive:
Examples: A descriptive essay could describe . . .

* a tree in my backyard;
* a visit to the children's ward of a hospital;
* a hot fudge sundae;
* what an athlete did in order to make it to the Olympics .

The descriptive essay provides details about how something

looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds. It can also
describe what something is, or how something happened. These
essays generally use a lot of sensory details. The essay could be
a list-like description that provides point by point details. Or, it
could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot
and theme of the event described.

Definition:
Examples: A definition essay may try and define . . .

* the meaning of an abstract concept, like love;

* the true meaning and importance of honesty;
* how the meaning of family goes deeper than just your blood relatives.

A definition essay attempts to define a specific term. It could try to pin down the meaning of a
specific word, or define an abstract concept. The analysis goes deeper than a simple dictionary
definition; it should attempt to explain why the term is defined as such. It could define the term
directly, giving no information other than the explanation of the term. Or, it could imply the definition
of the term, telling a story that requires the reader to infer the meaning.

40
 Compare/Contrast:
Examples:A
compare/contrast essay may
discuss . . .

* the likenesses and

differences between
two places, like New
York City and Los Angeles;
* the similarities and differences between two religions, like Christianity and Judaism;
* two people, like my brother and myself.

The compare/contrast essay discusses the similarities and differences between two things, people,
concepts, places, etc. The essay could be an unbiased discussion, or an attempt to convince the
reader of the benefits of one thing, person, or concept. It could also be written simply to entertain the
reader, or to arrive at an insight into human nature. The essay could discuss both similarities and
differences, or it could just focus on one or the other. A comparison essay usually discusses the
similarities between two things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences.

Comparison and Contrast Essays:

Two Patterns
By Rory H. Osbrink

First Pattern: Block-by-Block

41
Abortion is an example of a very controversial issue.  The two opposing viewpoints surrounding abortion are
like two sides of a coin. On one side, there is the pro-choice activist and on the other is the pro-life activist.
The argument is a balanced one; for every point supporting abortion there is a counter-point condemning
abortion.  This essay will delineate the controversy in one type of comparison/contrast essay form:  the
"Argument versus Argument," or, "Block-by-Block" format.  In this style of writing, first you present all the
arguments surrounding one side of the issue, then you present all the arguments surrounding the other side of
the issue.  You are generally not expected to reach a conclusion, but simply to present the opposing sides of the
argument.  

The Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Block-by-Block Format

One of the most divisive issues in America is the controversy surrounding abortion. 
Introduction: Currently, abortion is legal in America, and many people believe that it should remain
(the thesis is underlined)
legal.  These people, pro-choice activists, believe that it is the women's right to chose
whether or not to give birth.  However, there are many groups who are lobbying
Explains the Congress to pass laws that would make abortion illegal.  These people are called the
argument pro-life activists.

 
Abortion is a choice that should be decided by each individual, argues the pro-choice
activist. Abortion is not murder since the fetus is not yet fully human, therefore, it is
Explains pro- not in defiance against God. Regardless of the reason for the abortion, it should be
the woman’s choice because it is her body.  While adoption is an option some women
choice chose, many women do not want to suffer the physical and emotional trauma of
pregnancy and labor only to give up a child.  Therefore, laws should remain in effect
that protect a woman's right to chose.
Abortion is an abomination, argues the pro-life activist.  It makes no sense for a
woman to murder a human being not even born. The bible says, "Thou shalt not kill,"
and it does not discriminate between different stages of life.  A fetus is the beginning
Explains pro- of life.  Therefore, abortion is murder, and is in direct defiance of God's will.
life Regardless of the mother's life situation (many women who abort are poor, young, or
drug users), the value of a human life cannot be measured. Therefore, laws should be
passed to outlaw abortion. After all, there are plenty of couples who are willing to
adopt an unwanted child.
If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting her other rights
also?  Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we devaluing human life?  There is no easy
Conclusion answer to these questions.  Both sides present strong, logical arguments. Though it is
a very personal decision, t he fate of abortion rights will have to be left for the
Supreme Court to decide. 

Second Pattern: Point-by-Point

42
This second example is also an essay about abortion.  We have used the same information and line of reasoning
in this essay,  however, this one will be presented in the "Point-by-Point" style argument.  The Point-by-Point
style argument presents both sides of the argument at the same time.  First, you would present one point on a
specific topic, then you would follow that up with the opposing point on the same topic.  Again, you are
generally not expected to draw any conclusions, simply to fairly present both sides of the argument.

The Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Point-by-Point Format

One of the most divisive issues in America is the controversy surrounding abortion. 
Introduction: Currently, abortion is legal in America, and many people believe that it should
(the thesis is underlined)
remain legal.  These people, pro-choice activists, believe that it is the women's right
to chose whether or not to give birth.  However, there are many groups who are
Explains the lobbying Congress to pass laws that would make abortion illegal.  These people are
argument called the pro-life activists.

 
Supporters of both pro-life and pro-choice refer to religion as support for their side of
Point One: the argument.  Pro-life supporters claim that abortion is murder, and is therefore
against God's will.  However, pro-choice defenders argue that abortion is not murder
Pro-life and Pro- since the fetus is not yet a fully formed human.  Therefore, abortion would not be a
choice defiance against God.  
Another main point of the argument is over the woman's personal rights, versus the
rights of the unborn child.  Pro-choice activists maintain that regardless of the
Point Two: individual circumstances, women should have the right to chose whether or not to
abort.  The pregnancy and labor will affect only the woman's body, therefore it
Pro-life and Pro- should be the woman's decision.  Pro-life supporters, on the other hand, believe that
choice the unborn child has the right to life, and that abortion unlawfully takes away that
right. 

If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting her other rights
also?  Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we devaluing human life?  There is no easy
Conclusion answer to these questions.  Both sides present strong, logical arguments. Though it is
a very personal decision, t he fate of abortion rights will have to be left for the
Supreme Court to decide. 

43
 Guidelines for
Writing Argumentative Essays

 Search for a topic which interests you (perhaps in your major field). Try to come up with something
fairly controversial, but avoid subjects that have been overdone (abortion, capital punishment).
 Try a heuristic strategy (free writing, brainstorming, clustering, journal writing, journalistic formula,
etc.).
 After doing the appropriate pre-writing and organizing activities, write a draft which supports a thesis
or conclusion of your own. Be sure it is an arguable one so that you can clearly choose one side. At this
point some research may be necessary (library, interviews of experts, polls, surveys, experiments, etc.)
to find data to support your conclusion more strongly than you can from your own background
knowledge.

Structure your argument similarly to the following:

I. Introduction - Give background or perhaps an illustrative

example to show the significance of the subject or the nature of
the controversy. Consider stating the conclusion of your
argument here as the thesis of your essay.
II. Refutation - Give a brief statement of a refutation of the
opposing view(s) to make your reader aware that you have
considered but rejected it (them) for good reasons. This
refutation may be more appropriately placed last, just before
your conclusion, or even interspersed at effective locations
throughout the essay. You must choose the best location.
III. Presentation of your argument - Throughout the body of your
essay you should build your case one point at a time, perhaps
devoting one paragraph to the defense of each of your premises,
or setting forth your evidence in separate, meaningful
categories.

IV. Conclusion - After all your evidence has been presented and/or
your premises defended, pull your whole argument together in
the last paragraph by showing how the evidence you have
presented provides sufficient grounds for accepting your
conclusion. You may also add here some conventional device to
finish your essay, such as a prediction, a new example, a
reference to the example with which you began (now seen in a
new light) etc.

Revise and edit, and be sure to apply the critical process to your argument to be certain you have not

44
committed any errors in reasoning or included any fallacies for which you would criticize some other writer

Argumentative (Opinion) Essays

that Answer a "Should?" Question
Developed by Terry Coye for the Gallaudet University Department of English
Adapted for English Works! by Ellen Beck and Patrick Peters, June 1999

Most college students will at one time or another, write an essay that answers a "should?" question. This
kind of essay will usually explain either a "yes"response or a "no" response. Some writers do choose to give
a yes/no response, but this is a more complicated approach to writing and requires quite a lot of
organizational skill.

As in any essay, you must organize the essay into three parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
The essay can range in length from one paragraph to as many as twenty or more depending on your
teacher's requirements.

In a "should" essay, the introduction can have a little background information and your thesis. The answer
to the question is your thesis. The body will explain one, two or three reasons why you believe your thesis
statement. The conclusion sums up your opinion.

Following are some strategies to help you write an essay that answers a should question.

Should Gallaudet Disband the Football Team?

YES

THESIS

If you decide to answer YES to this question, the focus of the essay will be on advantages, improvements,
benefits of disbanding the football team. The thesis can be as simply written as just answering the question.

Possible THESIS STATEMENTS for a Yes answer:

 Gallaudet should disband the football team. There are three reasons why I believe this.
 There are several reasons why Gallaudet should disband the football team.

45
46
47
48
49
 paragraph football team is that Gallaudet will lose publicity. Now,
Gallaudet gets a lot of free advertising because our name
appears in the newspaper and on TV each time we play a
football game. Our university is very small, but people see our
name when they read the sports pages and listen to the
news. Also, when Gallaudet had a winning season several
years ago, reporters talked about us all over the U.S. and
Canada. Some people heard about us for the first time. If
Gallaudet disbands the football team, then we will lose all
that free advertising. Our name will not appear in the
newspaper or on TV, and we will become invisible. We will
have to spend more money to advertise Gallaudet and to
recruit more students.
Third Finally, Gallaudet should not disband the football team
supporting because the football players might decide to leave. Our
paragraph football players come to Gallaudet excited and eager to play
on our team. They work hard and feel proud of themselves
and their university because they play on a fine team. If
Gallaudet disbands the football team, the players will lose
their enthusiasm. They will have nothing to do at four each
day, and their Saturdays will be empty. Their excitement
about Gallaudet will be reduced, and they might want to
transfer to another school.
Concluding If Gallaudet disbands the football team, there will be several
paragraph problems. The fans will be disappointed, and Gallaudet will
lose publicity. Furthermore, football players might leave. In
my opinion, Gallaudet should not disband the football team.

Definition
Definition Essays

Definition:

Examples: A definition essay may try and define . . .

* the meaning of an abstract concept, like love;

* the true meaning and importance of honesty;
* how the meaning of family goes deeper than just your blood relatives.

A definition essay attempts to define a specific term. It could try to pin down the meaning of a

50
specific word, or define an abstract concept. The analysis goes deeper than a simple dictionary
definition; it should attempt to explain why the term is defined as such. It could define the term
directly, giving no information other than the explanation of the term. Or, it could imply the definition
of the term, telling a story that requires the reader to infer the meaning.

Sample Essay - "The Real Meaning of Honesty"

The Real Meaning of Honesty

(Sample Definition Essay)

I think it was my mother who taught me the meaning of honesty. Not because she actually was
honest, but because she lied all the time. She felt that the easiest way out of any given situation was
generally the best way out. And, for her, that generally meant telling a "little white lie." As a young
child I thought it was kind of cool. And, naturally, when I would come to her with a concern or
question wondering what I should do, she generally advised me to lie.

"Mom, I told Theresa that I would go over to her house, but now I would rather go to Sue's house to
play."

"Tell Theresa you're sick," she would advise. And generally I did. But I didn't seem blessed with her
lack of conscience. On many painful occasions Theresa would find out that I really went to Sue's
house without her. These occasions taught me that it is more painful to be caught in a lie than it is to
tell the truth in the first place. I wondered how it was possible that my mother had never learned that
lesson.

I started thinking of all the lies that I'd heard her tell. I remembered the time she told someone that
her favorite restaurant had closed, because she didn't want to see them there anymore. Or the time
she told Dad that she loved the lawn-mower he gave her for her birthday. Or when she claimed that
our phone lines had been down when she was trying to explain why she hadn't been in touch with a
friend of hers for weeks. And what bothered me even more were all the times she had incorporated
me into her lies. Like the time she told my guidance counselor that I had to miss school for
exploratory surgery, when she really needed me to babysit. And it even started to bother me when
someone would call for her and she would ask me to tell them that she wasn't there.

So, I started my own personal fight against her dishonesty. When I answered the phone and it was
someone my mother didn't want to talk to, I said, "Louise, mom is here, but she doesn't want to talk
to you." The first time I did it, I think she grounded me, but I refused to apologize. I told her that I had
decided that it was wrong to lie. And the next time it happened I did the same thing. Finally, she
approached me and said, "I agree that lying is not the best thing to do, but we need to find a way to
be honest without being rude." She admitted that her methods weren't right, and I admitted that mine

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were a bit too extreme.

Over the past few years, the two of us have worked together to be honest- and yet kind. Honesty
should mean more than not lying. It should mean speaking the truth in kindness. Though I started by
trying to teach my mom the importance of honesty, I ended up gaining a deeper understanding of the
meaning of the term.

Questions:

  What is the term that the speaker is trying to define?

  Did someone teach her the meaning of the term, or did she really learn from her own
experience?
  Is the term defined here presented with more complex reasoning than a dictionary definition?

Descriptive

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 Descriptive Essays

Descriptive:

Examples: A descriptive essay could describe . . .

* a tree in my backyard;
* a visit to the children's ward of a hospital;
* a hot fudge sundae;
* what an athlete did in order to make it to the
Olympics.

The descriptive essay provides details about how

something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel,
or sounds. It can also describe what something is, or
how something happened. These essays generally use a lot of sensory details. The
essay could be a list-like description that provides point by point details. Or, it could
function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and theme of the event
described.

Sample: "A Small, Close-Knit Community"

Sample Essays:
Advantages and Disadvantages
A Small, Close-Knit Community
by Katherine DeLorenzo

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"I'm glad I'm Deaf," said Gallaudet graduate Dawn Taylor. "I wouldn't want to be hearing." Why, one
wonders, would a deaf person say such a thing? Wouldn't all deaf people rather be hearing if given
the chance? Quite the contrary. As hard as it is for hearing people to believe, many deaf people
think they are lucky because of the rich social and cultural environment their community
offers.

For starters, Deaf people are members of a small and close-knit community. The shared sense of
community brings deaf people together in ways that are enriching and rewarding. For example,
because many deaf people have friends across the country, they are avid travelers. Deaf-owned
travel agencies are kept quite busy by clients eager to criss-cross the country, often for activities
such as the National Association of the Deaf conference, deaf softball and basketball games, and
other well-attended events. Rare is the deaf person who hasn't left his or her state!

Just as there are deaf people all over the world, there are international clubs and events as well. The
World Games for the Deaf allows hundreds of amateur deaf athletes from many countries around the
world to compete in Olympics-style athletic competition. Just like the Olympics, the games are held
every four years in a different country. Of course, interpreters are needed -- that is, deaf interpreters.
When experts fluent in British or Russian Sign Language can't be found, seasoned participants are
adept at using a form of communication called "gestuno" which is modeled after Esperanto.

In addition, there are a multitude of religious, social, and charitable organizations established,
managed, and attended by deaf people. Rabbinical scholars might find the Wolk Center for Deaf
Jewish Studies helpful. If the Deaf Aviators Club isn't your thing, perhaps you'd like to attend a
reading given by the National Deaf Literary Society? If flush, you can always donate extra funds to
the local Deaf Dalmatians Society chapter, run by -- who else -- a deaf person. And don't forget to
pick up a copy of DeafNation, so you'll know when Deaf West Theater or the National Theater of the
Deaf will be in town. Looking for an aspiring actor to star in your next film? Don't forget to fax a note
to the Deaf Entertainment Guild.

So the next time a hearing person says it's a hardship to be deaf, just count all of the advantages on
your fingers. Unlike a hearing person who doesn't sign, you won't have to stop at ten.

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 "English is a Crazy Language"
Let's face it -- English is a crazy language. There is no egg in eggplant nor ham in hamburger;
neither apple nor pine in pineapple. English muffins weren't invented in England nor French fries in
France. Sweetmeats are candies while sweetbreads, which aren't sweet, are meat.

We take English for granted. But if we explore its paradoxes, we find that quicksand can work slowly,
boxing rings are square and a guinea pig is neither from Guinea nor is it a pig.

And why it is that writers write but fingers don't fing, grocers don't groce and hammers don't ham? If
the plural of tooth is teeth, why isn't the plural of booth beeth? If you have one goose, two geese,
why not one moose, two meese, or one index, two indices?

Doesn't it seem crazy that you can make amends but not one amend, or that you can comb through
the annals of history but not a single annal? If you have a bunch of odds and ends and get rid of all
but one of them, what do you call it?

If teachers taught, why didn't preachers praught? If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a
humanitarian eat? If you wrote a letter, perhaps you bote your tongue?

Sometimes I think all the English speakers should be committed to an asylum for the verbally insane.
In what other language do people recite at a play and play at a recital; ship by truck and send cargo
by ship; have noses that run and feet that smell; park on driveways and drive on parkways?

How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and wise guy are opposites,
and quite a lot and quite a few are alike? How can the weather be hot as hell one day and cold as
hell another?

Have you noticed that we talk about certain things only when they are absent? Have you ever seen a
horsefull carriage or a strapfull gown; met a sung hero or experienced requited love; have you ever
run into someone who was combobulated, gruntled, or peccable? And where are all those people
who ARE spring chickens or who would ACTUALLY hurt a fly?

You have to marvel at the unique lunacy of a language in which your house can burn up as it burns
down, in which you fill in a form by filling it out and in which an alarm clock goes off by going on.

English was invented by people, not computers, and it reflects the creativity of the human race
(which of course, isn't a race at all). That is why, when the stars are out, they are visible, but when
they lights are out, they are invisible. And why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, but when I windup
this essay, I end it?

Narrative

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 Narrative Essays

Narrative:

Examples:A narrative essay could tell of . . .

* my brother's and my fishing trips;

* a boring trip to the grocery store;
* my near-death experience at the beach.

The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be called a "short

story." Generally the narrative essay is conversational in style,
and tells of a personal experience. It is most commonly written
in the first person (uses I). This essay could tell of a single, life-shaping event, or
simply a mundane daily experience.

Sample: "Attitude is Everything"

Attitude Is Everything
by Francie Baltazar-Schwartz

Jerry was the kind of guy you love to hate. He was always in a good mood and always had
something positive to say. When someone would ask him how he was doing, he would reply, "If I
were any better, I would be twins!"

He was a unique manager because he had several waiters who had followed him around from
restaurant to restaurant. The reason the waiters followed Jerry was because of his attitude. He was a
natural motivator. If an employee was having a bad day, Jerry was there telling the employee how to
look on the positive side of the situation.

Seeing this style really made me curious, so one day I went up to Jerry and asked him, "I don't get it!
You can't be a positive person all of the time. How do you do it?" Jerry replied, "Each morning I wake
up and say to myself, 'Jerry, you have two choices today. You can choose to be in a good mood or
you can choose to be in a bad mood.' I choose to be in a good mood. Each time something bad
happens, I can choose to be a victim or I can choose to learn from it. I choose to learn from it. Every
time someone comes to me complaining, I can choose to accept their complaining or I can point out
the positive side of life. I choose the positive side of life."

"Yeah, right, it's not that easy," I protested. "Yes it is," Jerry said. "Life is all about choices. When you
cut away all the junk, every situation is a choice. You choose how you react to situations. You

56
choose how people will affect your mood. You choose to be in a good or bad mood. The bottom line:
It's your choice how you live life." I reflected on what Jerry said.

Soon thereafter, I left the restaurant industry to start my own business. We lost touch, but I often
thought about him when I made a choice about life instead of reacting to it. Several years later, I
heard that Jerry did something you are never supposed to do in the restaurant business: he left the
back door open one morning and was held up at gunpoint by three armed robbers. While trying to
open the safe, his hand shaking from nervousness, slipped off the combinations. The robbers
panicked and shot him.

Luckily, Jerry was found relatively quickly and rushed to the local trauma center. After 18 hours of
surgery and weeks of intensive care, Jerry was released from the hospital with fragments of the
bullets still in his body. I saw Jerry about six months after the accident. When I asked him how he
was, he replied, "If I were any better, I'd be twins. Wanna see my scars?" I declined to see his
wounds, but did ask him what had gone through his mind as the robbery took place.

"The first thing that went through my mind was that I should have locked the back door," Jerry
replied. "Then, as I lay on the floor, I remembered I had two choices: I could choose to live, or I could
choose to die. I chose to live."

"Weren't you scared? Did you lose consciousness?" I asked.

Jerry continued, "The paramedics were great. They kept telling me I was going to be fine. But when
they wheeled me into the emergency room and I saw the expressions on the faces of the doctors
and nurses, I got really scared. In their eyes, I read, 'He's a dead man.' I knew I needed to take
action."

"What did you do?" I asked.

"Well, there was a big, burly nurse shouting questions at me," said Jerry. "She asked if I was allergic
to anything. 'Yes,' I said. The doctors and nurses stopped working as they waited for my reply. I took
a deep breath and yelled, 'Bullets!' Over their laughter, I told them, "I am choosing to live. Operate on
me as if I am alive, not dead."

Jerry lived thanks to the skill of his doctors, but also because of his amazing attitude. I learned from
him that every day we have the choice to live fully. Attitude, after all, is everything.

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 Sample: "Josie's Triumph

Josie's Triumph
(Sample Narrative Essay)

Even though I am the older brother and she's the younger sister, Josie was always a head taller, and a good 40
pounds heavier than me when we were growing up. I hated that. I was the big brother. I was supposed to be
dominant and protective. But while she was the biggest kid in school, I was nearly the smallest.

Josie's size and strength only made my lack of those two qualities more apparent. I was two years ahead of her
in school, which meant that by the time she got to middle school I was already an 8th grader. Kids in middle
school are not kind or accepting, and over the years they had continually made fun of my puny size and lack of
athletic ability. But the teasing reached a whole new level when Josie entered middle school. Now they had a
new angle for tormenting me.

They would taunt, "Hey Shrimp! Your sister still beat you up?" Or, they would chant again and again on the
bus, "Paul, Paul, he's so small, but his sister's ten feet tall!" I guess that rhyme was hurtful to both of us, but I
only felt my own humiliation. It still baffles me that I took no notice of my sister's feelings. The times when the
jokes centered around her, like when they called her "Josie the Giant," it was such a relief not to be their target
that I did nothing to stop them. Nothing seemed to bother Josie anyway. I never heard her complain or so much
as saw her wince. I just assumed that her interior was a steely as her exterior.

That was until the day she snapped.

There was a new girl, Ginny, in Josie's class who wore really thick glasses, and without them, was nearly blind.
She, to my relief, had temporarily become the butt of jokes and pranks. The latest chant that the kids had come
up with was, "Ginny, Ginny, short and fat, squinty-eyed and blind as a bat!" In all fairness, Ginny wasn't fat at
all, but the kids chanted that because it rhymed with bat.

It started as a normal lunch break, with Josie and Ginny standing together in line. Suddenly, Tommy Pederson
ran up behind Ginny and snatched her glasses off her face. Everyone began the chant as they carelessly tossed
her glasses down the line. I watched Josie's face as it was happening. There seemed to be an anger beyond
normal 6th grade capacity brewing behind her eyes. Tommy Pederson had gotten the glasses back and was
waving them around in the air. That's when it happened. With one hand Josie grabbed the glasses from him and
with the other she punched him in the face. She hit him with such force that he fell over. Everyone froze in
shock for a second until Tommy screamed "Get her!" There must have been 15 different students who rushed
toward Josie. She held the glasses up as if to protect them and looked panicked until she made eye contact with
me. "Josie! Here!" I screamed, gesturing that she throw me the glasses. She tossed the glasses to me, and
miraculously, I caught them. She then faced the students who were rushing toward her. She skillfully defended
herself by knocking them down one at a time as they approached her. She stopped fighting only when no one
else dared move toward her.

I brought the glasses over and handed them to Tommy as he was picking himself up off the floor, humiliated.

58
"Say you're sorry and give Ginny back her glasses," I told him. He said nothing. Josie slowly walked over and
punched him in the stomach. He doubled over gasping for breath. "Say you're sorry and give her back her
glasses," she repeated as she dragged him over to Ginny. "S-s-sorry," stammered Tommy as he handed her the
glasses. Ginny took them, her eyes round with shock.

At that point, someone started clapping. It was quiet at first, then almost everyone joined in. Everyone except
the kids that she had beat up. They sat in stunned silence, knowing that this day marked a change for us all.

Cause-Effect

Cause-Effect Essays

Cause/Effect:

Examples:A cause/effect essay may explain . . .

* why a volcano erupts, and what happens afterwards;

* what happens after a loved one's death.

The cause/effect essay explains why or how some event happened, and what resulted from the
event. This essay is a study of the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The
essay could discuss both causes and effects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause
essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what
happens after a specific event or circumstance.

The below example shows a cause essay, one that would explain how and why an event happened.

If this cause essay were about a volcanic eruption, it might go something like:
"Pressure and heat built up beneath the earth's surface; the effect of this was an enormous volcanic
eruption."

The next example shows an effect essay, one that would explain all the effects that happened after
a specific event, like a volcanic eruption.

If this effect essay were about a volcanic eruption again, it might go something like:
"The eruption caused many terrible things to happen; it destroyed homes, forests, and polluted the
atmosphere."

59
 Town Meetings
(Sample Cause/Effect Essay)

I grew up going to town meetings with Grandma Sue. Every Thursday Grandma would drag me along with her
to the meetings. Afterwards, she would always buy me ice cream at Karl's Ice Cream. I loved our time at the
ice cream shop, but hated the meetings. But by the time I was old enough to make my own decisions, I couldn't
bring myself to tell Grandma that I didn't want to go to the meetings. So I just went along with her.

"Town meetings," Grandma would say, "are the only place that we townsfolk get to share our opinions about
the shape of things in this town. It's important that we take the time to do so." And share, she did. Grandma
shared her opinions about everything at the meetings. Whether it was the construction of a new park, the clean-
up crew after the parade, the cost of school lunches, the new leash law, a curfew for teens, or nominations for
new board members, she was always involved. She herself was nominated numerous times for positions on the
board, but she always declined the nomination. "Some folks have just gotta stay on the other side of politics,"
she explained to me, "that's how you keep the town running clean."

Grandma died of a heart attack when I was 22. Her death came as a surprise to us all. The Thursday after her
funeral I just couldn't bring myself to go to the town meeting. I stayed home that week, and the next, and
before I knew it, months had passed. Then my neighbor told me about the plan for the new supermarket.

She told me that the town had approved a plan to allow a new supermarket to be built on the site of Karl's Ice
Cream shop. It meant that Karl's would be torn down! I couldn't bear the thought of losing that precious shop.

That Thursday I went to the meeting. When the plan came up on the docket, I stood to speak.

"I know what Grandma Sue would have said about this plan, and I intend to say it for her. Karl's Ice Cream
shop has been a meeting place for town-folk for more than 80 years. My grandmother, and your grandparents,
all grew up going to the Ice Cream shop. Parents take their kids there after church, or as a reward for getting
good grades. And my Grandma took me there after every one of these town meetings until the day she died."

A couple of people nodded in understanding; all attention was focused on me as I continued.

"Now, aside from the sentimental aspect, there is the thought of what is good for the town. Building a new
supermarket would not only shut down Karl's, it would probably put its competition, McGreuger's, out of
business, too. It would take away the quaintness that makes this town special. And most important to me, it
would make my Grandma Sue turn over in her grave. I don't care how much new profit you think it will bring
this town. What about the people here, the atmosphere, and the heart of the town itself? Those are the issues we
should be discussing."

As I sat down, everyone applauded. The plan was rejected and Karl's Ice Cream was named an Historical Site.

Ever since then I have viewed it as my job to go to the meetings every Thursday, and "share my opinions about
the shape of things in this town," as Grandma would say. But it is still amazing to me that it took Grandma's
passing, and the potential destruction of our favorite shop, to get me to take on the responsibility that Grandma

60
had tried to teach me all along.

Questions:

  What effect did Grandma's death have on the speaker?

  What caused the speaker to take on responsibility?

 Other than Grandma's death, were there other causes in the essay? If so, what were they?

Process Essay
Process Essays

Process:

Examples: A process essay may explain . . .

* how to properly re-pot a plant;

* how an individual came to appreciate hard work.

A process essay describes how something is done. It generally explains actions that
should be performed in a series. It can explain in detail how to accomplish a specific
task, or it can show how an individual came to a certain personal awareness. The
essay could be in the form of step-by-step instructions, or in story form, with the
instructions/explanations subtly given along the way.

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 Critical Essays
Critical Essays

Argumentative:

Examples: An
argumentative essay may
persuade a reader that . . .

* he or she should
use public
transportation instead of driving.
* cats are better than dogs.

An argumentative essay is one that attempts to persuade the reader to the writer's
point of view. The writer can either be serious or funny, but always tries to convince
the reader of the validity of his or her opinion. The essay may argue openly, or it may
attempt to subtly persuade the reader by using irony or sarcasm.

Critical:
Examples: A critical essay may analyze . . .

* how Shakespeare presents the character, Othello, in his play, Othello;

* the strengths and weaknesses of the movie, Children of a Lesser God;
* the use of color in Monet's painting, Sunflowers.

A critical essay analyzes the strengths, weaknesses and methods of someone else's work.
Generally these essays begin with a brief overview of the main points of the text, movie, or piece of
art, followed by an analysis of the work's meaning. It should then discuss how well the author/creator
accomplishes his/her goals and makes his/her points. A critical essay can be written about another
essay, story, book, poem, movie, or work of art.

Writing Critical Essays:

Essays about Literature

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The critical essay should have the same structural characteristics as any other kind of essay.  Please
see our Structure of an Essay explanation and picture to refresh your memory.  However, the kind of
information that a critical essay should include can be very different from the information included in
other kinds of essays.  The critical essay must have the following parts:

Introduction:

Every essay must have an introduction.  This section should clearly identify the title, author, and kind
of writing you are analyzing.  It also needs to have a clearly stated thesis.  The thesis could be about
the work's strengths and weaknesses, or it could be about a specific aspect of the work ( a character,
the tone, the use of symbols, etc.)  The essays does not need to criticize the work, it can simply
analyze one aspect of the work.

Summary (refreshing the reader's memory of the work) :

You cannot just assume that the reader knows exactly which part of the work, which argument,
which symbols, etc. you are writing about.  It is best to spend a bit of time reminding the reader about
the main points of the original work.  This section should explain the author's presentation of the
subject that will be evaluated.  This part of the paper should not be very long.  Good papers leave
this section brief and spend most of the time on analysis.  If you are critiquing the author's argument,
you need to include the author's conclusion, supporting  ideas, implied ideas, and assumptions. 
However, if you are analyzing the author's method of writing, (i.e.  his/her use of literary devices,
imagery, development of a specific character, structural choices, etc.), you only need to mention the
one aspect of his/her work you are discussing.

Remember, you should refrain from analysis in the summary section.  This section is used only to
refresh the reader's memory of a specific aspect of the piece.  Depending on the essay, the
summary could be a separate paragraph or two, or, you could include the summary information at
the beginning of each body paragraph.  If you include it at the beginning of each body paragraph,
you should state the author's presentation briefly, then present your own analysis of it. 

Criticism/Analysis:

These are the main body paragraphs of the essay.  This will be the longest part of the essay,
because it is the part in which you prove your thesis.

Here, you evaluate and analyze the work.  Depending on the thesis, you may be assessing the
author's argument, use of figurative language, development of a specific character, repetition of a
theme, etc.  In this section, you should use examples from the work and analyze them in a way that
supports your thesis.  If you spend too much time on reconstruction and not enough on criticism, you
will not score very well on the essay. 

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Conclusion:

You should use the conclusion to summarize the main points of your analysis.  Here you should
restate the thesis briefly.  You can opt to leave the reader with a broad statement to provoke further
thought about the subject.

Outline for a Critical Essay

I. Introduction

    A. Identify the title and author.

    B. Present your THESIS STATEMENT

        (this should be a sentence or two that summarizes your opinion/argument regarding the text).

II. Body

    A. Summary

        1.  Refresh the reader's memory of the text as a whole.

        2. Remind them of the specific part you will be analyzing

    B. Criticism/Analysis

        1. Evaluate and analyze the text

        2. Use specific examples (quotes) from the text to support your thesis.

        3. Analyze the quotes that you use in a way that proves your argument.

    III. Conclusion

    A. Summarize the main points of your argument.

    B. Briefly restate your (now proven) thesis.

    C. Perhaps leave the reader with a broad statement to provoke further thought.

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 Writing a Critical Analysis of a Painting

If you are assigned to write about a painting remember that it is not necessary to write a highly
technical analysis. You only need to look carefully at the painting then analyze and classify what you
see. If you have never written about a painting before, it may be helpful for you to consider the
following list when studying the painting.

   How old is the painting you are writing about?

   What is its size and proportions?
   Is it a landscape, a portrait, or a still life?
   Look at the artist's use of space. 
       - Is there a center of interest?
   Look at the artist's use of color and shape.
   Look at the movement of the forms.
   Write down your impression of the mood.
   Does the painting have narrative content (tell a story)?
       - How do you know? 
       - What do you think the story is?
   Who is the artist?
   Do you think the artist used symbols?
   Look at the brushwork. 
       - Is the paint applied thickly or thinly?
       - Is it transparent or opaque? Is it mixed media?

If the work you are studying is an abstraction you will need to focus on:

   Paint handling
   Direction and flow
   Color use
   Mood
   Researching the artist

Begin The Essay

Introduction:

Just like all other essays, your first paragraph serves as your introduction. This section should
identify the title of the painting, the artist, what year the painting was created, and where the
painting is located.You should also introduce your thesis in this paragraph.  Your thesis could be
about one specific aspect of the painting, or it could be a broad statement about the painting as a
whole.

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Analysis:

Your next several paragraphs should analyze the painting. For example, if your thesis is that
the painting is a "startling piece of work," then the body of your paper should describe why
you find it to be startling.  Within your analysis you should include specific descriptions of the
piece itself. However, do not focus only on describing the painting; presumably your audience
is familiar with the work.  You should describe aspects of the painting only as they relate to
your thesis.  For example, if your thesis is that the painting is "startling," perhaps it is the
subject's body language that makes it startling.  You may want to include a description of that
figure's body language and explain the impact the body language has on the audience.

In an informal essay about art it is acceptable to include your own feelings and behavior as you
looked at the painting. You can include information like how long you studied the painting,
whether you compared it to other paintings in the gallery, whether or not you made a sketch of
the work, how the painting made you feel, etc. If the painting makes you feel sad, then explain
what evokes that feeling. Is it the colors the artist used? Is it the figure's pose, or the facial
expression, etc.?

Drawing Conclusions:

It is then important for you to make some conclusions about why you think the artist made the
decisions that he/she did.  If the painting looks startling or sad, why do you think the artist
chose to paint it that way?  Is part of the painting dark or dull simply to draw the audience's
attention to another part of the canvas?  You may also want to research what was happening
during that time of the artist's life.  Often there will be a correlation between the mood of the
painting and the events in the artist's life during that time. 

Conclusion:

The end of your essay should reiterate the important points that you made, yet leave the reader
with something more to think about.

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Sample Critical Essay of a Painting
Introduction: 
This is a very brief essay, and as a result, the introduction is concise.  The thesis is in the first sentence.

Rembrandt's Self Portrait in the National Gallery

By M. Lewinski
November 1, 2001
Submitted for Art History 101

Rembrandt's "Self Portrait" in the East Wing of the National Gallery is a startling painting. 
Rembrandt placed his face in the upper two thirds of the canvas which is 33¼" by 26".  It was
painted in 1656.

Analysis:
Now you can begin to explain why you find this painting to be startling.

Artists usually paint themselves well dressed, happy, sitting at an easel, working.  In this painting,
however, Rembrandt looks inexpressibly sad, timeworn, and defeated. While everything else is in
shadow, the face is illuminated as if it attracts all the light.  His face is softening with age; his
unruly hair is tinged with gray. His eyes look out, capturing and pinning me the moment I enter the
gallery.  I feel as if I had disturbed him while he was painting.

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What about this painting has given the impression that Rembrandt looks sad or defeated?  Is it the colors the
artist used?  Is it the pose, or the facial expression?  You should describe some specific parts of the painting in
order to support your thesis.  You may also wish to compare this work to other paintings by the same artist.

His coat looks dull, nondescript.  In contrast to other self-portraits where Rembrandt painted
himself in finery, in this painting he looks like he is wearing an old coat, and an old hat.  The color
and quality of his clothing adds to the somber mood of the painting.
His hands are not visible.  In fact, no skin other than his face is visible.  Perhaps his hands would
have taken some of the light away from his face, and he wanted to draw the audience's attention
immediately to his face.  It is as though he meant to emphasize the importance of his facial
expression and the lines in his face, and de-emphasize the importance of everything else.  It looks
like he's just turned around to see who entered the room-- and he'd rather not have been interrupted
from his thoughts.  The only other form that captures any light is the curved form in the lower
portion of the painting.  It is possible that shape is his palette.

Drawing Conclusions:
You should attempt to explain why you think the artist painted himself in this way.

Rembrandt made a self-portrait almost every year of his life, beginning about age twenty.  The early
portraits depict a smiling, self-confident, prosperous Rembrandt.  These were probably intended to
be advertisements of his skill to attract commissions. Clearly this painting was not designed to
attract commissions.  Perhaps this painting's intent was to capture a more honest, uncensored truth
of the artist's life.  He could have made himself look however he wanted, but he chose this somber
pose.

Conclusion:
Reiterate your thesis and the important points you made, and leave the reader with something more to think
about.

Though we do not absolutely know why he depicted himself in this dark way, we must assume that
Rembrandt was certainly trying to both evoke and express a feeling of uncomfortable
defeat. Perhaps Rembrandt has painted the reality of his life-- a dimly lit, cold room; worn, dark
clothes; a pensive, tired expression-- and his current emotional state without hiding behind flashy
clothes and bright colors.

Writing A Book Review

Purpose
The purpose of a book review is to help other people decide whether or not they want to read a

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book. You do this by summarizing the book and by evaluating how well the writer wrote the book.
The book review can explain the positive aspects of the book, the negative aspects of the book, or
both.

Length
Book reviews can be any length.  Some book reviews are only one or two paragraphs.  Others are
several pages.  The length of the review will depend on who your audience is.  If the audience is
your teacher, ask her/him about the length.

Style and Content

The style and content of your book review can also vary depending on your audience (who you are
writing for).  For example, if your book was a factual book about how deafness affects children's
learning styles, you would write differently for different audiences.  If you are writing for new parents
of deaf children, you might provide a very detailed explanation of the subject matter; if you were
writing for teachers of deaf children, you could provide less detail because you would assume that
they already have a good understanding of the topic.

The content of your book review will vary depending on whether the book is fiction or non-fiction.  For
example, if you are writing a book review about a work of fiction, you should probably analyze the
book’s characters, plot, setting, and theme.  If you are writing about a non-fiction book, you will need
to evaluate how useful, correct, and well-presented the book's information is.

Format
Book reviews should be formatted like an essay.  This means that you need to write an essay with
an introduction, body and conclusion.

The introductory paragraph of a book review usually includes . . .

 the main idea for a non-fiction book or the theme for fiction;
 identify the author, the title of the book and publisher ( some teachers prefer the book
information at the top of the paper using an APA/MLA citation);
 author’s background (this is optional);
 your thesis (your opinion why other people should read the book).

The body of your essay must include . . .

 your summary of the main points of the book;

 your evaluation of the book where you explain to your reader why they should read the book
or not.

The conclusion of your essay  . . .

 should remind your reader of your thesis.

 may also review the main points of your essay.

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Sample Outline for a Book Review

I.       Introductory Paragraph

A.   Identify the title, the author and the publisher of the book. (This information can be placed at the
top of the paper using APA or MLA reference citation instead of in the introductory paragraph.)

B.    Summarize the main idea/theme of the book you are reviewing in one or two sentences.

C.    Write your thesis (what you think of the book).

1.    Example: I loved the book but I had some problems with it.

2.    Example: I thought the book has useful information for parents of deaf children.

II.    Body Paragraphs

A.   Summarize the important points of the book (This can be one or several paragraphs depending
on your audience/teacher’s directions.)

1.    Use quotes or paraphrases from the book to prove your points.

B.    Evaluate (This can be one or several paragraphs depending on your audience/ teacher’s
directions.)

1.    Explain the writer’s purpose for writing the book. Give your opinion on whether the writer
achieved her/his purpose in writing the book.

2.     Criticize/praise the book

a. Explain to your audience if you thought the book was entertaining or boring, has good characters
or unrealistic characters, has thorough information or inadequate information.

b. Use quotes or paraphrases from the book to prove your points.

III.    Conclusion

A.     Review the main points of your argument.

B.    Remind the reader of your thesis (whether or not you thought the book was good).

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 Guidelines for Abstracts and Critiques
in Social Work and Related Disciplines
Purpose

The purpose of writing an abstract and/or a critique is to allow a reader to survey the contents of an
article without actually having read the article. It serves to give an overview to the reader, who can
then decide whether to read the entire article or not. The difference between the abstract and the
critique is that the critique includes your professional opinion while the abstract does not.

Abstract

The abstract allows you an opportunity to practice writing a brief, comprehensive summary of the
contents of the article read and also the opportunity to survey the professional literature in social
work and related fields. This may be important later on when you are preparing professional articles
for publication since most journal editors require an abstract along with the article, or for preparing a
thesis or dissertation.

The abstract needs to be readable, well organized, brief, and free of too many details. The lead
sentence needs to be informative and define what the article is about.

The abstract should include the author's main points including: the topic of problem under study, the
purpose of the study or article, and the author's recommendations. If the article is based on empirical
research, include the number of subjects and their demographic characteristics, the research design
and data gathering procedures and the conclusions. Be as concise as possible.

Abstracts should be proof read, and grammatically correct. You may find an editor who can check
your work before handing it in, or use the services of English Works!. Note: see the handout on how
to avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense and unethical and can result in not passing the
course.

Critique

The critique is your professional judgment of an article. Avoid personal opinions and experiences.
The critique should answer the questions below:

a. How did the article come across to you as a reader? Is it written clearly and well organized?
b. Who is the intended audience?
c. Does the article clearly define its purpose? If a research based article, does it present its
findings well?
d. Is the writer sensitive to racial and cultural diversity and is the language culturally and
ethnically sensitive?
e. How does the article relate to social work and the person-in-environment perspective?
f. How does the article help a typical social worker in practice?

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Sample Abstract and Critique

Name of Student
Date

White, B. (1997). Permanency planning for deaf children: Considerations of

culture and language. Arete, 21 (2), 13-23.

Sample Abstract
This article addresses the cultural and language needs of deaf children when
social workers consider out of home placements for them. Recognizing the
scarcity of professional social workers fluent in American Sign Language and
knowledgeable about deaf people and their culture, the author presents the two
paradigms of deafness -- the clinical/medical model and the cultural model. The
clinical/medical model has been the dominant view in American Society as well
as in social work, but the cultural paradigm has gained recognition in the last
several decades. Social workers needs to become sensitive to the cultural
aspects of the Deaf community, familiar with the research on deaf children in the
child welfare system, deaf parents as caregivers and the literature on deaf
children of deaf as well as hearing parents. The author presents the defining
characteristics of deaf culture, which include values, shared attitude and
experience, norms, intermarriage rate, formal organizational structure, material
culture, symbols, and literature and art. Finally, the article includes a section on
the experiences of deaf adoptive parents, based on the literature that is
available on this subject. The article emphasizes the need for social workers to
shift their focus from the deaf child's deficit (hearing loss) to a strengths
perspective, and utilize deaf parents as a resource for deaf children in
permanency planning decisions.

Sample Critique
Although the article is theoretical in nature and not based on an empirical study,
it is well referenced. The writer presents useful and well organized information
on deaf culture to an audience of mostly hearing social workers who are not
familiar with deaf people and their culture. The purpose is not as clearly defined
in the beginning and the reader needs to look for it, but there is clearly important

72
information in the article about the permanency planning issues involving deaf
children and the need to recognize their status as a sociolinguistic minority. The
person-in-environment perspective is clearly evident as the emphasis is on the
child's surrounding environment and culture. The "goodness of fit" concept is
reflected in the author's call for the profession to view the deaf child holistically
and match deaf children with deaf parents who understand their needs. Social
work practitioners will find the article informative, even if somewhat biased.

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