IDSA GUIDELINES

International Clinical Practice Guidelines for the

Treatment of Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis and
Pyelonephritis in Women: A 2010 Update by the
Infectious Diseases Society of America and the

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European Society for Microbiology and
Infectious Diseases
Kalpana Gupta,1 Thomas M. Hooton,2 Kurt G. Naber,9 Björn Wullt,10 Richard Colgan,3 Loren G. Miller,4
Gregory J. Moran,5 Lindsay E. Nicolle,8 Raul Raz,11 Anthony J. Schaeffer,6 and David E. Soper7
1Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Boston Health Care System and Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; 2Department of

Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami Florida; 3Department of Family and Community Medicine, University
of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, 4Division of Infectious Diseases, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, and 5Department of Emergency Medicine and
Division of Infectious Diseases Olive View-UCLA Medical Center, Slymar, California; 6Deptartment of urology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois; and
7Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina; 8Department of Internal

Medicine and Department of Medical Mirobiology University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada; 9Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; 10Lund
University Hospital, Lund, Sweden; and 11Infectious Diseases Unit, Ha'Emek Medical Center, Afula, and Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel

A Panel of International Experts was convened by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) in
collaboration with the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) to update the
1999 Uncomplicated Urinary Tract Infection Guidelines by the IDSA. Co-sponsoring organizations include the
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Urological Association, Association of
Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases–Canada, and the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.
The focus of this work is treatment of women with acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis, diagnoses
limited in these guidelines to premenopausal, non-pregnant women with no known urological abnormalities
or co-morbidities. The issues of in vitro resistance prevalence and the ecological adverse effects of
antimicrobial therapy (collateral damage) were considered as important factors in making optimal treatment
choices and thus are reflected in the rankings of recommendations.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Received 10 December 2010; accepted 17 December 2010.

BACKGROUND
The process for evaluating the evidence was based on the IDSA Handbook on Acute uncomplicated cystitis remains one of the most
Clinical Practice Guideline Development and involved a systematic weighting of
common indications for prescribing of antimicrobials to
the quality of the evidence and the grade of recommendation (Table 1) [31]
It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for individual otherwise healthy community-dwelling women. Despite
variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician judgment published guidelines for the optimal selection of an
with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations. The IDSA considers
adherence to these guidelines to be voluntary, with the ultimate determination antimicrobial agent and duration of therapy, studies
regarding their application to be made by the physician in the light of each demonstrate a wide variation in prescribing practices
patient's individual circumstances.
Correspondence: Kalpana Gupta, MD, VA Boston HCS, 1400 VFW Pkwy, 111 [1–6]. The Infectious Diseases Society of America (ID-
Med, West Roxbury, MA 02132 (kalpana.gupta@va.gov). SA) published a clinical practice guideline on the
Clinical Infectious Diseases 2011;52(5):e103–e120 treatment of women with acute uncomplicated cystitis
Ó The Author 2011. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the
Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, and pyelonephritis in 1999 [1]. Since then, antimicrobial
please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com. resistance among uropathogens causing uncomplicated
1058-4838/2011/525-0001$37.00
DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciq257 cystitis has increased, appreciation of the importance of

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e103

 Woman with acute uncomplicated cystitis Consider alternate diagnosis (such
Absence of fever, flank pain, or other No as pyelonephritis or complicated
suspicion for pyelonephritis UTI) & treat accordingly
Able to take oral medication (see text)

Yes

Fluoroquinolones
Can one of the recommended antimicrobials* (resistance prevalence high in
No
below be used considering: some areas)
Availability
Allergy history OR
Tolerance
-lactams
Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals 100 (avoid ampicillin or amoxicillin
mg bid X 5 days alone; lower efficacy than other
(avoid if early pyelonephritis suspected)

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available agents; requires close
follow-up)
OR

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 160/800 mg
(one DS tablet) bid X 3 days
(avoid if resistance prevalence is known to
exceed 20 or if used for UTI in previous 3
months)

OR

Fosfomycin trometamol 3 gm single dose

(lower efficacy than some other recommended
agents; avoid if early pyelonephritis suspected)
*The choice between these agents should be
individualized and based on patient allergy and
OR
compliance history, local practice patterns, local
community resistance prevalence, availability, cost, and
Pivmecillinam 400 mg bid x 5 days
patient and provider threshold for failure (see Table 4)
(lower efficacy than some other recommended
agents; avoid if early pyelonephritis suspected)

Yes

Prescribe a recommended antimicrobial

Figure 1. Approach to choosing an optimal antimicrobial agent for empirical treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis. DS, double-strength; UTI,
urinary tract infection.

the ecological adverse effects of antimicrobial therapy (collateral considered by some experts to have uncomplicated urinary
damage) has increased, newer agents and different durations of tract infection (UTI), but a discussion of specific management
therapy have been studied, and clinical outcomes have in- of these groups is outside the scope of this guideline. In ad-
creasingly been reported. In addition, women with uropath- dition, management of recurrent cystitis and of UTI in
ogens resistant to the treatment drug have been included in pregnant women, prevention of UTI, and diagnosis of UTI are
some studies, allowing for estimations of expected response rates all important issues that are not addressed in this guideline.
in a ‘‘real-life’’ clinical setting in which empirical therapy is The issues of in vitro resistance prevalence and the potential
prescribed either without a urine culture and susceptibility for collateral damage were considered as important factors in
testing or before such results are known. In light of these de- making optimal treatment choices and thus are reflected in
velopments, an update of the guidelines was warranted. the rankings of recommendations.
The focus of this guideline is treatment of women with acute Summarized below are the recommendations made in the
uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis, diagnoses limited 2010 guideline update. The Panel followed a process used in the
in these guidelines to premenopausal, nonpregnant women development of other IDSA guidelines which included a sys-
with no known urological abnormalities or comorbidities. It tematic weighting of the quality of the evidence and the grade of
should be noted that women who are postmenopausal or have recommendation [32] (Table 1). A detailed description of the
well-controlled diabetes without urological sequelae may be methods, background, and evidence summaries that support

e104 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

each of the recommendations can be found in the full text of the 6. b-Lactam agents, including amoxicillin-clavulanate,
guideline. cefdinir, cefaclor, and cefpodoxime-proxetil, in 3–7-day
regimens are appropriate choices for therapy when other
recommended agents cannot be used (B-I). Other b-lactams,
I.What Is the Optimal Treatment for Acute Uncomplicated
Cystitis? such as cephalexin, are less well studied but may also be
Recommendations (Figure 1). appropriate in certain settings (B-III). The b-lactams generally
1. Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals (100 mg twice have inferior efficacy and more adverse effects, compared with
daily for 5 days) is an appropriate choice for therapy due to other UTI antimicrobials (B-I). For these reasons, b-lactams
minimal resistance and propensity for collateral damage other than pivmecillinam should be used with caution for
(defined above) and efficacy comparable to 3 days of uncomplicated cystitis.
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (A-I). 7. Amoxicillin or ampicillin should not be used for
2. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg [1 double- empirical treatment given the relatively poor efficacy, as

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strength tablet] twice-daily for 3 days) is an appropriate choice discussed in the 1999 guidelines [1] and the very high
for therapy, given its efficacy as assessed in numerous clinical prevalence of antimicrobial resistance to these agents
trials, if local resistance rates of uropathogens causing acute worldwide [8–11] (A-III).
uncomplicated cystitis do not exceed 20% or if the infecting
strain is known to be susceptible (A-I). II.What Is the Treatment for Acute Pyelonephritis?
i. The threshold of 20% as the resistance prevalence at which Recommendations
the agent is no longer recommended for empirical treatment of 8. In patients suspected of having pyelonephritis, a urine
acute cystitis is based on expert opinion derived from clinical, culture and susceptibility test should always be performed, and
in vitro, and mathematical modeling studies (B-III). initial empirical therapy should be tailored appropriately on
ii. In some countries and regions, trimethoprim (100 mg twice the basis of the infecting uropathogen (A-III).
daily for 3 days) is the preferred agent and is considered 9. Oral ciprofloxacin (500 mg twice daily) for 7 days, with or
equivalent to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole on the basis of without an initial 400-mg dose of intravenous ciprofloxacin, is
data presented in the original guideline (A-III) [1]. an appropriate choice for therapy in patients not requiring
iii. Data are insufficient to make a recommendation for hospitalization where the prevalence of resistance of community
other cystitis antimicrobials as to what resistance prevalence uropathogens to fluoroquinolones is not known to exceed 10%
should be used to preclude their use for empirical treatment of (A-I). If an initial one-time intravenous agent is used, a long-
acute cystitis. acting antimicrobial, such as 1 g of ceftriaxone or a consolidated
3. Fosfomycin trometamol (3 g in a single dose) is an 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, could be used in lieu of an
appropriate choice for therapy where it is available due to intravenous fluoroquinolone (B-III). If the prevalence of
minimal resistance and propensity for collateral damage, but it fluoroquinolone resistance is thought to exceed 10%, an
appears to have inferior efficacy compared with standard short- initial 1-time intravenous dose of a long-acting parenteral
course regimens according to data submitted to the US Food antimicrobial, such as 1 g of ceftriaxone (B-III) or
and Drug Administration (FDA) and summarized in the a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, is
Medical Letter (A-I) [7]. recommended (B-III).
i. Data are insufficient to make a recommendation about
4. Pivmecillinam (400 mg bid for 3–7 days) is an
what fluoroquinolone resistance level requires an alternative
appropriate choice for therapy in regions where it is available
agent in conjunction with or to replace a fluoroquinolone
(availability limited to some European countries; not licensed
for treatment of pyelonephritis.
and/or available for use in North America), because of
minimal resistance and propensity for collateral damage, but 10. A once-daily oral fluoroquinolone, including
it may have inferior efficacy compared with other available ciprofloxacin (1000 mg extended release for 7 days)or
therapies (A-I). levofloxacin (750 mg for 5 days), is an appropriate choice
for therapy in patients not requiring hospitalization where
5. The fluoroquinolones, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and the prevalence of resistance of community uropathogens is
levofloxacin, are highly efficacious in 3-day regimens (A-I) not known to exceed 10% (B-II). If the prevalence of
but have a propensity for collateral damage and should be fluoroquinolone resistance is thought to exceed 10%, an initial
reserved for important uses other than acute cystitis and thus intravenous dose of a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, such
should be considered alternative antimicrobials for acute as 1 g of ceftriaxone (B-III) or a consolidated 24-h dose of an
cystitis (A-III). aminoglycoside, is recommended (B-III).

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e105

 11. Oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg [1 reporting in vitro susceptibility of E. coli causing un-
double-strength tablet] twice-daily for 14 days) is an complicated UTI in North America and Europe were reviewed
appropriate choice for therapy if the uropathogen is known [8–11]. All of these demonstrate considerable geographic var-
to be susceptible (A-I). If trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is iability in susceptibility. For example, resistance rates for all
used when the susceptibility is not known, an initial antimicrobials were higher in US medical centers than in
intravenous dose of a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, Canadian medical centers and were usually higher in Portugal
such as 1 g of ceftriaxone (B-II) or a consolidated 24-h dose of and Spain than other European countries. In general, resistance
an aminoglycoside, is recommended (B-III). rates .20% were reported in all regions for ampicillin, and in
12. Oral b-lactam agents are less effective than other many countries and regions for trimethoprim with or without
available agents for treatment of pyelonephritis (B-III). If an sulfamethoxazole. Fluoroquinolone resistance rates were still
oral b-lactam agent is used, an initial intravenous dose of a ,10% in most parts of North America and Europe, but there
long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, such as 1 g of ceftriaxone was a clear trend for increasing resistance compared with
previous years. Moreover, the resistance data for nalidixic acid

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(B-II) or a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, is
recommended (B-III). in these studies suggest that .10% (in some countries, .20%)
i. Data are insufficient to modify the previous guideline of the E. coli strains have acquired resistance genes for quino-
recommendation for a duration of therapy of 10–14 days for lones [10, 11]. First- and second-generation oral cepha-
treatment of pyelonephritis with a b-lactam agent. losporins and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid also show regional
variability, but the resistance rates were generally ,10%. De-
13. Women with pyelonephritis requiring hospitalization spite wide variability in antimicrobial susceptibility among the
should be initially treated with an intravenous antimicrobial different countries studied, nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, and
regimen, such as a fluoroquinolone; an aminoglycoside, with
mecillinam (the latter 2 not tested in the Canadian study) had
or without ampicillin; an extended-spectrum cephalosporin
good in vitro activity in all the countries investigated. Thus,
or extended-spectrum penicillin, with or without an
these 3 antimicrobials could be considered appropriate anti-
aminoglycoside; or a carbapenem. The choice between these
microbials for empirical therapy in most regions [8–11]. Given
agents should be based on local resistance data, and the
a trend toward increasing resistance, compared with previous
regimen should be tailored on the basis of susceptibility results
years, for most antimicrobials, continued monitoring of this
(B-III).
data to evaluate rates over time is necessary for sustained op-
timization of empirical therapy [12].
INTRODUCTION
Because local in vitro resistance rates are not always known,
The focus of this guideline is management of women with acute and change over time is anticipated, identification of individual
uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis who are not pregnant predictors of resistance can also be useful to informing empirical
and have no known urological abnormalities or co-morbidities. antimicrobial choice. In 2 studies evaluating epidemiological
An optimal approach to therapy includes consideration of an- predictors of resistance, the use of trimethoprim-sulfamethox-
timicrobial resistance and collateral damage. azole in the preceding 3–6 months was an independent risk
factor for trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance in women
Consideration of Antimicrobial Resistance with acute uncomplicated cystitis [13, 14]. In addition, 2 US-
The microbial spectrum of uncomplicated cystitis and pyelo- based studies demonstrated that travel outside the United States
nephritis consists mainly of Escherichia coli (75%–95%), with in the preceding 3–6 months was independently associated with
occasional other species of Enterobacteriaceae, such as Proteus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance [15, 16]. Predictors
mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus sapro- of resistance to other cystitis antimicrobials are not as well
phyticus. Other gram-negative and gram-positive species are studied but in general support the findings that exposure to the
rarely isolated in uncomplicated UTIs. Therefore, local antimi- drug or to an area with endemic resistance are important factors
crobial susceptibility patterns of E. coli in particular should be to consider [17, 18]. Local resistance rates reported in hospital
considered in empirical antimicrobial selection for un- antibiograms are often skewed by cultures of samples obtained
complicated UTIs. Since the resistance patterns of E. coli strains from inpatients or those with complicated infection and may
causing uncomplicated UTI varies considerably between regions not predict susceptibilities in women with uncomplicated
and countries, a specific treatment recommendation may not be community-acquired infection, in whom resistance rates tend to
universally suitable for all regions or countries. be lower [18, 19]. Prospective and unbiased resistance sur-
Active surveillance studies of in vitro susceptibility of ur- veillance of uncomplicated uropathogens at the local practice
opathogens in women with uncomplicated cystitis are helpful and/or health care system levels is critical for informing
in making decisions about empirical therapy. Four large studies empirical antimicrobial decisions. In the absence of such

e106 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

data, use of individual-level predictors of resistance can be that affect the normal fecal flora more significantly, such as
helpful. trimethoprim, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, quinolones,
Because treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis is usually and ampicillin [26, 27].
empirical, it is likely that some women will be treated with a drug For uncomplicated cystitis, there are 2 reasons why collateral
that does not have in vitro activity against the uropathogen. As damage merits consideration. First, there is minimal risk of
the population resistance prevalence of a specific agent increases, progression to tissue invasion or sepsis. Moreover, studies of
the likelihood of failure outweighs the benefits of using the drug placebo for treatment of uncomplicated cystitis demonstrate
empirically. For most agents, clinical and bacterial outcomes are that clinical cure can be achieved in 25%–42% of women who
not well studied for varying levels of resistance; thus, recom- are not treated or are treated with a drug without in vitro activity
mended thresholds for using alternative agents are based on against the uropathogen [28, 29]. Thus, spontaneous resolution
expert opinion or secondary analyses of studies that include may attenuate differences in clinical outcomes when a drug with
patients with isolates resistant to the study drugs. The most ev- 80% efficacy is compared with one with 95% efficacy. Of note,
idence in this regard is available for trimethoprim-sulfame- placebo therapy is associated with prolongation of symptoms as

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thoxazole, for which clinical, in vitro, and mathematical well as a small risk of progression to pyelonephritis, as dem-
modeling studies consistently suggest a 20% resistance preva- onstrated by the 1 woman out of 38 women treated with placebo
lence for the threshold at which the agent is no longer recom- in the study by Christiaens et al [28]. Thus, these data do not
mended for treatment of acute cystitis [20, 21]. There are justify withholding antimicrobial therapy for treatment of acute
insufficient data for other cystitis antimicrobials to recommend cystitis. Secondly, uncomplicated UTI is one of the most com-
resistance levels at which the likelihood of failure outweighs the mon indications for antimicrobial exposure in an otherwise
potential benefits, and the decision will vary by individual healthy population; very small increments in collateral damage
practitioner discretion. For pyelonephritis, timely use of an agent repeated many times may in aggregate magnify the impact of
with in vitro activity is essential to treat the infection and min- collateral damage when it occurs. Although reducing in-
imize progression. Thus, thresholds at which a broad-spectrum appropriate use of fluoroquinolones for respiratory infections
agent would be selected empirically followed by directed therapy could have a greater impact on fluoroquinolone resistance,
or for avoiding selected agents because of anticipated in vitro limiting use for UTIs may also mitigate increasing fluo-
resistance are set at a relatively low resistance prevalence. The roquinolone resistance [30].
recommendation of a 10% fluoroquinolone resistance preva-
Clinical Questions Addressed for the 2010 Update
lence as the threshold for using an alternative agent in con-
The Expert Panel addressed the following clinical questions in
junction with or in place of a fluoroquinolone for pyelonephritis
the 2010 update:
is primarily based on expert opinion, because there are limited
data to provide evidence-based guidance. I. What is the optimal treatment for acute uncomplicated
cystitis in adult nonpregnant, premenopausal women?
Consideration of Collateral Damage II. What is the optimal treatment for acute uncomplicated
Collateral damage, a term describing ecological adverse effects of pyelonephritis in adult nonpregnant, premenopausal women?
antimicrobial therapy, such as the selection of drug-resistant
organisms and colonization or infection with multidrug-
PRACTICE GUIDELINES
resistant organisms, has been associated with use of broad-
spectrum cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones [22, 23]. Use of ‘‘Practice guidelines are systematically developed statements to
broad spectrum cephalosporins has been linked to subsequent assist practitioners and patients in making decisions about ap-
infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococci, extended- propriate health care for specific clinical circumstances’’ [31].
spectrum b-lactamase–producing Klebsiella pneumoniae, b- High quality guidelines are clear, reliable and reproducible,
lactam-resistant Acinetobacter species, and Clostridium difficile flexible, and based on a multidisciplinary review of evidence
[22]. Use of fluoroquinolones has been linked to infection with [31]. They should improve quality of care and serve as educa-
methicillin-resistant S. aureus and with increasing fluo- tional tools.
roquinolone resistance in gram-negative bacilli, such as Pseu-
domonas aeruginosa [22]. The preserved in vitro susceptibility of METHODOLOGY
E. coli to nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, and mecillinam over many
years of use suggests these antimicrobials cause only minor Panel Composition
collateral damage [8, 10], perhaps because of minimal effects on The IDSA Standards and Practice Guidelines Committee
normal fecal flora [24–26]. In contrast, increased rates of anti- (SPGC) in collaboration with European Society for Microbiol-
microbial resistance have been demonstrated for antimicrobials ogy and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) convened experts in the

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e107

Table 1. Strength of Recommendations and Quality of Evidence

Category/grade Definition
Strength of recommendation
A Good evidence to support a recommendation for or against use
B Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for or against use
C Poor evidence to support a recommendation
Quality of evidence
I Evidence from >1 properly randomized, controlled trial
II Evidence from >1 well-designed clinical trial, without randomization; from cohort or case-
controlled analytic studies (preferably from .1 center); from multiple time-series; or from
dramatic results from uncontrolled experiments
III Evidence from opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive
studies, or reports of expert committees

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NOTE. Data are from the periodic health examination. Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. Health Canada, 1979. Adapted and Reproduced
with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2009 [32].

management of patients with cystitis and pyelonephritis. A It should be emphasized that, as is true with any treatment
specific effort was made to include representatives from diverse guideline, an assessment of the literature for a given agent’s
geographic areas and a wide breadth of specialties, including clinical efficacy is limited by the comparators studied. For ex-
urology, obstetrics and gynecology, emergency medicine, family ample, amoxicillin-clavulanate has been shown to be statistically
medicine, internal medicine, and infectious diseases, with a goal significantly inferior to ciprofloxacin in a randomized trial re-
of improving the generalizability and acceptance of the recom- cently published. On the other hand, in the only published
mendations and subsequent incorporation into clinical practice. randomized study of cefpodoxime, its clinical efficacy appears to
Process Overview be comparable to that of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. It is
The evaluation of evidence for each antimicrobial class used in not clear how amoxicillin-clavulanate would compare with
treatment of cystitis and pyelonephritis was performed by 2 cefpodoxime or to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.
members of the panel. Each member was assigned at least one
Literature Review and Analysis
antimicrobial class to review. The process for evaluating the
For the update, the Expert Panel completed a review and analysis
evidence was based on the IDSA Handbook on Clinical Practice
of data published since 1998. Computerized literature searches
Guideline Development and involved a systematic weighting of
of the Pubmed database were performed. The searches of the
the quality of the evidence and the grade of recommendation
English-language literature from 1998 thru 2008, using the
(Table 1) [32]. This scale had been modified from the one used
terms, cystitis or pyelonephritis with MESH terms of ‘‘acute
in the 1999 guideline.
uncomplicated UTI,’’ ‘‘women,’’ and specific antimicrobials and
The level of evidence rating (I, II, or III) for recommendations
or classes of antimicrobials. To be included, the study had to be
in this guideline refers to evidence of the antimicrobial’s efficacy
an open-label or randomized, clinical trial of treatment of
in randomized clinical trials. The strength of the recommen-
women with symptoms of acute uncomplicated cystitis or py-
dation (A, B, or C) refers to the panel’s level of comfort in
elonephritis. At least 1 follow-up visit assessing microbiological
recommending the antimicrobial for the treatment of un-
or clinical response was required. Studies including .10% men
complicated UTI and is based on the drug’s efficacy in clinical
or patients with complicated UTI were excluded. Non–English-
trials, rates of in vitro resistance among urinary pathogens, and
language studies were excluded because they could not be re-
the drug’s propensity to cause collateral damage and adverse
liably reviewed by panel members.
effects. For example, the panel felt that fosfomycin and piv-
Outcomes of interest included early (first visit after treatment,
mecillinam should be listed as agents recommended for treat-
typically occurring at 0–7 days after the last dose of the anti-
ment of uncomplicated cystitis, along with nitrofurantoin and
microbial) clinical and microbiological cure, late (last visit after
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, even though they appear to be
treatment, typically occurring 30–45 days after the last dose of
less efficacious clinically, because they do not appear to cause
the antimicrobial) clinical cure, and adverse effects.
collateral damage. On the other hand, the panel was less en-
thusiastic about strongly recommending fluoroquinolones for Guidelines and Conflict of Interest
acute cystitis, even though they have high clinical efficacy, be- All members of the Expert Panel complied with the IDSA policy
cause of concerns about collateral damage and the subsequent on conflicts of interest, which requires disclosure of any financial
threat to the usefulness of fluoroquinolones for the treatment of or other interest that might be construed as constituting an actual,
other more serious infections, including pyelonephritis. potential, or apparent conflict. Members of the Expert Panel were

e108 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

provided IDSA’s conflict of interest disclosure statement and were 33]. Thus, there was insufficient new literature to support fur-
asked to identify ties to companies developing products that ther analyses of single-dose or 3-day therapy versus longer
might be affected by promulgation of the guideline. Information therapy included in the previous guideline.
was requested regarding employment, consultancies, stock own- The criteria used to define clinical and microbiological cure
ership, honoraria, research funding, expert testimony, and and the duration of follow-up and timing of follow-up visits
membership on company advisory committees. The panel made were not uniform across studies. Many studies did not perform
decisions on a case-by-case basis as to whether an individual’s or report intent to treat analyses; this may inflate the late clinical
role should be limited as a result of a conflict. Potential conflicts and microbiological success rates. Major differences in defi-
are listed in the Acknowledgements section. nitions of study outcomes are highlighted in the text.
Consensus Development Based on Evidence
The Panel met on 7 occasions via teleconference and once in
GUIDELINE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
person to complete the work of the guideline. The purpose of the
TREATMENT OF ACUTE UNCOMPLICATED

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teleconferences was to discuss the questions to be addressed, make
CYSTITIS AND PYELONEPHRITIS
writing assignments and discuss recommendations. Most of the
work was done with e-mail correspondence. All members of the I. What Is the Optimal Treatment for Acute Uncomplicated
panel participated in the preparation and review of the draft Cystitis?
guideline. Feedback from external peer reviews was obtained. All Recommendations (Figure 1).
collaborating organizations were also asked to provide feedback 1. Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals (100 mg twice
and endorse the guidelines. The following organizations endorsed daily for 5 days) is an appropriate choice for therapy due to
the guidelines: American Congress of Obstetricians and Gyne- minimal resistance and propensity for collateral damage
cologists, American Urological Association, Association of Med- (defined above) and efficacy comparable to 3 days of
ical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases–Canada), and the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (A-I).
Society for Academic Emergency Medicine. The guideline was 2. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg [1 double-
reviewed and approved by the IDSA SPGC, the IDSA Board of strength tablet] twice-daily for 3 days) is an appropriate choice
Directors, and the ESCMID Board prior to dissemination. for therapy, given its efficacy as assessed in numerous clinical
Revision Dates trials, if local resistance rates of uropathogens causing acute
At annual intervals, the Panel Chair, the SPGC liaison advisor, uncomplicated cystitis do not exceed 20% or if the infecting
and the Chair of the SPGC will determine the need for revisions strain is known to be susceptible (A-I).
to the guideline based on an examination of current literature. If i. The threshold of 20% as the resistance prevalence at which
necessary, the entire Panel will be reconvened to discuss po- the agent is no longer recommended for empirical treatment of
tential changes. When appropriate, the panel will recommend acute cystitis is based on expert opinion derived from clinical,
revision of the guideline to the IDSA SPGC and Board and other in vitro, and mathematical modeling studies (B-III).
collaborating organizations for review and approval. ii. In some countries and regions, trimethoprim (100 mg twice
RESULTS daily for 3 days) is the preferred agent and is considered
equivalent to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole on the basis of
Literature Search data presented in the original guideline (A-III) [1].
The literature search identified 295 potential articles for review, iii. Data are insufficient to make a recommendation for other
of which 28 met criteria for inclusion in the analyses. The types cystitis antimicrobials as to what resistance prevalence should be
of studies included randomized clinical trials and open label used to preclude their use for empirical treatment of acute cystitis.
clinical trials. Expert reviews were also incorporated into the 3. Fosfomycin trometamol (3 g in a single dose) is an
final grade recommendation. Two panel members were assigned appropriate choice for therapy where it is available due to
each antimicrobial class included in the guideline and in- minimal resistance and propensity for collateral damage, but it
dependently reviewed the relevant literature. These 2 reviewers appears to have inferior efficacy compared with standard short-
compared their results and reached consensus on their findings course regimens according to data submitted to the US Food
for the antimicrobial class and then presented them to the panel. and Drug Administration (FDA) and summarized in the
Discrepancies were discussed by the panel and final adjudication Medical Letter (A-I) [7].
was based on review by the chairperson and majority vote. 4. Pivmecillinam (400 mg bid for 3–7 days) is an
Limitations in the Literature appropriate choice for therapy in regions where it is available
There were a limited number of publications directly comparing (availability limited to some European countries; not licensed
the same drug given for different durations of therapy [29, and/or available for use in North America), because of minimal

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e109

resistance and propensity for collateral damage, but it may have Four randomized clinical trials compared trimethoprim-
inferior efficacy compared with other available therapies (A-I). sulfamethoxazole with another agent, including ciprofloxacin,
5. The fluoroquinolones, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and norfloxacin, nitrofurantoin, and cefpodoxime proxetil, and
levofloxacin, are highly efficacious in 3-day regimens (A-I) but evaluated microbiological and clinical outcomes among
have a propensity for collateral damage and should be reserved for women with acute cystitis (Table 2) [35–38]. The 2 studies
important uses other than acute cystitis and thus should be including a fluoroquinolone had findings consistent with the
considered alternative antimicrobials for acute cystitis (A-III). 1999 guideline, reporting that trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
6. b-Lactam agents, including amoxicillin-clavulanate, was noninferior (95% confidence interval of difference at
cefdinir, cefaclor, and cefpodoxime-proxetil, in 3–7-day 610%) to ciprofloxacin for early clinical and bacterial
regimens are appropriate choices for therapy when other cure rates [35, 37]. Both studies used a longer than standard
recommended agents cannot be used (B-I). Other b-lactams, (7 days rather than 3 days) course of trimethoprim-
such as cephalexin, are less well studied but may also be sulfamethoxazole versus a 3-day course of ciprofloxacin. In the
appropriate in certain settings (B-III). The b-lactams generally study by Iravani et al [37], 7 days of 160/800 mg twice-daily

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have inferior efficacy and more adverse effects, compared with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in 174 women had similar
other UTI antimicrobials (B-I). For these reasons, b-lactams rates of early and late clinical cure as 3 days of 100 mg cipro-
other than pivmecillinam should be used with caution for floxacin given twice daily to 168 women (95% early and
uncomplicated cystitis. 90% late for each drug). The late bacterial cure rate (4-6 weeks
7. Amoxicillin or ampicillin should not be used for empirical after therapy) was lower with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
treatment given the relatively poor efficacy, as discussed in the than for ciprofloxacin (79% vs 91%, respectively), whereas
1999 guidelines [1] and the very high prevalence of antimicrobial the early bacterial cure rate was higher with trimethoprim-
resistance to these agents worldwide [8–11] (A-III). sulfamethoxazole (93% vs 88%, respectively). Arredondo-Garcia
Evidence Summary et al [35] reported that 7 days of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
The optimal agent for therapy of a patient with acute un- (160/800 mg twice daily) in 81 women resulted in early clinical
complicated cystitis depends on a number of factors (Figure 2). and bacterial cure rates of 86% and 85%, respectively, non-
Each agent has pros and cons related to its use and the choice of inferior to the 89% and 92% cure rates, respectively, achieved in
therapy is made on an individual basis. 97 women treated with 3 days of ciprofloxacin (250 mg twice
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The traditional first-line daily). Of note, these similar outcomes were demonstrated
agent in the United States and recommended in the original despite 15% of women in the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
IDSA guidelines was trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (tri- arm having a pretherapy isolate resistant to the treatment drug,
methoprim was considered comparable) [1]. However, rising compared with only 1% of women in the ciprofloxacin arm.
rates of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance among ur- Results stratified by susceptibility of the infecting organism to
opathogens, especially outside of the United States, and con- the treatment regimen were not reported. Each study included
sistent evidence that in vitro resistance correlates with bacterial a third treatment arm; results of these comparisons are discussed
and clinical failures, necessitates revising this recommendation. below for the relevant antimicrobial class.
Indeed, the guidelines of the European Association of Urology A small study compared a 3-day course of trimethoprim-
do not recommend this agent as first choice treatment of un- sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg twice daily) with a 3-day
complicated cystitis [34]. course of cefpodoxime-proxetil (100 mg twice daily) [38].

Figure 2. Meta-analysis of studies comparing trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) with nitrofurantoin (NTF) for acute uncomplicated cystitis. CI,
confidence interval.

e110 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

Table 2. Results from Included Studies of Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole for Treatment of Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis

Study (year) [reference] Treatment regimen

Iravani et al (1999) [37] TMP-SMX, Nitrofurantoin Ciprofloxacin, 100 mg twice
160/800 mg monohydrate/ daily for 3 days
twice daily macrocrystals,
for 7 days 100 mg twice
daily for 7 days
Early clinical cure 165/174 (95) 166/179 (93) 160/168 (95)
Early bacterial cure 161/174 (93) 153/177 (86) 148/168 (88)
Late clinical cure 137/153 (90) 135/151 (89) 132/147 (90)
Adverse events, % 38 34 28
Arredondo-Garcia et al TMP-SMX, Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, 250 mg
(2004) [35] 160/800 mg 400 mgtwice twice daily for 3 days
twice daily x 7 days daily for 7 days

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Early clinical cure 70/81 (86) 90/107 (84) 86/97 (89)
Early bacterial cure 69/81 (85) 93/107 (87) 89/97 (92)
Late clinical cure 66/81 (82) 88/107 (82) 81/97 (84)
Adverse events, % 8.7 3.9 4.0
Kavatha et al TMP-SMX, Cefpodoxime
(2003) [38] 160/800 mgtwice proxetil, 100
daily for 3 days mg twice daily
for 3 days
Early clinical cure 70/70 (100) 62/63 (98.4)
Early bacterial cure 70/70 (100) 62/63 (98.4)
Late clinical cure 51/60 (85) 42/50 (84)
Adverse events, % 1.4 1.6
Gupta et al TMP-SMX, 160/800 Nitrofurantoin
(2007) [36] mgtwice daily monohydrate/
for 3 days macrocrystals,
100 mg twice
daily for 5 days
Early clinical cure 133/148 (90) 144/160 (90)
Early bacterial cure 131/144 (91) 141/154 (92)
Late clinical cure 117/148 (79) 134/160 (84)
Adverse events, % 31 28%

NOTE. Data are proportion of subjects (%), unless otherwise indicated. Efficacy rates refer to cure rates on the visit closest to a 5–9-day period following
treatment. NA, not available; TMP-SMX, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.

Women with an uropathogen resistant to either study drug women in the nitrofurantoin arm, with a nonsignificant dif-
(4 of 82 women in the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole arm ference of -5%. Rates were also equivalent (predefined as
and 0 of 81 women in the cefpodoxime arm) were excluded. a 610% difference between agents) at 5-9 days after therapy,
Clinical cure was achieved in 100% of the 70 women in the with clinical cure of 90% in each arm and bacterial cure of 91%
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole arm, compared with 62 in the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole arm and 92% in the ni-
(98%) of 63 women in the cefpodoxime arm. The microbio- trofurantoin arm. There was a significantly higher clinical cure
logical cure rates were the same as the clinical cure rates in rate among women in the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
each arm. Adverse effects were reported in 1 patient in the arm who had a trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole–susceptible
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole arm and 2 patients in the uropathogen, compared with those who had a trimethoprim-
cefpodoxime arm. sulfamethoxazole–resistant uropathogen (84% vs 41%,
The fourth study compared a 3-day course of trimethoprim- respectively;1 P , .001).
sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg twice daily) with a 5-day The fifth study used a prospective observational trial design
course of nitrofurantoin monohydrate–macrocrystals (100 mg to compare clinical and bacterial outcomes among women
twice daily) and included women with uropathogens resistant with acute cystitis with a trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole–
to the study drugs [36]. The primary end point, overall clinical susceptible or –resistant uropathogen [21]. All women were
cure rate at 30 days, was 79% among the 148 women in the treated with a 5-day course of trimethoprim-sulfamethox-
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole arm and 84% among the 160 azole (160/800 mg twice daily). The microbiological cure rates

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e111

were significantly higher among women with a trimethoprim- Resistance impacts both clinical and bacterial outcomes, so
sulfamethoxazole–susceptible uropathogen than for women known or expected resistance should be considered in antimi-
with a –resistant uropathogen (86% vs 42%, respectively; P , crobial choice. In this regard, resistance to trimethoprim-
.001). The clinical cure rate at 5-9 days after completion of sulfamethoxazole is high in many regions of the world.
therapy was also higher in the trimethoprim-sulfamethox- However, in settings with a 10% - 15% prevalence of resistance
azole–susceptible group (88% of 333 women) than in the to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cure rates with trimethoprim-
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole–resistant group (54% of 151 sulfamethoxazole were equivalent to those with comparator
women; P , .001). The clinical and microbiological differ- drugs (ie, ciprofloxacin and nitrofurantoin) to which almost
ences remained significant at the 28–42-day follow-up visit. all isolates were probably susceptible (data on susceptibility
Because this was not a randomized treatment trial, the data to comparators were not uniformly provided in the studies) [35–
were not included in the efficacy analyses but are reported as 37]. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole use is associated with
they provide insight into expected outcomes in patients with increased resistance, but, even though it has a significant impact
resistant uropathogens. on intestinal flora, it is generally not thought to have a propensity

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Overall findings from these studies demonstrate that for ‘‘collateral damage’’ as observed with broad-spectrum
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole remains a highly effective cephalosporins or fluoroquinolones.
treatment for acute uncomplicated cystitis in women when the Nitrofurantoin. There is additional evidence in support
rate of resistance is known or expected to be , 20%, supporting of nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals, for which data
a strong recommendation for use in such settings. Early clinical were previously limited. There were 4 randomized trials of
and microbiological cure rates are in the 90% - 100% range nitrofurantoin versus a comparator published since the pre-
(Table 2). Late outcomes are harder to compare across studies, vious guideline (Table 3) [28, 36, 37, 39]. These studies
but when calculated using intent to treat criteria, are 80% - 90%. demonstrate that (1) nitrofurantoin monohydrate/

Table 3. Results from Included Studies of Nitrofurantoin for Treatment of Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis

Study Regimen
Iravani et al (1999) [37] Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/ TMP-SMX, 160/800 Ciprofloxacin, 100 mg
macrocrystals, 100 mg twice mg twice daily for 7 days twice daily for 3 days
daily for 7 days
Early clinical cure 166/179 (93) 165/174 (95) 160/168 (95)
Early bacterial cure 153/177 (86) 161/174 (93) 148/168 (88)
Late clinical cure 135/151 (89) 137/153 (90) 132/147 (90)
Adverse events, % 34 38 28
Stein et al (1999) [39] Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/ Fosfomycin trometamol,
macrocrystals, 100 mg twice single 3-gdose
daily for 7 days
Early clinical cure 232/245 (95) 240/263 (90)
Early bacterial cure 189/219 (86) 192/246 (78)
Late clinical cure 168/180 (93) 189/202 (94)
Adverse events, % 5.6 5.3
Christiaens et al (2002) [28] Nitrofurantoin macrocrystals, Placebo, 4 times
100 mg 4 times daily for 3 days daily for 3 days
Early clinical cure 21/24 (88) 13/23 (54)
Early bacterial cure 17/23 (74) 9/22 (41)
Late clinical cure NA NA
Adverse events, % 23 26
Gupta et al (2007) [36] Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/ TMP-SMX, 160/800
macrocrystals, 100 mg twice mg twice daily for 3 days
daily for 5 days
Early clinical cure 144/160 (90) 133/148 (90)
Early bacterial cure 141/154 (92) 131/144 (91)
Late clinical cure 134/160 (84) 117/148 (79)
Adverse events, % 28 31

NOTE. Data are proportion of subjects (%), unless otherwise indicated. Efficacy rates refer to cure rates on the visit closest to a 5–9-day period following
treatment. NA, not available; TMP-SMX, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.

e112 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

macrocrystals (100 mg twice daily for 7 days) has similar regimen, rather than the traditional 7-day course, can be con-
clinical cure rates (based on the small differences in early sidered as an effective duration of treatment based on a recent
clinical cure and confidence intervals that are small enough to randomized clinical trial [36].
suggest no difference in efficacy) to ciprofloxacin (100 mg Fosfomycin trometamol. There are also new data in support
twice daily for 3 days; 93% vs 95%), trimethoprim-sulfame- of fosfomycin trometamol, a phosphonic acid derivative available
thoxazole (160/800 mg twice daily for 7 days; 93% vs 95%), in the United States and some European countries for treatment
and 3-g single-dose fosfomycin trometamol (89% vs 90%); of UTI. A 3-g single-dose of fosfomycin trometamol was com-
(2) nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals (100 mg twice pared with a 7–day course of nitrofurantoin monohydrate/
daily in a 5-day regimen) is equivalent in clinical and mi- macrocrystals 100 mg twice daily in one study and with a 5-day
crobiological cure rates to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole course of trimethoprim 100 mg twice daily in another [39, 40].
(160/800 mg twice daily in a 3-day regimen); and (3) nitro- The latter study only evaluated the microbiologic outcome and
furantoin macrocrystals (100 mg 4 times daily for 3 days) is reported that single-dose fosfomycin trometamol and 5 days of
superior to placebo treatment of women with acute cystitis. twice-daily trimethoprim each had an 83% bacterial cure rate

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Taken together, the studies demonstrate a clinical cure rate (147 of 177 fosfomycin and 70 of 84 trimethoprim-treated
with nitrofurantoin of 88% - 93% and a bacterial cure rate of women, respectively) at the early follow-up visit [34]. The study
81% - 92%. A meta-analysis of studies comparing early clin- by Stein [39] demonstrated that the early clinical response (cure
ical cure rates with nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim-sulfa- or improvement at 5-11 days after starting therapy) rates were
methoxazole is shown in Figure 2 and demonstrates not significantly different, at 91% (240 of 263 women) for 3-g
equivalence between the 2 agents. Of note, resistance to ni- single-dose fosfomycin trometamol treatment and 95% (232 of
trofurantoin remains low and it is well tolerated and effica- 245 women) for 100 mg of nitrofurantoin monohydrate/mac-
cious in a 5-day regimen (Table 4). rocrystals given twice daily. The late clinical response rates re-
Thus, current randomized clinical trial data provide strong mained high for both drugs (93%–94%). However, the
support for consideration of nitrofurantoin as an effective agent microbiologic cure rate was significantly higher with nitro-
for treatment of acute cystitis. Demonstration of efficacy, with furantoin (86%), compared with fosfomycin (78%), at the first
minimal drug resistance or propensity for collateral damage, follow-up visit (P 5 .02). Microbiologic cure rates 4-6 weeks after
makes nitrofurantoin an attractive agent for cystitis. A 5-day therapy were 96% for fosfomycin and 91% for nitrofurantoin but

Table 4. Treatment Regimens and Expected Early Efficacy Rates for Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis

Mean percentage (range)

Estimated
Estimated clinical microbiological
Drug (dosage) efficacyab efficacyb Common side effects References
Nitrofurantoin monohydrate/ 93 (84–95) 88 (86–92) Nausea,headache [36, 37, 39]
macrocrystals (100 mg twice
daily for 5–7 days)
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 93 (90–100) 94 (91–100) Rash, urticaria,nausea, [36, 37]
(160/800 mg twice daily for 3 days) vomiting, hematologic
Fosfomycin trometamol (3 g 91 80 (78–83) Diarrhea, nausea,headache [39, 40]
single-dose sachet)
Pivmecillinam (400 mg twice 73 (55–82) 79 (74–84) Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea [29, 43]
daily for 3–7 days)
Fluoroquinolones (dose varies 90 (85–98) 91 (81–98) Nausea/vomiting, [35, 43, 44, 46–52]
by agent; 3–day regimen)c diarrhea, headache,
drowsiness, insomnia
b-lactams (dose varies by 89 (79–98) 82 (74–98) Diarrhea, nausea, [38, 52, 54]
agent; 3–5 day regimen)d vomiting, rash, urticaria
a
Efficacy rates refer to cure rates on the visit closest to a 5–9-day period following treatment, and are averages or ranges calculated from clinical trials discussed
in the text.
b
Estimated clinical efficacy and microbiological efficacy rates should not necessarily be compared across agents, because study design, efficacy definition,
therapy duration, and other factors are heterogeneous. Studies represent clinical trials published since publication of the 1999 Infectious Disease Society of America
guidelines so as to represent efficacy rates that account for contemporary prevalence of antibiotic-resistant uropathogens. Note that efficacy rates may vary
geographically depending on local patterns of antimicrobial resistance among uropathogens. See text for details.
c
Data on fluoroquinolones are compiled from regimens of ofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ciprofloxacin from the referenced clinical trials and not other
fluoroquinolones that are no longer commercially available. See text for details.
d
Data on blactams data cited are derived from clinical trials examining second and third generation cephalosporins and amoxicillin-clavulanate. See text for details.

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e113

included only 50% of the original study population. Intent–to- 25% (54 of 227 women) and a bacteriologic cure rate of 34%,
treat analyses were not reported [39]. Overall, the bacterial effi- both inferior to active drug. In another randomized trial com-
cacy of fosfomycin is lower than that of other first-line agents, paring 3 days of pivmecillinam (400 mg bid) with 3 days of
but clinical efficacy (based on a single study) was comparable norfloxacin (400 mg bid), pivmecillinam treatment resulted in
(Table 4). Additional information considered by the com- lower bacterial cure rates (222 (75%) of 298 vs 276 (91%) of 302,
mittee was the reference in the 1999 IDSA UTI guideline to respectively; P , .001) and lower clinical cure rates (360 (82%)
unpublished data demonstrating lower bacterial eradication of 437 vs 381 (88%) of 433, respectively; P 5 .02) [43]. In vitro
rates with fosfomycin than with 10 days of trimethoprim- resistance to pivmecillinam was not associated with a high rate
sulfamethoxazole and with 7 days of ciprofloxacin. These of failure; 30 (88%) of 34 pivmecillinam-treated patients who
studies are still not available in the published literature except had a pivmecillinam-resistant uropathogen achieved bacterial
as previously referenced in a Medical Letter report [7]. cure.
Several in vitro studies examined the activity of fosfomycin Although not available in the United States or Canada, piv-
against multidrug-resistant pathogens. These demonstrate that mecillinam is one of the agents of choice in many Nordic

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fosfomycin is active against vancomycin-resistant enterococci countries due to low resistance rates and low propagation of
(VRE), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), and extended- resistance [24]. Different doses and durations have been asso-
spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL)–producing gram-negative rods ciated with varying efficacy rates, and a 5-day or 7-day regimen
[41]. As resistance among uropathogens causing community- is probably superior to a 3-day regimen. Similarly, a 400-mg
acquired uncomplicated cystitis increases, fosfomycin may be- dose fared better than a 200-mg dose for both bacterial and
come more useful, particularly if no other oral agents with in clinical efficacy. The efficacy rates are notably lower than other
vitro activity are available [42]. Clinical outcomes are not yet recommended agents (Table 4). Of note, the rate of resistance
reported from randomized, controlled studies; thus, specific among E. coli to pivmecillinam remains low despite its frequent
recommendations for the role of fosfomycin in the treatment of use in some European countries [24].
multidrug-resistant uropathogens cannot be included in the Fluoroquinolones. There were 12 randomized trials of
current guideline. However, observational studies are supportive fluoroquinolones for treatment of acute cystitis. The majority of
of clinical efficacy [41, 42]. these compared one fluoroquinolone with another, often in
The convenience of a single-dose regimen, in vitro activity varying doses or durations. Sparfloxacin and gatifloxacin are no
against resistant gram-negative rods, and minimal propensity longer widely available because of their adverse effects, and thus,
for collateral damage make fosfomycin a useful choice in some results related to these 2 agents are not included in the analyses
areas. It is recommended as a first-line agent in the guidelines of [44–47]. Two large studies compared 500 mg of extended-
the European Association of Urology, although it is not uni- release once-daily ciprofloxacin to the 250-mg twice-daily for-
formly available [34]. Susceptibility data are also not uniformly mulation of ciprofloxacin and demonstrated equivalent cure
available, because testing is not routinely performed in many rates [48, 49]. Another study compared ciprofloxacin (250 mg
clinical laboratories. Furthermore, the effect of fosfomycin on twice daily) in a 3-day versus a 7-day regimen and demonstrated
the intestinal flora after intake of a single 3-g dose (the standard equivalent cure rates but significantly higher adverse event rates
dosage for uncomplicated UTI) has not been well studied, but with the longer regimen [50]. A small study compared nor-
the effect is probably minor [25]. This assumption is supported floxacin 400 mg twice daily with norfloxacin 800 mg once daily
by the high rate of E. coli susceptibility in regions with frequent and demonstrated similar bacterial and clinical outcomes, albeit
use of fosfomycin for uncomplicated cystitis in women [10]. with limited power to detect true differences [33]. One study
Pivmecillinam. Pivmecillinam, the orally bioavailable form compared single-dose ciprofloxacin with 3 days of norfloxacin
of mecillinam, is distinguished from other b-lactams because of and found the agents to be equivalent, with microbiological and
its specificity for the urinary tract, minimal resistance or pro- clinical cure rates in the 91% - 94% range [51].
pensity for collateral damage, and reasonable treatment efficacy. Three studies compared a fluoroquinolone with a drug from
It is an extended gram-negative spectrum penicillin used only another class. Two demonstrated better clinical and microbio-
for treatment of UTI. Two studies met our inclusion criteria logical cure rates with the fluoroquinolone regimen (norfloxacin
[43]. One study compared different doses of pivmecillinam with vs pivmecillinam and ciprofloxacin vs amoxicillin-clavulanate)
placebo. Pivmecillinam at 200 mg 3 times daily for 7 days, [43, 52]. The third demonstrated early clinical and bacterial
200 mg twice daily for 7 days, and 400 mg twice daily for 3 days cure rates to be similar with 3 days of low-dose ciprofloxacin
resulted in early clinical cure rates of 62% (132 of 217 women), or a standard dose but longer duration (7 days each) of
64% (136 of 220 women), and 55% (119 of 220 women), re- trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and nitrofurantoin [37]. The
spectively, and bacteriologic cure rates of 93%, 94%, and 84%, details for each of these studies are discussed under the
respectively. Placebo therapy resulted in a clinical cure rate of respective comparator agent. Overall clinical and bacterial

e114 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

efficacy rates in the studies are consistently high, although they ciprofloxacin (P , .001) [52]. Vaginal colonization with ur-
were occasionally ,90% (Table 4). opathogens before and after therapy was also measured, and the
Thus, fluoroquinolones remain very effective for the treat- higher clinical failure rate observed with amoxicillin-clavulanate
ment of acute cystitis, although increased fluoroquinolone re- was associated with a lower rate of eradication of vaginal ur-
sistance among community uropathogens is mitigating the opathogens in the amoxicillin-clavulanate group. These findings
usefulness of this antimicrobial class. Once-daily dosing of ci- are consistent with the postulated mechanism for b-lactam
profloxacin is now available and of equal efficacy as the twice- inferiority in the treatment of UTI being, in part, related to
daily formulation, albeit more expensive, since the latter is now persistence of the vaginal reservoir for infection. Another study
generic. Single-dose fluoroquinolone therapy remains an option compared 2 b-lactam antibiotics, cefdinir (100 mg twice daily)
but with possibly lower efficacy rates than with longer regimens versus ceflacor (250 mg 3 times daily), each for 5 days, and
[1]. Fluoroquinolones with longer half-lives, such as pefloxacin demonstrated equivalent clinical (91% vs 93%, respectively) and
and fleroxacin, may be useful for single-dose therapy, but no microbiological (85% vs 80%, respectively) cure rates [54].
studies met our eligibility criteria and neither agent is available Thus, the overall evidence of the efficacy of b-lactams for

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in all locales, including North America and many parts of Eu- treatment of acute cystitis has not changed since the previous
rope. The main concern regarding fluoroquinolone use for acute guideline [1]. Most studies demonstrate that b-lactams are
cystitis is the promotion of fluoroquinolone resistance, not only generally inferior in cure rates to the fluoroquinolones [42, 52].
among uropathogens but also other organisms, causing more The study by Kavatha et al [38] demonstrating that an advanced
serious and difficult–to-treat infections at other sites. There is generation oral cephalosporin (cefpodoxime proxetil) resulted
also concern about the association between fluoroquinolone use in cure rates equivalent to those of trimethoprim-sulfame-
and increased rates of MRSA [22]. Many experts now call for thoxazole is intriguing and needs to be confirmed in a larger
restricting use of fluoroquinolones to those episodes of un- clinical trial [38]. However, even if these observations are con-
complicated cystitis when other UTI antimicrobials are not firmed, concern about emergence of gram-negative ESBL re-
suitable [53]. The panel agrees and recommends that fluo- sistance to these agents limits enthusiasm for any widespread
roquinolones be reserved as an alternative only when other UTI use. Broad-spectrum cephalosporins, in particular, have been
agents cannot be used (Figure 1). associated with collateral damage, the most concerning of which
b-Lactams. Five randomized trials evaluating b-lactam is ESBL resistance among gram-negative bacteria [22]. Nar-
antibiotics were identified and included in the analyses. rower-spectrum cephalosporins are often used for treatment of
Only 1 study included a 3-day regimen of trimethoprim- UTI and may result in less collateral damage, compared with
sulfamethoxazole as the standard comparator [38]. This study broad-spectrum cephalosporins; however, there is a lack of ad-
demonstrated that 100 mg of cefpodoxime proxetil twice equately powered studies to make specific recommendations for
daily for 3 days was equivalent to trimethoprim-sulfame- these agents. Thus, the panel feels that currently available data
thoxazole (160/800 mg twice daily for 3 days), with 100% of supports avoidance of b-lactams other than pivmecillinam for
70 women treated with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and empirical therapy of uncomplicated cystitis unless none of the
98% of 63 women treated with cefpodoxime experiencing recommended agents are appropriate.
clinical and microbiological cured at day 4–7 after completion The choice of agent should be individualized on the basis of
of therapy. Clinical cure at 28 days was somewhat lower but patient allergy and compliance history, local practice patterns,
not different between the treatment arms (Table 2). However, local community resistance prevalence, availability, cost, and
the statistical power of the study to find differences between patient and provider threshold for failure. In the event of di-
the drugs was limited by its small sample size. Side effects agnostic uncertainty regarding cystitis versus early pyelone-
were not different between the 2 groups. In another study, phritis, use of agents such as nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, and
amoxicillin-clavulanate (500/125 mg twice daily) was com- pivmecillinam should be avoided, because they do not achieve
pared with ciprofloxacin (250 mg twice daily), both for 3 days, adequate renal tissue levels. Such uncertainly may exist in the
with 4 months of follow-up [52]. Clinical cure at the last setting of cystitis symptoms accompanied by subjective fever that
follow-up visit was observed in 58% of 160 women treated with is not verified at the time of examination, a prolonged duration
amoxicillin-clavulanate, compared with 77% of 162 women of cystitis symptoms (typically greater than 5–7 days), or vague
treated with ciprofloxacin (P , .001). The differences were flank pain or tenderness which is not otherwise explained.
significant even among the subgroups of women infected with
strains susceptible to the treatment drug (60% vs 77%, re- II. What Is the Treatment for Acute Pyelonephritis?
spectively; P 5 .004). Microbiological cure at 2 weeks was Recommendations.
observed in 76% of 156 women treated with amoxicillin- 8. In patients suspected of having pyelonephritis, a urine
clavulanate, compared with 95% of 161 women treated with culture and susceptibility test should always be performed, and

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e115

initial empirical therapy should be tailored appropriately on without ampicillin; an extended-spectrum cephalosporin or
the basis of the infecting uropathogen (A-III). extended-spectrum penicillin, with or without an
9. Oral ciprofloxacin (500 mg twice daily) for 7 days, with or aminoglycoside; or a carbapenem. The choice between these
without an initial 400-mg dose of intravenous ciprofloxacin, is agents should be based on local resistance data, and the
an appropriate choice for therapy in patients not requiring regimen should be tailored on the basis of susceptibility
hospitalization where the prevalence of resistance of results (B-III).
community uropathogens to fluoroquinolones is not known
to exceed 10% (A-I). If an initial one-time intravenous agent is Evidence Summary
used, a long-acting antimicrobial, such as 1 gof ceftriaxone or Optimal therapy for acute uncomplicated pyelonephritis de-
a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, could be used pends on the severity of illness at presentation and local re-
in lieu of an intravenous fluoroquinolone (B-III). If the sistance patterns as well as specific host factors (such as
prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance is thought to exceed allergies). In addition, urine culture and susceptibility testing
should be performed, and initial empirical therapy should be

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10%, an initial 1-time intravenous dose of a long-acting
parenteral antimicrobial, such as 1 g of ceftriaxone (B-III) or tailored appropriately on the basis of the infecting uropathogen.
a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, is Strategies for optimizing empirical therapy when local resistance
recommended (B-III). patterns are not known include using an initial intravenous dose
i. Data are insufficient to make a recommendation about what of a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial and starting with
fluoroquinolone resistance level requires an alternative agent in a broader-spectrum agent and narrowing therapy when labo-
conjunction with or to replace a fluoroquinolone for treatment ratory results are available.
of pyelonephritis. There were 6 treatment studies of acute uncomplicated py-
elonephritis identified, but only 1 study met our inclusion cri-
10. A once-daily oral fluoroquinolone, including teria. This study compared a 7-day regimen of oral ciprofloxacin
ciprofloxacin (1000 mg extended release for 7 days)or (500 mg twice daily) with a 14-day regimen of trimethoprim-
levofloxacin (750 mg for 5 days), is an appropriate choice for sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg twice daily) for treatment of
therapy in patients not requiring hospitalization where the women presenting to emergency departments or outpatient
prevalence of resistance of community uropathogens is not clinics with mild to moderate pyelonephritis [55]. An initial
known to exceed 10% (B-II). If the prevalence of fluoroquinolone intravenous 400-mg dose of ciprofloxacin in the ciprofloxacin
resistance is thought to exceed 10%, an initial intravenous dose of group or a 1-g dose of ceftriaxone in the trimethoprim-
a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, such as 1 g of ceftriaxone sulfamethoxazole group was allowed in the protocol at the
(B-III) or a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside, is discretion of the clinician. Women with an uropathogen re-
recommended (B-III). sistant to the study drug to which they were randomized con-
11. Oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (160/800 mg [1 tinued to receive the drug unless they experienced clinical failure
double-strength tablet] twice-daily for 14 days) is an (14 women in the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole group and 1
appropriate choice for therapy if the uropathogen is known woman in the ciprofloxacin group). Ciprofloxacin had signifi-
to be susceptible (A-I). If trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is cantly higher microbiological (99% vs 89%, respectively) and
used when the susceptibility is not known, an initial clinical (96% vs 83%, respectively) cure rates at the early post-
intravenous dose of a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, therapy visit. Cure rates were similar regardless of whether
such as 1 g of ceftriaxone (B-II) or a consolidated 24-h dose of an initial intravenous dose of ciprofloxacin was given. Among
an aminoglycoside, is recommended (B-III). trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole–treated women, those with a
12. Oral b-lactam agents are less effective than other
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole–resistant uropathogen had
available agents for treatment of pyelonephritis (B-III). If an
significantly lower microbiological eradication and clinical cure
oral b-lactam agent is used, an initial intravenous dose of
rates, compared with those with a susceptible uropathogen.
a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, such as 1 g of
An initial intravenous dose of ceftriaxone significantly
ceftriaxone (B-II) or a consolidated 24-h dose of an
improved the microbiological eradication rate and moderately
aminoglycoside, is recommended (B-III).
improved the clinical cure rate in women with a trimethoprim-
i. Data are insufficient to modify the previous guideline
sulfamethoxazole–resistant uropathogen.
recommendation for a duration of therapy of 10–14 days for
Two additional studies also demonstrated that a 5–7-day
treatment of pyelonephritis with a b-lactam agent.
regimen of a once-daily fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin, 1000
13. Women with pyelonephritis requiring hospitalization mg extended release, and levofloxacin, 750 mg, respectively)
should be initially treated with an intravenous antimicrobial were effective for acute pyelonephritis [56, 57]. These studies did
regimen, such as a fluoroquinolone; an aminoglycoside, with or not meet our inclusion criteria because they included

e116 d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d Gupta et al

a mixed population of men and women with acute pyelone- regimens are warranted. If trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is
phritis and/or complicated UTIs, but they do lend additional used empirically, an initial intravenous dose of ceftriaxone is
support for a 5–7-day fluoroquinolone regimen versus the tra- recommended as this combination resulted in improved clinical
ditional 14-day regimen for mild to moderate pyelonephritis. A and bacterial cure rates in the study by Talan et al [55]. Although
study of once-daily gatifloxacin (200 mg or 400 mg) was similar not formally studied, a consolidated 24-h dose of an amino-
in design and outcomes but is not discussed further because the glycoside could also be considered in place of ceftriaxone.
oral formulation is no longer available in most parts of the world Oral b-lactam agents should be used with caution for treat-
[58]. Another pyelonephritis study demonstrated that 10 days of ment of pyelonephritis, on the basis of studies outlined in the
an oral fluoroquinolone (norfloxacin, 400 mg twice daily) re- previous guideline demonstrating inferior efficacy and higher
sulted in lower bacterial relapse rates than did 10 days of cefti- relapse rates compared with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
buten (200 mg twice daily), with each group receiving [1]. Those studies primarily evaluated aminopenicillins. Current
intravenous cefuroxime for 2–4 days prior to randomization to data on oral cephalosporins are limited but are suggestive of
the study drugs [59]. This study also included a mixed pop- inferior efficacy compared with the fluoroquinolones [59]. If an

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ulation of men and women and thus did not meet our inclusion oral b-lactam is used, an initial intravenous dose of ceftriaxone
criteria. Another study demonstrated that initial therapy with or a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside is recom-
intravenous ceftriaxone (1 g for 3 days) was comparable to 1 mended. Continued use of the oral b-lactam is reasonable only if
dose of intravenous ceftriaxone (1 g) followed by oral cefixime the uropathogen is susceptible. Initial coadministration of
(400 mg once daily for 2 days). Both groups received a 10-day a parenteral agent is supported in part by the findings of Sanchez
course of an oral antibiotic on the basis of susceptibility test et al [60], who reported similar outcomes with ‘ one dose of
results after the initial regimen was completed [60]. ceftriaxone versus a 3-day course of ceftriaxone followed by oral
The findings from the 1 study that met our specific inclusion b-lactam therapy in women with uncomplicated pyelonephritis.
and exclusion criteria as well as the additional studies described As outlined in the previous guideline, a total course of 10–14
support the superior efficacy of fluoroquinolone regimens for days of therapy is likely sufficient when using an oral b-lactam
treatment of acute pyelonephritis [55]. These studies also dem- for treatment of uncomplicated pyelonephritis.
onstrate efficacy of a 5–7-day regimen and once-daily dosing for Uncomplicated cystitis or pyelonephritis due to MRSA is
mild to moderate pyelonephritis. In regions with low levels of uncommon, and at this time, there are insufficient data to rec-
fluoroquinolone resistance among outpatient uncomplicated ommend use of an MRSA-active agent for empirical therapy of
pyelonephritis isolates, as demonstrated in 2 recent US studies, uncomplicated UTI. Recommendations for treatment of acute
the fluoroquinolones are the preferred antimicrobial class for oral uncomplicated pyelonephritis that is accompanied by nausea or
therapy [18, 61]. For some areas of the world, including certain vomiting, which precludes oral intake or otherwise requires
areas of the United States, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone hospitalization, are the same as previously outlined in the 1999
resistance is .10%. In such areas, it is recommended that a dose IDSA guideline, because no new data are available to warrant
of a long-acting parenteral antimicrobial, such as a 1-g dose of revisions [1]. Given rising rates of ampicillin resistance among
ceftriaxone or a consolidated 24-h dose of an aminoglycoside (eg, gram-negative organisms, the use of ampicillin should be lim-
one 5–7-mg/kg dose of gentamicin), be given once at the initia- ited to patients in whom Enterococcus infection is suspected as
tion of therapy. Some experts prefer to continue the parenteral the pathogen (based on previous history) and should be ac-
agent until susceptibility data are available; this strategy is not well companied by an aminoglycoside. Broad-spectrum antimicro-
studied, but it can be considered depending on feasibility and bial coverage should be tailored, as appropriate, on the basis of
clinical judgment. The parenteral agent may be administered via urine culture and susceptibility results.
the intramuscular route if the intravenous route is not available,
but there are limited data supporting this approach. FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH GAPS IN
High rates of resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE UNCOMPLICATED
with corresponding failure rates for resistant isolates make this CYSTITIS AND PYELONEPHRITIS
agent an inferior choice for empirical therapy, but it is highly
As listed below, the panel identified several areas warranting
efficacious in pyelonephritis if the causative organism is suscep-
further investigation.
tible. The current efficacy rates observed for trimethoprim-sulfa-
methoxazole in the treatment of pyelonephritis are based on a 14- d Better understanding of collateral damage in the treatment

day regimen, which is the FDA-approved duration of treatment of uncomplicated cystitis.

[55]. However, there are no data to suggest a shorter course of d Better understanding of the public health impact of

trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole would not be effective when the antimicrobial use and resistance in women with sporadic
uropathogen is susceptible, and additional studies of short-course uncomplicated UTI.

Clinical Practice Guidelines d CID 2011:52 (1 March) d e117

 d Role of MRSA in uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis. The Expert Panel wishes to express its gratitude to the IDSA staff for
d Efficacy of narrow-spectrum cephalosporins in treatment of administrative assistance and external reviewers Drs Patricia Brown, Jack
Sobel, and John Warren for thoughtful advice.
uncomplicated cystitis.
Financial support. The Infectious Diseases Society of America.
d Role of oral broad-spectrum cephalosporins for outpatient Potential conflicts of interest. K.G. (Chair) has served as a consultant
treatment of pyelonephritis in regions with high prevalence of to Pfizer and Pinnacle Pharmaceutical. A.J.S. has served as a consultant to
resistance to fluoroquinolones. Novabay Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer, Propagate Pharmaceuticals, Hagen/Sin-
clair Research Recruiting, Swiss Precision Diagnostics Development
d Efficacy of short course (7–10 day) regimens with
Company, and FlashPointMedica; has received honoraria from BMJ Group
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for pyelonephritis caused by (British Medical Journal) and Advanstar Communications; received
a trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole susceptible pathogen. a royalty payment from UpToDate; and received remuneration from the
American Urological Association. G.J.M. has served as a consultant to
d Optimal therapy of acute cystitis in women who are
Cerexa, Cubist, Eisai, Forest, Merck, Ortho-McNeil, Pfizer, and Schering-
postmenopausal or have well-controlled diabetes without Plough and has received honoraria from Cubist and Merck. K.G.N. has
urological sequelae. received remuneration as consultant or speaker from Bionorica, Daiichi
Sankyo, Janssen Cilag, Johnson & Johnson, OM Pharma, Pierre Fabre,
d Better understanding of optimal treatment regimens for

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Sanofi Aventis, and Zambon and has received research grants from Mer-
ESBL- producing uropathogens causing uncomplicated UTI. Lion Pharmaceuticals, Rosen Pharma, and OM Pharma. L.E.N. has served
d Additional studies of clinical efficacy rates achieved in the as a consultant to Pfizer, Leo pharmaceuticals, Cerexa, and Johnson &
setting of an acute cystitis uropathogen that is resistant to the Johnson and served on the advisory board for Leo Pharmaceuticals and
Cerexa. L.G.M. has served as a consultant to Forest and Theravance Lab-
antimicrobial agent used for treatment. oratories and received research grants from Cubist and Pfizer Pharma-
d Prospective and unbiased resistance surveillance of ceuticals. T.M.H. has served as a consultant to Pfizer, Alita Pharmaceuticals,
uropathogens at the local practice and/or health care system and Pinnacle Pharmaceuticals All other authors: no conflicts.
level in order to best inform antimicrobial decisions.
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