OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY
 Is the study of drugs, the changes it goes, and the CHEMICAL REACTION
energy that accompanies these changes  Reaction that occurs when the outermost or valence
MATTER electrons around the nucleus interacts.
 Anything that occupies space and has mass,  Entails the removal of valence electrons, adding
structure, changes that matters undergoes, and electrons to a partly filled valence shell, or sharing a
involved in such changes or interactions pair of electrons between two atoms.
Classified as:
1. Physical REACTANTS
2. Chemical  substances that enter into a chemical reaction
ELEMENT PRODUCTS
 Simplest form of matter. Made up of 1 kind of material  substances that are formed after chemical reaction
or atom.
Classified as: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
1. Metals: heat and electrical conductors, have luster, • A law that states that chemical equation has to be
ductile, malleable consistent. The same numbers of atoms of each
2. Nonmetals: generally brittle and non-lustrous, poor element must appear on both sides of the equation.
conductors of heat and electricity • Fundamental law of balancing chemical equation.
3. Metalloids: border the line-2 sides Properties are
intermediate between metals and nonmetals TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION:
COMPOUNDS A. Direct union
 A compound is a composed of two or more elements  (A+ B --AB)
united chemically in definite proportion  Involves the reaction of two or more substances react
Classified as: to form one compound
1. Based on chemical bond  Example: 2Ca + O2--- 2CaO
2. Based on organic or inorganic
Based on chemical bond: B. Decomposition
1. Ionic- compound that forms by transfer of electrons  (AB -- A+B)
2. Covalent- compound that forms by sharing of  one compound decomposes to form two or more
electrons substances
 Polar covalent Types :
 Non-polar covalent a. Hydrates to water and anhydrous salt
3. Metallic- formed between atoms of metallic elements b. Chlorates to chlorides plus oxygen
Based on organic or inorganic: c. Metal oxides to metal and oxygen
1. Inorganic compound- compounds that contain other d. Carbonates to oxides and CO2
elements and a few containing carbons and its salts. e. Bicarbonates to oxide, water and CO2
2. Organic compound- compounds that contains carbon
atom in their molecules C. Single replacement
MIXTURE  (AX+B A+BX) or (AX+Y AY+X)
 Composed of 2 or more substances that are not  Activity series of metals in descending order: Li, K,
chemically combined. Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb,
Classified according to: Cu, Bi, Sb, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au
1. Nature of particles  Activity series of nonmetals in descending order: F,
(heterogenous and homogenous) Cl, Br, I
2. Size of particles Example:
(solution, coarse and colloid) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq)+ Cu(s)
Process of separating component of mixtures: Cu + FeSO4 no reaction
1. Distillation- used if two liquids are mixed but have Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
different boiling points. Cl2 + NaI 2NaCl + I2
2. Filtration- use by means of filtration set-up
3. Centrifugation- process rely on densities. Speeding D. Double displacement
up of settling process of a precipitate  (AX+BY AY+BX)
4. Decantation- separation by means of the difference in Example:
specific gravity or density of the components 2HNO3+Ca(OH)2---Ca(NO3)2+2H2O

5. Fractional crystallization- separation by means of COLISSION THEORY

lowering of temperature  Collisions of particles provide the energy required to
break bonds.
6. Chromatography- difference in solvent affinity  Activation energy- minimum amount of energy
required for a successful collision.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
1. Intrinsic- INDEPENDENT of mass or amount
(ex. Density, sp.gr and melting point) Successful collision requires:
2. Extrinsic- DEPENDENT on mass or amount
(ex. Weight, volume, pressure and heat content)

CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES:

1. Physical Change- change in the physical properties of
substances without changing its chemical
composition.
(Example: Evaporation, pounding of chalk)
2. Chemical change- change in the chemical
composition and constitution of substance.
3. Nuclear Change
change in the structure, properties, composition of the
nucleus of an atom resulting in the transmutation of
the element into another element. Reaction rates can increase due to:
1. More collisions
Types: 2. Harder collisions-greater collision energy
a. Nuclear fission- splitting of heavy atom 3. Lower activation energy or Ea, which allows low
b. Nuclear fusion- union of light atoms energy collisions to be more effective
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

REACTION KINETICS FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM:

 The study of rates of chemical reactions and factors 1. Concentration
which influence reaction velocities.  Increase in reactant concentration favors forward
REACTION VELOCITY reaction
 change in concentration in unit time  Increase in product concentration favors reverse
reaction
IRREVERSIBLE REACTIONS LAW OF MASS ACTION:
 Chemical reactions that go only in one direction or are  rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to the
said to completion. concentration of product and reactant each raised the
Examples: power corresponding to the coefficients in a balanced
2H2+ O2 2H2O equation.
H2CO3 H2O + CO2 2. Temperature
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS  Increase in temp. favors endothermic reactions
 Two opposing reactions, the forward and the  Decrease in temp. favors exothermic
backward occur at the same rate. This system is said 3. Catalyst
to be in equilibrium.  adding of catalyst will have an equal effect on the rate of
 Chemical equilibrium- the state in which two both forward and backward reactions.
opposing reaction proceed at the same rate. 4. Pressure
 decrease in pressure favors side with more moles of gas
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
 The equilibrium system: Example:
wA + xB ⇄ yC + zD State the direction in which each of the following equilibrium
The equilibrium constant: system will shift upon application of stress.
 Keq= [C]y [D]z a. Increase pressure in N2 + 2O2 ⇄ 2NO2
b. Increase conc. of Cl2 in PCl5 ⇄ PCl3 +Cl2
[A]w [B]x c. Increase temperature in
 The numerical value of Keq is calculated using the 2H2 + O2 ⇄ 2H2O + heat
concentrations of reactants and products that exist at d. Addition of catalyst in 2H2S + 3O2 ⇄ 2H2O + 2SO2
equilibrium.
LE CHATELIER PRINCIPLE
LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM  When stress is applied to a system in equilbrium, the
 The equation that shows that the concentrations of equilibrium will shift in such a manner as to relieve or
reactant and product are raised to the power neutralize the stress.
corresponding to the coefficients in the balanced
equation is equal to a constant. OTHER EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS:
Examples:
Express the following system in equilibrium constant: A. Ion product constant for water (Kw):
[NH3 ] 2  The product of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] and
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g); Keq = the [OH-] ion concentration each in moles/liter.
[N 2 ][H 2 ]3
 Kw= [H+] [OH-]
PCl5(g) ⇄ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g); Keq = [PCl3 ][Cl 2 ]  Kw= 1.00 x 10E-14
[PCl5 ]
Steps in calculating the Keq: Example:
1. Write the balance chemical equation 1. Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a 0.1
2. Express the chemical equation into equilibrium constant moles of 10 liters HCl solution.
3. Write the equilbrium concentrations in moles/liter Solution:
4. Finally, substitute the values in equilibrium constant Kw= [H+] [OH-]
equation then compute for keq. HCl= H (0.1 mol/10L) Cl (0.1 mol/10L)
[H+]= 0.1 moles/10L
Example problem: = 0.01 M
An equilibrium mixture of H2, I2 and HI gases at 425C consists [OH-]= 1.00 x 10E-14/0.01M
of 4.5647x10-3M, 7.7378x10-4M and 1.354x10-2M = 1.00 x 10E-12
respectively. Calculate the Keq of the system H2 + I2 ⇄ 2HI
Solution: Practice problem:
Practice Problem:  Calculate the concentration of H+ and OH- in a
An equilibrium mixture of H2, Br2 and HBr gases consists of 2 0.001M of NaOH . What is the pH of 0.001M of NaOH
moles, 4 moles and 3 moles respectively in a 2 liter container.
Calculate the Keq of the system : B. Ionization constant (ki)
2HBr ⇄ H2 + Br2  (Ka) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a
weak acid in water.
Interpreting Equilibrium Constant:  (kb) is the equilibrium constant for the ionization of a
 If Keq is greater than 1x102, mostly product is present weak base in water.
at equilibrium
 If Keq is less than 1x10-2, mostly reactant is present C. Solubility product constant (ksp)
at equilibrium  Is the equilibrium constant of a slightly soluble salt.
 If between, the equilibrium mixture contains both
reactants and products. COMPUTATION OF PH AND POH:
  The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is given by its pH.
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA:  pH represents the power of hydrogen ion or pOH the
1. Homogenous equilibria- substances are all in the power of hydronium ion.
same state of matter.  The following formula is used:
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g); pH= -log[H+] or pOH= -log[OH-]
CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇄ ⇄ CO2(g) + H2(g) pH+ pOH= 14
Example:
1. Calculate the pOH of the solution with a pH of 4.5
2. Heterogenous equilibria-substances are in different states. 2. Calculate the pH of a solution with [H+]=3.8x10-3
CaCO3(s) ⇄ CaO(s) + CO2(g); 3. Calculate the pOH of a solution with [H+]=5.9x10e-10
2+ -
PbCl2(s) ⇄ Pb (aq) + 2 Cl (aq) 4. What is the pH of 0.02moles of 20 liters KOH
solution?
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

Practice problem:  Isotopes- same number of Protons but different

Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions: number of Neutrons.
1. Solution with [H+]= 4.5 x 10-4  Allotropes- atoms of same element can link together
2. Solution with [OH-]= 5.6 x 10-5 in different ways to form substances with different
3. 0.02M of KOH properties
4. 0.5M of HCl
5. 4 moles of 10 liters NaOH solution Groupings based on electronic configuration:
Group A
BUFFER EQUATION  s block (Grp. IA and IIA)
BUFFERS- solutions that have the property of resisting  p block (Grp. IIIA to VIIIA)
changes in pH when acids and bases are added to them Group B
Two forms:  d block (Group IB to VIIIB)
1. Buffer Equation for Weak acids  f block (Lanthanides & Actinides)
2. Buffer Equation for Weak bases
A. REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS:
For weak acids:  Elements in Groups 1A through 7A
pH= pka+ log [salt]  Display wide range of properties
[WA]  Some are metals, or nonmetals, or metalloids; some
For weak bases: are solid, others are gases or liquids
pOH= pkb + log [WB]  Their outer s and p electron configurations are NOT
[salt] filled
Example problem: B. NOBLE GASES:
 You are provided with 0.035 moles of HCl and 0.065  Previously called “inert gases” because they rarely
moles of K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify take part in a reaction
the pH of 1 liter buffer solution.  Noble gases have an electron configuration that has
 You are provided with 2M of HCl and 4.5M of the outer s and p sublevels completely full
K2HPO4 solution (pka of HCl=4.74), identify the pH C. TRANSITION METALS:
and pOH of 1 liter buffer solution.  Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full,
 Calculate the Ph of a 100 ml buffer solution consisting and is now filling the “d” sublevel
of 0.2M of formic acid (pka=3.77) added to 10M of  A “transition” between the metal area and the
NaOH nonmetal area
 The compounds of transition metals are usually
THE PERIODIC TABLE brightly colored and are often used to color paints.
D. INNER TRANSITION METALS:
PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE DISCOVERY:  Electron configuration has the outer s sublevel full,
Antoine-Laurel Lavoisier and is now filling the “f” sublevel
 Introduce the first true periodic table  Formerly called “rare-earth” elements, but this is not
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner true because some are very abundant
 Introduce the law of triads GROUPINGS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE:
John Newlands 1. Periods- Horizontal rows (1-7)
 Introduce the law of octaves
Meyer and Mendeleev
(Germany, 1869)
 Physical and chemical properties are periodic functions of
their atomic weight.
Henry Moseley (England,1887-1915)
 Elements are arranged based on atomic numbers

THE PERIODIC TRENDS: 2. Families- Vertical rows (1-18/1-8 A,B)

1. Atomic Radius
 Right to left increases. Top to bottom increases

THE ALKALI METALS (GROUP IA)

 Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium
2. Electronegativity (Rb), Cesium (Cs), Francium (Fr)
 Left to right increases
 Going up increases HYDROGEN (H)
3. Ionization Potential  The lightest element
 Left to right increases  Element common to all acids
 Going up increases  Not a member of the family.
4. Electron affinity 3 isotopes of Hydrogen:
 Right to left increases 1. Protium
 Top to bottom increases 2. Deuterium
 Examples: 3. Tritium
Cl(g) + e  Cl (g)
- -

Ar(g) + e  Ar (g)
- - LITHIUM (Li)
 The lightest metal
TERMINOLOGIES:  One of the bridge element
 Ion- charged atom  Used in batteries
 Atomic number- Protons= Electrons  Depressant and DOC for Mania
 Mass number- Protons + Neutrons SODIUM (Na)
 Major extracellular cation
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

 Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical 2. Anticonvulsant (SO4)

utilities of organic medicaments 3. Lubricants (stearates)
 Pcol action: fluid retention 4. Clarifying and filtering (silicates)
POTASSIUM (K)
 Aka: Kalium CALCIUM (Ca)
nd
 Predominat intracellular cation  2 most abundant cation in extracellular fluid
 K salts are more soluble in non-polar solvents and are  Cation of hydroxyapatite
less deliquescent than sodium salts. Pcol action:
 Pcol action: diuretic, muscle contraction 1. Blood coagulation factor
 Deficiency: Hypokalemia 2. Important in muscle contraction
RUBIDIUM (Rb) and CESIUM (Cs) 3. Release of neurotransmitters
 Similar in behavior to K 4. Def state: osteoporosis, osteomalacia, ricketts
 No pharmacological significance Important compounds:
 Cesium- is the most active metal of Group IA 1. CaCO3- antacids
FRANCIUM (Fr) 2. CaCl2- calcium replenisher
 Exists only as an unstable radioactive species. 3. Ca(OH)2- antacid & saponifying agent
AMMONIA (NH3) 4. CaO- component of Bordeaux mixture
 Hypothetical alkali metal 5. Plaster of Paris and Gypsum
Pcol action:
1. Diuretic STRONTIUM (Sr)
2. Buffer Important compound:
3. Expectorant  SrCl2- temperature desensitizing agent
4. Anti-cariogenic
5. Respiratory stimulant BARIUM (Ba)
 The most active element of Group IIA
COINAGE METALS (GROUP IB)  Toxicity: Baritosis
 Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and Gold (Au)  Important compound: BaSO4

COPPER (Cu) RADIUM (Ra)

 Only reddish metal  Only radioactive element of the group
 Essential trace element Use for:
 Occurs in the respiratory pigment hemocyanin and 1. Cancer radiotherapy
cytochrome oxidase 2. Diagnostic purposes
 Important alloys: Brass and Bronze
 Toxicity: Willson’s disease THE VOLATILE METALS (GROUP IIB)
Important Compounds:  Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg)
1. Cu(AsO3)2.Cu(C2H3O2)2- Insecticide
2. CuSO4.5H2O- algaecide (ingredient in Bordeaux ZINC (Zn)
mixture)  Metal present in insulin
3. 64Cu isotope  Essential component of carbonic anhydrase and other
enzymes
SILVER (Ag)  Deficiency: Parakeratosis
Silver (Ag)
 AKA: Argentum CADMIUM (Cd)
 Pcol action: Oligodynamic property  Pcol action: astringent
 Toxicity: Argyria  Other use: manufacture of stink bomb, found in street
Important Compounds: lights
1. AgNO3- treatment of warts and eye antiseptic  Poisoning: Itai- itai dx
2. Ag(NH3)2NO3- Howe’s solution, dental protective
Ag proteinate: MERCURY (Hg)
1. Mild Ag proteinate- antiseptic for eye  AKA: Quicksilver
2. Strong Ag proteinate- germicide for ear and throat  Pcol action: Antiseptic, Treatment of syphilis,
3. Colloidal Ag proteinate- general germicide Paraciticidal and fungicidal
 Industrial use: thermometer and amalgams (alloy of
GOLD (Au) Hg)
 AKA: Aurum, shining dawn  Toxicity: Minamata
 Most malleable and ductile of all metals
 Best conductor of electricity THE BORON FAMILY (GROUP IIIA)
 This metal can be dissolve using Aqua Regia and  Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium
Selenic acid (In) and Thallium (Tl)
Important compounds: Boron (B)
1. Aurothioglucose IM  A metalloid element of the group
2. Gold Na Thiomalate (IM)  Bonding of this element tends to be more covalent
3. Auranofin (PO) than ionic
Antidote: Dimercaprol (BAL)  Use to inc. coefficient of expansion of glass

THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS (GROUP IIA) ALUMINUM (Al)

 Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca),  Most abundant metal
rd
Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)  3 most abundant element in the earth’s crust (in the
form of bauxite)
BERRYLIUM (Be)  This metal is capable of forming covalent and ionic
 One of the bridge element bond
 Least metallic of the group  Pcol actions: astringent, antiperspirant, deodorant and
 Never employed in medicine used for burn patients
 Metal used in fluorescent lamps GALLIUM (Ga)
 Has the lowest melting point of all the metals
MAGENSIUM (Mg)  Pcol action: appers in transferring an iron transport
nd
 2 most abundant intercellular cation CHON useful in treating cancer related hypercalcemia
 Metal component of chrolophyll  Industrial use: substitute for Hg in manufacture of arc
Important compounds: lamps
1. Antacids & laxative (Oxides, carbonates)
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

INDIUM (In)  Toxicity: PLUMBISM

 no pharmacological importance
METALS IN METALLURGY:
THALLIUM (Tl)
 toxic metal. Similar to arsenics 1) Misch metal: 70%Cs + 30%Fe
2) Pewter metal: 80%Sn + 20%Pb
THE SCANDIUM GROUP (GROUP IIIB) 3) Solder metal: 50%Sb + 50%Sn
 Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Actinium 4) Rose metal: 25%Sn + 25%Pb + 50%Bi
(Ac) and the two inner transition series (Lanthanides 5) Litophone: 30%ZnS + 70%BaS
and Actinides)
A. LANTHANIDES (58-71) (from lanthanum to THE TITANIUM FAMILY (GROUP IVB)
luthenium) occurs in mixture which are hard to TITANIUM (Ti)
separate  aka: Titan, sons of the earth
B. ACTINIDES (90-103) (Ac through Lr) prepared  Use: a powerful reducing agent
synthetically and only exist as radioactive isotopes  Silvery metal with high strength and resistant to
corrosion.
THE CARBON FAMILY (GROUP IVA) Important compound:
 Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn)  Titanium dioxide- opacifying agent and UV ray
and Lead (Pb) protectant
CARBON (C)
 Central element to life and natural intelligences ZIRCONIUM (Zr)
 Basic building unit of all organic compounds  Use: same as Aluminum but it is banned
 Inorganic compounds: carbonates, acetates, Official compounds:
tartrates and oxalates  Oxides- antiperspirant for athlete’s foot
 An abundant non-metallic, tetravalent element.  Carbonates- antiperspirant for athlete’s foot
Neither donate or receive electrons.  ZrSiO4- use as diamond like gem
Allotropes of Carbon:
A. Crystalline: Diamond & Graphite GROUP VA (THE NITROGEN FAMILY)
B. Amorphous form: Anthracite Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb) and Bismuth (Bi)
Important compounds:
1. CO2- Resp. stimulant, treatment of acne, warts and NITROGEN (N)
eczema  Aka: mephitic air
2. CO3- antacid, pharmaceutical aid  It is the most abundant gas in air.
3. CO- toxic form of carbon, has 210x greater affinity to  Prepared mainly by fractional distillation of liquid air.
hemoglobin than O2  Poisoning: Azotemia
4. Activate charcoal Important compounds:
1. Liquid nitrogen- used as refrigerant
SILICON (Si) Container: Black
nd
 2 most abundant element in the earth’s crust. 2. Nitrous oxide- inhalational anesthetic
 A tetravalent metalloid. It is less reactive than it’s Container: Blue
analog carbon. 3. Nitrite- vasodilator use for cyanide poisoning
 Toxicity: Silicosis 4. Nitrate- meat preservative
Forms of Silicon: 5. Ammonia- respiratory stimulant
1. Talc
 Softest mineral known PHOSPHOROUS (P)
 Aka: Light carrier, St. Elmo’s Fire
2. Glass  It has 2 allotropes:
 Generic term used to identify vitreous silicate 1. Yellow phosphorous- volatile, flammable, toxic and
material prepared by fusing base (Na2CO3 and very reactive
CaCO3) with pure silica. 2. Red phosphorous- non-volatile, flammable, non-toxic
Substances added to glass: MnO2, Borates, K ion, Pb and non reactive
Important compound:
 PO4: antacid, cathartic & buffer
Types of Glasses (USP)
a) Type I- highly resistant borosilicate glass ARSENIC (As)
b) Type II- treated soda lime glass  Aka: Lewisite metal
c) Type III- soda lime glass  It is used as a poison in Roman Empire through the
d) Type IV or NP- general soda lime glass Middle Ages and the Renaissance
3. Clays  Discovered by Albertus Magnus in 1250 and the first
 Kaolin- adsorbent preparation of this metal is founded by Paracelsus.
 Bentonite- suspending agent  As2O3 (white arsenic)- the arsenic of choice of
 Pumice- dental abrasives chronic poisoning
 Antidote: BAL, Mg(OH)2 po and DMSA IM
TIN (Sn)  Arsenic is a component of Salvarsan (discovered by
 AKA: stannum Paul Elrich)
 Occurs mainly as cassiterite, where it occurs as an Important compounds:
oxide. 1. As2O3- insecticide and anti-leukemic
 it is the classic alloying metal to make bronze. 2. Paris green- insecticide
 It is use in preparation of tin cans. 3. Fowler’s solution- insecticide
Important compounds:
1. SnF2- anticariogenic solution ANTIMONY (Sb)
2. SnO2- germicide for Staph infection Pcol actions:
1. Emetic and expectorant
LEAD (Pb) 2. Anti-helminthic (leishmaniasis)
 AKA: Plumbum 3. Anti-schistosomiasis (blood fluke- tx: tartar emetic)
 A soft heavy, toxic (neurotoxic) and malleable poor
metal. BISMUTH (Bi)
 A bluish white color metal when freshly cut but  Aka: Beautiful Meadow
tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air.  A stable element because of it’s long half life
 Occurs mainly as PbS in nature.  Industrial use: silvering of mirrors
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

 Internal protective for ulcer induced by H.pylori  is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard and brittle metal
infection (Bismuth subnitrate+ Bismuth Hydroxide)  Pcol: It serves as a glucose tolerance factor inside the
body
 Deficiency: Hyperglycemia
THE VANDANIUM FAMILY Important compound: K2Cr2O7
(GROUP VB)
TANTALUM (Ta) MOLYBDENUM (Mo)
 Metal that is not affected by any body fluid.  Comes from the Greek word “molybdos” meaning
 Sheet form use in repair of bones, nerves and tissues lead
 Use as pins, wires and plates to strengthen a broken  Pcol action: cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes
bone.  It is also involved in bacterial fixing of atmospheric
nitrogen
SUMMARY OF FLAME TESTS TUNGSTEN (W)
 Come from the Swedish language “tung sten”
meaning heavy stone
 It is a hard, rare metal with a very high melting point
 Alloys of these metals are used in incandescent light
bulb filaments and X-ray tubes
URANIUM (U)
 Element discovered by Becquerel
 A radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic
bombs
 It has no pharmaceutical use

CHALCOGENS (GROUP VIA) THE HALOGENS (GROUP VIIA)

Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) and Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine and Astatine
Polonium (Po) (At)

OXYGEN (O) FLUORINE (F)

 Aka: empyreal air  Exists as a pale yellow gas
 The most abundant element in the earth’s crust  The most electronegative element of the periodic
 Discovered by Joseph Priestly table
 Pcol use: tx of hypoxia/asphyxia  Fluoride compounds are use as anti-cariogenic
 It is a component of Artificial air agents
 Container: Green  Excessive amount in drinking water results to
fluorosis
SULFUR (S) Important compounds:
 Aka: brimstone, shubari and enemy of Copper 1. Fluorides- anti-cariogenic
 It occurs on the earth’s crust as a free element or in 2. Freons- refrigerant, aerosol propelant
combined form as metal sulfides and sulfates.
 Most sulfur compounds have a strong odor CHLORINE (Cl)
Forms of Sulfur:  Aka: dephlogesticated muriatic acid air
1. Monoclinic- rhombic sulfur that is heated to a temperature  Element with greenish yellow gas with a very
of 96C. suffocating odor
2. Mobile sulfur- monoclinic that is melted at a temperature of  Discovered by a swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm
113C Scheele
3. Viscous sulfur- result of continued heating of mobile sulfur Important compounds:
4. Amorphous sulfur- viscous that is cooled rapidly by 1. Chlorides- electrolyte replenisher
immersion in cold water. 2. Hypochlorites- bleaching agent
5. Rhombic sulfur 3. HCl- treatment of achlorhydria

Important Compounds: BROMINE (Br)

1. Elemental sulfur- fungicidal  A fuming reddish brown liquid in room temperature,
2. Sublimed sulfur- cathartic corrosive and toxic
3. Precipitated sulfur- scabicide  Bromine comes from the Greek word “bromos”
4. Sulfurated potash- tx for psoriasis meaning strong smelling
5. White Lotion USP- scabicidal  Bromide compounds have sedative and CNS
6. Sodium metabisulfite- antioxidant, preservative depressant action
 Poisoning: Brominism (NaCl and Ammonia)
SELENIUM (Se)
 Aka: Selene, Moon IODINE (I)
 An essential trace element  Exists as a brown solid at room temperature
 Promotes absorption of Vitamin E  Elemental Iodine is known as one of the oldest known
Important compounds: germicides in use today.
1. Selenomethionine  Pcol action: component of thyroxine and
2. SeS2- tx of sebborheic dermatitis triiodothyroxine
 Iodide compounds have an expectorant action.
TELLURIUM (Te) Important compounds:
 Occur much less abundant than sulfur. It is found 1. Povidone-Iodine
along with sulfur in metal sulfides and are recovered 2. Strong Iodine solution
in some quantity from Pb and Cu refining process. 3. Iodine tincture
POLONIUM (Po)
 Occurs only in the form of radioisotopes as a result of ASTATINE (At)
decay of the actinide elements.  The only metallic halogen
 The only synthetic
CHROMIUM GROUP (GROUP VIB )  The only radioactive halogen
Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), Tungsten (W), and
Uranium (U) (MANGANESE GROUP (GROUP VIIB)
Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), and Rhenium (Re)
CHROMIUM (Cr)
 Comes from the Greek word “chroma” General Properties:
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)
st
 The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in this  The 1 triad are the only elements in the periodic
group is Mn. Tc is a product of radioactive decay. table that exhibits magnetic properties at room
Rhenium is extremely rare. temperature.
nd rd
 The 2 and 3 triad along with Au, Ag and Hg are
MANGANESE (Mn) sometimes called the noble metals because they
 A silvery gray metal that resembles iron. show low reactivity.
 This element occurs mainly as the oxide (MnO2) in
nature. IRON (Fe)
 Compounds with 2+ oxidation state is a good  Fe meaning “ferrum”
reducing agent and MnO4 (permanganates) are good  The first production of this metal started from the
oxidizing agent. middle bronze age.
 Pcol action: cofactor in protein synthesis, and  It is not found free in nature, the chief source in
important in activation of pyruvate carboxylase (vital industry is hematite.
role in human metabolic function)  The sulfide form, Fe2S3 looks similar to gold.
 Industrial use: production of metal alloys  (IRON) In the body it is present in:
 Poisoning: Parkinson-like symptoms a) Hemoglobin
Important compound of Mn: b) Transferrin
1) KMnO4- oxidizing agent and antiseptic (0.02%) and c) Ferritin
as a gastric lavage for various alkaloidal poisoning. d) Cytochrome oxidase
Identification tests for Mn:  It enhances the absorption of ascorbic acid and
1) H2S: salmon or flesh colored ppt. of MnS copper
2) NaBiO3: purple solution of HMnO4  Main use: Hematinic
 Deficiency: IDA
TECHNETIUM (Tc)  Group VIIIB (The Triads)
 Came from the greek word “technetos”  Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse
st
 It was the 1 element produced artificially  Antidote: Deferoxamine
 Use: preparation of radiopharmaceuticals Important compounds:
1) FeSO4
NOBLE GASES (GROUP VIIIA) 2) Ferrous gluconate- less irritating Fe salt
Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon 3) Ferrous fumarate- high elemental Fe content
(Xe) and Radon (Rn) 4) Iron Dextran & Iron Sorbitex Inj.
General Properties:
 This element are inactive. It maybe explained on the
basis of their atomic structure. Helium (2e) and the
rest have (8e) in outermost shell.
• Group VIIIA (Noble Gases)
Helium (He)
 Come from the name of an Ancient Greek God
“Helios”
 It was first discovered by scientists as a bright yellow
line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the sun.
Uses of Helium: COBALT (Co)
1) Carrier / diluent of medically important gases  In nature, cobalt is usually found associated with
2) Component of artificial gas arsenical ores.
3) Use as an alternative for nitrogen in gas tanks and  Most ores of this element contains water of hydration
alternative for H in balloons and are red in color.
 Container: Brown  Elemental component of Vit. B12
 Toxicity: Donald-duck like sound  Pcol action: essential in development of erythrocyte
and hemoglobin
NEON (Ne)  Deficiency of cobalt: Megaloblastic anemia
 Use in advertising. It produces an unmistakable bright Identification tests:
reddish-orange light. 1) NH4OH: pink ppt. of Co(OH)2 which dissolves upon
 Other lights are just referred to as “neon lights” addition of an excess reagent forming
2) KNO2, HAc: yellow ppt. of K3Co(NO2)6
ARGON (Ag)
 It is the most abundant noble gas. It is a byproduct of NICKEL (Ni)
the fractionation of liquid air.  Aka: old nick’s copper
 Metal use in fake/fancy jewelries
KRYPTON (Kr)  Important compound: Nickel pectinate- tx of diarrhea
 came from the Greek word, “kryptos” meaning the Identification tests:
hidden one. It has an inhalational anesthetic activity. 1) NH4OH: green ppt. of Ni(OH)2 which dissolves in
excess reagent
XENON (Xe) 2) Dimethylglyoxime, NH3: red ppt.
 With investigational anesthetic activity
OSMIUM (Os)
RADON (Rn)  Heaviest/ densest metal
 The synthetic noble gas Important compounds:
 Used for treatment of cervical cancer 1) Osmic acid
2) Osmium tetroxide- used in microorganism staining
THE TRIADS (GROUP VIIIB)
PLATINUM (Pt)
st
1 Triad (The Iron Triad)  Industrial use: catalyst in finely divided steel
 Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni)  Pharmaceutical products available:
nd
2 triad 1) Cisplatin
 Ruthenium (Re), Rhodium (Ro) and Palladium 2) Carboplatin
rd
3 triad
 Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir) &Platinum (Pt)

 All Group VIIIA elements are grayish-white metals

with high melting and boiling points.
OLFU AC College of Pharmacy- REVIEWER ON MODULE 1 (PCI)

ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL IONS

ESSENTIAL IONS:

1) Iron- constituent of hemoglobin.

2) Iodine- constituent of thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
3) Zinc- constituent of insulin, carbonic anhydrase &
lactic dehydrogenase
4) Sulfur- constituent of proteins, mucopolysaccharides,
biotin, thiamine & lipoic acid
5) Cobalt- constituent of Vitamin B12
6) Manganese- cofactor for a number of enzymes like
arginase, carboxylase and kinases
7) Copper- essential for the formation of hemoglobin &
constituent of oxides enzymes
8) Chromium- involved in carbohydrate utilization
9) Molybdenum- constituent of xanthine oxidase &
aldehyde oxidase
10) Selenium- constituent of factor 3 acts with Vit E

B. NON-ESSENTIAL IONS:

1) Fluoride- anticariogenic
2) Bromide- sedative, CNS depressant and hypnotic
3) Arsenic- depressant for epilepsy and used to treat
leukemia
4) Lithium- diuretic and used in manic-depressive
disorder
5) Gold- used in rheumatism and SLE
6) Aluminum- astringent, antiseptic and deodorant
7) Silver- antiseptic, astringent (irritant to corrosive)
8) Mercury- diuretic, antiseptic, parasiticide and
fungicide
9) Strontium- sedative, treatment of osteoporosis,
dentrifice and tooth temperature desensitizing agent
10) Chromium- play some role in glucose tolerance of
some diabetics, old people and malnourished people

INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ELECTROLYTES

A. Intracellular ions:
1) Potassium- major intracellular cation
nd
2) Magnesium- The 2 abundant intracellular cation
3) Calcium- 1% found in intracellular fluid
4) Phosphate- major intracellular anion

B. Extracellular ions:
1) Sodium- major extracellular cation
2) Chloride- major extracellular anion

PHYSIOLOGICAL BUFFERS
1) Carbonic acid & Bicarbonate- Primary buffer of ECF
2) Phosphate & Dihydrogen Phosphate- Urinary buffer/
also a buffer of ICF
3) Hemoglobin & Proteins- Primary buffer of ICF

Official Combination Electrolyte Infusions:

1) Ringers Injection USP:
(NaCl, KCl and CaCl2)
2) Lactated Ringers Injection USP:
(NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 and Na lactate)
3) Oral electrolytes- intended as soon as intake of usual
foods and fluids is discontinued and before serious
fluid looses or deficit occurs.

PREPARED BY:

DAN LESTER P. BACALZO, RPH

Instructor-College of Pharmacy