Educational aims are necessary in giving direction to educational activity.
To have aim is a logical prerequisite of any purposeful acticivty.
An aim is a conscious purpose which we set before us, while launching upon any activity.
Just like that education is also unthinkable without aims. If there are no aims the
educational process would not take place because an aim is a pre-determined goal which
inspires the activity of education. If the aims all clear, definite and meaningful then the
activity will go on till the end goal is achieved.
Aim is an anticipated outcome that is intended or that guides your planned actions. An aim
gives direction to an activity it allows one to know what to expect from the start.
Q1. Differentiate between individual and social aims of education. How can these
aims of education be synthesized? Explain.
Ans:
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in view the needs of
situation. Human nature is multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational
aims are correlated to ideals of life.
Ideals of life change from time to time. Ideals have impressed to teacher, philosophers and society
to formulate suitable aims of education. Aims have been desirably modified. Out of several aims of
education, individual and social aims are important.
Individual and Social Aims:
Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of education. They are opposed to
each other individual aims gives importance for the development of the individuality. Social aim
gives importance to the development of society through individual not fulfilling his desire. But it
will be seen that development of individuality assumes meaning only in a social environment.
Individual Aims
Sir Percy Nunn observes, “Nothing goods enters into the human world except in and through the
free activities of individual men and women and that educational practice must be shaped the
individual. Education should give scope to develop the inborn potentialities through maximum
freedom.”
Because:
(1) Biologists believe that every individual is different from others. Every child is a new and unique
product and a new experiment with life. Thompson says, “Education is for the individual”.
Individual should be the center of all educational efforts and activities.
(2) Naturalists believe that central aim of education is the autonomous development of the
individual. Rousseau said, “Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature,
but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” God makes all things good, man meddles with
them and they become evil. God creates everything good man makes it evil. So individual should
be given maximum freedom for its own development.
(3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual process because of individual differences.
No two individuals are alike. So education should be according to the interest of the individual.
Criticism of Individual Aim:
Individual aim is not desirable because man is a social animal. Society’s interest should be
protected.
(1) Individual aim makes individual selfish.
(2) Maximum freedom may go against the society.
(3) Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a social atmosphere.
(4) Unless society develops, individual cannot develop.
(5) Who will recognize society- where individual is selfish?
Social Aim:
The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real. The individual is only a means. The
progress of the society is the aim of education. Education is a for the society and of the society.
The function of education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the individual as it
desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles in society. Individuality has no value, and
personality is meaningless apart from society. If society will develop individual will develop
automatically. Here society plays an important role.
Criticism of Social Aim:
(1) It makes individual only a tool of government.
(2) It reduces individual to a mere non-entity.
(3) Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of the individual.
(4) It is against the development of individuality of the individual.
Synthesis between individual and social aims of education:
Individual aim and social aim of education go independently. Both are opposing to each other. It is
not in reality. Neither the individual nor the society can exist. The individual is the product of the
society while society finds its advancement in the development of its individual member.
Individual cannot develop in vacuum. According to John Adams, “Individuality requires a social
medium to grow.” T.P. Nunn says,” Individuality develops in social environment.”
Conclusion:
The true aim of education cannot be other than the highest development of the individual as a
member of society. Let education burn the individual flame, feeding it with the oil of society.
Notes on the individual and social aims of Education
Like any other human activity, education should have its own aims and objectives. Since education
changes according to the changing needs and conditions of the society, the aims of education also
vary from time to time in the same society and from society to society at a particular point of time.
As ideals of life change from time to time, aims of education also change accordingly. T.P. Nunn
has, therefore, said, “Educational aims are correlative to ideals of life”.
Like a sailor in a vessel, an educator has to direct his activities in a particular direction. This
direction means that aids of education, lessons, methods of teaching, school organization,
teaching materials and examination methods adopted by the teacher are all directed towards
these aims.
Without particular aims, educational activities cannot be meaningful and purposeful. Dewey has
rightly pointed out “to have an-aim is to act with meaning not like an automatic machine; it is to
mean to do something and to perceive the meaning of things in the light of that intent”. Thus,
education in order to be effective and useful has to have its own aims and objectives.
Individual Aims of Education:
Education prepares the pupil for becoming good individuals. Good individuals can realize his rights
and perform his duties properly. The school should do its best for developing the child’s
personality in all aspects and for bringing out his innate abilities to their full growth. T.P. Nunn, a
strong advocate of individualism in education, has forcefully laid down “that nothing good enters
into the human world except in and through the free activities of individual man and woman and
that educational practice must be shaped to accord with that truth”.
Bertrand Russell, another distinguished individualist argues that everybody should be a good
individual first and then everything else. The potentialities of an individual should be developed at
first and then be utilized for him as well as for the society.
Russell has further pointed out that if individualism is not properly developed, none can achieve
distinction in life. Laski, Huxley and Proper, the famous supporters of individualism have also
opined that the welfare of the society can be built upon the well-being of the individuals.
Social Aims of Education
Man lives and gets his needs satisfied only in the society. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher has
aptly said that the man who does not live in the society is either a god or a beast.
According to the social aim of education, the individual has to be prepared as an integral part of
the society. There should be full control of the society over the individual.
The extreme form of social aim of education views the state as the glorified individual. The state
therefore, must have absolute control over the lives and activities of the individuals. Education is
the means of exercising this control. The will of the state is to be reflected in the curriculum,
methods and materials of the education system.
In the ancient Sparta, a Greek city State and modern Germany under Nazi regime, such state
control on education was excessive. The whole education was an exercise of obedience and brutal
punishment was given for any misconduct or disobedience.
Another group of educationists like Bagley and Dewey hold that social aim of education is to bring
about social efficiency in the individual. Such social efficiency is the test for judging the success of
educational practice.
The social aim of education should also take the form of social service and citizenship training. The
spirit of service, sacrifice and co-operation should be developed through all the school
programmes and practices.
Notes on Synthesis of Individual and Social Aims of Education
It goes without saying that abilities of individuals should be developed to the maximum and
adequate freedoms as well as facilities are to be provided by the society for the purpose. It is to be
realized that social progress is possible only through the development of individuals.
Education as a powerful instrument of social development cannot be effective unless the
development of individuals is achieved. There should not be any conflict between the
development of the individual and that of the society.
The concept of State as a glorified individual is quite unacceptable now-a-days. Unrequestioning
obedience to the State is no longer supported. The cry of “my country, right or wrong” is not a
praise-worthy slogan. The blind glorification of “faherland” or “motherland” is not tenable in this
age of international brotherhood. Hence social service and citizenship training should be the
desirable aims of education.
Schools should teach all pupils their duties and rights of the citizen so that they should behave
properly. Social well-being can be realized through the self- realization of the individuals. Ross has
rightly said, ‘Thus individuality is of no values, and personality is a meaningless term apart from
the social environment in which they are developed and manifest. Self-realization can be achieved
only through social service, and social ideals of real value can come into being only through free
individuals who have developed value individuality. The circle cannot be broken.”
Man by nature is not self-sufficing. He is a social creature and must have his fulfilment in the
society. Education must provide necessary freedom and facility for full satisfaction of individual
needs. But by that, social welfare should not be sacrificed. Uncontrolled freedom in education will
result in undesirable growth of chaos and indiscipline. It is to be accepted that individuals can
grow only in a peaceful and disciplined social environment.
In democratic countries like USA, UK, India and France, a desirable balance is struck between the
individual aims and social aims of education. Attempts are made to facilitate highest development
of the individual’s personality and at the same time to create interest in social living and activities.
Education in democracy also seeks to develop in him the desired qualities of the “good citizen” like
sympathy understanding, fellow-feeling and co-operation. It also imparts training in citizenship
which satisfies individual needs as well as social requirements.
The conflict between the social and individual interests is solved for mutual benefit of all. The
Constitution of India has guaranteed individual freedom as well as social well-being and cohesion.
The Sovereign Socialistic and Democratic Republic tries to promote all-round development of
individuals and through it, seeks to realize the State welfare.
The Directive Principles of State Policy and the various Acts enacted from time to time are all
conducive to both social and individual well-being. A happy synthesis of social as well as individual
aims of education is brought about in all the democratic countries of the world.
Short essay on the Social aim of education
Society or State alone is real.
The supporters of social aim of education believe that society or state alone is real, and the
individual is only a means, and therefore, must always work for the welfare and progress of the
society or the state. They, therefore, hold that an individual should be educated for the good of
society.
The interests of society are supreme; and the position of the individual is always subordinated to
that of the state, the supporters of social aim cannot think of an individual living and developing in
isolation from society. As Raymont says, “An isolated individual is only a figment of the
imagination.” As long as human beings are living in society, there will be some subordination of
individuality to public or social needs of society.
Highlights
(a) Extreme Form
(i) State-an idealized metaphysical entity.
(ii) Education for willing acceptance of authority.
(iii) The example of Ancient Greece.
(iv) Examples of Germany and Italy. Criticism of Extreme Form
(i) Individual, a non-entity.
(ii) No scope for the free will of individual.
(iii) Individual to work only for the good of the state.
(iv) Narrow citizenship.
(b) Liberal View
(i) Making individual socially efficient.
(ii) Recent democratic trends.
State-Idealised Super-human Entity:
The social aim, in its extreme form, regards the state as “idealized super-human entity, over and
above the individual.” The state or society alone is the reality, and the individual is only “a throb in
the social pulse.”
They believe that “Individuality is of no value, and personality a meaningless term apart from the
social environment in which they are developed and made manifest.” Therefore, the function of
education, according to the social aim, is to work consistently for the welfare of the state,
subordinating the welfare of the individual to that of the state. Hence, the state is to control and
direct every affair in life including education
which is but a means of shaping its citizens into a certain mould. The state has the right to mould
and shape the individual, so as to suit its own purposes and progress. It uses education as the
most convenient means for preparing individuals to play different roles in society.
The curriculum as well as the methods of education is also the complete monopoly of the state
and the individual has no choice to develop his powers and capacities in his own way. He is only to
obey what the authorities dictate. His needs, urges and nature are completely ignored.
Education through Social Control
The exponents of this school of thought believe in imparting education through social control and
their emphasis in the educational process is on strict discipline and obedience. In the end, it is the
state which determines the field where the services of the individual are most needed, and not
where he can do his best according to his own ability and aptitude. The state is supreme to dictate
what shall be taught and how shall be taught. Discipline is its watchword, willing acceptance of
authority is the method, and obedience is the rule.
Criticism of the Social Aim of Education
This is certainly very one-sided view. First, Social aim in its extreme form can never be accepted, as
it reduces the individual to a mere non-entity. Secondly, the extreme notion of the all-powerful
state or society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of the individual, and
suppresses his creative power.
Thirdly, it tries to make the individual only a tool of the government, and demands unquestioning,
obedience and loyalty from the individual. Fourthly, this is against all concepts of education and
individual development. Therefore, social aim in its extreme form can never be justified and
therefore, can never be accepted.
Synthesis of Individual and Social Aims.
The above discussion about the individual and social aims of education is likely to give the
impression that the individual aim is opposed to the social aim. But, in reality it is not so. These
two types of aims may be opposed to each other if stressed in their extreme form. But, if their
sharp edges are rounded off, they become rather complimentary to each other.
The individual aim, if stressed greatly, will produce egoists, while extreme emphasis on social aim
will create suppressed personalities. Therefore, the extreme form of either of the two should be
avoided.
Highlights
(i) Synthesis possible.
(ii) Individual and Society Complementary.
(iii) Rousseau’s view not acceptable.
(iv) Ross’s View
(v) Conclusion-the true aim of education cannot be other than the highest development of the
individual as a member of the society.
Individual and Society Complementary
If we examine both the aims dispassionately, we shall find that neither the individual nor the
society can exist without each other. The individual is the product of society, while the society
finds its advancement in the development of its individual members. It must be admitted that the
individual cannot develop in vacuum. He is a social animal.
In all walks of life, he is influenced by all who surround him. He cannot escape the cultural
influences of the society. These influences -shape the personality make up of man. His
potentialities are stimulated by the environmental forces. Therefore, individuality cannot and
should not be emphasised by neglecting general human ideals.
In the words of Sir John Adam, “Individuality requires a social medium to grow, without social
contacts we are not human.” Thus, both the schools of thought have made valuable contribution
to the art and science of education.
Synthesis-an Ideal Condition
A synthesis of the two aims will be the ideal condition. The school should try to develop the
individuality of each child through social contacts and social control, with maximum possible
freedom for each individual. “Individuality is not a private possession, but is the means through
which real good can enter the world. The good of all is the good of each.” So, the real aim of
education may be defined as “the highest development of the individual as member of the
society.”
Individual and Society-Functionally Related.
Therefore, we may add that the individual and the society may both be regarded as equally
important, neither of the two being absolutely independent of the other. “Instead of being
regarded as isolated entities, the individual and the society should be considered as functionally
related to each other; the individual acting on the individual.” The personality of the individual has
to be developed, but, this cannot be done in isolation. The individual personality is essentially a
product of the interaction between the individual and society.
Individual Freedom has its Limits.
The claims of the individual as well as the society are usually important. The individual has the
right to live life of its own, according to one’s needs and desires. He must have the freedom to
develop himself according to its potentialities and capacities. But, his freedom must have its limits.
Freedom cannot be allowed to degenerate into licence; because, the right to freedom of
everybody has to be protected.
It is here that the society or the state has to intervene. The function of the society and the state
should be to see that the freedom of every individual is safe-guarded. But, the state should not go
beyond this. The state or the society should not curb this freedom of the individual to such an
extent that his very growth and development is thwarted.
On the other hand the state should do everything possible to promote the happiness and welfare
of each and every member of the society. The individual should think it as his sacred duty to work
for the welfare and progress of the whole of the society. Both individual and the society should
work for a common objective. Both have their own spheres of action and work; and they should
not try to cross the boundaries of their own jurisdiction. In this way, their role will be
complementary to each other, and the individuals as well as the society will grow and develop
simultaneously.
Conclusion
In the end, we say that in a truly democratic society, the true aim of education cannot be other
than the highest development of the individual as a member of the society. The most practical
approach would be to let education burn the individual flame, feeding it with the oil of society. Let
the light of this flame illumine the social horizon, shedding away all the prevailing darkness.
AIMS OF EDUCATION-INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL.
Aims of Education
Education is a social necessity.It take care of the changing social needs and aspirations. It is an
activity which is directed to some goals. It always acts with an aim.This aim makes it a purposeful
activity.The basic aim of education is to help each individual to progress towards the attainment of
his full potential, both as a person and as a member of society. Any other human activities like
education should have its own aims and objectives.
Knowledge aim of education
Knowledge has almost been widely accepted as one of the most important aims of education . It is
essential for adjustment to and mastery of one’s environment.Human progress through ages has
been made possible through the increase and diffussion of knowledge.It is indispensable for the
continuity and growth of society. It is a powerful agent for intellectual satisfaction and innate
curiosity of man.
Vocational aim of education
It says that education is meaningful only when it aims at some employment.It is the direct
outcome of industrial and scientific advancement.The modern democratic education has placed
the vocational aim in its fore front.It makes the student self sufficient in life.It makes education a
purposeful activity. The vocational aim ,however is narrow and one sided because it does not
consider higher values of human existence.It neglects the intellectual,aesthetic,cultural ,moral and
spiritual aspects of human life.
Cultural aim of education
Preservation, transmission and enrichment of culture is regarded as the ultimate aim of education.
Education for culture attempts to develop man’s aesthetic sensibilities to appreciate fine arts
and cultivate human powers and virtues.It helps in inculcation of noble ideas,attitudes and pattern
of behavior.Over emphasis on cultural aim,however will lead to neglect of other aspects of
leaner’s personality.Education with cultural aim alone may be misused by the privileged group in
such a manner that many of the social evils may reappear.
Character building aim of education
Development of moral character is the supreme aim of education.It consists in the cultivation of
values , social attitudes , ethical conduct and habits of a person.The moral aim of education serves
as the basis of descipline and order in the school system .Over emphasis on the character building
aim of education will,however,deacelerate free thinking,material prosperity,scientific
development and the economic growth of the society.
Citizenship aim of education
Education for citizenship is the outcome of the sociological approach to education.It involves
teaching and inculcating democratic values in the children.Education for citizenship should train
the individuals to discharge his duties and make him conscious of his rights.This aim will help the
learner to acquire democratic values such as liberty,fraternity,equality,fellow-feeling,tolerance,co
operative living etc.It prepares the students to upheld the dignity of the individual.
Harmonious Development aim of education
Man is born with many powers and capacities.A progressive education should aim to develop all
these powers and capacities in a harmonious manner to produce a well balanced personality.It
aims to produce individuals who are personally and socially well adjusted and productive.It s major
drawbackis that,there is no agreement among educationists regarding the standard of
development of various capacities to consider it as ideally harmonious.Moreover, complete and
harmonious cultivation of all powers cannot be achieved within the limited formative years of an
individual.
Spiritual aim of education
Spiritual aim in education seeks to make man morally sound by developing the spiritual
potentialities.It is only through education that spiritual virtues like generosity,sacrifice,good
intention,sympathy, compassion etccan be awakened.Spiritual aim of education makes a person
gentle and pious.It reduces the problems of indiscipline,conflicts,quarrels,corruption,hatred etc in
the society.
Leisure aim of education
Leisure means free and unoccupied time.The advancements in science,technology and means of
transport and communication has reduced time and space resulting in the increase of leisure
hours. Hence education should aim at the wise and the proper use of leisure hours.Proper use of
leisure will increase the efficiency of the students besides providing pleasure to them.Leisure is
essential and helpful in making our life dynamic and rich.One great cause of strikes and indiscipline
among the students is that they are not taught how to utilize their leisure hours.
INDIVIDUAL AIM OF EDUCATION
Individual aim emphasizes the development of the individuality of the learner according to his
natural tendencies.It holds the central notion that individual should be in the forefront of the
educational process.It wants to foster the free growth of the individuality of the learner,helping
him to achieve the highest degree of individual development in social context.
Individual aim of education means that education should develop individuals according to their
interest capacities and specialities.It should be noted that individual aim of education is not a new
aim.In ancient india,Greece and some other countries also this aim was given due importance and
prime position.In the present times also,since the entry of psychology in the field of
education,rousseau,Pestalozzi,Frobel T.P Nunn and other eminent educationists have again
started giving greater emphasis on the individual aim of education.In the following lines we are
throwing light on the narrow and wider meanings of this aim.
Narrow Meanig of Individual Aim
In It’s narrow sense, individual aim is known as self-expressin,all-round development of the child is
natural development also.In it’s narrow sense,individual aim is based on the philosophy of
naturalization’ according to which education should develop the unique individuality of a child in
accordance with his instincts.History reveals the fact that it was roussaeu who first of all
advocated this aim though his insistence on education in the lapse of nature according to the
nature of the child, but after him some other educationists also emphasized the importance of this
aim.Amongst such educationists sir Percy Nunn of England is the chief-supporter and hence ranks
at the top of the list.He holds that the cental aim of education is ‘the autonomous development of
the individual’.In his famous book Education, Its Data and the first principles’ he says “Nothing
good enters in to the human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and
women, and that the educational practice must be shaped to accord with its truth”.In the second
chapter of his book Nunn further remarks that each specie is moving towards perfection
.Hence,individual aim is according to nature.Thus, in it’s narrow sense,individual aim of education
emphasizes self-expression or natural development of the child so that after receiving education
according to his interests,inclinations,capacities and needs, the child is able to choose a vocation
according to his nature.
Wider Meaning of individual Aim
In its wider sense,individual aim is known as self-realization. Psychology also corroborates the
development of individuality. This is because psychological researches have clarly established the
fact that each individual is born with his own peculiar and distinct innate tendencies and
capacities. Hence,it is the prime function of education to develop each individual fully and
completely according to his or her interests, inclinations, aptitucles and capacities in such a way
that he or she becomes an able and capable person. Inother words, education of the individual
should be planned with a view to individual good as well as the good of the society of which he is
an integral part.
sir Percy Nunn reveals himself as a naturalist when he argues in favour of individual aim on the
basis of biological phenomena in the second chapter of his book. But this is not the reality.
Actually Nunn believes that if an individual is cut away from society, he can not develop himself in
any way.
Social am of education
The social aim of education is based on the assumption that the society is superior to the
individual. Thus the aim of education should be the good of the society. It should aim to meet the
needs of the society and ensure the welfare of the state. The social aim of education will help to
strengthen social qualities like loyality, co-operation, sacrifice equity etc. it will make man civilized
and bring secucity, peace and justice in society.
Some educationists have laid greater emphasis upon the social aim of education so that education
develops in the children social feeling which will make them contribute their utmost to meet the
demands of society after meeting their own needs. These educations evaluate the society higher
than the individual. They believe that man is asocial being. He cannot live without society.In case
he is cut off from the society, it will be very difficult for him to remain alive.
Narrow meaning of social aim
In its narrow meaning ,social aim of education is equated with state socialism. In this sense,liberty
of the individual is totally curtailed and all aspects of individual can not even dream of his
individual life are socialized.Any individual can not even dream of his individual identity.He is
expected to sacrifies his everything,even his life for the good welfare to the state.As such the state
frames such a scheme of education thought which it is able to control the aims, curriculam and the
methods of teaching. Individuals are subjected to rigid discipline to cueb their sense of identity
and individualism.
Wider meaning desire one of social aim
In its wider sense the social aim is equated with democratic socialism.In this sense it does not
accept the importance of state, but at the some time does not agree with the insignificance of the
individual before the state. Thus in its wide meaning, the social aim grants liberty to the individual
to enjoy certain rights to develop his personality but at the same time expects from the individual
to serve the state to best of his ability and capacity. India and other democratic countries where
democracy has been combined with socialism. It may be noted that true citizens are greatly
essential for the progress and prosperity of the state.Therefore all the democratic states having
accepted the individual aim of education in its wider meaning, indifferent forms.The American
educationist John Dewey and Bagley have also accepted the wider meaning of social aim.
Prof.Bagley in his book ‘Education values’ have mentioned three chief characteristics of a socially
efficient individual.They are 1)Ecoomic efficiency,2)Negative morality and3)positive morality.By
economic efficiency he means ability to pull one’s onen weight in the economic life.By negative
morality he means willingness to sacrifies one’s desire when their gratification would interfeace
with the economic efficiency of others.By positive morality he means willingness to sacrifies one’s
quen desires when their gratification would not contribute, directly or indirectly to social
progress.In this way socially efficient individual is not a parasite on any member of society.He is a
good citizen to understand and appreciate the world and is ready to sacrifies his own desires if
they are harmful for others.
The Draft NEP (Ministry of Human Resource
Development, 2019) is suggesting significant
changes to the structure of schooling at different
grades. 39
39 Ministry of Human Resource Development (2019: 75)
A new developmentally appropriate
curriculum and pedagogical structure for
school education: 5 + 3 + 3 + 4 design.
The curricular and pedagogical structure of school education will be
reconfigured to make them responsive and relevant to the developmental
needs and interests of learners at different stages of their development,
corresponding to the age ranges of 3-8, 8-11, 11-14, and 14-18 years,
respectively.
The curricular and pedagogical structure and the curricular framework for
school education will therefore be guided by a 5+3+3+4 design:
• 5 years of the Foundational Stage: 3 years of pre-primary school
and Grades 1, 2.
• 3 years of the Preparatory (or Latter Primary) Stage: Grades 3, 4, 5.
• 3 years of the Middle (or Upper Primary) Stage: Grades 6, 7, 8.
• 4 years of the High (or Secondary) Stage: Grades 9, 10, 11, 12.
2.1 The Education System in India
Education in India is the joint responsibility of the central and state
governments, and
educational rights are provided for within the Constitution (GoI, 1949).
Following the
recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1968 and
subsequently
by NPE 1986, attempts are being made to adopt a common structure of
schooling
across the country. The general pattern adopted at the national level,
commonly
known as the 10+2+3 pattern, envisages a broad-based general education for
all pupils
during the first ten years of schooling. Diversification of courses takes place
only at
the higher secondary level (grades 11 and 12), and is reliant on students
successfully
completing the secondary school examination at the end of grade 10.
Successful
completion of the public examination at the end of grade 12 qualifies the
student for
university entry. Of these twelve years of schooling, the first eight years are
termed
‘elementary education’, and this should broadly correspond to the compulsory
education period of 6-14 years of age.
At the operational level, elementary school is generally divided into two parts
with
five years of primary schooling (grades 1-5) followed by three years of upper
primary
or middle school (grades 6-8). While the above description (also see Figure 1
below)
gives the general picture found in national level, actual decisions regarding the
organization and structure of school education are the prerogative of state
governments. Consequently, considerable variations are found in the
organizational
patterns of schooling across the different states of India. Several states follow
patterns
in which elementary schooling consists of seven years, divided into four years
of
primary followed by three years of upper primary. Thus, even while grade 8 is
part of
the compulsory education age range, it is part of the secondary school cycle.
Correspondingly, the length of secondary schooling also varies, ‘while in 22
states/UTs, secondary stage consists of classes IX and X, it consists of classes
VIII,
IX and X in 13 states/UTs’ (GoI, 2003a: 1). Variation is also found at the higher
secondary level; in some states the higher secondary stage is part of collegiate
education known as junior college.
