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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2019

ISBN: 978-92-807-3743-1
Job No.: DTI/2228/PA

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Citation
This document may be cited as:
UN Environment 2019. A Review of 20 Years’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing.
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

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The photos used in this report (except foreword) are from Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity
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 Acknowledgements

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) and the Beijing Municipal Ecology and
Environment Bureau (BEE) would like to thank the authors, reviewers and editors for their contribution
towards the development of this report.

The following individuals have contributed to the development and production of this report. Authors,
reviewers and editors contributed to this report in their individual capacity and their organizations have
been mentioned for identification purposes.

Authors:
He Kebin (Tsinghua University), Zhang Qiang (Tsinghua University), Ming Dengli (BEE), Wu Ye (Tsinghua
University), Catherine Witherspoon, Valentin Foltescu (UN Environment), Han Yuhua (Beijing Municipal
Research Institute of Environmental Protection), Cheng Jing (Tsinghua University), Qu Yanzhi (Beijing
Municipal Research Institute of Environmental Protection)

Reviewers:
Michael Benjamin, Dale Evarts, Michael Walsh, Stephen Inch, Ivo Allegrini, Wang Junling, Li Ying, Zhuo
Zhuang, Li Wei, Li Xia, Mao Boyang, Ravi Shankar Narasimhan

UN Environment Team: Tu Ruihe, Valentin Foltescu and Tiy Chung

BEE Team: Li Xiaohua, Yu Jianhua, Ming Dengli, Li Xiang, Li Kunsheng, Guo Meng, Chen Qi, Xie Jinkai,
Gao Jie, Liu Baoxian, Li Yunting

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

FOREWORD

For years, Beijing had the unhappy distinction of being a polluted city. How quickly things can change. In
just five years, from 2013 to 2017, fine particle levels in Beijing and the surrounding region fell by around
35% and 25% respectively. No other city or region on the planet has achieved such a feat.

This didn’t happen by accident, of course. It was the result of an enormous investment of time, resources
and political will, including President Xi’s vision of an Ecological Civilization, “wars on pollution control”
launched by the State Council, a substantially revamped Air Quality Law, new penalties for non-
compliance, local clean air action plans, and Beijing’s own cutting-edge initiatives. It was a long and
arduous journey, and many important lessons were learned along the way.

Understanding Beijing’s air pollution story is crucial for any nation, district or municipality that wishes
to follow a similar path. Indeed, as this report makes clear, the city’s experiences offer lessons that can
apply in almost any context:

2
 Foreword

• Heavy industrialization leaves a long legacy of tainted water, soil and air. Diversifying one’s domestic
economy is a wise move at any state of development.

• Vehicle emission control is of key importance for clean air. Especially, old cars and trucks
disproportionately contribute to urban air pollution.

• Private enterprises have little incentive to install emission controls until they are mandated to do so.
Governments should consider other ways to induce companies to do the right thing.

• Information is power. Data transparency enables all elements of society to participate in achieving
environmental objectives.

• Air pollution crosses every jurisdictional boundary: international, national, regional and local.
Cooperation across borders is critical to forging effective and lasting solutions.

• There are deep reserves of scientific knowledge and air quality management experience around the
world, and they are available to anyone who wishes to draw upon them.

This is the third time that UN Environment organizes assessment on Beijing’s air quality programmes.
In 2009, we published an independent analysis of the 2008 Summer Olympics, highlighting the
city’s success in guarantee good air quality during the Games. In 2016, we reviewed Beijing’s air
quality interventions from 1998 to 2013, recognizing the substantial achievement and made several
recommendations for what the city could do next. We are grateful to see that all of those ideas have been
put to good use.

This report is somewhat different, and takes a much longer view. Part I, which is aimed at students of
public policy, describes how Beijing’s air quality management programme has evolved over the past
quarter century: the fits and starts, the trials and the triumphs, the evidence of what worked and what
did not. Part II is for those interested in the ultimate goal, air that is truly healthy, and that meets global
standards. In this section, we consider the challenges ahead and suggest some near-, medium- and
long-term steps that Beijing can take to maintain its momentum toward clean air. We believe the fresh
experience and lessons from Beijing could be of help for many cities suffering air pollution.

We at UN Environment have been honoured to work with the former Beijing Municipal Environmental
Protection Bureau over the past few decades. We look forward to many more years of collaboration with
the newly created Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau as we strive together towards a
planet that is, finally, free of pollution.

Joyce Msuya,
Acting Executive Director
UN Environment Programme

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

FOREWORD

(Photograph credit: Liu Jiawei)

Winter of 2017 was a moment of triumph and milestone for the city of Beijing in our war against air
pollution. Decades of hard work and mounting investments by the municipal government paid off with
a dramatic reduction in air pollution. In five years (2013-2017), annual average PM2.5 concentrations in
Beijing fell from 89.5 to 58µg/m3, surpassing the 60 µg/m3 target set by the State Council. Moreover, the
entire region of Beijing-Hebei-Tianjin shared in this achievement, cutting fine particle pollution by 25%
overall from the 2013 baseline. It was the single biggest step forward in more than a quarter century of
steady progress. The war was officially launched by the city in 1998, air quality has kept improving trends
in 20 years with hundreds of measures implemented in phases. The five years during 2013 to 2017 was
the period of most significant improvement.

We are proud of being one party of the war and the deserved result. What makes us more happy is that
this air quality improvement has been achieved under the rapid social and economical development in

4
 Foreword

the capital city. Over the past 20 years, Beijing's gross domestic product (GDP) has maintained a growth
rate over 6.5% each year, increased by 10.8 times totally. In 2017, per capita GDP has exceeded 20
thousand dollars. Meanwhile, energy intensity and carbon dioxide emission per unit GDP (kg CO 2 per
10 thousand Yuan) has maintained downward tendency. Clean air actions contribute to the high quality
social economical sustainable development. As well, environmental sector is the sector encouraged to
develop and are creating more job opportunities in Beijing.

As we all know, there is much more work to do. PM2.5 in Beijing’s ambient air still exceeds China’s air
quality standards and the World Health Organization’s recommended “safe” levels. Also, ozone (O3)
pollution is not falling by the same amount. This troubling development is partly due to complex chemical
processes in the atmosphere, but also due to uncontrolled precursor emissions. Finally, heavy pollution
episodes frequently occur during autumn and winter in the capital city mainly attributed to the remaining
quantities of local pollutants emissions. Solving all these air quality issues will be a long-term process.

President Xi’s Ecological Civilization vision has become the guiding theory for building a beautiful China
and realizing harmony between human being and the nature. Good environmental quality is taken as
the most important benefit for the people. Blue sky is considered as a kind of happiness for the people
in Beijing. In 2018, the State Council released new blue sky action plan for 2018-2020, which requires
Beijing lower PM2.5 concentrations and reduce the frequency of heavy pollution days, to improve air
quality substantially. The Beijing Blue Sky Action Plan 2018-2020 was published subsequently, with more
detailed goals and actions planned.

We would like to thank UN Environment for its deep and continuing interest in Beijing’s air quality
management program, as evidenced by this and previous joint reports. Thanks to the support of Climate
and Clean Air Coalition, this report helps to recount Beijing’s efforts over the past 20 years, it's a milestone
summary for Beijing. If it could be of help as fresh experience and lessons for other cities struggling to
control air pollution, we are happy to share with them through UN Environment platform.

While the level of complexity of air pollution is unique to Beijing’s stage of development, the achievement
may be attributed to its governmental structure in some extent, there are several commonalities. We have
found that the keys to local sustainable development are the strong willingness, clear goal, supportive
legislation, plan and policies, implementation and enforcement arrangement. Engaging the public in
these objectives will strengthen environmental protection even further and increase social harmony.

The former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, recently reformed into Beijing Municipal
Ecology and Environment Bureau (BEE) has integrated with more missions on promoting ecological
civilization. We will continue the efforts for blue sky, better environment, and happy life for the people of
the city. We will practice at local level with full efforts – to turn that inspiring vision of 2030 sustainable
goals into reality.

Chen Tian
Director General
Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A Review of 20 Years’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

As the capital of China and an international episodes occurred regularly, with negative effects
metropolis, Beijing has experienced a rapid on public health. To tackle severe air pollution,
development in the past two decades. Compared Beijing has launched comprehensive air pollution
with 20 years earlier, the GDP, population and control programs in phases since 1998. With the
vehicles of Beijing sharply increased by 1078%, constant efforts in air pollution control, emission
74% and 335% respectively at the end of 2017. intensity has decreased year by year and air quality
has improved significantly. On-ground observation
The great economic prosperity and urban growth
data shows that the annual average concentrations
have also resulted in the deterioration of the
of SO2, NO2 and PM10 decreased by 93.3%, 37.8%
city’s environment, especially air quality. The
and 55.3% respectively (Fig1).
characteristics of combined coal-vehicle pollution
are unceasingly apparent and heavy-pollution

μg/m3 mg/m3
250 6
PM₂.₅(le) PM₁₀(le)
SO₂(le) NO₂(le)
O₃-8h-90per(le) CO(right) 5
200

4
150

100
2

50
1

0 0
19981999200020012002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017

Figure1 Changes in annual average concentrations of air pollutants in Beijing, 1998-2017

Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

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 Executive Summary

To better understand the air pollution control air actions in Beijing has been commissioned by
process in Beijing and provide worthy insights UN Environment, focusing on pivotal control points
for cities of developing countries facing similar and major pollution sources.
challenge, a systematic review of 20 years' clean

An effective air quality management system

A comprehensive and increasingly effective air enforcement mechanism; (b) Systematic planning;
quality management system has gradually taken (c) Powerful local standards; (d) Strong monitoring
shape over 20 years’ practice. The system is capacity; (e) High public environmental awareness.
characterized by:(a) Complete legislation and

Economic incentives and financial support

In the past 20 years, Beijing has gradually implementation of various measures (Fig2a).
established a number of local environmental- Meanwhile, the spending on air pollution control
economic policies, including subsidies, fees, has also been increased, especially after 2013
pricing, and other financial practices, to (Fig2b), which manifest great ambitions of the
provide economic incentives for the effective government on air pollution control.

Subsidies for environmental-friendly Governance of

technological transformation industrial
Subsidies for the closing of enterprises
high-polluting, energy-intensive Subsidies for the closing of
and water-intensive enterprises polluting enterprises Financial Investment in Air Pollution Control, Billion Yuan

Subsidies for purchase of electric

vehicles for taxi or postal services;
Subsidies for electric Subsidies for individual Adjustment of subsidies
Promotion of
for individual purchase electric
20
passenger vehicles, purchase of electric
battery leasing and charging industry-purpose passenger vehicles and of electric passenger vehicles
subsidies for electric buses and vehicles and fuel-cell fuel-cell vehicles vehicles
sanitation vehicles vehicles

Transformation 16
of vehicles
Construction waste transportation
Subsidy for loan interest for buying vehicle reconstruction assistance
new clean trucks

Elimination of 12
old and used
Subsidies for phasing out old Subsidies for early retirement Subsidies for early retirement or transfer vehicles
Increase of subsidies for
and used buses and taxies or transfer of vehicles of vehicles, Increase of subsidies for early retirement of vehicles
early retirement of vehicles

8
Promotion of
Heat pump
new energy
Solar collector
subsidies construction
subsidies

4
Control of
Low electricity tariffs and
bulk coal
subsidies for demonstration Extension of the Subsidies for resident Subsidies for resident Ladder prices for
areas of coal-to-electricity subsidies to core area purchase of electric purchase of gas-fired rural coal-to-gas
transformation heating equipment wall hung boilers transformation
0
Boiler
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Extension of the Subsidies for renovation
Subsidies for urban coal- Increase of subsidies for Subsidies for
subsidies to city-wide Expansion of subsidies to low-nitrogen
fired boiler renovation suburban coal-fired boiler fuel-fired boiler
boiler renovation coal-fired boilers over 14MV combustion
renovation renovation

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 /Year

(a) (b)

Figure2 Major economic policies (a) and financial investment

(b) on air pollution control in Beijing, 1998-2017
Source: Beijing Municipal Research Institute of Environmental Protection, Beijing Municipal Bureau of Finance

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Sophisticated air quality monitoring system

Beijing started to build the

air quality monitoring (AQM)
system in the 1980s. By 2013,
35 ambient AQM stations which
can monitor 6 major pollutants
such as PM2.5 and O3, had been
established across Beijing. In
2016, combining advanced
technologies like high resolution
satellite remote sensing and
laser radar, a new generation of
integrated air quality monitoring
network was established. For
example, Figure3 shows a high-
density PM2.5 monitoring network
in Beijing, which deployed over
1000 PM 2.5 sensors throughout
the whole city and helped to
accurately identify high-emission
areas and periods.
Figure3 Beijing's high-density sensor-based PM2.5 monitoring network
Source: Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center

Emission reductions from coal combustion sources

Coal combustion has always been a major air Take coal-fired power plants as an example. Beijing
pollution source in Beijing, and the city has has implemented a “coal-to-gas” policy since 2005
continuously promoted end-of-pipe control and and reduced coal combustion by nearly 11 million
energy structure adjustment over the past 20 years tons by 2017. High-efficiency terminal treatment
(Fig4). Focusing on power plants, coal-fired boilers facilities were continuously renovated and ultra-
and residential coal use, the pollution sources were low emission standards were enforced during this
controlled simultaneously, achieving remarkable period. In 2017, emissions of PM2.5, SO2, and NOx
progress. were reduced by 97%, 98% and 86% respectively
compared with 20 years earlier (Fig5), resulting in
significant environmental and health benefits.

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 Executive Summary

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

1998-2010 2000-2006 2005- 2007- 2010-

Power plants Dedusting Desulfurization Coal to Denitrification Natural gas thermal-power
retrofit retrofit gas retrofit cogeneration centers

1998-2002 2003-2008 Renovation of coal- 2009-2013 Renovation of coal-fired

Coal-fired
Renovation of small fired boilers (capacity below 14 boilers (capacity over 14 MW) in six
boilers
boilers in core areas MW) in core areas urban districts

1998-2002
Residential 2003-2013
Replacement with electricity for
heating Renovation of old one-storey houses in core areas
selected old one-storey houses

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

2015 Completed four natural gas 2014-2017 Close down the major coal-fired power
Power Plants 2013-2015 Enhance
thermal-power cogeneration plants, reducing coal consumption by 8.5 million
Desulfurization retrofitting
centers and put into use tons and no coal-fired power plants

2014 2013-2015 Increasing the 2016 Tongzhou 2017: Basically eliminate coal-fired boilers
Delineation elimination of coal-fired boilers in District took the (capacity below 7 MW) in the whole city and
Coal-fired
of high urban areas, and there were no lead in eliminating coal-fired boilers (capacity below 25 MW) in
Boilers pollution fuel coal-fired boilers in the major city all coal-fired urban areas; and there is no longer coal
free zone districts by the end of 2015 boilers in suburbs combustion in industry fields

2013-2015 Focus on urban areas, and start to use clean 2016-2017 Focus on urban-rural fringe and rural areas,
Residential basically no residential coal use in the core area in the six
fuels in rural areas; basically no residential coal use in the
Heating core area by the end of 2015. districts and the southern plains by the end of 2017

Figure4 Coal combustion control process and specific measures in Beijing, 1998-2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

25 100 100
Only end-of-pipe control
PM2.5 (kt) Without control SO2 (kt) NOx (kt)
20 Actual 80 80

15 60 60

10 40 40

5 20 20

0 0 0
1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016

Figure5 Changes of major pollutants emission from coal-fired power plants in Beijing, 1998-2017
Source: Tsinghua University

Vehicle emission control

The prevention and control of vehicle pollution have management and economic incentives continuously
long been a critical task in Beijing’s air pollution (Fig6). The integrated “Vehicle-Fuel-Road”
control. Focusing on new vehicles, in-use vehicles framework (Fig7) was developed. More important, a
and fuel quality, Beijing has implemented a series large scale public transport system has been built to
of local emission standards and comprehensive allow gradual formation of a green and low-carbon
control measures; as well as strengthened traffic in-city travel habit by the people.

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Although the number of vehicles increased three- were reduced by nearly 1,105kt, 94kt, 71kt and 6kt
folds in Beijing during the last two decades, the in 2017 (Fig8, green parts), with a decrease rates
total pollutants emissions decreased remarkably of 89%, 64%, 55% and 81% respectively. Phasing
(Fig8). Compared with 1998, CO, THC, NOx and out older vehicles made the most significant
PM 2.5 emissions from the transportation sector contributions during this period.

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Emission standards
Light-duty 1999/1-2002/12 2003/1-2005/12 2005/12-2008/2 2008/3-2013/1 2013/2-
gasoline vehicle China 1 China 2 China 3 China 4 China 5

Heavy—duty 2000/1-2002/12 2003/1-2005/12 2005/12-2008/6 2008/7-2013/1 2013/7-2015/5 2013/2- 2015/6-

diesel vehicle China I China II China III China IV1 China IV2 China V1 China V2

Improve gasoline 2003/1-2005/6 2005/6-2007/12 2008/1-2012/5 2012/6-

quality
Unleaded Reducing <500ppm <150ppm <50ppm <10ppm 2017/1
gasoline sulfur China 6/VI fuel
Improve diesel 2003/1-2005/6 2005/6-2007/12 2008/1-2012/5 2012/6-
since 1998 content <500ppm <350ppm <50ppm <10ppm
quality standard
quality

I/M programs and in- 2001-2003 2003- 2013- 2015- PEMS4 test
use inspecons Transion Full implementaon of ASM and LugDown methods On-road RS3 on public buses

Traffic restricons on 2003- Yellow-labelled vehicles 2017/2- Light-duty gasoline

specific in-use fleets 2004- Freight trucks and motorcycles passenger cars of China 1/2

Clean energy and new 1999- 2009- New energy vehicles promoted by the 2014- Electric publics buses
energy vehicles CNG public buses “Ten City & Thousand Units” program and taxies

2011- License control

2008/10- Driving restricon on
2014- Tighten the quota of new light-duty passenger cars, a
Traffic management and light-duty passenger cars
special quota for new energy cars
economic measures
2009- Subsidized scrappage of 2011- Expanded ALL yellow-labelled vehicles were
yellow-labelled vehicles to older vehicles scrapped
The 2014 APEC Summit, the 2015 military parade, and
Temporary The 2008 Olympic Games: Odd-even
the 2017 forum on the Belt and Road Iniave: Odd-
measurements restricons, ban on yellow-labelled vehicles,
even restricons, reducing use of government-owned
reducing use of government-owned vehicles
vehicles

1. Only implemented for public fleets; 2 for freight trucks and long-distance coaches; 3 remote sensing test; 4portable emission measurement system

Figure 6 Review of main emissions control measures for motor vehicles in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

 Implement the China 5 for light-duty passenger cars and the China V for public fleets
in February, 2013;
 Implement the China V for freight trucks and long-distance coaches in June, 2015.

 Scrappage of older New

vehicles with subsidies;  Enhanced I/M program;
vehicle
 Scrappage all yellow-  Restricve policies on use of
labeled vehicles before 2016.
control In-use motorcycles, heavy-duty trucks and
Economic yellow-labeled vehicles
vehicle
measures
Vehicle control

 Tightening the quota of new emission  Promote CNG buses;

light-duty passenger cars;
control Alternative
 Promote electric buses and
 Driving restricons by Traffic taxies.
stopping car driving one weekday fuel
measures vehicles
per week;
Better
 Driving restricons on light-
duty passenger cars of China 1/2 fuel
on weekday. quality

 Implement the China 5/V fuel quality standards in June, 2012;

 Implement the China 6/V fuel quality standards in January, 2017.

Figure 7 Vehicle-fuel-road integrated control system

Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

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 Executive Summary

Figure8 Actual mobile source emissions and emission reduction effects of control measures in Beijing,
1998–2017
Source: Tsinghua University

Intensive pollution control during 2013-2017

The “Beijing 2013-2017 Clean Air Action Plan” was Estimation of emission reductions by major control
the most comprehensive and systematic pollution measures found that coal-fired boilers control,
control program in Beijing. In 2017, Beijing’s annual clean fuels in residential sectors, and optimization
3
average PM2.5 concentration lowered to 58μg/m of the industrial structure were the top three
and decreased by 35.6% compared with 2013, effective measures (Fig9a). During 2013-2017, the
achieving the enhanced air quality goal which was emissions of SO2, NOx, VOCs and PM2.5 decreased
generally considered difficult at home and abroad. by 83%, 43%, 42% and 55% respectively (Fig9b).

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

SO2 NOx
Control of coal-fired boilers Vehicle emission control

Management of residential burning Control of coal-fired boilers

Optimization of industrial structure Improvement of end-of-pipe control

Improvement of end-of-pipe control Management of residential burning

Vehicle emission control Optimization of industrial structure

Control of VOCs Control of VOCs

Control of dust Control of dust

unit: kt unit: kt
VOCs PM2.5
Control of VOCs Management of residential burning

Vehicle emission control Control of dust

Management of residential burning Control of coal-fired boilers

Optimization of industrial structure Optimization of industrial structure

Control of coal-fired boilers Improvement of end-of-pipe control

Improvement of end-of-pipe control Vehicle emission control

Control of dust Control of VOCs

unit: kt unit: kt

(a) (b)
Figure 9 (a) Emission reductions and relative contributions of each control measure in Beijing during 2013-2017;
(b) Changes in anthropogenic emissions of SO2, NOx, VOCs and primary PM2.5 in Beijing during 2013-2017.
Source: Tsinghua University; J Cheng et al., ACPD, 2019

Coordination between Beijing and Its Surrounding Areas

Besides enhancing local air pollution control, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas
Beijing also actively sought to co-ordinate air as air pollution transportation channel. Through
pollution control measures with the surrounding collaborative planning, unified standards, joint
areas. At the end of 2013, Beijing was asked emergency response, and information sharing,
to lead the establishment of the Mechanism for the air quality of the whole region has significantly
Coordinated Prevention and Control of Air Pollution improved. As figure 11 shows, the annual average
in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas PM2.5 concentrations of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
with the support of China’s State Council. In 2017, and surrounding areas decreased by nearly 25%
the former Ministry of Environmental Protection during 2013-2017.
identified the 28 cities (as Fig10 shows) in the

12
 Executive Summary

Figure 6.5
Figure10 Distribution of the "2+26" cities (the red areas) in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

2013 2017

Figure11 Spatial distribution of annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and

Surrounding Areas (2013, 2017)
Source: Tsinghua University

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Experience, challenges and prospects

This substantial air quality improvement has willingness, clear goal, supportive legislation, plan
been made under the rapid social and economic and policies, implementation and enforcement
development in the capital city. Over the past 20 arrangement. Engaging the public in these
years, Beijing's gross domestic product (GDP) objectives will strengthen environmental protection
has maintained a growth rate over 6.5% each even further and increase social harmony.
year, increased by 10.8 times totally. In 2017, per
Even though great air quality improvement has
capita GDP has exceeded 20 thousand dollars.
been made, Beijing and the surroundings still face
Meanwhile, energy intensity and carbon dioxide
pressures and challenges in future air pollution
emission per unit GDP (kg CO2 per 10 thousand
control. In 2017, PM2.5 concentration in Beijing was
Yuan) has maintained downward tendency. Clean
66% higher than the National Ambient Air Quality
air actions contributed to the high quality social
Standard of China, and even more higher than
economic sustainable development. Environmental
the World Health Organization guideline (10μg/
sector, including service for monitoring, pollution
m3 for PM2.5). In addition, ozone (O3) pollution has
control, engineering consultancy keeps growing
not been effectively controlled in recent years.
along with the intensified pollution control
The continuous improvement of the atmospheric
campaign in China. Total output of Chinese
environment still needs unremitting and extra
environmental sector reached 1.35 trillion Yuan in
efforts in the future.
2017 with over 20% contributed by environmental
enterprises in Beijing (China Association of What’s next for future options: (1) Considering
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n I n d u s t r y, 2 0 1 8 ) . synergistic control of PM 2.5 and O3 pollution; (2)
Environmental industry is listed as priority sector Optimizing energy structure and energy efficiency
for development in Beijing, and is creating more simultaneously for a low-carbon development,
job opportunities. to meet both air quality and climate target in
future; (3) Working on vehicle emission control
While the complexity of air pollution in Beijing
and transportation structure optimization to build
is unique to its stage of development, the
a low-emission, high-efficiency transport system;
achievement may attributed to its governmental
(4) Strengthening the control of non-point source
structure in some extent, there are several
pollution; (5) Enhancing the coordination of Beijing-
commonalities. We have found that the keys to
Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas; (6) Integrate
local sustainable development are the strong
city level environmental goal with 2030 sustainable
development goals.

14
 CONTENTS

CONTENTS
1 Acknowledgements

2 Foreword

6 Executive Summary

17 Acronyms and Abbreviations

18 Chapter I Background

21 Chapter II Air Quality Improvement in Beijing in 20 Years

21 2.1 Ambient Air Quality Trends

23 2.2 PM2.5 Source Apportionment Results

25 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

25 3.1 Planning

25 (1) Plans of different range

26 (2) Tasks and measures

26 (3) Technical support

27 3.2 Local Laws and Standards

27 (1) Laws on air pollution control

27 (3) Local emission standards

28 (4) Law enforcement

29 3.3 Economic Policies

29 (1) Policies

31 (2) Financial input

31 3.4 Enhancement of Monitoring Capacity

33 3.5 Heavy Pollution Emergency Response System

34 3.6 Information Release and Public Participation

34 (1) Air quality forecast and air quality data release

35 (2) Environmental awareness and public participation

38 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures

in Beijing

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

38 4.1 Energy Structure Optimization and Coal Combustion Sources Control

39 (1) Ultra-low emission renovation and clean energy alternative in power plants

39 (2) Renovation of coal-fired boilers

40 (3) Clean energy alternative of civil bulk coal

40 4.2 Optimization of Transportation Structure and Control of Mobile Source Emissions

41 (1) Stricter emission standards

41 (2) Elimination and regional traffic restriction on old and polluting vehicles

42 (3) Other measures

43 4.3 Effects of Beijing's 20 Years’Air Pollution Control Measures

43 (1) Emission reduction by coal combustion source control measures

44 (2) Emission reduction by mobile source emissions control measures

46 4.4 Air Pollution Control in Other Fields

46 (1) Industrial restructuring and industrial pollution control

46 (2) Dust pollution control

48 Chapter V Coordinated Air Pollution Control in Beijing and its Surrounding Areas

48 5.1 Mechanism for Joint Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
and Surrounding Areas

48 (1) Coordination agency

49 (2) Unified planning and policy

49 (3) Cooperation mechanism

49 5.2 Changes of Air Pollutants Emissions in Beijing and Its Surrounding Areas

53 Chapter VI Assessment of Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017

53 6.1 Effects of Major Measures on Emissions Reduction

55 6.2 Air Quality Improvements by Major Measures

56 6.3 Impacts of Meteorological Conditions

57 6.4 Summary

58 Chapter VII Experience and Outlook

58 7.1 Beijing Experience and Lessons

59 7.2 Reflections and Prospects for the Next Step

62 References

16
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AQI Ambient Air Quality Index

BCM billion cubic metres
BEE Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau
BRT Bus Rapid Transit
CNG compressed natural gas
CO carbon monoxide
DPF diesel particle filter
ESP electrostatic precipitator
FGD flue gas desulphurization
GDP gross domestic product
HDDV heavy-duty diesel vehicle
LNG liquefied natural gas
MEIC Multi-resolution Emission Inventory for China
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
NOx nitrogen oxides
O3 ozone
PEMS portable emissions measurement system
PM2.5 particle matter with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5μm or less
PM10 particle matter with aerodynamic diameter of 10μm or less
QA/QC quality assurance and quality control
SCR selective catalytic reduction
SNCR selective non-catalyst reduction
SO2 sulfur dioxide
tce tonnes of coal equivalent
THC total hydrocarbons
TSP total suspended particulate matter
UN Environment United Nations Environment Programme
VOCs volatile organic compounds
WHO World Health Organization

17
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND

Beijing, the capital of China, is a fast-growing reached 71.0 million tons of coal equivalent (tce)
megacity covering an area of 16,400 square (Figure 1.1). Relative to 1998 levels, growth of
2
kilometers (km ). At the end of 2017, the permanent these indexes were 1078%, 74%, 335%, and
resident population reached 21.7 million and Gross 86% respectively. These indicators reflect rapid
Domestic Product (GDP) per capita surpassed economic growth accompanied by significant
20,000 US dollars; registered vehicle ownership pressures on environmental governance in the
was 5.99 million and annual energy consumption capital city of the largest developing country.

Figure 1.1 Socio-economic development of Beijing in 20 years (1998–2017)

Source: Beijing Municipal Statistics Bureau

18
 Chapter I Background

Similar with other large cities in industrialized The second stage was from 2009-2012, the post-
countries, for instance, London, Los Angeles and Olympic period and a transitional period. End-of-
Tokyo, Beijing experienced the rapid emergence pipe air pollution control measures were gradually
of air pollution. Environmental protection started in replaced by integrated measures related to
the late 1970s in China and Beijing. At local level, structural adjustment. The increased pollution from
end-of-pipe pollution control measures (mainly on continued growth of the economy and population
industrial sources) were implemented following was offset by pollution reductions from these
government regulations until the late 1990s. control measures. Air quality continued to be
improved.
By the late 1990s, the ambient concentrations of
pollutants including sulfur dioxide (SO2) and total The distinct characteristics of these 2 stages were:
suspended particles (TSP) in Beijing seriously 1) targeting at primary pollutants (SO2, NO2, PM10,
exceeded Chinese national air quality standards. and CO; 2) government playing the main role and
Against the background of "China Speed" (rapid taking primary responsibility in the air pollution
economic and social development), air quality campaign; 3) Beijing stood alone at the early
continuously deteriorated. In response, in 1998 stages, and began regional cooperation during
the Beijing Municipal Government published the 2008 Olympic Games period. The 2008 Beijing
Announcement of Urgent Measures to Control Olympic Games proved to be a successful test for
Air Pollution of People's Government of Beijing regional cooperation on air pollution control.
Municipality, which was the first local government
The third stage was from 2013-2017. Secondary
declaration in China on air pollution control. This
pollutants, primarily PM2.5, became the main focus
document announced Beijing’s war against air
for control, and a regional coordination mechanism
pollution. Twenty years old now, this “war” can
was developed. During the autumn and winter of
roughly be divided into three stages for a review.
2012, heavy PM2.5 pollution episodes frequently
The first stage was from 1998 to 2008. In 1998, occurred in Beijing and the surrounding region.
Beijing launched the first local government air These episodes aroused serious concerns among
pollution control program in China. Hundreds of the media and public about the health impacts.
concrete measures were implemented targeting The Chinese central government took immediate
at key pollution sources of particulate matter (PM) actions to address the challenge. The Chinese
and soot, namely coal consumption, industrial national Ambient Air Quality Standard was revised,
emissions, motor vehicle emissions, and dust. the threshold of PM2.5 was added, and the limits
W ith these measures, the annual average for other pollutants were tightened. In the middle
concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen of 2013, Beijing unveiled the Beijing Clean Air
dioxide (NO2), inhalable particular matter (PM10) Action Plan 2013–2017 in accordance with the
and carbon monoxide (CO) were significantly requirements of the national Action Plan for Air
th
reduced. The 29 Summer Olympic Games held Pollution Prevention and Control. The Beijing
in Beijing in 2008 was a catalyst for Beijing’s action plan focused on controlling PM2.5 pollution
air pollution control, which accelerated the to protect public health, In this five year period,
implementation of more intense measures, and aiming at PM2.5 pollution control, comprehensive
marked the conclusion of the first stage. measures of legal, economic, technical, and

19
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

administrative were implemented, focusing on coal annual PM2.5 concentration was reduced by 35.6%
consumption reduction, vehicle emission control, in the 5 years since monitoring of PM2.5 began
industrial emission control and fugitive dust (former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection
mitigation. Bureau, 1998-2018).

By the end of 2017, the annual average PM 2.5 Taking advantage of the fruitful, long-term
3
concentration in Beijing decreased to 58µg/m from cooperation between United Nations Environment
3
89.5µg/m in 2013, and the frequency and level (UN Environment) and China as well as Beijing, UN
of heavy pollution episodes declined drastically. Environment produced independent environmental
Similar air quality improvements also occurred in evaluations for the Beijing 2008 Green Olympics
the surrounding region. and for air pollution control in the period 1998-
2013. These two reports, well appreciated
During this 20-years air pollution control
worldwide, provide a good basis upon which to
process, Beijing established a comprehensive
evaluate the past 20 years of air pollution control
air quality management system that suits its own
progress in Beijing. An updated quantitative
circumstances. In the context of unprecedented
assessment of air pollution control measures
socio-economic development over nearly two
can give fresh examples for emerging cities
decades, a continuous air pollution control
suffering from serious air pollution, in China and
campaign was successfully implemented, including
beyond. With this in mind, UN Environment invited
energy structure optimization, vehicle emission
international experts, along with an expert team
controls, industrial structure upgrading, city
from Tsinghua University, to undertake an updated
management enhancement, ecological restoration,
quantitative assessment.
and raising public environmental awareness.
In these 20 years, Beijing achieved continuous This report reviews the air quality management
improvements of air quality. Annual average system set up in Beijing, conducts quantitative
concentrations of SO2, NO2, and PM10 decreased assessments of the pollution reduction effects in
by 93.3%, 37.8%, and 55.3% respectively, and, with selected areas, and analyzes the new challenges
SO2 and CO concentrations stably in compliance Beijing faces, and provides recommendations for
with current national standards. In addition, the further improvement of air quality.

20
CHAPTER II
AIR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
IN BEIJING IN 20 YEARS

2.1 Ambient Air Quality Trends To address the issue of severe air pollution,
the Beijing Municipal Government issued the
Beijing's annual coal consumption hit 28 million tons
Announcement of Urgent Measures to Control
(equivalent to nearly 40 million tce) in 1998 with the
Air Pollution of People's Government of Beijing
coal-dominated energy structure causing severe
Municipality in 1998, launching the intensified efforts
smoke pollution. At the same time, the vehicle fleet
on air pollution control in the city. Monitoring data
size began to increase dramatically in the 1990s
shows that annual average concentrations of major
while the technologies for vehicle emissions control
air pollutants in Beijing maintained a decreasing
in China were equivalent to the 1970s level of those
trend (Figure 2.1). Except for some fluctuations
in the developed countries in Western Europe and
during 2005-2007, concentrations of SO 2, CO,
North America. As a result, air pollution caused
and NO 2 declined linearly over the 20 years.
by vehicle emissions emerged as a distinct and
Concentrations of CO has constantly met the
growing challenge. As shown in Figure 2.1, in
national standards; SO2 met national ambient air
1998, the annual average ambient concentrations
quality standards in 2004 and declined even further
of CO, SO2 and NO2 in Beijing climbed to 3.3 mg/
since then. The levels of CO and SO2 were further
m3, 120μg/m3 and 74μg/m3 respectively, and the
reduced to 1.0 mg/m3 and 8μg/m3 respectively in
concentrations of total suspended particles (TSP) in
2017, well below the national air quality standards.
the heating and non-heating seasons were as high
Concentration of PM2.5 continued to decline since
as 431μg/m3 and 348μg/m3 respectively.
monitoring began in 2013.

21

Summer Palace under blue sky (Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

μg/m3 mg/m3
250 6
PM₂.₅(le) PM₁₀(le)
SO₂(le) NO₂(le)
O₃-8h-90per(le) CO(right) 5
200

4
150

100
2

50
1

0 0
19981999200020012002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017

Figure 2.1 Changes in annual average concentrations of major air pollutants in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

During the five years from 2013 to 2017, air major pollutant concentrations (Figure 2.2). From
quality improved at a faster pace in Beijing, with 2013 to 2017, the ambient concentrations of SO2,
an increase in good air quality days, decrease in CO, NO 2, PM 2.5 and PM 10 fell by 70.4%, 38.2%,
heavy pollution episodes, and drastic reduction of 17.9%, 35.6% and 22.2% respectively.

140
Concentraon˄ŦMS˅ 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
SO₂ PM₂.₅ PM₁₀ NO₂
1
Decreasing Percentage comparing with Year 2013
0.8 70%
0.6

0.4 36%
22% 18%
0.2

0
SO₂ PM₂.₅ PM₁₀ NO₂

Figure 2.2 Annual average concentrations of air pollutants and percentages of decline in Beijing, 2013–2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

22
 Chapter II Air Quality Improvement in Beijing in 20 Years

2.2 PM2.5 Source Apportionment PM 2.5 pollution in Beijing, while local emissions
Results contributed 64% to 72%. Of the local emissions,
motor vehicles, coal combustion, industrial
After new national air quality standards came into
production and fugitive dust accounted for 31%,
force in 2012, Beijing launched a systematic study
22%, 18% and 15% respectively, and emissions
on PM 2.5 source apportionment to support the
related to restaurants, automobile repair, livestock
control of PM2.5 pollution, and released the initial
and poultry breeding and construction painting (the
results in 2014. These results showed that regional
“Miscellaneous” category) took up 14% (figure 2.3).
transport contributed about 28% to 36% of the

Regional
Miscellaneous
transport Motor vehicle
14%
28%-36% Local emissions 31%

64%-72%
Construction dust
15%

Coal consumption
Industrial production 22%
18%

Figure 2.3 PM2.5 source apportionment results for Beijing, 2013

Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

I n 2 0 1 7 , a n e w r o u n d o f P M 2.5 s o u r c e as much as 55% to 75% to Beijing's air pollution

apportionment was carried out based on updated on heavily polluted days (with daily average PM2.5
monitoring data, research findings and technical concentration>150μg/m3) (Figure 2.5).
methods. According to the results
published in May 2018, local emissions
constituted two-thirds (58%-74%) of
Beijing's annual PM 2.5 concentrations
in 2017. Among these local sources,
mobile emissions, fugitive dust, industrial
sources, residential non-point sources
and coal combustion contributed 45%,
16%, 12%, 12% and 3% respectively,
and agriculture and other natural
sources made up about 12% (Figure
2.4). Regional transport was responsible
for about one-third (26% to 42%).
The contribution of regional transport
showed a clear upward trend with Figure 2.4 Local sources of ambient PM2.5 in Beijing, 2017
pollution intensification and contributed Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

23
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

25%

45% 2017
Heavy pollution
days 55%

75%
Regional transport

Local contribution

Figure 2.5 Local and regional contribution to PM2.5 on heavily polluted days in Beijing, 2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

These two source apportionment results showed petrochemical, automobile and printing industries
significant changes in the contribution of local took a dominant position among industrial sources;
emissions to PM2.5 pollution in Beijing from 2013 solvents accounted for 40% of residential non-point
to 2017. First, the contribution of each major sources.
source, noticeably coal combustion, to the PM2.5
Despite the significant improvement in air quality,
concentrations in absolute terms clearly reduced.
Beijing still fails to meet the national standards
Second, the contribution of mobile sources and
for multiple major pollutants: PM2.5 exceeds the
fugitive dust sources rose, while those of coal
national standard by 66%, and NO 2 and PM 10
combustion and industrial sources decreased,
concentrations still do not meet national standards.
and the contribution of residential non-point
Beijing continues to suffer heavy pollution
sources became further highlighted. In addition,
episodes in autumn and winter. In addition, ozone
on-road diesel vehicles formed the largest part
(O 3) pollution during summertime has become
of mobile sources; construction dust and road
a concern in recent years. Air pollution control in
dust were equally important among fugitive dust
Beijing remains a long-term arduous task.
sources; volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from

New looks of the Beijing Capital Steel

Group Shougang Shijingshan Plant after shutdown and relocation in 2008
(Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

24
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF BEIJING'S AIR
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

3.1 Air Pollution Control Plans average concentration of around 60μg/m 3 . To

meet the requirement, the Beijing Clean Air Action
(1) Plans of different range
Plan 2013–2017 was released, and under this
In China, five-year plans for social and economic framework annual work plans were developed for
development have been implemented (every 5 each of the ensuing 5 years.
years) since the 1950s. Environmental protection
In 2015, the Chinese government issued the Plan
became a part of these plans in the1990s
for Coordinated Development of Beijing-Tianjin-
and air pollution control has been the focus in
Hebei Region. To make sure the region’s 5-year
environmental protection section. Accordingly, over
clean air target could be achieved, several new
the past 20 years, air pollution control has been
plans were developed to reinforce this regional
a part of Beijing’s Five-Year Plan for Environmental
coordination strategy and respond to the mid-
Protection during the recent four five-year plan
term assessment conducted by the former Ministry
periods (from 2000-2020).
of Environmental Protection. For Beijing, the
By the end of 2012, Beijing had implemented enhanced measures included the Beijing Plan
18 phases of the air pollution control programs for Implementing the Strengthened Measures for
based on the requirements of the five-year plan Air Pollution Prevention and Control in the Beijing-
for environmental protection, including two phases Tianjin-Hebei Region 2016–2017, and the Beijing
for some years (heating season and non-heating Detailed Plan for Implementing the Action Plan for
season) during 1998-2010 and one phase per year Comprehensive Prevention and Control of Autumn
during 2011-2012. and Winter Air Pollution in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and
The Action Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Surrounding Areas 2017–2018. The process of
Control, released by the State Council in 2013, Beijing's air pollution control planning from 1998 to
required Beijing to reduce the annual average 2017 is illustrated in Figure 3.1.
concentration of ambient PM 2.5 by 25% in 2017
from the 2012 level and achieve an annual

25
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

protection plan
Environmental

10th Five- 11th Five- 12th Five- 13th Five-

Year Plan Year Plan Year Plan Year Plan
for for for for
Environment Environment Environment Environment
al Protection al Protection al Protection al Protection

Beijing Detailed
Air Beijing Beijing Plan for
Clean air action

Plan for
Implementing
Pollution Clean Air the
Implementing the
Action Plan for
Control Action Plan strengthened Comprehensive
plan

Measures 2013-2017 Measures for Prevention and

Beijing-Tianjin- Control of
2011-2015 Hebei Air Autumn and
Pollution Winter Air
Prevention and Pollution in the
Beijing-Tianjin-
Control 2016-
Hebei Region and
2017 Surrounding
Areas 2017–2018

16 phases of control measures 7 annual measures

measures
Phased

1998 2001 2006 2008 2010 2011 2013 2016 2017

Figure 3.1 Process of Beijing's air pollution control planning, 1998–2017

Source: Beijing Municipal Research Institute of Environmental industrial sources, measures included end-of-
Protection
pipe retrofitting , more stringent local emission
(2) Tasks and measures
standards, and optimizing the industrial structure.
In general, Beijing’s major air pollution sources To control fugitive dust, dust control technologies,
include the four categories which are similar with process, and management rules were promoted
many other large cities: coal combustion, vehicle to reduce dust from construction sites, roads,
emissions, industrial emissions, and fugitive dust. and bare land. In recent years, VOCs related to
Over the past 20 years, hundreds of concrete residential life, such as restaurant and auto repair,
measures were implemented, with the approaches have also been included in air pollution control.
shifting gradually from end-of-pipe single pollutant
(3) Scientific support
control to integrated control of multiple pollutants.
To control pollution from coal combustion, the Scientific research on air pollution and relevant
measures shifted from using low sulfur coal and innovative technologies have provided critical
retrofitting coal boilers with desulfurization control support to the development and implementation
to converting from using coal to using natural of air pollution control measures. Beijing has
gas, electricity, and other clean and high quality conducted systematic scientific research and
energy alternatives. For mobile sources, Beijing technology development by relying on Beijing-
started with tightening of emission standards and based research institutions and universities
fuel quality standards, scrapping old polluting and its own environmental technical teams. The
vehicles, and developing a comprehensive public work mainly covers research on atmospheric
transportation system, which formed an integrated science; pollutant generation mechanisms; air
“Vehicle-Fuel-Road” framework. Later, Beijing quality monitoring, forecasting, and early warning
began promoting new energy vehicles (NEVs) and technologies; emission inventory development,
the focus on vehicle pollution control gradually and PM 2.5 source apportionment; research on
changed from gasoline vehicles emissions to strategies and technologies for PM and O3 pollution
heavy-duty diesel vehicle emissions. In terms of control; new technologies for pollution control; and

26
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

decision support systems. to process-wide control; from setting concentration

limits to controlling both the concentration and total
3.2 Local Regulations and Emission emission amount; and from government control
Standards to social governance, with equal emphasis put on
(1) Local regulations on air pollution corporate governance, sectoral governance, and
prevention and control regional coordination.

Beijing follows national environmental laws on (2) Local emission standards

air pollution control, mainly The Law of People’s According to related Chinese laws, local
Government of China on Environmental Protection government can publish local environmental
(Enacted in 1979, revised in 2014), and The Law standards that are more stringent than national
of People’s Government of China on Air Pollution ones. Beijing started to build its local emission
Control (enacted in 1987, revised in 2015). To deal standards system from 2000 to support its
with the serious air pollution, Beijing formulated intensified air pollution control campaign.
a local law Ordinances of Beijing Municipality for As of 2017, there were 42 prevailing local air
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in 2014 pollution control standards, covering combustion
based on the lessons and experience accumulated sources, mobile sources, industrial sources, and
over the previous 15 years. This local regulation commercial products. A leading local system of the
was the first of its kind targeting on PM2.5 pollution most stringent standards for air pollutant emissions
control in China and to implement comprehensive has taken shape and played an important role
treatment and integrated control of a wide-range of in accelerating a clean energy mix, tightening
PM2.5 sources. This local law also embodied a shift pollution controls, transforming and upgrading the
in air pollution control, from end-of-pipe treatment

Standards for Air Pollutants Emission of Boilers

To control emissions from coal-fired boilers, Beijing developed its first Standards for Air Pollutants
Emission of Boilers (DB11/139-1998) in 1998, and revised the standards in 2002, 2007, and 2015.
The revisions in 2002 and 2007 were mainly to tighten emission limits for SO 2 and particulate
matter, and push end-of-pipe treatment for coal-fired boilers and conversion from coal to gas. The
Standards for Air Pollutants Emission of Boilers (DB11/139-2015) tighten the concentrations of NOx
emissions from gas-fired boilers newly installed and in use to 30 mg/m3 and 80 mg/m3 respectively.
In order to promote the implementation of standards, Beijing, among the first in the country, initiated
the low-NOx renovation of gas-fired boilers in 2016 mainly by using low NOx burners (LNB) or directly
install low-NOx gas-fired boilers. In order to encourage boiler owners to make the renovation, Beijing
introduced an incentive and subsidy policy in 2016, which allows performing boiler owners to obtain
subsidies up to two-thirds of the total investment from municipal and district level governments. The
new boiler standards and supporting financial incentives have effectively reduced NOx emissions
from gas-fired boilers, the emissions per boiler have been more than halved. Throughout the city,
a total of 23,800 MW of gas-fired boilers have been transformed, cutting nearly 5,000 tons of NOx
emissions per year.

27
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

industrial structure, and promoting lower emissions sources mainly includes random emission testing
of motor vehicle models. for new vehicles, regular emission testing for in-use
vehicles, road testing, and inspections. For off-road
(3) Law enforcement
machinery, on-site testing and specific inspections
In Beijing, there are two levels of environmental are performed.
law enforcement, municipal level and district level,
In 2017, an environmental police team was
with each level having differing responsibilities for
created under the Beijing Municipal Bureau of
cooperation in relation to the other. Enforcement of
Public Security. Through joint law enforcement
laws and regulations on stationary sources includes
liaison, environmental protection departments can
daily supervision, specific inspection, automatic
transfer cases of suspected environmental crimes
online monitoring supervision, and hotspot grid
to public security departments according to law,
supervision. A detailed emission inventory for each
which has greatly enhanced the deterrent power of
source has been established, and random on-
environmental law enforcement.
site investigations and supervision are conducted
on a regular basis. The enforcement on mobile

Typical Case of Joint Law Enforcement by Environmental Police

Since the formation of the first environmental protection police team in January 2017, environmental
protection and public security departments in Beijing have strengthened collaboration and
joint actions and launched a year-long Special Law Enforcement Operation to Crack Down
Environmental Crimes. As of the end of 2017, a total of 135 cases of administrative detentions and
44 cases of suspected environmental crimes were investigated by the environmental police team.
Below is a typical case of crime involving illegal emissions handled by the environmental protection
police.

In April 2017, the Environmental Protection Bureau of Tongzhou District found in a law enforcement
inspection that a printing company emitted waste gas without treatment. The company continued
production in order to meet its production deadline while the two sets of exhaust gas purification
facilities were under maintenance and not in operation. According to the Law of the People's
Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Air Pollution, the Environmental Protection Bureau of
Tongzhou District ordered the company to correct the illegal activities within a given time, imposed
a fine, and transferred the case to the environmental police team. The police team imposed
the penalty of administrative detention on relevant responsible persons according to the law, in
accordance with "stopping the operation of pollutant treatment facilities in the course of production
or operation" in Article 7 of the Interim Measures for the Transfer by Administrative Departments of
Cases of Environmental Violations that Administrative Detention May Be Applied.

28
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

3.3 Economic Policies retrofitting heavy-duty diesel vehicles, and buying

new energy vehicles. During 2008-2014, subsidies
(1) Policies
were granted for the retrofitting of heavy-duty
For the effective implementation of air pollution diesel vehicles, equivalent to half (no more than
control plans, Beijing has gradually built a system 15,000 Yuan) of the total retrofitting costs. During
of local environmental economic incentive 2014-2017, individual purchasing of new energy
policies, which provide financial support to vehicles in Beijing were granted subsidies of up to
implement pollution control measures covering 60% for the purchase price of electric passenger
coal combustion sources, industrial sources, cars.
mobile sources, and fugitive dust sources through
In terms of industrial pollution prevention and
subsidies, fees, incentives, and pricing.
control, incentives or subsidies were granted for
Among the economic measures for the control high-polluting enterprises that choose to close their
of coal combustion pollution, funding is used to production or to implement extensive exhaust gas
subsidize clean energy renovation of coal-fired treatment in their production processes. For those
boilers1, coal-to-electricity heating renovation2 for who chose to remain in production, differentiated
urban bungalows, and rural transformation of bulk fees are charged according to the concentration
coal. For example, urban households can receive of waste gas emissions. For example, beginning
subsidies for coal-to-electricity heating renovation in 2008, subsidies up to a maximum of 3 million
equivalent to two-thirds of the equipment Yuan were granted for the closing of high-polluting,
acquisition costs and are eligible for a maximum energy-intensive and water-intensive enterprises
discount of 78% of the heating electricity tariff. and the upgrading of production processes and
Financial subsidies or incentives are also equipment.
provided to vehicle owners who scrap old cars,

Economic Policy for Rural Clean Energy Alternatives

In order to promote the control of bulk coal use in rural areas, from 2014 onwards Beijing introduced
a number of targeted policies to promote clean energy alternatives. These policies were based on
the practice of coal-to-electricity transformation in the urban area. From 2017, a financial subsidy
policy system has been in place for main users of bulk coal, such as residential homes, public
buildings, agriculture facilities, and livestock and poultry houses. The policy system covers, coal-
to-electricity transformation, coal-to-gas transformation, thermal solar utilization, and farmhouse
renovation for earthquake-resistance, energy efficiency and thermal insulation. The scope of subsidy
covers the whole process from construction of the external pipe (electrical) networks, purchase of
clean heating systems, and daily use.

1
Conversion of coal-fired boiler to gas-fired boiler or electric boiler.
2
Conversion of small coal-fired stove to electric heater.

29
 A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

To change to gas-fired boilers for heating, a household with a heating area of 120m2 and a heating
period of 120 days is eligible for a subsidy of two-thirds of the boiler purchase cost (average
subsidy per household is 8,000 Yuan) and the lowest natural gas sales price (first ladder) of 2.28
Yuan/m3. If the purchase cost of gas-fired boilers is not taken into account, the annual heating costs
after the coal-to-gas conversion are reduced by about 30%.

Driven by the above-mentioned economic policies, the removal of bulk coal use in rural areas of
Beijing has progressed smoothly. From 2013 to 2017, bulk coal was removed from about 900,000
households in more than 2,000 villages, and transformation was completed in 1,514 village
committees and public venues for villagers' activities and 946,000 m2 of agricultural facilities. It is
estimated that annual bulk coal consumption during the heating season is reduced by about two
million tons.

Subsidies for environmental-friendly Governance of

technological transformation industrial
Subsidies for the closing of enterprises
high-polluting, energy-intensive Subsidies for the closing of
and water-intensive enterprises polluting enterprises

Subsidies for purchase of electric

Promotion of
Subsidies for electric Subsidies for individual Adjustment of subsidies
vehicles for taxi or postal services; passenger vehicles, purchase of electric for individual purchase electric
battery leasing and charging industry-purpose passenger vehicles and of electric passenger vehicles
subsidies for electric buses and vehicles and fuel-cell fuel-cell vehicles vehicles
sanitation vehicles vehicles

Transformation
of vehicles
Construction waste transportation
Subsidy for loan interest for buying vehicle reconstruction assistance
new clean trucks

Elimination of
old and used
Subsidies for phasing out old Subsidies for early retirement Subsidies for early retirement or transfer vehicles
Increase of subsidies for
and used buses and taxies or transfer of vehicles of vehicles, Increase of subsidies for early retirement of vehicles
early retirement of vehicles

Promotion of
Heat pump
new energy
Solar collector
subsidies construction
subsidies

Control of
Low electricity tariffs and
bulk coal
subsidies for demonstration Extension of the Subsidies for resident Subsidies for resident Ladder prices for
areas of coal-to-electricity subsidies to core area purchase of electric purchase of gas-fired rural coal-to-gas
transformation heating equipment wall hung boilers transformation

Boiler
Extension of the Subsidies for renovation
Subsidies for urban coal- Increase of subsidies for Subsidies for
subsidies to city-wide Expansion of subsidies to low-nitrogen
fired boiler renovation suburban coal-fired boiler fuel-fired boiler
boiler renovation coal-fired boilers over 14MV combustion
renovation renovation

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 /Year

Figure 3.2 Major Economic Policies for Air Pollution Control in Beijing
Source: Beijing Municipal Research Institute of Environmental Protection

30
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

(2) Financial investment nearly ten times in eight years (Figure 3.3). These
government funds are mainly used as subsidies
Beijing has scaled up its financial funding on air
for renovation of coal-fired boilers, clean energy
pollution control and stimulated environmental
alternatives for bulk coal, elimination of old and
protection investment, laying a solid foundation
polluting vehicles, closing of old and polluting
for the implementation of control measures
enterprises, and construction of green buildings
and improvement of air quality. The funding
and ecological demonstration zones.
stood at 1.7 billion Yuan in 2009, and climbed
to 18.22 billion Yuan in 2017, an increase of

Financial Investment in Air Pollution Control, Billion Yuan

20

16

12

0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Figure 3.3 Beijing municipal funding for air pollution control in recent years
Source: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Finance

3.4 Enhancement of monitoring matter. In 2012, the monitoring network was further
capacity expanded to integrate PM 2.5 and O 3 monitoring
capacity. At present, the 35 automatic monitoring
In the early 1980s, Beijing built China's first
stations (Figure 3.4) cover Beijing's entire territory
automatic monitoring system for ambient air
and include urban stations, background stations,
quality, which consisted of eight monitoring
traffic stations and pollution trans boundary
stations. This system was used to monitor Beijing's
stations. The monitoring data collected using
ambient air quality and its long-term trends,
national standard methods are released to the
covering such pollutants as SO2, CO, NO2 and TSP.
public, including six pollutants, namely PM 2.5,
In 1999, with the growing importance, PM 10 was
PM10, SO2, CO, NO2, and O3.
included in the monitoring as inhalable particulate

31
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Figure 3.4 Beijing's existing automatic air quality monitoring network

Source: Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center

In 2016, monitoring methods were upgraded and quality sensors, and designed a new model of
combined with new technologies, such as new network operation and quality control. With this
generation satellite remote sensing with high technology, Beijing deployed over 1000 PM 2.5
spatial and temporal resolution, laser radar vertical monitoring sensor stations, and built a low-cost,
network, and high-precision meteorological high-density grid monitoring system. The system
observation. These new technologies enabled an can accurately identify the areas and time periods
"air-land” integrated air quality monitoring network with high PM 2.5 emissions and provide support
with greater analytical capacity. In the meantime, for evaluating the air quality of 325 towns in the
relying on big data technology, Beijing conducted capital city.
independent research and developed smart air

32
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

Figure 3.5 Beijing's high-density sensor-based PM2.5 monitoring network built in 2017
Source: Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center

3.5 Heavy Pollution Emergency measures, emergency response, and organizational

Response System guarantees.

In response to frequent heavy air pollution in Beijing relies on the air quality monitoring
autumn and winter, Beijing released the Beijing network for timely forecast of air quality. In case
Emergency Plan for Extreme Air Pollution (Interim) of forecasted heavy pollution, early warnings are
in 2012, the first of its kind in China. The early issued at least 24 hours in advance by releasing
warning mechanism was improved over four pollution warning notices and health risk warnings
revisions of the plan, with alert levels and through the media. Traditional media like radio, TV,
thresholds for initiating actions becoming more and newspaper, and new media including Weibo,
scientific. In addition, emergency emission control WeChat, and mobile APPs, are all covered to make
measures were taken during early warning periods, sure the message can be conveyed to different
which effectively reduced the level of pollution groups. This not only helps the public to strengthen
under adverse weather conditions. The Beijing their own health protection, but also enables the
Emergency Plan for Extreme Air Pollution (Revised implementation of emergency pollution control
in 2017) encompasses alert levels, emergency measures.

33
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Typical Case of Emergency Response to Heavy Air Pollution

It was forecasted that Beijing and the surrounding region would encounter a long period of heavy
air pollution during December 16-22, 2016. In response, with the approval of Beijing Municipal
Government, Beijing Municipal Headquarters for Heavy Air Pollution Emergency Response issued
an early warning notice (a red alert) at 12:00 of Dec.15, 32 hours in advance of the beginning of
the red alert. The notice announced that the red alert measures will be taken from 20:00 Dec. 16
to 24:00 of Dec. 21, including restrictions and controls on motor vehicles, suspended or restricted
production of coal-fired facilities and industrial enterprises, construction work suspension,
increased road cleaning, staggered production . Meanwhile, extra buses and subway trains were
added, kindergarten and primary school classes were suspended, and flexible school hours
adopted at secondary schools, and the relevant departments stepped up inspection on compliance
with emergency measures within their scope of responsibility. The red alert was relieved when the
pollution episode ended. During the same period, 22 cities around Beijing also launched red alert
emission reduction measures.

Assessment of the actions taken show that the SO2, NOx, PM2.5, and VOCs emissions during the
red alert period were cut by 30% on average due to the emergency measures, especially motor
vehicle restriction and control. According to the results of air quality simulation under two scenarios
(with and without red alert measures), the implementation of red alert measures in Beijing and its
surrounding areas reduced Beijing's daily average PM2.5 concentration by an average of 23% and
realized the expected effects in reducing the pollution peak.

3.6 Information release and public NO2, and PM10. Air quality forecasting became an
participation important task during the preparations for the 2008
Beijing Olympic Games. Taking this opportunity,
(1) Air quality data and forecast release
Beijing significantly expanded the air quality
Since1998, Beijing began to publish weekly air monitoring network and enhanced its monitoring,
quality reports and gradually improved the quality data utilization and analysis capacity. The technical
and frequency of air quality monitoring data system developed for air quality forecasting
released to the public as the air quality monitoring consists of three components: a statistical forecast
network improved. In 2001, Beijing started to model, a numerical forecast model, and expert
publish daily air quality reports and forecasts, diagnosis and correction, as shown in Figure 3.6.
which predicted the pollution index ranges and
pollution levels of three major pollutants, i.e. SO2,

34
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

TV
Weather Condition
and Forecast Map
Pollution Trend Broadcast

Forecast Information Release

Trend Forecast
Analysis Output

Forecast Result
Website

Consultation
Meteo-Numerical

Internal
Statistical Statistical
Forecast Result Newspaper
Forecast Forecast
Models Output
Cellphone
APP
Assembly
Numerical
Pollution Weibo
Forecast
Air Quality Dispersion
Output
Models Meteorological WeChat
Monitoring Data
Department

Figure 3.6 Technical and operation framework of ambient air quality forecasting in Beijing
Source: Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center

Since 2013, Beijing has made public air such as the Beijing Environmental Culture
quality-related information, including real-time Week and the Beijing Green Communication
concentrations of six major pollutants, i.e. SO2, Conference; and 38 environmental education
NO 2, PM 10, CO, PM 2.5 and O 3, at 35 automatic bases were opened to the public. A variety of
monitoring sites, and evaluation results, health tips, forms have been used to report environmental
and air quality forecasts. The information disclosure activity updates, interpret environmental policies,
platforms include new media such as websites, popularize environmental knowledge, disseminate
Weibo, WeChat, and mobile apps, in addition to green ideas, and significantly improve public
traditional media such as television and radio. environmental awareness. Among these forms are
news coverage, popular science books, special
(2) Environmental awareness and public
television programs, environmental animations,
participation
and environmental dramas.
Realizing the importance of public participation
Different activities and campaigns to enhance
in environmental protection, Beijing has gradually
public participation in environmental protection
enhanced its environmental promotion and
were developed for specific target groups. For
education agencies. They worked to set up all-
teenagers, a series of environmental protection
media communications platforms that feature
events were carried out, such as "I Love
interactions of traditional and new media,
Mother Earth" Primary and Secondary School
including newspaper, radio, television, internet,
Students Speech Competition, Beijing Children's
Weibo, and WeChat; foster online and off-
Environmental Protection Art Festival, and so on. For
line brand activities with public participation,

35
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

photographers and animation enthusiasts, "Hand were organized. Beijing began to appoint Beijing
in Hand with Blue Sky, You and Me" Environmental Public Environmental Ambassadors since 2013. 10
Photography Contest, and the Environmental Theme ambassadors have been appointed up to now, with
Animation Design Contest were launched. For those 5 female ambassadors and 5 male ambassadors,
who have cars, a series of Green Driving thematic they act as model for the public on living in an
activities were launched. For community residents, environmental way.
promotion activities of environmental knowledge

Women’s volunteer team in Shunyi District publicizes air pollution control

A women's volunteer team in Shunyi District consisting of more than 8,000 volunteers is dedicated
to providing services such as environmental promotion and home visits. In recent years, focusing
on Air Pollution Control, Conversion of coal-fired heating to electricity or natural gas in rural areas
and other work, the women’s volunteer team encourages and supports women in villages and
communities to participate in the community and village level environmental activities through
multiple modes, which has received positive results.

Publicity of policies: In order to publicize the concept of green life, environmental knowledge
and policies are provided for residents by means of information columns and electronic screens.
The volunteers visit residents to explain the advantages of conversion from coal heating to
electricity or gas in rural areas and other policies for women residents to help them understand the
policies in detail and participate in rural bulk coal use replacement.

Volunteers pilot actions: Women volunteers regularly carry out environmental cleaning
activities in the community/village where they live to encourage the residents to form the habit of
environmental protection, and they also carry out the activities like "Turning waste into treasure",
which greatly improved the community environment and won the praise of residents.

Regular inspection to find and solve problem: Women volunteers organize regular
environmental inspection in community and village. If they find facilities or behaviors that damage
or pollute the environment, they persuade and educate people to correct timely. The women
volunteers’ action helps to make the environment cleaner and tidier, and a healthy and harmonious
community/village.

Summer Palace in winter (Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

36
 Chapter III Development of Beijing's Air Quality Management System

Figure 3.7 Beijing Public Environmental Ambassadors (2013-2017)

Nie Yijing, Guo Chuan, Cai Xianglin, Li Li, Stephon Marbury,
Hai Qing, Li Chen, Yang Yang, Xu Chunni, Bai Yansong
Source: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center

An environmental petition and complaint system Yuan per case is offered to encourage the public to
have been established, which includes an actively report violations related to environmental
environmental protection hotline (12369) and an pollution.
online complaint mailbox. Incentives up to 50,000

Rising Public Environmental Awareness

Results of Beijing's public environmental awareness surveys conducted by third-party agencies since
2013 show marked improvements in public environmental awareness, understanding of environmental
knowledge, sense of environmental responsibility, and participation in environmental actions.

First, the public has become more knowledgeable about that environmental protection is closely
related to themselves. People with knowledge of PM2.5 increased from 87% in 2013 to 94% in 2016.
People showed a high level of awareness of PM2.5 sources in 2017, of which 73.6% men and 70.66%
women blamed motor vehicle exhaust emissions, and 50.73% men and 49.40% women blamed
dust, both being the main PM2.5 sources.

Second, the public has a stronger sense of environmental responsibility. The proportion of
people who believe that they should play an important role grew significantly, from 65.3% in
2013 to 80.86% men and 80.17% women in 2017. The degree of public satisfaction with Beijing's
environmental quality rose from 42% in 2015 to 64% in 2017. The percentage of public participation
in environmental protection activities also increased from 30% in 2013 to 49% in 2016. In addition,
the public are engaged in more diverse activities, such as "starting with small things," "participating
in policy development discussions," "reporting environmental violations and illegal acts," and so on.
For example, public awareness of the environmental complaints hotline 12369 rose from 38% in
2013 to 59% in 2016, and in 2017, 43% of the respondents said that they "have proactively reported
environmental violations."

37
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

CHAPTER IV
QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES IN BEIJING

The quantitative effectiveness of pollution control closely related to production and people’s lives,
measures taken in Beijing in the 20 years from such as power generation, industrial production,
1998 to 2017 were evaluated, focusing on two of residential cooking and heating. Since 1998,
the most significant sources: coal combustion Beijing has made vigorous efforts to upgrade
sources and mobile sources. end-of-pipe treatment and adjust the energy
structure. These approaches were realized by
requiring use of low-sulfur coal and accelerating
4.1 Adjustment of Energy Structure the development of clean energy such as natural
and Control of Coal Combustion gas and electricity. The measures taken from 1998
Source Emissions
to 2017 to control pollution from coal combustion
Coal has long been an important source of energy sources are shown in Figure 4.1.
in Beijing. It has been mainly used in sectors

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

1998-2010 2000-2006 2005- 2007- 2010-

Power plants Dedusting Desulfurization Coal to Denitrification Natural gas thermal-power
retrofit retrofit gas retrofit cogeneration centers

1998-2002 2003-2008 Renovation of coal- 2009-2013 Renovation of coal-fired

Coal-fired
Renovation of small fired boilers (capacity below 14 boilers (capacity over 14 MW) in six
boilers
boilers in core areas MW) in core areas urban districts

1998-2002
Residential 2003-2013
Replacement with electricity for
heating Renovation of old one-storey houses in core areas
selected old one-storey houses

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

2015 Completed four natural gas 2014-2017 Close down the major coal-fired power
Power Plants 2013-2015 Enhance
thermal-power cogeneration plants, reducing coal consumption by 8.5 million
Desulfurization retrofitting
centers and put into use tons and no coal-fired power plants

2014 2013-2015 Increasing the 2016 Tongzhou 2017: Basically eliminate coal-fired boilers
Delineation elimination of coal-fired boilers in District took the (capacity below 7 MW) in the whole city and
Coal-fired
of high urban areas, and there were no lead in eliminating coal-fired boilers (capacity below 25 MW) in
Boilers pollution fuel coal-fired boilers in the major city all coal-fired urban areas; and there is no longer coal
free zone districts by the end of 2015 boilers in suburbs combustion in industry fields

2013-2015 Focus on urban areas, and start to use clean 2016-2017 Focus on urban-rural fringe and rural areas,
Residential basically no residential coal use in the core area in the six
fuels in rural areas; basically no residential coal use in the
Heating core area by the end of 2015. districts and the southern plains by the end of 2017

Figure 4.1 A brief history of coal combustion control measures taken in Beijing, 1998-2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

38
 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures in Beijing

Through these series of measures, Beijing achieved The adjustment of Beijing’s energy structure
a qualitative leap in its energy mix during a period intensified in the power sector after the Beijing Clean
of rapid growth in energy consumption. From 2013 Air Action Plan 2013–2017 was put into practice.
to 2017, the consumption of coal fell below 5 million From 2013 to 2017, Beijing built four major gas-
tons from 28 million tons and its proportion in total fired thermoelectric centers to replace coal-fired
energy consumption dropped from 23.3% to about power plants, which cut nearly 8.5 million tons
5.7%, while the proportion of clean energy (Non-coal of annual coal consumption. By 2017, the power
energy) rose to higher than 90%. sector became almost coal free, and 7.4 billion m3
of natural gas was consumed. As a result, the share
(1) Ultra-low emission renovation and clean
of natural gas in total fossil fuel consumption in the
energy alternative in power plants
power sector increased to 85%.
Coal-fired power plants used to be the main coal
(2) Renovation of coal-fired boilers
consumers. Before 2005, EOP retrofitting projects
were implemented in power plants to lower the The renovation of coal-fired boilers has long
emissions of SO 2 , dust and other pollutants. been an important task for Beijing to control air
Beijing began the coal-to-gas transformation in pollution. Beijing has actively carried out the
2005 in power plants, and gradually increased their development of coal-free areas since 1998, and
consumption of natural gas. This contributed to a stepped up efforts to transform coal-fired boilers
marked decrease in coal consumption in the power during 2013 to 2017, a total of 27,300 MW of
sector while power generation actually expanded. coal-fired boilers were renovated or eliminated,
Coal consumption in the power sector tended to and annual coal consumption was thereby cut by
decline after peaking in 2005 and fell to 6.43 million about 8.5 million tons.
tons in 2013, with a total of 2.5 million tons of coal
The coal-fired boilers in Beijing were renovated in
reduced during this period. Meanwhile, natural
four phases according to areas and priorities, as
gas consumption rose to 1.85 billion m3 in 2013,
shown in Table 4.1. By 2017, coal consumption was
accounting for 35% of the total consumption of
basically eliminated in the plain areas of the city.
fossil fuels in this sector.

Table 4.1 Four-phases renovation of coal-fired boilers in Beijing during 1998–2017

Phase Area Focus Implementation

I (1998–2002) Core area1 Coal-fired boilers of less 10.633 coal-fired boilers involving 15,687
than 0.7 MW MW eliminated2

II (2003–2008) Core area Coal-fired boilers of less 5,704 coal-fired boilers involving
than 14 MW 15,499Mweliminated

III (2009–2012) Six urban districts3 Coal-fired boilers of 14MW 598coal-fired boilers involving 4,038 MW
eliminated

IV (2013–2017) whole city area Coal-fired boilers of 7 MW 8,312 coal-fired boilers involving 27,416
or less MW eliminated (not including 27,000
small domestic cookers)

Note: 1. The core area refers to Dongcheng District and Xicheng District; 2. The six urban districts are Chaoyang, Haidian,
Fengtai, Shijingshan, Dongcheng, and Xicheng.
Data source: Compilation from several sources from the former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau

39
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

(3) Elimination of civil bulk coal consumption 4.2 Adjustment of Transportation

From 1998 to 2017, Beijing continued to advance
Structure and Control of Mobile
Source Emissions
heating system transformation to reduce bulk coal
consumption based on the availability of natural Pollution prevention and control of motor vehicles
gas, electricity and other cleaner energy. Beijing has always been a key task in Beijing's air pollution
completed installation of the clean energy heating control. Since 1998, Beijing has formulated and
alternatives in about 700,000 households, and revised more than 30 local vehicle emission
basically achieved a coal-free core urban area standards, involving new vehicles, in-use vehicles,
by the end of 2015. In the years after 2015, the and fuel quality. With more application of traffic
control of bulk coal expanded to rural-urban fringes control and economic incentives beginning in
and plain rural areas, coal-burning heating and 2008, an integrated vehicle emission control
cooking were replaced with cleaner energy in rural system covering Vehicle-Fuel-Road was gradually
plains villages. These actions reduced annual coal developed and continuously improved during
consumption by nearly 1 million tons and basically 2013–2017 (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.3 shows the main
eliminated coal consumption from the six urban measures and their timing.
districts and southern plain rural area.

 Implement the China 5 for light-duty passenger cars and the China V for public fleets
in February, 2013;
 Implement the China V for freight trucks and long-distance coaches in June, 2015.

 Scrappage of older New

vehicles with subsidies;  Enhanced I/M program;
vehicle
 Scrappage all yellow-  Restricve policies on use of
labeled vehicles before 2016.
control In-use motorcycles, heavy-duty trucks and
Economic yellow-labeled vehicles
vehicle
measures
Vehicle control

 Tightening the quota of new emission  Promote CNG buses;

light-duty passenger cars;
control Alternative
 Promote electric buses and
 Driving restricons by Traffic taxies.
stopping car driving one weekday fuel
measures vehicles
per week;
Better
 Driving restricons on light-
duty passenger cars of China 1/2 fuel
on weekday. quality

 Implement the China 5/V fuel quality standards in June, 2012;

 Implement the China 6/V fuel quality standards in January, 2017.

Figure 4.2 Vehicle-fuel-road integrated control system

Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

40
 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures in Beijing

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Emission standards
Light-duty 1999/1-2002/12 2003/1-2005/12 2005/12-2008/2 2008/3-2013/1 2013/2-
gasoline vehicle China 1 China 2 China 3 China 4 China 5

Heavy—duty 2000/1-2002/12 2003/1-2005/12 2005/12-2008/6 2008/7-2013/1 2013/7-2015/5 2013/2- 2015/6-

diesel vehicle China I China II China III China IV1 China IV2 China V1 China V2

Improve gasoline 2003/1-2005/6 2005/6-2007/12 2008/1-2012/5 2012/6-

quality
Unleaded Reducing <500ppm <150ppm <50ppm <10ppm 2017/1
gasoline sulfur China 6/VI fuel
Improve diesel 2003/1-2005/6 2005/6-2007/12 2008/1-2012/5 2012/6-
since 1998 content <500ppm <350ppm <50ppm <10ppm
quality standard
quality

I/M programs and in- 2001-2003 2003- 2013- 2015- PEMS4 test
use inspecons Transion Full implementaon of ASM and LugDown methods On-road RS3 on public buses

Traffic restricons on 2003- Yellow-labelled vehicles 2017/2- Light-duty gasoline

specific in-use fleets 2004- Freight trucks and motorcycles passenger cars of China 1/2

Clean energy and new 1999- 2009- New energy vehicles promoted by the 2014- Electric publics buses
energy vehicles CNG public buses “Ten City & Thousand Units” program and taxies

2011- License control

2008/10- Driving restricon on
2014- Tighten the quota of new light-duty passenger cars, a
Traffic management and light-duty passenger cars
special quota for new energy cars
economic measures
2009- Subsidized scrappage of 2011- Expanded ALL yellow-labelled vehicles were
yellow-labelled vehicles to older vehicles scrapped
The 2014 APEC Summit, the 2015 military parade, and
Temporary The 2008 Olympic Games: Odd-even
the 2017 forum on the Belt and Road Iniave: Odd-
measurements restricons, ban on yellow-labelled vehicles,
even restricons, reducing use of government-owned
reducing use of government-owned vehicles
vehicles

1. Only implemented for public fleets; 2 for freight trucks and long-distance coaches; 3 remote sensing test; 4portable emission measurement system

Figure 4.3 Review of main emissions control measures for motor vehicles in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua University

(1) Stricter emission standards and in-use 200,000 cars were retrofitted. In 2008, retrofitting
vehicle retrofitting by installation of diesel particulate filter (DPF) to
reduce particulate matter was launched, a total
In January 1999, Beijing became the first city in
of 10,000 vehicles were retrofitted. In 2015, 8,800
China to implement China 1 emission standards
China IV/V diesel buses were retrofitted to reduce
for light-duty gasoline vehicles. In February 2013,
NOx emission. Starting from 2016, 8 categories
Beijing took the lead by implementing Beijing 5/
of heavy duty public service vehicles, including
V emissions standards, equivalent to Euro 5/
public transport, sanitation, postal, shuttle, school
V emissions standards, which further narrowed
bus, tourism bus, airport bus, and trucks for muck
the vehicle emissions control gap with developed
transport, were equipped with DPF filters. By the
countries in Europe and North America. Over the
end of 2017, a total of 17,000 vehicles of these
past two decades, Beijing leaped forward in the
types have been installed with this equipment.
control of new vehicle emissions, and helped to
foster energy-saving technological progress in the (2) Scrappage of old and polluting vehicles
Chinese automotive industry.
In Beijing, yellow-labeled vehicles were first
Along with the tightening of emission standards, restricted within the Second Ring Road in 2003.
Beijing took additional measures to reduce motor During the 2008 Olympic Games period, they
vehicle emission. In the past 20 years, In-use were banned in the whole city. In 2010, the scope
vehicles retrofitting was carried out in 4 phases. of the restricted area for yellow-labeled vehicles
In 1999, Beijing started the renovation and was extended to within the Sixth Ring Road and
treatment of gasoline vehicles to reduce the CO, then to the whole city in December 2015. For
hydrocarbons (THC) and NOx emission, and nearly light-duty gasoline vehicles, starting from 2017,

41
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

those of China 1 and China 2 emission standards and became the first Chinese city with unleaded
have been restricted within the Fifth Ring Road of gasoline in 1998. It was among the first in the
Beijing; for heavy-duty diesel trucks, those of China country to implement China II to V fuel quality
III emission standard or less have been restricted standards, and simultaneously upgrade the
within the Sixth Ring Road starting from 2017. standards for fuel quality and new vehicles. In
January 2017, Beijing once again led the national
In order to encourage the replacement of high-
implementation of China VI fuel quality standards,
emission vehicles, Beijing has introduced
which further tightened environmental indicators
government subsidies for the scrappage of
for gasoline and diesel.
older vehicles with high emissions since 2009.
During 2013-2017, Beijing eliminated a total Developing new energy vehicles: In 1999,
of 1.7 million old vehicles, far surpassing the Beijing introduced compressed natural gas (CNG)
planned target. to the bus fleet and gradually promoted clean fuels
and new energy buses. Among the 2,306 buses
(3) Other measures
that were updated in 2016, 1,368 were electric
Measures to control mobile source emissions vehicles, accounting for 59%.
also include upgrading fuel quality, promoting
Optimizing transportation structure: By
gasoline and diesel detergents, encouraging new
optimizing the urban layout and developing public
energy vehicles and optimizing the transportation
transport system, including subways and buses,
structure, restricting purchase of new cars and
the transportation structure has significantly
traffic control measures.
improved in recent years (Figure 4.4). This
Upgrading fuel quality: Beijing began to effectively cut vehicle trips and emissions, and
improve vehicle fuel quality in the late 1990s eased traffic congestion during rush hours.

Figure 4.4 Modes of Transportation in Beijing, 1998-2017

Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center

42
 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures in Beijing

In response to the rapid growth, high use Owing to strict EOP treatment and coal-to-gas
frequency, and increased density in urban area of transformation, the total PM 2.5 emissions from
small passenger cars, Beijing piloted temporary power plants in Beijing continued to decline
traffic restrictions using odd-and-even number during 1998–2017 in spite of growing electricity
license plates during the Beijing 2008 Olympic production, while SO 2 and NO x emissions first
Games’ period. Based on this experience, traffic rose and then decreased. The most significant
management measures that restrict passenger reduction of various pollutant emissions took place
cars in certain areas during weekday rush hours in 2 phases, including 1 phase from 2004 to 2007,
were put into force in October 2008. Furthermore, and the other from 2013 to 2017 (Figure 4.5).
in 2011 Beijing started to restrict the purchase Relative to 1998, the PM2.5, SO2, and NOx emission
of new vehicles by limiting the monthly quota to reductions of power plants reached 16,800 tons,
20,000 new license plates for passenger cars. 53,000 tons, and 52,300 tons respectively in 2017,
The quota was tightened in 2014 with the annual representing a decrease of 97%, 98% and 86%.
total lowered from 240,000 to 150,000. These In this regard, the operation of EOP treatment
restrictions have reversed the rapid growth of technologies played a key role from 1998 to 2013,
motor vehicle fleet and contribute to mitigate traffic including electrostatic precipitators (ESP)/bag
congestion in Beijing as well. filters, wet limestone flue-gas desulfurization (FGD),
and selective catalytic reduction (SCR). From
2013 to 2017, as the coal-to-gas transformation
4.3 Effects of Beijing's 20 Years’Air advanced, adjustments in the energy mix were able
Pollution Control Measures to more fully harness potential emission reductions
and further drive the reduction of air pollution from
(1) Emission reduction by coal combustion
power plants.
source control measures

25 100 100
Only end-of-pipe control
PM2.5 (kt) Without control SO2 (kt) NOx (kt)
20 Actual 80 80

15 60 60

10 40 40

5 20 20

0 0 0
1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016

Figure 4.5 Emissions of major air pollutants from power plants in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Tsinghua University

43
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Through the renovation of coal-fired boilers in tons respectively as compared with 1998. The
Beijing, the annual emissions of PM 2.5 , PM 10 , pollutant emission reductions in different stages of
SO 2 , and NO x emissions in 2017 were cut by renovation are as shown in Figure 4.6.
21,000 tons, 35,000 tons, 16,500 tons and 56,000

Emission reductions (kt)

180
2013-2017
150 2009-2012
2003-2008
120
1998-2002
90

60

30

0
NOx SO2 PM2.5 PM10

Figure 4.6 Pollutants emission reductions by renovation of coal-fired boilers in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Tsinghua University

In terms of civil bulk coal, the annual PM2.5, PM10, (2) Emission reduction by mobile source
SO2, and NOx emissions in Beijing were reduced emissions control measures
by 21,000 tons, 32,000 tons, 46,000 tons and
After implementing a series of measures, the total
16,000 tons respectively from 1998 to 2017, owing
emissions from mobile sources in Beijing dropped
to the implementation of high-quality coal, coal-to-
sharply, though the number of motor vehicles tripled.
electricity and coal-to-gas policies. The emission
Compared with 1998, the CO, total hydrocarbon
reductions in absolute terms were smaller than
(THC), NO x, and PM 2.5 emissions from mobile
those from the control of power plants and coal-
sources in 2017 declined by 1,105kt, 94kt, 71kt, and
fired boilers. However, bulk coal was mainly
6kt respectively, representing a reduction of 89%,
used in old urban centers with high building and
64%, 55% and 81%. The yearly emissions of the four
population density, and in villages. Clean energy
pollutants are as indicated in green in Figure 4.7.
alternatives renovations significantly improved the
The reduction of CO and THC emissions is mainly
air quality of these communities and effectively
attributed to the strict control of emissions from
reduced the concentration of indoor pollutants in
light-duty gasoline vehicles, and the reduction of
old cottage areas and villages during the heating
PM2.5 emissions benefits from the control of heavy-
season. This contributed to better living conditions
duty diesel vehicles. NOx emission reductions were
and improved safety in old cottage areas and
smaller than those of other pollutants.
yielded more significant environmental and health
benefits.

44
 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures in Beijing

The sum of blue, red and yellow sections in Figure scenario, CO, THC, and NOx emissions in 2017 are
4.7 show what would have occurred in the absence more than 100 times the actual levels and PM2.5,
of control measures. Motor vehicle emissions would 80 times greater. In other words, the motor vehicle
continue to rise dramatically (and traffic conditions control measures removed over 99% of the CO,
would continue to deteriorate). In this uncontrolled THC, NOx, and PM2.5 emissions.

Figure 4.7 Actual mobile source emissions and emission reduction effects
of control measures in Beijing, 1998–2017
Source: Tsinghua University

The elimination of old and polluting vehicles was of old and polluting vehicles and generated the
a result of a combination of multiple measures. greatest emission reductions. Compared with
Among all measures for mobile source emissions the uncontrolled scenario, the elimination of old
control in Beijing, regional traffic restrictions and and polluting vehicles cumulatively accounted for
incentives significantly accelerated the elimination 56%, 56%, 59%, and 63% of the CO, THC, NOx,

45
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

and PM2.5 emission reductions during 1998–2017 polluting enterprises from the manufacturing
respectively (red section in Figure 7). sector, such as printing, casting and furniture,
were closed or relocated through adjustment;
Beijing has long been a leader in China in
11,000 polluting businesses and enterprises were
upgrading motor vehicle emissions standards.
treated according to their different situation and
Results of the analysis showed that the continuous
categories immediately after they were identified.
improvement of emissions standards exerted
More than 400 pollution control renovation projects
a significant effect on the reduction of mobile
were implemented, with the focus on NO x and
source emissions, second only to the elimination
VOCs control. At the same time, active efforts
of old and polluting vehicles. Compared with the
were made to develop high-tech industries and
uncontrolled scenario, this measure cumulatively
service industries, raising the proportion of tertiary
contributed up to 42%, 41%, 39%, and 34% of
industries in the economy from 67.4% in 2001 to
the CO, THC, NOx, and PM2.5 emission reductions
80.6% in 2017, on par with the average level of
during 1998–2017 respectively (yellow section in
developed countries.
Figure 4.7).
(2) Dust pollution control
The contributions of other measures, indicated
in blue in Figure 4.7, was 3%, 3%, 2%, and 2% Beijing has been under a period of rapid urban
respectively, during the same period. expansion during the past 20 years, dust pollution
became evident due to an increased number
of large-scale and wide-ranging construction
4.4 Air Pollution Control in Other activities. Focusing on bare lands, construction
Sectors sites and road dust, the city continued to improve
its dust pollution control system for more precisely
(1) Industrial restructuring and industrial
pollution control. For construction dust control,
pollution control
video monitoring systems were installed in more
Focusing on the functional orientation of the than 1,700 construction sites and 155 concrete
capital city, Beijing has adopted a combination of mixing plants throughout the city. Concrete
measures to further optimize the industrial structure batching plants that failed to meet requirements
and reduce industrial pollution, including tightening were shut down; a green and civilized construction
environmental requirements for new development management model was created; and efficient
projects, eliminating obsolete production capacity, washing facilities and new dust suppression
rectifying polluting businesses and enterprises, technologies were applied. For road dust control,
promoting cleaner production, and intensifying more than 8,000 demolition waste transportation
EOP treatment. Beginning in 2006, a group of trucks were retrofitted to have sealed carrying
large-scale industrial enterprises such as Beijing space since 2013; and monitoring of dust on major
Coking and Chemical Plant, Beijing Capital Steel roads was carried out and the results announced
Group Shougang Shijingshan Plant, and Dongfang on a monthly basis. New methods for "absorbing,
Chemical Plant were closed or relocated; number sweeping, scouring, and collecting” road dust
of cement manufacturer factories was reduced have covered more than 88% of the roads in the
from 19 to 2, and the production capacity of those city, which effectively reduced road dust.
remaining is used only for integrated disposal
In order to strengthen and expand the capacity
of hazardous waste. Since 2013, over 1,900

46
 Chapter IV Quantitative Assessment of Air Pollution Control Measures in Beijing

of the natural environment, Beijing launched a Yongding River, Chaobai River and the North Canal
program to plant trees in 66,667 hectares of plain river systems. A natural ecosystem consisting
area (1 million Chinese mu), increasing the green of green shields in mountains, green buffers in
coverage rate to over 60% in the city. Also, efforts suburban plains, and urban areas with scattered
were made to enlarge the water surfaces in the green coverage were formed.

Dust Pollution Control

In order to control construction dust pollution, Beijing set the six-100% guideline for dust control in
construction site (100% enclosure around the site, 100% coverage of demolition waste and stacked
materials, 100% bare land pavement,100% cleaning of vehicles entering and leaving the site, 100%
wet excavation, and 100% closed demolition waste transport vehicles) and continued to improve
the standards.

In order to control road dust pollution, Beijing unveiled the Quality and Operation Requirements
for City Road Sweeping and Cleaning in 2014, which specifies and classifies the management
and operation for city roads. Urban trunk roads are washed twice a day; for secondary roads,
mechanical scouring and washing are performed on daily base, and during winter washing
frequency is increased. In 2017, mechanical sweeping and new cleaning process operations
covered 89% and 88% of the roads in Beijing respectively.

For strict control of dust pollution from transporting demolish waste, Beijing released the Technical
Requirements for Marking, Monitoring, and Sealing Construction Waste Transportation Vehicles in
2014. Meanwhile, vehicles transporting demolish waste in Beijing must meet local vehicle emission
standards, i.e. China IV standards for newly-purchased vehicles and China III emissions standards
for transformed vehicles. As of 2017, 4,216 demolish waste transportation vehicles had installed
satellite positioning systems and achieved confined transportation.

Hanshiqiao Wetland (Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

47
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

CHAPTER V
COORDINATED AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
IN BEIJING AND ITS SURROUNDING AREAS

5.1 Mechanism for Joint Prevention 5.1). In 2017, according to the characteristics of
and Control of Air Pollution pollutants transport, MEP identified Beijing, Tianjin,
in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and and another 26 cities in Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong,
Surrounding Areas and Henan provinces (collectively referred to
(1) Coordination agency as "2+26" cities) as the key cities along the air
pollution transport channels in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
With the support of China’s State Council, the
and Surrounding Areas, and prioritized these cities
Coordination Group for Air Pollution Prevention
for the purpose of air pollution control.
a n d C o n t r o l i n B e i j i n g -T i a n j i n -
Hebei and Surrounding Areas
was established at the end of
2013. Led by the Beijing Municipal
Government, the Coordination Group
encompasses seven ministries,
namely the National Development
and Reform Commission (NDRC),
Ministry of Finance, former Ministry
of Environmental Protection (MEP),
Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology, Ministry of Housing and
Urban-Rural Development, China
Meteorology Administration, and
National Energy Administration, and
six provinces (autonomous regions
and municipalities), namely Beijing,
Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia,
and Shandong. In May 2015, Henan
Province and the Ministry of Transport
Figure 5.1 Distribution of the "2+26" cities (the red areas) in
joined the Coordination Group,
expanding the members to eight Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas
Source: Former Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, Tsinghua
ministries and seven provinces (Figure University

48
 Chapter V Coordinated Air Pollution Control in Beijing and Its Surrounding Areas

(2) Unified planning and policy for heavy air pollution emergencies were unified
across Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei. In 2017, these
Since 2013, the Coordination Group and relevant
standards were extended to the "2+26" cites and
m i n i s t r i e s , s u c h a s N D R C a n d M E P, h a v e
the procedures to issue, adjust and lift alerts were
successively rolled out multiple plans and annual
also standardized, paving the way for a unified
programes for regional air pollution control, and
regional response to heavy air pollution and
put forward unified regional requirements for
coordinated measures to reduce emissions in
the key tasks of clean heating, comprehensive
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas.
industrial pollution control, motor vehicle pollution
control, and responding to heavy pollution. In 2015, Joint mobile source control: A special
a project was launched to study the medium- mechanism was also established for regional
long term planning for strengthening air pollution cooperation in control of vehicle pollution.
control in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding That includes joint inspections on new vehicle
Areas. The outcomes of this project provided conformity and penalties upon violation outside the
important support for the analysis, forecasting vehicle’s registration city. An information sharing
and early warning for heavy pollution episodes in platform was built for air pollution prevention and
the region; crucial action for the comprehensive control in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding
control of autumn and winter air pollution; and the Areas, which shares real-time information about
th
preparation of the 13 five-year plan for air pollution air quality and key pollution source emissions in
prevention and control in related provinces. In seven provinces (including autonomous regions
2016, Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei put into effect the and municipalities).
China V emission standards for motor vehicles and
the China V standards for fuel quality. In 2017, the
"2+26" cities began to supply fuels meeting China 5.2 Changes of Air Pollutants
VI standards, and Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei jointly Emissions in Beijing and Its
issued the Limits for Volatile Organic Compounds Surrounding Areas
in Building Paints and Adhesives, which plays an According to the MEIC model estimates, in 1998,
important role in improving overall air quality. SO2 emissions in Tianjin, Hebei, Henan, Shandong
(3) Cooperation mechanism and Shanxi totaled 6.23 million tons, NO x 3.24
million tons, PM 2.5 3.49 million tons, and VOCs
Twinning cities: A twinning-based cooperation
3.74 million tons. In the next 20 years, the SO2,
mechanism to control air pollution was established
NOx, and PM2.5 emissions all grew at first and then
in 2015. Beijing twinned with neighboring Baoding
declined, while the VOCs emissions continued
city and Langfang city of Hebei province. Beijing
to increase before stabilizing in recent years.
provided financial and technical support for the
Figure 5.2 shows the spatial distribution of major
elimination of small coal-fired boilers and control of
pollutants emissions in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and
large coal-fired boilers, thus setting an example for
Surrounding Areas in 1998, 2013 and 2017.Figure
regional cooperation on air pollution control.
5.3 shows the changes in the past two decades of
Unified heavy pollution episode response: major pollutants emissions from various sectors in
A joint forecasting and early warning mechanism Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding Areas.
was also established. In 2016, the alert thresholds

49
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Figure 5.2 Spatial distribution of major pollutant emissions in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Surrounding
Areasin 1998, 2013 and 2017
Source: The Multi-resolution emission inventory for China (http://www.meicmodel.org/)

50
 Chapter V Coordinated Air Pollution Control in Beijing and Its Surrounding Areas

Figure 5.3 Changes in major pollutants emissions from various sectors

In the Areas Surrounding Beijing (including Tianjin, Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia),
1998–2017
Source: The Multi-resolution emission inventory for China (http://www.meicmodel.org/)

Since the national Action Plan for Air Pollution shown in Figure 5.4. Except for VOCs, pollutant
Prevention and Control launched in 2013, the emissions dropped sharply in 2017 compared
emissions of major air pollutants in the Areas with 2013. The SO 2 , NO x and PM 2.5 emission
Surrounding Beijing (including Tianjin, Hebei, reductions were 60%, 22% and 42% respectively,
Henan, Shandong, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia) while the VOCs emissions basically remained at
d e c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y, w i t h c h a n g e s a s the 2013 level with a slight increase of 0.2%.

51
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

Figure 5.4 Changes in major air pollutant emissions in the Areas Surrounding Beijing (including Tianjin,
Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia), 2013–2017
Source: The Multi-resolution emission inventory for China (http://www.meicmodel.org/)

From 2013 to 2017, the power and industrial reduction is mainly driven by control of fugitive
sectors slashed their SO 2 emissions by 1.221 dust sources and industrial sectors, achieving
million tons and 3.145 million tons respectively. 937,000 tons and 608,000 tons respectively.
This is evidence that the measures in the Action Unlike SO 2, NO x, and PM 2.5, there has been a
Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control, such slight increase in VOCs emissions in the Areas
as ultra-low emission of coal-fired power plants, Surrounding Beijing (including Tianjin, Hebei,
renovation of coal-fired boilers, and transformation Henan, Shandong, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia)
of key industries to meet higher standards, during the same period, mainly because of the
have significantly cut SO 2 emissions. For NO x cumulative emission reductions in the power
emissions, the reductions mainly occurred in the sector, residential and mobile sources were not
power sector, reaching 1.202 million tons during enough to offset the incremental increase in
the 2013-2017 period. For PM 2.5 emissions, the emissions from solvent use.

Palace Meseum under blue sky (Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

52
CHAPTER VI
ASSESSMENT OF BEIJING CLEAN
AIR ACTION PLAN 2013–2017

The Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017 was from mobile sources, and the power and heating
one of the most intense programs in Beijing’s air sector. VOCs were mainly emitted by solvent use,
pollution control history, with its implementation mobile sources and industrial sectors, and primary
leading to unprecedented air quality improvement PM sources were fugitive dust and the residential
in Beijing. In 2017, the annual average PM 2.5 sector.
concentration in Beijing fell by 35.6% from the
The implementation of the Beijing Clean Air Action
2013 level to 58μg/m 3 , representing a major
Plan 2013-2017 has evidently brought down the
reduction that was considered difficult to achieve
emissions of major air pollutants in Beijing over the
both domestically and internationally. Given its
five years. The measures taken can be classified
significance and results, the following is an impact
into seven categories: Coal-fired boiler control,
assessment of the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan
clean fuels in the residential sector, optimization of
2013-2017.
the industrial structure, improvements in end-of-
pipe control, vehicle emission control, fugitive dust
control and integrated treatment of VOCs.
6.1 Effects of Major Measures on
From 2013 to 2017, the emissions of SO 2, NOx,
Emissions Reduction
VOCs, primary PM 2.5 , and primary PM 10 were
Based on the self-examination reports by Beijing reduced by 79,000 tons, 93,000 tons, 116,000
city on the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013- tons, 44,000 tons, and 139,000 tons respectively,
2017 and the appendices, a total of 32 measures a relative decrease of 83%, 43%, 42%, 55%, and
in seven categories are sorted out for quantitative 52% compared with 2013.The contribution of
assessment. Using the MEIC model, category- each measure to the reduction of major pollutants
specific emission reductions are calculated with is shown in Figure 6.1. In terms of SO 2 , the
2013 as the base year, in order to analyze the renovation of coal-fired boilers and promotion
contribution of these measures. of clean residential fuel played a dominant role
In 2013, the emissions of SO2, NOx, VOCs, PM2.5, by generating reductions of 37,000 tons and
and PM10 in Beijing stood at 95,000 tons, 218,000 29,000 tons emissions respectively, during 2013-
tons, 273,000 tons, 81,000 tons, 266,000 tons 2017, representing 47% and 37% of the total
respectively. SO2 emissions mainly came from the reductions. In terms of NOx, the control of mobile
residential sector, industrial sectors, and the power source emissions contributed the largest share
and heating sector; and the NOx emissions were by reducing 43,000 tons, accounting for 46% of

53
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

the total reductions. This was followed by the industrial restructuring achieved reductions of
renovation of coal-fired boilers and industrial 15,000 tons, 11,000 tons, 9,000 tons and 5,000
retrofitting, which generated reductions of 27,000 tons respectively, equivalent to 33%, 25%, 21%,
tons and 9,000 tons respectively, accounting for and 12% of the total PM2.5 reductions.
29% and 10% of the reductions. In terms of VOCs,
In summary, the measures contributing the most
targeted VOCs treatment was most effective in
to overall reductions of the major pollutants
cutting emissions of 57,000 tons, accounting for
during 2013-2017 include the renovation of coal-
49% of the total reductions. The control of mobile
fired boilers, promotion of clean residential
source emissions and industrial restructuring were
fuel, industrial restructuring, and control of
also important, contributing 16% and 13% of the
mobile source emissions. Clean domestic fuel
reductions respectively. In terms of primary PM2.5,
and comprehensive dust control also played a
promotion of clean residential fuel, comprehensive
prominent role in reducing primary PM2.5 and PM10
dust control, renovation of coal-fired boilers, and
emissions.
SO2 NOx
Control of coal-fired boilers Vehicle emission control

Management of residential burning Control of coal-fired boilers

Optimization of industrial structure Improvement of end-of-pipe control

Improvement of end-of-pipe control Management of residential burning

Vehicle emission control Optimization of industrial structure

Control of VOCs Control of VOCs

Control of dust Control of dust

unit: kt unit: kt
VOCs PM2.5
Control of VOCs Management of residential burning

Vehicle emission control Control of dust

Management of residential burning Control of coal-fired boilers

Optimization of industrial structure Optimization of industrial structure

Control of coal-fired boilers Improvement of end-of-pipe control

Improvement of end-of-pipe control Vehicle emission control

Control of dust Control of VOCs

unit: kt unit: kt

Figure 6.1 Contributions of major measures to reduction of major pollutants emissions in Beijing, 2013-2017
Source: Tsinghua University; J Cheng et al., ACPD, 2019

54
 Chapter VI Assessment of Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017

The changes in major pollutant emissions from transport model (WRF-CMAQ) was used to
different sources during 2013-2017 are shown simulate air quality of Beijing and the surrounding
in Figure6.2. Reductions mainly occurred in SO2 region in 2013 and 2017, in order to examine
emissions from the power and heating, industrial, the contributions of the measures in the Beijing
and residential sectors, NOx emissions from mobile Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017 to air quality
sources and the power and heating sector, VOCs improvement in Beijing, and the impacts of
emissions from industrial and residential sectors, changes in meteorological conditions on air quality
solvent use, and mobile sources, and PM 2.5 in Beijing.
emissions from residential, industrial, and power
From 2013 to 2017, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi,
and heating sectors, and dust sources.
Shandong, and Henan reduced SO 2, NO x, and
PM2.5 emissions by 7.71 million tons, 1.869 million
tons, and 1.163 million tons respectively through
the implementation of the national Action Plan for
Air Pollution Prevention and Control and their own
programs as required. The model simulation results
showed that these reductions lowered Beijing's
PM2.5 concentration by 7.1μg/m3, representing 23%
of the total decline in the PM2.5 level.

Local measures undertaken by Beijing reduced

Beijing's PM2.5 concentration by 20.6μg/m3 during
2013-2017, representing 65% of the total decline.
Figure 6.2 Changes in major pollutants emissions The relative contributions of the various local
from different sources in Beijing, 2013-2017
measures taken are shown in Figure 6.3.
Source: Tsinghua University; J Cheng et al., ACPD, 2019

5.9 Coal-fired boiler control

In 2017, emissions of SO 2, NO x, VOCs, PM 2.5,
and PM10 in Beijing stood at 16,000 tons, 124,000
5.3 Clean fuels in the residential sector
tons, 157,000 tons, 35,000 tons, and 127,000
tons respectively. SO 2 emissions were mainly 3.2 Optimized industrial structure
produced by fuel combustion in the power and
heating, industrial, and residential sectors. The NOx 2.3 Fugitive dust control
emissions mainly came from mobile sources, and
1.9 Vehicle emission control
the power and heating sector, VOCs from solvent
use, mobile sources and the industrial sector, and Improved end-of-pipe control
1.8
primary PM from dust sources and the residential
sector. 0.2 Integrated treatment of VOCs

unit: ug/m3
6.2 Air Quality Improvements Brought Figure 6.3 Contributions of local measures to
by Major Measures reducing the PM2.5 concentration in Beijing,
2013-2017
A three-dimensional atmospheric chemical Source: Tsinghua University; J Cheng et al., ACPD, 2019

55
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

The most significant measure taken was the 6.3 Impacts of Meteorological
renovation of coal-fired boilers, which reduced Conditions
the PM 2.5 concentrations in Beijing by 5.9μg/
Meteorological conditions fluctuated in Beijing
m 3, representing 19% of the total decline. The
during the 2013-2017 period. Using the emission
promotion of clean residential fuel and industrial
levels of 2017, the monthly PM2.5 concentrations
restructuring also made significant contributions of
were simulated under both 2013 and 2017
5.3μg/m3 and 3.2μg/m3 respectively, equivalent to
meteorological conditions. As shown in Figure 6.4,
17% and 10% of the total decline. Comprehensive
compared with 2013, the meteorological conditions
dust control, mobile source emissions control,
improved by an average of 6% throughout the
industrial retrofitting, and VOCs treatment
year 2017. Improvement was noticeable in winter,
accounted for a smaller proportion of the overall
while some deterioration was observed in spring
decline in PM2.5 concentration,representing7%, 6%,
and summer, specifically April, May, and July. The
6% and 1%, respectively.
improved meteorological conditions lowered the
In terms of emission sources, the contribution annual average PM2.5 concentration by 3.8μg/m3 in
of local combustion sources, industrial sources, 2017, accounting for 12% of the total decline in PM2.5
fugitive dust sources, and locally registered mobile concentrations. Under 2013 meteorological conditions,
3 3 3
sources 11.2μg/m , 5.4μg/m , 2.3μg/m and 2.0μg/ the annual average PM2.5 concentration would fall
3
m respectively, representing 35%, 19%, 7% and to nearly 62μg/m3 in 2017 from 89.50μg/m3 in 2013,
6% of the total decline of PM2.5 concentration. which would be slightly higher than the actual situation
in 2017 (58μg/m3).

Figure 6.4 Monthly simulation of PM2.5 concentration in Beijing

under 2013 and 2017 meteorological conditions at 2017 emission levels
Source: Tsinghua University; J Cheng et al., ACPD, 2019

56
 Chapter VI Assessment of Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013–2017

6.4 Summary restructure, which contributed 19%, 16%, and

11% of the total decline in the PM2.5 concentration
The implementation of Beijing Clean Air Action Plan
respectively. From the perspective of emission
2013–2017 produced marked effects. From 2013
sources, coal combustion sources, the industrial
to 2017, the annual average PM2.5 concentration in
sector, fugitive dust sources, and mobile sources
Beijing decreased by 31.5μg/m3. Local emission
lowered the PM 2.5 concentration by 11.2μg/m 3,
reductions, regional emission reductions, and
5.4μg/m 3, 2.3μg/m 3, and 2.0μg/m 3 respectively,
meteorological changes contributed reductions of
accounting for 35%, 19%, 7% and 6% of the total
20.6μg/m3, 7.1μg/m3, and 3.8μg/m3 respectively,
decline. The spatial distribution of annual average
accounting for 65%, 23%, and 12% of the overall
PM2.5 concentrations in Beijing and its surrounding
decline. The most effective local measures taken
areas in 2013 and 2017 are shown in Figure 6.5.
included the renovation of coal-fired boilers,
Figure 6.5
promotion of clean residential fuels, and industrial

2013 2017

Figure 6.5 Spatial distributions of annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Beijing and its surrounding areas
(2013, 2017)
Source: Tsinghua University

The tallest skycraper of Beijing under construction in clear sky (Photograph credit: Beijing Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

57
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

CHAPTER VII
EXPERIENCE AND OUTLOOK

7.1 Beijing Experience and Lessons clear guidance on the mandatory responsibility of
city and district level governments in development
In the past 20 years from 1998 to 2017, Beijing
and implementation of clean air actions.
continuously strengthened its efforts to control air
pollution through an integrated approach involving (b) Systematic Planning: There is a full cycle
legal, administrative, economic and technological of clean air action planning system, including
instruments, in response to the rapid growth in city medium-long term (5 years and above) plan,
size, population, energy consumption, and vehicle annual plan, and temporary plan highlighting
fleet. The outstanding air quality improvements enhanced actions. All these plans are connected
achieved in 20 years can be attributed to the effectively, resulted in achievement of annual
optimization of the energy mix and industrial targets and medium-long term targets.
structure, controlling mobile source emissions, (c)Powerful local standards: Beijing has built a
and enhanced air quality management system complete local emission standards and products
built along the process. Beijing’s experience and (fuel) quality standards to support its intensified air
lessons in development and implementation of pollution control programs.
air pollution control policies and programs have
(d) Strong monitoring capacity: Based on
long been a model for many Chinese cities. As
traditional monitoring technologies and adopting
well, Beijing’s experience has contributed to
big data and other emerging new technologies,
the development and formulation of a national
Beijing has developed a comprehensive air quality
emission standards and air quality governance
monitoring and assessment system consisting of
system.
satellite information, remote sensing, and ground
(1) A comprehensive and effective air quality stations, as well as a pollution source monitoring
management system has gradually taken and supervision system.
shape over 20 years’ efforts. The system is
(e) High public environmental awareness:
characterized by:
Air quality data and pollution control program
(a) Complete laws and enforcement information are released through traditional and
mechanism: A legal system consisting of new media to the public in a timely basis. Public
laws and regulations at national and city level, environmental awareness and willingness to join
and a supporting enforcement and supervision air pollution control activities have been raised to
mechanism was established. The system gives unprecedented levels.

58
 Chapter VII Experience and Outlook

(2) Qualitative optimization of the energy contributed to the high quality social economical
mix has made decisive contribution to the sustainable development. Environmental sector,
achievement of air quality goals against including service for monitoring, pollution control,
increased energy consumption. The power engineering consultancy keeps growing along with
sector, district heating boiler, and other major the intensified pollution control campaign in China.
coal burning facilities converted to gas; cooking Total output of Chinese environmental sector
and heating in countryside villages a converted to reached 1.35 trillion Yuan in 2017 with over 20%
natural gas or electricity step by step. Electricity, contributed by environmental enterprises in Beijing.
natural gas, and other cleaner energy accounted Environmental sector is listed as priority sector for
for over 90% in the total energy consumption, and development in Beijing, and is creating more job
the developed urban area and major parts of the opportunities.
suburban plains became “coal free zone” by the
While the complexity of air pollution in Beijing
end of 2017.
is unique to its stage of development, the
(3) The integrated “Vehicle-Fuel-Road” achievement may be attributed to its governmental
emissions control system is a model structure in some extent, there are several
for Chinese cities, and a good example commonalities. We have found that the keys to
internationally as well. Vehicle emission control local sustainable development are the strong
started comparatively late in China. Beijing built its willingness, clear goal, supportive legislation, plan
vehicle emission control system through adopting and policies, implementation and enforcement
international experiences to the local situation. arrangement. Engaging the public in these
The Beijing model has been widely followed by objectives will strengthen environmental protection
many other Chinese cities, and provided valuable even further and increase social harmony.
practical experience for improving China’s national
vehicle emission control system. It could be a good
example internationally. 7.2 Reflections and Prospects for the
(4) Successful regional cooperation plays a Next Step
key role. Development and effective operation Even though great air quality improvement has
of the regional cooperation mechanism provided been made, Beijing and the surrounding region
a fundamental base for the great leap-forward air still face major challenges in air pollution. In 2017,
quality improvement in Beijing and the region in the Annual average PM2.5 concentration in Beijing is
last 5 years. still 66% higher than the Chinese national ambient

This substantial air quality improvement has air quality standard of 35μg/m3, and far higher than

been made under the rapid social and economic the 10μg/m3 set in WHO guidelines. In addition,

development in the capital city. Over the past ozone pollution has become a new concern in

20 years, Beijing's GDP has maintained a recent years. Air pollution control remains a long-

growth rate over 6.5% each year, increased by term and arduous task that requires ceaseless

10.8 times totally. In 2017, per capita GDP has efforts. Beijing and the surrounding region now are

exceeded 20 thousand dollars. Meanwhile, confronted by the “deep water area” of integrated

energy intensity and carbon dioxide emission dealing with PM2.5 and O3.

per unit GDP (kg CO 2 per 10 thousand Yuan) Looking forward, following are recommendations
maintain downward tendency. Clean air actions for Beijing in its long term and next step air

59
A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

pollution control strategies: established Vehicle-Fuel-Road emission control

system should be further extended to off-road
(1) Strengthening VOCs and NOx control
machinery. When technically and economically
targeting at mitigating both PM2.5 and O3
feasible, it could be a wise choice to raise the
Both PM2.5 and O3 in the ambient air pose direct proportion of electric vehicles in public fleets like
threats to human health while they are complex buses, taxis and passenger cars on a large scale
and difficult to control. Control of VOCs, the to build ultralow emission public fleets. Given
key precursors of ambient PM 2.5 and O 3, is of the size of Beijing city, it could afford to build low
importance to mitigate the level of these two emission zones in different functional parts of the
pollutants. VOCs control rests on an emission city. Big data and intelligent technologies will soon
control system that covers monitoring, emission become available for precise monitoring of high-
inventories, and sector-specific policies. Priority emission diesel vehicles operating in and travel to
for VOCs control should be extended from key Beijing. Further study needs to be carried out on
industries, such as petrochemicals, printing and bulk freight transport, and raise the proportion of
dyeing, and furniture manufacturing, to residential rail transportation to a comparatively higher level
non-point sources, including auto repair, restaurant, to build a low-carbon and more efficient cargo
and dry cleaning. transportation system.
(2) Highlighting energy structure and energy (4) Tightening control on non-point source
efficiency in parallel for a low carbon energy pollution
mix to reduce greenhouse gases emissions
After very successful point emission sources
It’s advisable that Beijing continue with its last mile control, to achieve further air quality improvement,
efforts to remove coal from the energy mix to build control of non-point sources should be brought
the city into a coal free city. With the development into consideration. Non-point sources include
of new energy technology, there is the opportunity small scattered sources, like urban service
to increase the proportion of renewable energy sectors (restaurants, car repair, paint use, etc.),
in the energy mix to reduce both air pollutants and farming activities, which may require more
emissions and greenhouse gas emission from precisely designed solution for a specific type of
fossil fuel. Meanwhile, equal importance should source.
be given to improving energy efficiency in energy-
(5) More actively promote regional
intensive industries and activities, including
cooperation mechanism
heating, air-conditioning, transportation, and
industry. Twinning approaches on energy efficiency Beijing should participate actively in the regional
and cleaner energy strategy, will help to reduce cooperation mechanism now headed by the
the demand for fossil fuels at the source, and central government, and make necessary
decouple social and economic development from contribution to its operation and improvement,
the growth of fossil fuel energy consumption. including promoting a region-wide air pollution
control decision support system, region-level
(3) Working on mobile sources emission
energy structure optimization, and upgrading
control and transportation structure
industrial structure and transportation (especially
optimization to build a low emission transport
freight transportation) structure. With these key
system
issues planned and implemented at regional level,
To control emissions from mobile sources, the well-

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 Chapter VII Experience and Outlook

cities in the region jointly taking action through etc. Good practice and model at city level is of
coordinated steps, can help to reduce the total key importance to realize global sustainability. As
pollutants emission in the region and lay a sound a model for dealing with pollution issues along
base for the substantial improvement of air quality with rapid economic and social development, we
in Beijing and the region. would advise Beijing to design its environmental
goals and actions under the framework of 2030
(6) Integrate local environmental goal with
sustainable development goals. That would be
2030 Sustainable Development Goals
the right choice to deal with the challenge of
The United Nations announced 2030 Sustainable population, resources, and environment, and move
Development Goals for the planet in 2015, covering forwards to city’s high quality development to
17 goals, including good health and well-being, realize both local and global environmental goals.
climate change, gender equality, sustainable cities
and communities, affordable and clean energy,

A glimpse of the Palace Museum in

sunny winter (Photograph credit: Beijing
Municipal Environmental Publicity Center)

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A REVIEW OF 20 YEARS’ Air Pollution Control in Beijing

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Beijing Beihai Park (Photograph credit: Beijing

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