Thematic reports ITUPublications

ITU Guidelines for

national emergency
telecommunication plans

International Telecommunication Union

Telecommunication Development Bureau
Place des Nations
CH-1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland

ISBN: 978-92-61-29961-3

9 789261 299613

Published in Switzerland
Geneva, 2019
 ITU Guidelines for
national emergency
telecommunication plans
This report was prepared by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) expert Juan Manuel
Roldan, President of Luxon Consulting Group, LLC, and research assistant Felipe Ordoñez, under the
direction of the Environment and Emergency Telecommunications Division (EET), within the Digital
Networks and Society Department of the Telecommunication Development Bureau (BDT).

ITU would like to warmly thank those who contributed to the public consultation for their constructive
and fruitful comments for the revisions of the guidelines, in particular, the GVF group represented by
David Meltzer, Dulip Tillekeratne from GSMA, Cecil Ameil from SES, Ria Sen from ETC, Joseph Burton
from, U.S. Department of State, José Toscano from Intelsat, Aarti Holla from ESOA, Jennifer Manner
from EchoStar, and ITU experts Eliot Christian and Don Wallace.

ISBN

978-92-61-29951-4 (Paper version)

978-92-61-29961-3 (Electronic version)

978-92-61-29971-2 (EPUB version)

978-92-61-29981-1 (Mobi version)

Please consider the environment before printing this report.

© ITU 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, by any means whatsoever, without the prior
written permission of ITU.
 Table of Contents

List of tables, figures and boxes v

1. Overview 1
1.1 Scope and structure  1
1.2 Recommendations 2

2. National emergency telecommunication plan: Step by step 4

2.1 Overall risk assessment  4
2.2 Topics to be included in the NETP  4
2.3 Concepts and principles in a draft national plan 6
2.4 NETP drafting process 12

3. National disaster management 15

3.1 Legal and regulatory framework 15
3.2 Administrative structure and governance model 18
3.3 Public–private cooperation, coordination, communication plans  21
3.4 Contingency plans 23
3.5 Definition of roles and identification of contact points 23

4. Telecommunication/ICT legislation and regulation 25

4.1. Legislation 25
4.2. Regulation 25
4.3. Ensuring regulatory flexibility  28

5. Telecom/ICTs for emergencies 29

5.1. Vulnerability and risk analysis of telecommunication/ICT networks 29
5.2. Telecommunication/ICT database for emergencies 30
5.3. Early warning systems 30
5.4. Common alerting protocol 33

6. International cooperation and coordination 36

6.1 Emergency telecommunication cluster 36
6.2 International Telecommunication Union 36
6.3 Tampere Convention 37
6.4 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs  38
6.5 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 38
6.6 Bilateral agreements 39

7. Development of capacities and drills 40

8. Support for people with specific needs  45

Annex A: Emergency communications checklist 48

Annex B: Types of disasters 66

Annex C: Historical disasters by region 69

iii
 Annex D: Additional information on telecom/ICTs for emergencies 73

Annex E: Additional information on the Tampere Convention 83

Annex F: Additional information on drills and exercises 85

Annex G: Additional information on ICT to support people with specific needs 86

References 88

Abbreviations 92

Glossary 93

iv
List of tables, figures and boxes
Tables
Table 1: Topics to be included in a national emergency telecommunication plan 5
Table 2: Principles of a national emergency telecommunication plan 7
Table 3: List of government and private stakeholders to include in workshops and
interviews 13
Table C1: Disasters over the 50-year period 1968–2017 69
Figures
Figure 1: Topics to be included in a national emergency telecommunication plan 5
Figure 2: Principles of a national emergency telecommunication plan 6
Figure 3: Disaster management phases 8
Figure 4: National emergency telecommunication plan step-by-step drafting process 14
Figure 5: National emergency telecommunication development and implementation 15
Figure 6: Four elements of end-to-end, people-centred early warning systems 31
Figure 7: Common alerting protocol 33
Figure 8: Training ladder 42
Figure B1: Disaster categories according to CRED 66
Figure D1: FEMA Mobile App 76
Figure D2: Satellite systems 77
Boxes
Box 1: SAFECOM Writing Guide for Standard Operating Procedures 16
Box 2: The Colombia administrative structure and governance model 18
Box 3: The United Kingdom administrative structure and organizational model 20
Box 4: The Chile regulations on telecommunication networks for emergency management 22
Box 5: The Peru regulations for telecommunication services during emergency situations 27
Box 6: The Butaleja district in Eastern Uganda: Flood early warning systems 32
Box 7: Common alerting protocol 34
Box 8: NetHope 43
Box 9: Earthquake drills 43
Box 10: gear.UP 44
Box 11: Wireless Emergency Alerts 46
Box 12: PLUSVoice 47
Box 13: Get Ready Get Through 47
Box D1: United States Federal Emergency Management Agency Mobile App 76

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 1
1. Overview
The implementation of a national emergency telecommunication plan (NETP) is an essential
prerequisite for policy, procedures, and governance that enable reliable and resilient information and
communications in all four phases of disaster risk management: mitigation, preparedness, response
and recovery.

The effective management of the risk of disasters depends on communication and information sharing
across all levels of government, within communities, and between public and private organizations.
In particular, timely and effective information flow is important for early warning and alerting the
population, for preparing for an emergency event, and for the effective coordination and articulation
of response activities that can minimize economic loss, mitigate the impact on public well-being and
loss of life.

A national emergency telecommunication plan (NETP) sets out a strategy to enable and
ensure communications availability during the disaster mitigation, preparedness, response
and recovery phases, by promoting coordination across all levels of government, between
public and private organizations, and within communities at risk.

Preparation and implementation of an NETP engages stakeholders to think through the life cycle of a
potential disaster, it determines the required capabilities for emergency responses, and establishes a
governance framework of roles and responsibilities. It also clarifies how to shape planning, envision and
share desired outcomes, and it outlines effective ways to achieve and communicate expected results.

The NETP will reflect what diverse stakeholder communities need to focus on in order to address
specific risks with available resources.

Additionally, for developing countries, the NETP will highlight major areas of risk. This not only provides
support and justification for the funding of vital equipment and personnel in an emergency, but also
promotes the need for day-to-day resources and procedures that keep national authorities prepared,
especially to maintaining vital communications, the essential lifeline during emergencies.

This report assists national authorities and policymakers to develop a clear, flexible and user-friendly
framework that guides countries on how to develop a strategic plan to support and enable the
continued use of telecommunication and information and communication technology (ICT) networks
and services in all four disaster management phases. It not only describes the main elements that
an NETP should consider, but also highlights its potential benefits. It includes a step-by-step guide
to the development of an NETP, it serves as a useful resource based on ITU recommendations and
concepts, as well as expertise from other global bodies and organizations.

1.1 Scope and structure

This guide is intended primarily for national authorities responsible for the development and
implementation of the NETP and is a useful resource for any person or organization generally involved
in disaster risk management or in the administration of telecommunication/ICTs during emergencies.
This includes governments, the private sector, non-governmental entities, humanitarian aid agencies
and private citizens.

Section 2 provides a step-by-step guide for developing an NETP. This section emphasizes the importance
of including an overall risk assessment for the particular country in the NETP and describes the topics
that should be included in the NETP. The section also sets out the phases of disaster management
in order to incorporate them into the development of an NETP and presents a step-by-step process
to draft the NETP.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Section 3 introduces the legal and regulatory framework, the administrative structure, processes and
communication protocols that should exist in national governments for the implementation of the
NETP, highlighting some relevant case studies, and considers the role the of institutions involved in
disaster response.

Section 4 addresses issues related to regulation of communications; specifically, aspects regarding

equipment imports, licensing of services, and the administration and planning of radio spectrum. It
also discusses the potential to increase the ability of the regulator to address particular needs with
greater flexibility.

Section 5 reviews how different networks and telecommunication/ICT services can be used in an
emergency, and also reviews the literature on technical standards that exist for emergency management.

Section 6 outlines existing international cooperation and coordination mechanisms, as well as how
they can be implemented by a given country.

Section 7 highlights the importance of continuous training, simulation drills and capacity building for
all parties involved in the response to an emergency.

Section 8 describes the measures and activities that should be considered to help people with specific
needs during emergencies, including children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities.

Annexes A, B, C, D, E, F and G provide supplementary information on topics addressed throughout

the report and a reference section provides a list of relevant publications and ITU documents related
to emergency telecommunication.

1.2 Recommendations
The following are the main recommendations the document offers to develop national emergency
telecommunication plans:

• Recommendation 1: The NETP should take into consideration current capabilities, coordination
challenges, planned resiliency requirements, with an understanding of the country’s overall risk for
telecommunication/ICT infrastructure and contingency planning, taking into account that hazards and
vulnerabilities will vary widely between regions or even within countries. This overall risk analysis,
developed jointly with telecommunication/ICT operators, should include geographic maps depicting
the risk and telecommunication/ICT landscapes of the country.

• Recommendation 2: The NETP should include a description of the phases of disaster

management based on the national disaster risk management plan adopted within the country
and describe how telecommunication/ICT will be supported/enabled in each of these phases. The
NETP should be governed by a set of principles that include, among others, addressing the country’s
potential hazards, participation from all stakeholders, both public and private, and the identification
of all the telecommunication/ICT facilities that are required for different emergencies.

• Recommendation 3: The NETP should include clear administrative structures, processes and
communication protocols essential to the satisfactory implementation of the plan, taking into account
the specific needs, laws, regulations, institutions and other characteristics particular to a given country,
including but not limited to, the national disaster risk management plan.

• Recommendation 4: Legislation and regulation regarding telecommunication/ICTs for disaster

management should be in place or put in place and described in the NETP. Such legislation should
provide high-level guidance on the development of the NETP, while still allowing regulatory flexibility
during its construction and implementation.

A description of the legislation, regulation, policies, and authorities related to telecommunication/

ICTs for disaster management must be included in the NETP.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 1
• Recommendation 5: The NETP should contain information on all existing telecommunication/
ICT networks (public and private) available for use in a disaster event, a vulnerability and risk analysis
of these telecommunication/ICT networks, and network contingency plans for when emergencies
and disasters occur. This information should be periodically reviewed and updated.

• Recommendation 6: Multi-hazard early warning systems should be designed and deployed,

linking all hazard-monitoring systems when possible to take advantage of economies of scale and
enhance sustainability and efficiency through a multipurpose user-centric framework. An inventory
of such systems, together with the processes used to activate them, should be included in the NETP
and periodically reviewed and updated.

• Recommendation 7: The NETP should include a description of, and reference to, all international
cooperation and coordination treaties and bilateral agreements that the country has signed regarding
disaster management. In particular, countries are encouraged to take steps to ratify and implement
the Tampere Convention and to take the necessary actions to put plans, policies, and procedures in
place at national and local level, to ensure that the Convention and any other disaster management
agreements relating to telecommunication/ICTs will be effective in a disaster situation. Such policies
are necessary regardless of whether or not a country has ratified the Tampere Convention.

• Recommendation 8: The NETP should include a mechanism for enhancing training and capacity
building for both the administrators leading emergency responses and the wider community using
and providing telecommunication/ICTs in emergencies. This requires not only practice drills, training
activities, tests and other exercises, but also the development of the curriculum for these activities
and the evaluation and possible modification of any existing procedures and policies.

• Recommendation 9: The NETP should detail how to support continued availability of multiple
forms of telecommunication/ICTs to provide messages and inform/alert impacted people, including
those with specific needs, and marginalized communities. It is important to ensure that the NETP
correctly describes, and appropriately responds to everyone’s needs.

• Recommendation 10: Cybersecurity planning, defined to include prevention, detection,

response, and recovery, should be included as a foundational requirement to ensure the confidentiality,
integrity and availability of communications services to support emergency operations

• Recommendation 11: Annual exercises should be held and the NETP should be updated after
every drill and operation to incorporate lessons learned, and be fully reviewed at least every three
to five years.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

2. National emergency telecommunication plan: Step

by step
This section first describes the need for a risk assessment, the topics to be included in the NETP,
followed by a step-by-step process to draft the NETP.

2.1 Overall risk assessment

An NETP should be developed on the basis of a country's current capabilities, coordination challenges,
and planned resiliency requirements, with an understanding of the overall risks for telecommunication/
ICT infrastructure and contingency planning, considering that the hazards and vulnerabilities may vary
widely between regions or even within the country (see Annex B).

While developing an NETP, each country will have to take into account such important elements as
their geographical, topographical and political characteristics, among others, which can indicate the
likely hazards and levels of vulnerability to a possible disaster. For example, a country in the Asia-
Pacific could be exposed to flooding, hurricanes and earthquakes, as well as volcanic eruptions and
tsunamis (see Annex C).

A risk assessment of the telecommunication/ICT sector can be achieved by mapping the different
types of hazards and levels of vulnerability to a possible disaster against the telecommunication/ICT
network infrastructure to see which areas of the network are vulnerable.

Recommendation 1

The NETP should take into consideration current capabilities, coordination challenges,
planned resiliency requirements, with an understanding of the country’s overall risk for
telecommunication/ICT infrastructure and contingency planning, taking into account that the
hazards and vulnerabilities will vary widely between regions or even within countries. This
overall risk analysis, developed jointly with telecommunication/ICT operators, should include
geographic maps depicting the risk and telecommunication/ICT landscapes of the country.

2.2 Topics to be included in the NETP

An NETP should be composed of at least five main sections. The first section is a general introduction
to the NETP, and the following sections address the different phases of disaster management:
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery (see Table 1). Each section can be adapted to specific
characteristics of each country. However, it is important to ensure that the topics described below
are considered.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 2
Figure 1: Topics to be included in a national emergency telecommunication plan

Source: ITU

Table 1: Topics to be included in a national emergency telecommunication plan

Topics Description
General Introduction (a) Purpose and scope of the NETP and coordination with the country’s national
disaster risk management plan.
(b) Description of the phases of disaster management and how to enable or
support telecommunication/ICT services within each phase.
(c) Description of the parties involved in carrying out an NETP, including govern-
ment, private industry, and other stakeholders.
(d) Identification of governance developed to enable implementation of the plan.

Mitigation phase a) Map showing the location and types of hazards the country faces.
(b) Understanding of the telecommunication/ICT landscape, operators and ser-
vice providers, facilities availability and service penetration.
(c) Prioritization of critical telecommunication/ICT networks, disaster reporting
procedures for carriers that are standardized and exercised considering each
of these hazards.
(d) Mechanisms for reducing the vulnerability and improving the resilience and
redundancy of telecommunication/ICT networks.
(e) Legal and regulatory framework and authorities to support emergency tele-
communication/ICT services; and,
(f) Treaties and international cooperation agreements.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Topics Description
Preparedness phase Standard operating procedures;
(b) Response and contingency plans;
(c) Coordination structures at all levels;
(d) Information sharing protocols;
(e) Telecommunication/ICT networks for monitoring, early warning and alert
systems;
(f) Cooperation between different stakeholders, including operators and private
sector;
(g) Training and exercises (including time frames, types, participants, schedules);
and,
(h) Support for vulnerable people.

Response phase (a) Communication and coordination among government communications

and national disaster management organization contacts, with carriers, and
between first responders and the full range of stakeholders;
(b) Gathering and analysis of data/information on immediate needs of the popu-
lation, and managing the safe delivery of the response;
(c) Geospatial information on the disaster event;
(d) Situational awareness and updates
(e) Enabling response, connecting families and friends, enabling call centres, etc.

Recovery phase Damage and needs assessment;

(b) Rebuilding and improving telecommunication/ICT infrastructure;
(c) Identifying locations in need of recovery assistance, tracking recovery activities.
(d) Enabling and coordinating reconstruction activities.

2.3 Concepts and principles in a draft national plan

NETP principles
In order to develop a complete and effective plan for all sorts of risk management, an NETP should
follow a conceptual guidance and a set of principles.

Figure 2: Principles of a national emergency telecommunication plan

Source: ITU

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 2
Table 2: Principles of a national emergency telecommunication plan

Principles Description
Multi-hazard • Adopt a strategy that addresses all potential hazards to which the
nation is exposed
• During NETP implementation, decisions should be based upon the most
accurate information available about all potential disaster types

Multi- • The NETP should make an evaluation of the telecommunication/ICT

technology infrastructure to be used in all phases of disaster management
• Standard operating procedures should identify the appropriate types of
telecommunication/ICT technologies required for each type of emergency
• The need for redundant communications networks should be planned for

Multi-phase • Ensure the NETP addresses the links between different phases of disaster
management in different types of disasters

Multi- • Increase awareness and obtain commitments from all relevant

stakeholder stakeholders to participate, contribute and agree on a strategy, enabling
coordination with and communication among all partners
• The NETP should include training and drills prioritized, supported,
and enabled, for all phases of disaster management and at all levels –
individual, team, department and community
• During NETP implementation, decisions should be based upon accurate
information/situational awareness
• Standard operating procedures should identify the appropriate types of
communications/technologies that are required for each type of emergency

General introduction

Generally, the first section of the NETP describes how telecommunication/ICT services will
be used to help prepare for and respond to disasters, and how communications as a national
critical function will be prioritized and enabled in all phases of disaster management. In
addition, the plan will discuss the application of these considerations across all levels of
government, within communities, and between public and private organizations. This is
done by defining policies, organizational structure and methods that inform the response
to all phases of an emergency: disaster mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.

The purpose and scope of the NETP should be in line with existing legislation and authorities on national
disaster risk management plans and disaster relief. It is important that the NETP is incorporated into the
overall national disaster risk management plan. The NETP must complement the national disaster risk
management plan and include a description of the phases of disaster risk management as used in this
plan (normally) mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases, see Figure 3),1 and describe
how telecommunication/ICT services can be used to support each of these phases (ITU, 2017c).

1
The disaster risk management process adopted internationally by United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(UNDRR) consists of these four phases. See European Commission, United Nations Development Group and World
Bank (2013).

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Figure 3: Disaster management phases

Source: ITU

In this section, the NETP should include a description and inventory of the commercial, private and
government telecommunication/ICT operators and networks that must be kept operational in a
disaster event. It could also include the description of the availability and use of these services and
map the infrastructure and services offered across the country, identifying those regions where there
is a lack of telecommunication/ICT services.

Finally, in this section, the NETP should also reference any treaties or international cooperation
agreements the country has signed related to telecommunication/ICT service cooperation for
disaster relief, such as the Tampere Convention, or any partnerships with the private sector and the
mechanisms that have been put in place to implement these. Since an NETP is dynamic, any new
treaty, cooperation agreement or private partnership should be subsequently included in the NETP.

Mitigation phase

This phase includes any type of activity that seeks to prevent an emergency, reduce the
likelihood of its occurrence, or limit the negative effects of unavoidable threats. The activities
envisaged in the mitigation phase should be considered and implemented before and after
the occurrence of emergency events.

In this phase, telecom/ICTs are used to facilitate the implementation of strategies, technologies and
processes that can reduce death and property damage in potential disasters. Activities that should
be carried out during disaster mitigation include establishing legal and regulatory frameworks that
allow for flexibility in supporting and enabling the continued operation and restoration of telecom/
ICTs, undertaking a risk analysis of critical communications infrastructure, taking steps to reduce the
vulnerability of telecommunication networks, and improving their resilience (ITU, 2012). Telecom/ICTs
are also used during this phase to coordinate the establishment and enhancement of infrastructure
such as monitoring, early warning and alerting systems; establish procedures to address potential
threats; and establish mechanisms to raise awareness and preparedness among citizens. Telecom/
ICT, broadcasting and other mechanisms play a key role in the dissemination of information on how
to mitigate the impacts of and prepare for a potential disaster.

In particular and considering what types of disasters are unique to each country, the NETP should
include a hazard profile of how and where the country is vulnerable. Existing geographic maps depicting

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Chapter 2
the likely locations of different types of possible disaster may be useful to share with communications
carriers. This is critical for the analysis of telecommunication/ICT infrastructure risks for both, the
telecommunication/ICT industry and the government, and for drafting contingency plans, as well as
for determining the type of warning systems needed. Risk analysis of critical telecommunication/ICT
infrastructure is key to reducing the vulnerability and improving the resilience of telecommunication/
ICT networks. This analysis must take into consideration the specific risk disaster map and hazard
profile mentioned above, and the description and inventory of telecommunication/ICT networks, as
well as national policies to enable ICT network operators to make networks more resilient.

Based on the infrastructure risk analysis, the NETP should include partnerships with telecommunication/
ICT providers and private entities or establish regulations to incentivize the improvement of redundancy
and resilience of telecommunication/ICT networks in specific locations that are at the highest risk in the
event of a disaster. The NETP should also develop contingency plans to be executed if a disaster occurs.

Also, the NETP should describe the existing legal and regulatory framework and policies/procedures
that support and enable telecommunication/ICT services in emergency situations. If no framework
is in place, it will be necessary to draft a framework that supports the NETP and which provides
authority for a government entity to, for example, request and support telecommunication/ICT
infrastructure deployment from operators. As previously discussed, laws, regulations and policies,
may determine coordination mechanisms, allocation of funds, communication channels, standard
operating procedures (SOPs) and the identification of decision-makers at different agencies. If there is
a legal and regulatory framework in place, it is necessary to see whether it includes all the necessary
provisions to develop, exercise, implement and update the NETP on an ongoing basis.

Preparedness phase

This phase includes the planning and preparation necessary for responding to an emergency
event. This includes the development of written plans and procedures, such as an NETP, to
ensure that critical operations are maintained during and after the emergency.

A key objective of this phase is the development and improvement of coordination and communications
mechanisms between those involved in disaster management and communications. This is achieved
through continuous planning, coordination, training and mock exercises/drills, as well as activities
designed to raise coordination and awareness among key stakeholders. The preparedness phase
should also consider the creation of a set of procedures and measures to ensure communications
are available to the diverse multi-stakeholder community when a disaster strikes in alternative
and accessible formats. This includes the central government, local communities, state/provincial
authorities, public safety officials, the private sector, relief organizations, hospitals, citizen-led groups
and civil society organizations, the United Nations (UN) and foreign governments. Telecommunication/
ICTs and other broadcasting services are key to facilitating the dissemination of warnings and alerts
so the public is aware of actions they must take during an emergency.

Considering the above, a NETP should include detailed plans and procedures, as well as the protocols
for coordination and communication of those involved in emergency management. Standard operating
procedures (SOPs), i.e., more detailed instructions on how to carry out the specific operational tasks or
activities of emergency response, need to be included in this section of the NETP. This section should
give key stakeholders a good idea of what should be expected and required of disaster response
officials to ensure that telecommunications are available to a diverse multi-stakeholder community
when a disaster strikes.

The NETP should include the functions, responsibilities and contact points, as well as contact
details (e.g., e-mail and phone numbers –including for after hours), for each government agency
and stakeholder related to telecommunication/ICT emergency services. This should be developed

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during the preparedness phase and regularly updated to account for reorganizations and changes
in personnel.

Response and contingency plans should also be drafted and included in the NETP to establish
arrangements in advance to set an environment to support the continued operation and restoration
of communications, which enables timely, effective, and appropriate responses to disasters. Inputs
to draft response and contingency plans should be based on the typology of disaster analysis and
should identify the lack of telecommunication/ICT infrastructure in vulnerable regions.

Early warning and alerting systems should be deployed, tested and enhanced during the preparedness
phase. In addition, an inventory of both new and existing monitoring early warning and alerting systems
should also be included in the NETP. This should include, for each early warning and alerting system:
information regarding the location, coverage and technology used by the system, as well as the type
of hazards that particular early warning systems were developed for. This section should also address
administrative aspects of early warning system (EWS), such as who is responsible for maintenance
and operation of the system. Similar to telecommunication/ICT network infrastructure, the NETP
should include an analysis of these early warning and alerting systems to address whether existing
systems are fit for purpose: that is, whether the existing systems meet documented requirements
and are scalable, flexible and accommodate new and emerging technologies, as well as appropriate
for the type of disaster likely to occur, and whether the systems are well maintained and in good
working order.

The NETP should also include guidelines for the telecommunication/ICT sector for all types of training,
drills and mock exercises, starting with table-top exercises, then evolving in complexity to partial and
full-scale drills and exercises. This improve teamwork, prepare teams to respond effectively to a real
emergency, enhances knowledge of plans and procedures, and enable members to revise these as
needed to improve their own performance and identify opportunities to improve system capabilities.
These guidelines should be designed to implement lessons learned from these exercises during the
preparedness phase: that is, before the actual emergency occurs.

How disaster response will offer support to vulnerable people should also be addressed in the
preparedness phase.

Awareness and education of the population, including how to communicate most efficiently during a
disaster and publicly available information on establishing personal/family emergency communications
plans are key to increasing resilience, reducing risks and limiting fatalities and economic losses of the
population. Telecommunication/ICTs and broadcasting services are important tools for carrying out
this awareness and education. Regulations may be required to allow the government to use such
networks to educate the public and increase awareness. It is recommended that the NETP incorporates
these regulations, e.g., requiring broadcasters and mobile operators to support communication and
messaging strategies to the affected population before and during emergency situations.

Daily usage of the emergency communications systems, familiarity with operational concepts and
knowledge of how communications interconnect, to the extent possible, will also enable reliable and
resilient communications and enhance capabilities so to be better prepared when needed for major
incidents and disasters.

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Chapter 2
Response phase

In the response phase, the plans and procedures established in the preparedness phase
are executed. This phase is carried out during the emergency and includes activities such as
the evacuation of affected areas, the opening of shelters, search and rescue, or establishing
telecommunications means to enable survivors to locate missing family members, among
other activities.

During this phase, a set of actions and procedures are carried out by various entities to connect all
actors in the disaster management ecosystem at the local, national and international levels. Therefore,
a response plan should understand not only the channels of communication available, but also the
types of information that need to be shared (ITU, 2017c). When a disaster strikes, coordination of relief
operations is more efficient and effective if policies, well-drilled procedures and resilient infrastructure
are available to all stakeholders.

Particularly, during the response phase, emergency telecommunication/ICT availability should be

supported and coordinated among all stakeholders through the defined contact points. This is
especially important considering that the need for interoperable and continuous communications
capabilities for all responders is vital during the response phase of disasters. Therefore, during this
phase, the designated coordinator or the lead government agency, working together with all relevant
stakeholders and partners, should ensure that communications processes, partnerships and resources
are effectively synchronized and utilized during response operations.

During this phase it is especially important that stakeholders help coordinate the provision of temporary
satellite connectivity while networks are down and also help to restore damaged telecommunication/
ICT infrastructure, because of the key role it plays for the government, private sector, non-governmental
entities, humanitarian aid agencies and citizens in the aftermath of a disaster. While evaluating damage
and attempting to re-establish networks in the aftermath of a disaster, communication must occur
quickly and seamlessly between those who assess the damage and those who provide emergency
communications services in order to establish priorities and direct the allocation of limited resources.

The NETP should incorporate procedures for obtaining information/situational awareness on the
status of existing telecommunication/ICT capacities that should be supported to enable continued
emergency disaster response. This should include, at a minimum, the following status items:

• Damaged infrastructure and services assessment (government and commercial/public networks):

• Development of a shared situational awareness and common operational picture for public-
private coordination of impacted communications systems, services, and the mission impacts
to disaster and emergency operations of each;
• Establishment of redundant emergency connectivity, based on priority setting;
• Maintenance and reestablishment of government networks, based on priority setting;
• Maintenance and reestablishment of commercial/public networks, based on priority setting;
• Regulatory or response actions needed to support continued operation and re-establishment
of networks (access, credentialing, security, etc.); and,
• The need for potential flexible, expedited regulatory responses, to enable redundant means of
communications in disasters.

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Recovery phase

This phase occurs after the disaster and focuses on providing the help needed for the
community to at least return to pre-emergency levels of safety and functionality, or to improve
on pre-existing conditions. Activities during this phase include, among others, removal of
debris, reconstruction of infrastructure, and restoration of public sector operations.

It is recommended to determine in advance, as much as possible, points of contact at relevant industry

stakeholders for technical coordination implementing a standardized format and process with network
operators for sharing network outage information. In addition, there should be backup (redundant)
networks in place for government and first responder use in order to facilitate restoration efforts,
such as dedicated government communications networks.

The rebuilding of more resilient telecommunication/ICT network infrastructure should also include
potential redundant network deployments wherever possible, so as to prepare for future disasters.
Also, government and the private sector should take advantage of the opportunity to rebuild relevant
telecommunication/ICT infrastructure, and where possible, to deploy technologies that are more
resilient, efficient, and less expensive.

Finally, telecommunication/ICT networks and services should be used in this phase to help assess
the damage and needs of the affected areas and population, identify locations in need of recovery
assistance, track recovery activities and coordinate reconstruction activities. In addition, the
identification of locations in need of recovery assistance and the amount and type required should
be guided by a comprehensive assessment (Post-Disaster Needs Assessment) that estimates damages
and losses and identifies the needs of the affected population. The development of this Post-Disaster
Needs Assessment, among other elements, should consider logistic arrangements, including ICT
needs, for example, or information management requirements.2

2.4 NETP drafting process

During the drafting of the NETP, it is important to include the views and opinions of all relevant
government entities and private stakeholders that have responsibilities in the national disaster risk
management plan. A preliminary list of these government entities and private stakeholders that could
be included in workshops and interviews is shown below.

2
For more detail, see European Commission, United Nations Development Group and World Bank (2013).

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Chapter 2
Table 3: List of government and private stakeholders to include in workshops and interviews

Entities Description
Government - Advisors to the Head of State (or Head of Government if possible);
- If there is existing legislation/regulation relating to telecom/ICT, the people
responsible for drafting such legislation/regulation;
- National disaster management organizations (NDMOs) or whoever is responsi-
ble for coordinating the government response to disasters;
- Meteorological bureau (in order to understand the main natural risks);
- Ministry of foreign affairs (for aspects related to international cooperation and
coordination);
- Customs and Immigration offices;
- Ministry responsible for telecommunication/ICT policy;
- Telecom regulatory authority;
- The governance structure responsible for spectrum policy/allocation (could be
one of the above or an independent body); and,
- First responders: police, firefighters, civil defence, etc.

Public telecom/ICT/ - Mobile cellular service providers;

media providers - Fixed internet/telephony providers;
(voice, data–Internet, - Satellite providers;
TV, radio, etc.)
- HF Radio
- Public Safety Radio Networks
- Public Safety Broadband networks
- High altitude platform providers for redundant communications
- Broadcasters (TV and radio);
- Internet Service Providers; and,
- Others present in the country.

Private networks - Any government communications networks;

- Amateur radio;
- Private mobile radio providers; and,
- Others (depends on what desk research reveals for a given country).

Civil society These entities have first-hand information of the specific needs of the country
for which the NETP is being developed and are critical to identifying the unique
requirements of the country that must be addressed in the NETP.

High-level steps
Based on the table above, the creation of an NETP should include the following high-level steps:

• Step 1: Conduct desk research to collect and analyse information regarding existing international
cooperation, high-level government statements, policies and regulation on telecommunication/
ICT for disaster management. Identify stakeholders and governance of the NETP development
and acceptance process (see sections 3, 4, and 6).
• Step 2: Conduct desk research on historical disaster events, hazard profiles (see section 2),
existing early warning and alerting systems, telecommunication/ICT networks and services
currently deployed (see section 5).
• Step 3: Hold a workshop to (a) present the overall need, strategy, and methodology to draft the
NETP, including the development of capacities and drills, and support for people with specific
needs (sections 7 and 8); (b) present the initial findings from the desk research; and (c) discuss
the findings and receive feedback. Government entities and private stakeholders related to
disaster management and the provision of communications should be invited to the workshop.

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• Step 4: Solicit input from and/or hold private meetings with each stakeholder to further discuss
specific sections of the NETP, e.g., telecommunication/ICT network inventory with service
providers, or specific regulations with national regulatory agencies, etc.
• Step 5: Develop a first draft of the NETP, including the standard operating procedures, with the
above inputs and following the guidelines set forth in this document.
• Step 6: Hold a second workshop to present the draft NETP developed in step 5. Receive additional
feedback and modify the draft NETP as needed.
• Step 7: Request a peer review of the draft NETP from experts in the field. Also invite government
entities and private stakeholders to review and comment on the NETP draft.
• Step 8: Review comments made to the draft NETP and make any necessary modifications to
finalize the NETP.
• Step 9: Periodically review and update the NETP after every drill and operation to incorporate
lessons learned, or at least every three years if no drill and operation occurs.

Figure 4: National emergency telecommunication plan step-by-step drafting process

Source: Luxon

A checklist of topics to be addressed during the workshop and interviews is included in Annex A.

Recommendation 2

The NETP should include a description of the phases of disaster management based on
the national disaster risk management plan adopted within the country and describe how
telecommunication/ICTs will be supported/enabled in each of these phases. The NETP should
be governed by a set of principles that include, among others, addressing the country’s potential
hazards, participation from all stakeholders, both public and private, and the identification of
all the telecommunication/ICT facilities that are required for different emergencies.

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Chapter 3
3. National disaster management
Clear administrative structures, processes and communication/coordination protocols are also
essential to the satisfactory development, testing and implementation of the NETP. The establishment
of clear policy and implementation frameworks is important not only for government agencies, but
also for the organization and coordination of the different bodies involved, as described below.

The administrative structure and other aspects presented in this section can serve as a guide to be
modified according to the specific needs, laws, regulations, institutions and other characteristics of
a given country.

3.1 Legal and regulatory framework

Legislation and formal written rules are important to emergency management because they are
the basis on which a country can define the responsibilities of those who play a role in emergency
management (UNISDR, 2018). Laws and regulations can determine the framework for coordination
mechanisms, communication channels and operating procedures, and identify the decision-makers at
relevant agencies. Additionally, legislation and written rules can contribute to the sustainability of the
disaster risk management process so that disaster management policies outlast individual government
administrations, and secure, among other things, a budget independent from partisan politicking.

Figure 5: National emergency telecommunication development and implementation

Source: ITU

As Figure 5 shows, to develop an NETP, a country should start with the assumption that there is a
high-level policy statement, national legislation and/or a national disaster risk management plan, that
provides an institutional and inter-institutional framework for the actions of the government and civil
society in the face of a threat or disaster. These national guidelines should be based on the premise that
disaster risk management is the responsibility of all, with public, private and civil society participation
in a multisectoral and interdisciplinary framework.1 Likewise, planning should be endorsed at the
highest levels of the government, which in turn must provide organizational and leadership support,
as well as allocate resources and commit to deliver and maintain the desired outcomes.

The next step in the development and implementation of an NETP is to develop a specific set of
policies on emergency communications that support or complement national legislation in the
implementation of a comprehensive national approach:

• Policies should be designed to establish, develop or improve national interoperable

telecommunication capabilities.

1
UNDRR, available at www​.unisdr​.org (accessed 21 February 2019).

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• Regulatory authorities and the government should issue appropriate rules and regulations, both
technical and legal, corresponding to the implementation of national laws.
• Regulations, policies, and laws should be technologically neutral.
• National stakeholders, including telecommunication stakeholders, should establish a clear
strategy and a robust process for the use of emergency communication services during national
disasters based on these laws, policies, rules, and regulations.

While the national legislative framework and specific policies and regulations form the basis for
an NETP, the plan should also define the methodologies and chain of command and coordination
that will guide all stakeholders in the event of an emergency. An emergency telecommunication
plan, specifically, cuts across multiple levels of response, supporting the continued availability of
communications at all levels during an emergency, and describing how support of telecommunications
will be managed in support of national disaster relief efforts to ensure an effective response to a
disaster event.

Taking the above-mentioned rules as a starting point, the next step for a country should be to develop
operating procedures, that is, more detailed instructions on how to carry out the specific operational
tasks or activities of emergency response. These operating procedures should be designed to promote
a standardized and uniform response during emergency response operations, and standardize use and
application of interoperable emergency communications terminology, backup solutions and systems
(United States Department of Homeland Security, 2014).

Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are critical, as they can help all levels of government understand
how to manage their future emergency communication asset requirements and capabilities, and to
enable the deployment of redundant mobile data services and applications. In this context, responding
agencies should assess their needs for strategic, commercial, operational and tactical planning on a
regular basis, and update them periodically.

Box 1: SAFECOM Writing Guide for Standard Operating Procedures1

The United States Department of Homeland Security, through their emergency

communications advisory group SAFECOM,2 developed a guide to help communities write
their own customized SOPs. According to the guide, SOPs are “formal written guidelines
or instructions for incident response, that typically have both operational and technical
components, and enable emergency responders to act in a coordinated fashion across
disciplines in the event of an emergency”. Clear and effective SOPs are essential for any
community to prepare and respond to an emergency.

Even though the SOPs should take into account the specific capability and/or resource that is
the focus of the SOP, the reasons for which it is established and the unique characteristics of
specific States or participating jurisdictions, the SAFECOM guide offers general direction on
how SOPs should be developed, and includes clear recommendations on how they should
be structured.

1
Based on United States Department of Homeland Security (N.D.).
2
Available at https://​www​.dhs​.gov/​safecom/​resources (accessed 27 June 2019).

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Chapter 3
Box 1: SAFECOM Writing Guide for Standard Operating Procedures (continued)

According to SAFECOM, an SOP should incorporate the 11 sections described below:

(1) Introduction: Describes the recognized need for procedures and lists agencies that
will share the procedures. It may also specify the capability/resource in which the
procedures are being established and provide reasons why it is important to establish
such procedures.
(2) Purpose: The purpose section of the SOP should clarify the principal objective of
the capability or resource that is the subject of the SOP. It may also briefly describe
the purpose of the SOP with respect to the capability or resource, and may include
information as to authority, use, responsibility, etc.
(3) Scope: Lists the agencies and jurisdictions that will participate in the procedures and
their relationship.
(4) Communications structure: A graphical depiction of the agencies involved in the
communications structure should be incorporated in this section of the SOP. This can
help map out the flow of information and help set the foundation for procedures.
(5) Channel patching and monitoring: This section is specific to shared channel capabilities.
It describes how this can be achieved and the specifics of shared channels in each
unique case. It can also serve to identify benefits and alternatives of the capability,
as well as the specific procedures around aspects of use. This section may resolve
questions such as whether a dedicated Ultra High Frequency (UHF) channel is patched
to an 800 MHz network or not, for example, or who is responsible for monitoring the
interoperability channel.
(6) Activation, transfer and discontinuation: This section describes rules of use for
the interoperability channel, operation procedures for activation of the channel,
authorities responsible for activation, process for transferring lead dispatch, process
for establishing command and control, and procedures for discontinuation of use.
(7) Separation of the interoperability channel due to interference: This section is intended
to outline the procedures to follow when there is interference with channel frequency.
It should also include parties to be notified and actions to be taken in the event of
interference.
(8) Communication alternatives: Several alternatives should be identified to ensure
interoperable communications remain available among all agencies if the interoperability
channel is not available. These alternatives include telephone conference bridges,
computerized emergency notification systems, Internet/e-mail, or satellite phones,
among others.
(9) Training requirements: This section is intended to state the objectives or the minimum
requirements for satisfactorily completing training on the SOP. These objectives should
accompany each training procedure.
(10) Testing requirements: Describes the procedures for testing the requirements of a
capability or equipment.
(11) Responsibility: Finally, this section should state who or what body will ensure that all
SOPs are followed.

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3.2 Administrative structure and governance model

There are a large number of diverse stakeholders involved in the different phases of disaster
management. Therefore, if there is to be an effective preparation and response, a well-defined
coordination structure should involve all relevant stakeholders. This includes local, national, and
international stakeholders. Likewise, there should be a clear governance/coordination model that
allows for planning, executing and revising activities to be carried out. These administrative structure
and governance models should be flexible and adaptable to be able to fit each country’s characteristics,
in order to facilitate the implementation of the NETP.

Regarding administrative structure, the disaster management process takes place under the leadership
(or request) of the national government, which defines the goals, roles, authorities, responsibilities and
procedures for all relevant stakeholders at various levels acting in the face of a catastrophe. Indeed,
based on the guidelines or protocols of action, efforts should be made to coordinate and define the
responsibilities of sectoral institutions and their counterparts at all (e.g. regional, departmental,
municipal and local) levels. In the elaboration of emergency and disaster care plans, distinctions
can be made between the following: 1. Local, regional and national plans 2. Sectoral plans, and 3.
Institutional plans.

The attribution of responsibilities in a disaster situation varies by country. In most cases, within the
existing response structure of the country, a disaster operations coordinator is designated for each
district, state, county or equivalent geographical division (ITU, 2001).

Box 2: The Colombia administrative structure and governance model1

In Colombia, Law 1523 of 2012 created the organizational structure of the National Disaster
Risk Management System. This organizational structure comprises a set of public, private and
community organizations that, in accordance with established policies, norms and resources,
aim to carry out the social process of risk management in the country.

Besides the national-level agencies, such as the National Council for Risk Management
or the National Unit for Disaster Risk Management, which leads the risk management
process at a national level under the mandate of the President of the Republic, Colombia’s
organizational structure is also composed of entities at the departmental and municipal
levels. In the case of the departmental level, under the leadership of each governor, there is
a Departmental Council for Risk Management, with its respective departmental committees
for risk knowledge, reduction and disaster management. Meanwhile, at the municipal level,
under the leadership of the mayors, there are also Municipal Councils for Risk Management
and their respective Municipal Committees.

These departmental, district and municipal councils for risk management, in particular, are
responsible for the coordination, advice, planning and monitoring that must guarantee the
effectiveness and implementation of the risk management process in each area.

1
Available at http://​portal​.gestiondelriesgo​.gov​.co/​Paginas/​Estructura​.aspx (accessed 21 February 2019).

Moreover, horizontal cooperation between specialized services at each level of responsibility is as

important as vertical (hierarchical) organization. With respect to disaster relief communications, it is
vital to establish linkages between operation coordinators and telecommunication service providers
within each level of the response hierarchy.2

2
Ibid.

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Chapter 3
Also, this need for coordination between all national actors also applies to international humanitarian
assistance. In that sense, it could be important to consider the following:

• Whether the government of the country where the disaster occurred should consider how and
when it might request the assistance of or some other agency will foreign aid agencies, and how
they will interface with them
• When requested by a country, United Nation emergency clusters3 can play in the coordination
of a response to a disaster by uniting agencies to work together4
• How organizing contact and coordination mechanisms and designating key contact points and
leadership structures helps address preparedness in all phases, as well as enabling alert and
early warning systems and procedures and facilitating drills and exercises
• National communications infrastructure, e.g., telecommunication operators, should be available,
provide interoperability, and offer flexibility to any actor who relies on it before, during and
after disasters.

Disaster risk management also requires the establishment of a clear governance model to support
all phases of disaster management. This governance model should be flexible and adapted to fit the
country’s specific characteristics, and should align with national emergency management frameworks,
plans and policies.

Effective governance requires accountability, transparency and meaningful participation by relevant

stakeholders in all procedures and practices. A lack of accountability can create a possible leeway for
corruption, increasing existing risk factors (UNDRR, 2018).

Engaged and effective governance is pivotal to operability, interoperability, and continuity of

emergency communications. Robust governance can help establish and maintain coordination
between stakeholders and can help address challenges in a unified way.5

To help further effective governance, SAFECOM and NCSWIC recently published a document that
provides recommendations for disaster risk management, which proposes considering the following
aspects for improving the effectiveness of governance6:

• Understanding the governance landscape: this is necessary to support a unified approach to

and coordination of the multiple functions that encompass emergency communications. These
functions include communications technology, and operational enablers; specifically, functions
such as how governance bodies coordinate communication technologies (e.g., land mobile radio,
broadband, 911, alerts, warnings, and notifications) and enabling factors (e.g., cybersecurity,
public-private partnerships, non-governmental organizations with supporting roles, training,
exercise, and evaluation programs).
• Building partnerships between response organizations at all levels of government, fostering
interaction between different departments, agencies, and jurisdictions, as well as formalizing
cooperation through written agreements: according to the document, forming relationships
with other emergency management and public safety officials is one of the interoperability

3
The “cluster approach” was instituted in 2006 as part of the United Nations Humanitarian Reform process. It seeks to
make humanitarian assistance more effective by introducing a system of sectoral coordination with designated lead
organizations. Indeed, clusters are groups of humanitarian organizations, both UN and non-UN, in each of the main
sectors of humanitarian action, e.g., water, health and logistics. They are designated by the Inter-Agency Standing
Committee and have clear responsibilities for coordination. Sources: Available at www​.humanitarianresponse​.info/​
en/​about​-clusters/​what​-is​-the​-cluster​-approach and www​.who​.int/​hac/​techguidance/​tools/​manuals/​who​_field​
_handbook/​annex​_7/​en/​(both accessed 21 February 2019).
4
World Health Organization, available at www​.who​.int/​hac/​techguidance/​tools/​manuals/​who​_field​_handbook/​annex​
_7/​en/​(accessed 21 February 2019).
5
SAFECOM and NCSWIC (2019), Emergency Communications Governance Guide for State, Local, Tribal, and Territorial
Officials.
6
Id.

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coordinator’s most important tools to break down barriers across levels of government and
separate disciplines.
• Establishing a governance structure and formal decision-making processes through authorities,
charters, by-laws, resolutions, and strategic plans: a strong governance framework supports
a unified approach to emergency communications across multiple disciplines, jurisdictions,
and organizational functions. For example, documentation of processes and decision-making
structures could help evaluate existing communications capabilities, among other benefits.
Written agreements between stakeholders also establish common goals and objectives and
minimize risk for the communities served.
• Choosing a governance model that reflects the unique organization, needs, and potential
partners of each emergency communications ecosystem: the authors suggest that since public
safety equities can reside within multiple departments or agencies, establishing a governance
structure provides opportunities for collaboration, resource sharing, and a unified approach to
address challenges.
• Engaging in governance, including considerations for communications lifecycle planning,
coordination with other governance groups, and integration of emerging technologies: by
taking a wide view of the ecosystem, bodies essential for governance can ensure funding and
sustainment policies are in place to maintain all communications technology functions. The
document also suggests that partnerships between governance bodies to coordinate resources,
share best practices, align policies, and adopt standards for neighbouring jurisdictions, can
improve effectiveness.
• Enhancing governance by establishing mechanisms to measure outcomes and identifying
solutions to common governance, legal, fiscal, and technological challenges: the authors suggest
that proactively identifying capability gaps and implementing plans to achieve desired outcomes
is key to overcoming challenges.

In conclusion, an active, transparent, multi-disciplinary, and multi-functional governance strategy for

emergency risk management can help foster relationships, collaboration, and information sharing
between all stakeholders. This, consequently, can help better balance fiscal, technological, and policy-
driven public safety needs7.

Finally, as part of putting in place an NETP, the government should consider what available
telecommunication/ICT funding should be allocated for major disasters based on the risk profile of
the country. These funds should be used to assist in all four phases of disaster risk management and
should be specifically earmarked for emergency telecommunication/ICTs due to the crucial role they
play in emergency response and coordination.

Box 3: The United Kingdom administrative structure and organizational model1

The National Emergency Plan for the Telecommunications Sector in the United Kingdom
provides an overview of the response by the Government and industry to any emergency
situation that might impact on the telecommunication infrastructure of the United Kingdom.
The document designates the Department for Business, Innovations and Skills as the lead
government department for telecommunication policy, as well as establishing points of
contact within the department and outlining the role for industry.

1
United Kingdom, 2010.

7
Id.

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Chapter 3
Box 3: The United Kingdom administrative structure and organizational model (continued)

The National Emergency Plan for the Telecommunications Sector in the United Kingdom
provides an overview of the response by the Government and industry to any emergency
situation that might impact on the telecommunication infrastructure of the United Kingdom.
The document designates the Department for Business, Innovations and Skills as the lead
government department for telecommunication policy, as well as establishing points of
contact within the department and outlining the role for industry.

In particular, according to the United Kingdom national emergency plan, the Department
for Business, Innovations and Skills is responsible for leading the response to an emergency
involving telecommunications, and shall serve as the key link for information flow between
the telecommunications industry and the central Government during an emergency. The
role of industry, on the other hand, is to manage its internal response to any type of incident,
while keeping the Government informed of the possibility of occurrence of an emergency,
among other responsibilities.

The United Kingdom plan establishes the information flow during an emergency as follows:

• Initial identification of any network disruption by a telecommunication operator.

• Activate National Emergency Alert for Telecoms to disseminate information on network
status, agree on industry actions for response and recovery, and estimate the time
period required for restoration.
• Ensure that information regarding potential or actual emergencies with
telecommunications implications is brought to the attention of the Department for
Business, Innovations and Skills.
• Where relevant, ensure the safe operation of the telecommunication network during
the emergency. This may require operators to isolate the systems that have faults so
that they cannot cascade throughout the entire network.
• Manage the technical aspects of the emergency to ensure restoration of the network
as soon as possible.

In order to promote efficient cooperation and flow of information, a non-disclosure agreement

is provided in the United Kingdom plan, which protects any information shared from being
circulated outside the emergency planning community. Furthermore, a memorandum of
understanding allows the sharing of human and material resources among providers when
required in an emergency.

Finally, the United Kingdom plan offers some guidelines regarding spectrum management issues
so that, depending on the severity of the emergency, Ofcom, the United Kingdom communications
regulator, could increase flexibility in licensing matters and the use of frequencies.

3.3 Public–private cooperation, coordination, communication plans

To develop and implement an effective NETP, it is helpful if all national agencies and stakeholders
dealing with telecommunication/ICTs in emergencies provide support, ensuring the availability
of telecommunication/ICTs for disaster management. This fosters awareness among all relevant
stakeholders involved in emergency coordination both of the challenges they might face, and the
measures necessary to address them.

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Preparation for emergencies is more effective when plans are made jointly by public authorities and
the private sector. However, many private sector companies may worry that sharing information
publicly about the capacity or other characteristics of a network may be exploited by a competitor
to give a commercial edge and they may exhibit reluctance when it comes to sharing information
publicly related to network outages. Additionally, many companies have a continuity plan, which
details logistics for the rapid restoration of services and the revalidation of data which may likewise
be of interest to potential saboteurs. As a result, telecommunication/ICT organizations may wish to
ensure that information provided is for use by the national government and only for national disaster
preparedness and response purposes (ITU, 2001).

Consequently, it is important that state authorities leading emergency response coordinate closely
with the private sector, keeping sharing situational awareness and developing trust. It is possible, for
example, that network operators are willing to deliver sensitive information only to a select group
of people that coordinate critical functions. Before undertaking an assessment on the vulnerability
of telecommunications within disaster management, or any other type of risk assessment, it may be
wise to establish a confidentiality agreement, a memorandum of understanding or a non-disclosure
agreement, among other alternatives, in order to take into account the concerns of commercial entities
involved in disaster response and thus obtain the required cooperation (United Kingdom, 2010).

These coordination and cooperation activities under the NETP can be led by the telecommunication
ministry or regulatory authority in the country. In some cases, the government may need to establish
a set of laws or regulations, and corresponding coordination mechanisms and procedures in order to
ensure that the required cooperation from private stakeholders is available when needed.

Box 4: The Chile regulations on telecommunication networks for emergency management1

The Government in Chile approved regulations for the implementation, operation and
maintenance of telecommunication networks for emergency management. These regulations
established that the organizations involved in disaster management must designate an
interlocutor to coordinate actions with the Secretary of Communications. This interlocutor,
or Emergency Telecommunications Coordinator, must establish the procedures that will
ensure that telecommunication networks for emergency management are operational when
needed, as well as coordinate the restoration of communications, when necessary.

The regulations also established that the organizations involved in emergency management
must ensure that the frequencies assigned to radio-frequency equipment for emergency
response are periodically renewed, and that statistics are kept on the failures of emergency
management telecommunication networks, along with a record of the preventive and
corrective actions taken to prevent and correct such failures.

These organizations are also required to develop a plan to maintain redundancy of

networks in case the emergency management telecommunication network becomes
unavailable. Organizations must also keep a list of the contact information of each of the
respective Emergency Telecommunications Coordinators and their alternative means of
communication. Finally, the organizations involved must maintain an updated inventory of
the telecommunication/ICT network infrastructure for emergency telecommunications and
make periodic reports to the Secretary of Communications.

1
Ministry of Transport and Telecommunications of Chile, Decree 125 of 2013 defines these organizations as
“those entities and public services that, in accordance with current regulations, are related to any situation
of catastrophe, emergency or public calamity, in order to avoid, detect or reduce the damages derived
from these events”.

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Chapter 3
3.4 Contingency plans
Contingency planning is an important part of disaster risk management and should be considered
when developing an NETP. In particular, a contingency plan regarding telecommunications for disaster
management implies establishing operational procedures to enable communications in specific areas.
This scenario is associated with the specific or known risks in that particular location: for example,
a flood, earthquake or any other hazard identified for that area. With this in mind, a contingency
plan should include specific procedures such as the level of prior connectivity of the site, currently
operational/available telecommunication/ICT facilities or pre-positioned equipment that could be
deployed in the area, among others.

Unlike disaster response plans, which imply identifying, strengthening and organizing resources and
capacities to reach a certain level of general preparedness for a timely and effective response, a
contingency plan is intended to anticipate an event based on specific or known risks. Based on these
risks, a contingency plan then establishes operational procedures (resources and capacity) for the
response. Contingency planning implies making decisions in advance about the management of
resources (including financial resources) and developing procedures for the expected use of the entire
range of available technical and logistical responses, especially regarding communications.

For contingency plans to be relevant and useful, they must be an inclusive and collaborative effort.
They should also be linked to the plans, systems or processes of both the government and other
stakeholders involved at the national, regional and global levels (International Federation of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies, 2012).

3.5 Definition of roles and identification of contact points

Another essential issue to consider is that each of the institutions involved in disaster response should
have a clearly defined role.

NETPs are designed to provide a guide for the management of telecommunications in disaster
situations at a general level. As such, the leadership roles defined in the plans may vary according
to the types of emergencies. For example, the Ministry of Health of a given country may have a
leadership role when widespread outbreak of a particularly deadly disease occurs, but not for other
types of disasters.

In that context, it is important that all stakeholders have their own standard operating procedures
(SOPS) for the different types of emergencies and that these are aligned with the NETP and national
coordinating mechanisms. It is recommended that the NETP is not only part of the national disaster
or national emergency general plan, but also that policies and protocols are assigned to specific actors
according to the agreed SOPs. This ensures that the NETP can be applied effectively in a variety of
different emergency situations, including those unanticipated in the contingency planning, regardless
of the particular agency taking the lead in response to a particular emergency.

In addition, administering an NETP framework also requires establishing contact points and identifying
authorized decision makers within the different institutions involved in disaster management. This
formalizes who will serve as focal points within the institutions, and thus improves communication,
coordination and governance (accountability) within each level of the administrative structure.

The identification of contact points is also required for the development of sectoral SOPs and plans
that define logistics, functions, responsibilities, resources and procedures in the event of a major
national disaster.

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Recommendation 3

The NETP should include clear administrative structures, processes and communication
protocols essential to the satisfactory implementation of the plan, taking into account the
specific needs, laws, regulations, institutions and other characteristics particular to a given
country, including but not limited to the national disaster risk management plan.

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Chapter 4
4. Telecommunication/ICT legislation and regulation
Telecommunication/ICT legislation and regulation are critical for effective and efficient disaster
management. Thus, a national law or set of laws describing high level, general and long-term
telecommunication/ICT policies for disaster management needs to be in place. Regulatory authorities
and government need to have the mandate to issue appropriate rules and regulations to implement
the national law or set of laws. Such rules and regulations should describe in detail the responsibilities,
protocols and strategies each stakeholder – including telecommunication/ICT operators, public
and private organizations, government and the community – should implement to effectively and
efficiently use, provide or facilitate emergency telecommunication/ICT services during national
disasters. Considering that these rules and regulations also apply to telecommunication/ICT operators,
it is important for the authorities to be flexible or open to understanding the industry challenges
when developing them.

4.1. Legislation
Laws provide the legal authority for the regulatory agencies and the government to draft rules and
regulations for disaster and emergency management plans, including the NETP. Such laws should
provide general high-level guidance on the development of the NETP, while still allowing flexibility
during its construction and implementation. These laws should give the government the mandate
to, at a minimum, do the following:

• Outline the purpose and scope of the NETP: The NETP should support all four phases of disaster
management across both the private and public sectors, with the purpose of maintaining
communications ultimately to help save lives and reduce the negative impact of a disaster.
• Charge an existing or new government entity with drafting and periodically updating the NETP:
This entity should be under the umbrella of the highest executive government level, e.g., office
of the Head, NDMO, Head of State, telecommunication/ICT ministry or regulator. This entity
should also be responsible for the drafting, implementation and updating of the NETP before,
during and after the occurrence of an emergency or disaster.
• Define the functions and responsibilities of the entity, including defining how the entity will
coordinate with different government institutions, e.g., ministries of foreign affairs, ICT and
communications, customs, immigration, regulatory agencies and first responders, among
others: The entity should also have authority to collaborate with the private sector, including
telecommunication/ICT operators, private networks, amateur radio operators, etc.
• Define the governance structure of the entity.
• Provide the funding and human resources necessary for the entity to fulfil its responsibilities.
• Carry out the provisions based on specific national requirements and/or characteristics.

National legislation should empower government entities with legal tools to prepare for a disaster
and also to manage requests from government institutions and the private sector, e.g., to develop (a)
telecommunication/ICT national network infrastructure maps; (b) disaster risk and vulnerability maps;
(c) specific telecommunication/ICT regulation to enable flexible authorities to address urgent needs
such as temporary licensing, type approval, import/export of telecommunication/ICT equipment, and
priority call routing; and (d) international cooperation agreements.

4.2. Regulation
Telecommunication/ICT regulation for disaster management should be in place and contacts and
procedures known to all operators before a disaster occurs and should be aimed at maintaining
and restoring communications to mitigate the negative impact that a disaster could cause. Rapid
response in the wake of a disaster is critical. Consequently, regulations should streamline the process

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

to allow telecommunication/ICT services to be available as soon as possible, e.g., expedite or facilitate

temporary licenses and type approvals, issue waivers as appropriate, reduce any barriers for import/
export of equipment, allow for the free flow of experts who can assist in network restoration, grant
temporary spectrum permits and suspend spectrum/license fees, among other actions. The NETP
should promote and include telecommunication/ICT regulations, including the following:

• Telecommunication/ICT services licensing:

During a disaster, the telecommunication/ICT regulatory authority needs the authority and flexibility
to grant on an expedited basis, telecommunication/ICT service licenses or approvals it deems
necessary to support emergency telecommunication/ICT efforts. Therefore, flexible, exceptional
expedited licensing procedures could be in place, free of charge, for use in emergency situations.
These licenses should be temporary and valid only until such time as the government has determined
that communications networks are restored to response areas and there is no further need for the
temporary/redundant service being provided.

• Frequency allocation:

Frequency planning and allocation are critical for all four phases of disaster management: mitigation,
preparedness, response and recovery. Frequencies should be available not only for narrowband and
wideband systems, but also for rapidly growing broadband radio communication networks, both
terrestrial and satellite systems.

Broadband radio communication networks would allow for bandwidth-intensive applications to be

available to first responders, e.g., streaming real-time video, multimedia capabilities, high-resolution
maps and images. Thus, governments could plan to make the necessary spectrum available on a
national basis to allow for multiple types of applications and services, from narrowband voice services
all the way up to broadband-intensive applications.

It is recommended that a combination of spectrum bands be allocated and available free of charge
for emergency communications, allowing both terrestrial and satellite systems to be quickly deployed
while also protecting incumbents from harmful interference in a crisis situation.

• Priority call routing:

During emergencies, networks fail to provide service for different reasons: e.g., power outages,
infrastructure collapses and network congestion, which can delay or prevent critical communications
between first responders. Regulations could be put in place to establish priority call routing on both
mobile and fixed networks for people engaged in response and recovery activities during emergencies,
as well as other entities and institutions involved in such activities.

• Network redundancy:

Network redundancy is a critical element of a robust network that will minimize telecommunication/
ICT outages in the event of an emergency. Communications networks need to consider redundancy
and resilience in their design to ensure that redundant capacity is available as needed. Regulators
encourage and should ensure that telecommunication/ICT providers have networks with the adequate
redundancy and multiple connectivity backhaul options.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 4
• Type approval of telecommunication/ICT equipment:

During disaster response and recovery, type approval requirements for telecommunication/ICT critical
equipment can be waived. Regulatory authorities can recognize foreign type approvals to expedite the
process including by utilizing the guidelines of the ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T).

• Importing telecommunication/ICT equipment:

Major delays during the importation of telecommunication/ICT critical equipment for disaster relief
have a negative impact on the response time to a disaster, and even impact the likely loss of life if first
responders are unable to use communications equipment to effectively reach areas with the greatest
need. Delays can occur for several reasons, including a lack of priority given to communications
when it is not considered an essential support function, a lack of coordination with customs (i.e., not
informing customs that communications are a priority sector), imposing duties or tariffs on equipment
provided for temporary use, restrictions based on local standards, extensive paperwork, disorganized
processes, etc.

Rules could be in place to prioritize incoming communications equipment as being essential to

response, and to expedite the importation process of critical telecommunication/ICT equipment for
disaster response, e.g., exemptions from duties and tariffs, clear expedited processes and streamlined
paperwork.1 In addition, once the equipment needs to be returned to the place of origin, expedited
processes should be in place to help streamline the return process.

Box 5: The Peru regulations for telecommunication services during emergency situations1

In 2007, the Government of Peru established specific regulations regarding telecommunication

services during emergency situations. Specifically, the Ministry of Transportation and
Communications of Peru (MTC) approved the Communications System in Emergency
Situations. This regulation included (a) a special communications network for emergency
situations, (b) guidelines for disaster prevention, (c) guidelines for action during emergency
situations and (d) guidelines for response in affected areas. In addition, MTC approved
regulations for the promotion of amateur radio operators.

The main purpose of these regulations is to establish the obligations that apply to
telecommunication providers during emergency situations, i.e., offer telecommunication
services to facilitate the coordination, prevention, security, relief and assistance activities
to ensure the safeguarding of human life.

1
Ministry of Transportation and Communications of Peru (2007).

1
For more detail, see the Tampere Convention in section 6.3.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

4.3. Ensuring regulatory flexibility

In order to reduce the negative impact of disasters, regulatory authorities could implement regulatory
mechanisms that can be utilized in a disaster to increase the ability of the regulator to address
particular needs with greater flexibility, such as the Special Temporary Authority, voluntary disaster
reporting and public advisory efforts implemented by the Federal Communications Commission of
the United States of America. Examples of these mechanisms are provided below:

• Regulatory flexibility: The Special Temporary Authority (STA), granted by the FCC, allows
immediate or temporary operation of certain radio facilities during emergencies or other urgent
conditions. These STAs are granted with a fixed expiration date, usually six months, or for the
term necessary to cover the event. STAs, also, do not have grace periods and are valid only
through their expiration date2.
• Voluntary disaster reporting: The FCC’s Disaster Information Reporting System (DIRS) is a
voluntary, efficient, web-based system that communications companies can use to report
communications infrastructure status and situational awareness information during times of
crisis. DIRS streamlines the reporting process and enables communications providers to share
network status information with the Commission quickly and efficiently. The FCC determines
whether to activate DIRS in conjunction with FEMA and announces to participating providers
via public notice or email the area that will be covered by the activation and specifics about
requested submissions.3
• Public advisory efforts: The Communications Security, Reliability and Interoperability Council's
(CSRIC) aims to provide recommendations to the FCC to ensure, among other things, optimal
security and reliability of communications systems. CSRIC’s members focus on a range of public
safety and homeland security-related communications matters that include, for example, the
reliability and security of communications systems and infrastructure, or emergency alerting.4

Recommendation 4

Legislation and regulation regarding telecommunication/ICTs for disaster management

should be in place or put in place and described in the NETP. Such legislation should provide
high-level guidance on the development of the NETP, while still allowing regulatory flexibility
during its construction and implementation.

A description of the legislation, regulation, policies, and authorities related to

telecommunication/ICTs for disaster management must be included in the NETP.

2
https://​www​.fcc​.gov/​research​-reports/​guides/​special​-temporary​-authority​-licensing
3
https://​www​.fcc​.gov/​general/​disaster​-information​-reporting​-system​-dirs​-0
4
https://​www​.fcc​.gov/​about​-fcc/​advisory​-committees/​communications​-security​-reliability​-and​-interoperability​-council​
-0

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Chapter 5
5. Telecom/ICTs for emergencies
This section describes the key information that should be collected and maintained by an emergency/
disaster assistance office or other government entity, including, for example, a periodically updated
database that generates maps with all existing telecommunication/ICT networks; a vulnerability
and risk analysis of all telecommunication/ICT networks; and network contingency plans for when
emergencies and disasters occur. In addition, this section addresses the elements that should be
considered in EWS and includes a description of the standardized emergency format of CAP (Common
Alerting Protocol). Finally, Annex D describes different public and private telecommunication/ICT
services that should be considered in the development of an NETP.

As has been presented in previous sections, telecommunication/ICT facilities are essential in the
management of operations before, during and after emergency and disaster events. The speed and
effectiveness of emergency response depends on the availability of communications to enable the
exchange of information in real time or as fast as practicable. In this sense, telecommunication/ICT
services must be reliable and available when needed, including the rapid deployment of temporary
capacity/services in priority areas in the wake of a disaster.

However, telecommunication/ICT services are only effective to the degree that responders receive
the information that allows them to protect lives and livelihoods. In recent decades, a standardized
emergency messaging format, the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) (section 5.4), has been increasingly
adopted. This simple but general format enables all-hazards alerting and warning over all kinds of
media, thus increasing warning efficiency and effectiveness. The CAP message communicates the
key facts of any hazard threat and the recommended actions. Implementation of CAP is considered
an essential part of the NETP. This is implicit within Recommendation 3 in its provision that the NETP
should include communication protocols essential to implementation.

5.1. Vulnerability and risk analysis of telecommunication/ICT networks

The government should maintain and update a map of risks and vulnerabilities of the telecommunication/
ICT networks, taking into account the different types of disasters that may affect different regions of
the country. It is essential to know the status of communications, including what communications
carriers need to enable continued operation or restoration of networks and to take appropriate
measures in advance to support the ability of carriers to exercise continuity plans to in the event
of a natural disaster, e.g., increase redundancy of the network through satellite communications in
additional to their terrestrial communication in critical facilities such as schools, utilities, police and
fire stations.

Likewise, it is essential to be aware of existing telecommunication/ICT infrastructure and enact

standardized disaster reporting in order to identify those regions in which there is no connectivity,
and thus enable carriers to carry out contingency plans to provide communications services as soon
as possible in the event of a disaster.

The government should encourage the coordination and collaboration with industry operators to
maintain and update the map of risks and vulnerabilities.

Finally, the NETP should also encourage an adequate supply of pre-positioned telecommunication/
ICTs and power equipment to be deployed during network outages. This equipment should provide
redundant capacity as an emergency backup when networks are down. Stakeholders involved in
disaster risk management could ensure that there is a continuity in the communication and information
flow by pre-positioning and safely warehousing the telecommunication/ICT equipment in places with
low vulnerability to disasters.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

5.2. Telecommunication/ICT database for emergencies

In order to carry out the analysis of risk and vulnerability of telecommunication services, as well as
to plan before the disaster response, it is essential that the NETP provide for regular maintenance of
an updated database of existing telecommunication/ICT networks. This database should include the
capacity of the networks.

A telecommunication/ICT database for emergencies should include at a general level:

• telecommunication/ICT services available;

• terrestrial coverage;
• location of the specific infrastructure, e.g., towers, power stations, wired networks, etc.;
• pre-positioned telecommunication/ICT equipment location; and,
• vulnerability of the infrastructure to different types of disasters, considering, for example, high-,
medium- or low-risk.

It is essential that this information be obtained jointly between the government and the different
public and private telecommunication/ICT operators, as well as radio and TV broadcasting operators
and amateur radio organizations mentioned in Annex D. Because this information may be confidential,
it is important that agreements be established (or provisions included in the service license) to limit
how the information obtained will be used, and ensure it is used exclusively for issues related to
emergencies and disasters.

5.3. Early warning systems

Telecommunication/ICT networks are also critical during the preparedness phase of disaster
management through the deployment of early warning systems (EWS). Providing timely information
to the population by means of telecommunication/ICT networks for monitoring, early warning and
alerting is critical to reducing the impact of disasters and saving lives.

Early warning systems are define as “an integrated system of hazard monitoring, forecasting and
prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities, systems and
processes that enables individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely
action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events.”1 Warning systems include four
elements of efficient, people-centred systems (WMO, 2018):

1. Disaster risk knowledge based on the systematic collection of data and disaster risk assessments.
2. Detection, monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards and possible consequences.
3. Dissemination and communication, by an official source, of authoritative, timely, accurate and
actionable warnings and associated information on likelihood and impact.
4. Preparedness at all levels to respond to the warnings received.

1
United Nations (2016). Report of the Open-ended Intergovernmental Expert Working Groupon Indicators and
Terminology Related to Disaster Risk Reduction (OIEWG) (A/71/644), adopted by the General Assembly on 2 February
2017 (A/RES/71/276)

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Chapter 5
Figure 6: Four elements of end-to-end, people-centred early warning systems

Source: WMO

EWS should, when possible, take advantage of economies of scale and enhance sustainability and
efficiency through a multipurpose framework that considers multiple hazards and end-user needs
(UNISDR, 2006b).

Meteorological satellites and Earth-exploration satellite services may be suited for identifying areas at
risk; forecasting weather and predicting climate change; detecting and tracking earthquakes, tsunamis,
hurricanes, etc.; and providing warnings/alerts about disasters, among other things. Even though
warnings, alerts, and observations made on the ground, i.e., by terrestrial means, could be more
precise than satellite observations, satellite observations are useful when terrestrial options do not
exist or have been disabled by disasters.2

Also, resources such as satellite imagery can be helpful to map the location and condition (both pre-
and post-disaster) of roads, bridges, medical facilities and other critical infrastructure, and provide
precise information on this infrastructure so that first responders can make better decisions regarding
relief efforts.3 Thus, a comprehensive EWS strategy should use both terrestrial and satellite services
to monitor possible disasters and provide accurate and timely warnings and alerts.

Early warning systems can be provided through the different telecommunication/ICT services
described in Annex D. For example, broadcasting services can alert people of impending disasters,
mobile systems can distribute notifications via mobile broadcast technology, specific apps developed
by governments can provide warnings, etc. In addition, other types of warning systems, based on
sirens or public address systems connected to sensors that trigger an alarm when a specific threshold
is reached, can also be developed.

Radio and television broadcasting services are particularly useful when physical access to an area is
difficult. Appropriate information and advice provided through broadcasting information can help
people cope with the disaster until help arrives on-site. During disaster response, broadcasting
services can provide information on how and where to access the help that is available, as well as
other important information. However, it is important that the broadcaster use frequencies and
modulation modes that match the receivers generally used by the population (ITU, 2017e).

2
ITU (2010; 2017a). Recommendation ITU-R RS.1859 (ITU, 2010) provides guidelines on the use of satellite-provided
remote sensing data in the event of natural disasters.
3
See: http://​www​.missingmaps​.org/​

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Box 6: The Butaleja district in Eastern Uganda: Flood early warning systems1

On 22 September 2014, ITU and the Uganda Communications Commission launched solar-
powered flood early warning systems to warn residents of rising water levels of the Manafwa
River. For many years before 2014, the Butaleja district in Eastern Uganda had been ravaged
by flood waters from the river.

The warning system has three main components:

• a sensor placed in the river;

• a solar-powered siren adjacent to the river; and
• a solar-powered control centre at the district headquarters with backup computers to
monitor the performance of the sensors and siren system.

Once the water levels reach a certain threshold on the sensor, it automatically activates the
siren, alerting the communities using the local language and urging them to move to higher
ground. The siren, which can be heard within a 10-mile radius, is followed by messages with
additional information broadcast by the staff in the control centre.

Uganda flood early warning systems

Source: ITU

1
International Telecommunication Union, Uganda: Harnessing the power of ICTs to promote disaster risk reduction (https://​www​.itu​.int/​en/​ITU​-D/​Pages/​
MakeADifference/​How​-we​-make​-a​-difference​-Uganda​.aspx
).

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Chapter 5
5.4. Common alerting protocol
Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) enables authorities to warn people of a disaster immediately, and
up to global scale. People can receive CAP-originated warnings in many ways, such as through mobile
and landline telephones, Internet (e-mail, Google, Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, smartphone apps,
online advertising, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, in-home smart speakers, etc.), sirens (in-building
or outdoor), broadcast radio and television, cable television, emergency radio, amateur radio, satellite
direct broadcast, and digital signage networks (highway signs, billboards, automobile and rail traffic
control), among others.

Figure 7: Common alerting protocol

Source: ITU

CAP-based alerting achieves this amazing diversity because the CAP standard defines a business form
for alerting, communicating a few key facts of any emergency: What is it? Where is it? How soon is
it? How bad is it? How sure are the experts? What should people do?

Alert messages in CAP format are machine-friendly as well as human-friendly. The CAP standard
uses XML, the eXtensible Markup Language, to carry in one message machine-friendly data as well
as human-friendly information. For example, in a CAP alert, the alerting area gets a text description
and also a standard polygon or circle. Also, besides the capability of localizing warnings by drawing a
polygon or circle, CAP allows alert messages to be broadcasted based on “FIPS” (Geo) codes. Those
alerting area data allow all manner of telecommunication/ICT components to achieve targeted alerting
to people in dangerous situations:

• Mobile phones get the CAP alerts through SMS or cell broadcast.
• Online users get the CAP alert automatically if they are using a Google online service.
• Sirens and in-home devices speak the CAP alert out loud.
• Broadcast radio and television automatically carry the CAP alert as crawl text or audio inserts.
• Some online users get the CAP alert as an overlay of online advertisements.
• Drivers see the CAP alert on digital billboards along the highway.
• Smartphones get CAP alerts through free apps such as the Red Cross Hazard App, which adds
further information, such as where to find shelter and how to give first aid.

From a telecommunication/ICT technology perspective, CAP-originated messages can be disseminated

via any kind of network, public or private. The typical architecture for CAP-originated messaging is
fully scalable.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Box 7: Common alerting protocol1

In the United States of America, the Federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial alerting
authorities can use the Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) and integrate local
systems that use Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) standards with the IPAWS infrastructure.
IPAWS provides public safety officials with an effective way to alert and warn the public about
serious emergencies using the Emergency Alert System (EAS), Wireless Emergency Alerts
(WEA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio, and
other public alerting systems from a single interface. The Integrated Public Alert and Warning
System programme (IPAWS), established in the United States of America to “modernize and
enhance alert and warning delivery to the American Public”, uses Common Alerting Protocol
(CAP) alerts to disseminate emergency information. According to the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), CAP “is a digital format for exchanging emergency alerts that
allows a consistent alert message to be disseminated simultaneously over many different
communications systems”.2 In the United States of America, IPAWS uses a CAP standard that
allows public alerts to be integrated and disseminated not only to conventional radio and TV,
but also wireless devices, internet applications, and other future communications technologies.
Further, IPAWS is a national infrastructure which provides the capability to allow state, local,
territorial, and tribal officials to send public alerts and warnings. CAP Alert messages can
include up to a 2-minute-long MP3 format voice clip, and, although video streaming is not
supported, the alert authority can add the corresponding URL to an alert message.

Other countries besides the United States of America have deployed this technology in
order to develop a more localized implementation. In Canada, for example, a working
group composed of public alerting practitioners and government agencies developed a CAP
Canadian Profile (CAP–CP) as a set of rules and standardized terms and values designed to
address the needs of the Canadian public. CAP–CP includes services such as bilingualism,
geocoding for Canada, and managed lists of locations and events, among others.3

China, on the other hand, has implemented CAP-enabled alerting for all hazards nationwide.
In particular, its National Early Warning Release System gathers information from emergency
command sectors and disseminates the information to the public and emergency
management personnel throughout China (Christian, 2016).

In Australia, the CAP profile (CAP-AU) provides a formal national agreement on CAP, enabling
all state and territory governments to improve the exchange and interoperability of hazard
alert messages between systems. This system, according to the Australian Government
Bureau of Meteorology, allows uniform text to appear as SMS text messages on the mobile
phone handsets of people travelling into or through a warning area, and appear as text on
electronic highway signs. The system also triggers the pagers of emergency service personnel
and can activate warning sirens. In particular, persons with disabilities – including the deaf,
vision impaired and people from non-English speaking backgrounds – can also benefit from
this technology, which delivers consistent warnings and public-safety information through
all available technology-based devices that are used to receive information.4

1
National Council on Disability (2014) and https://​www​.fema​.gov/​integrated​-public​-alert​-warning​-system.
2
Ibid.
3
Government of Canada, Canadian profile of the CAP-CP, available at www​.publicsafety​.gc​.ca/​cnt/​mrgnc​
-mngmnt/​mrgnc​-prprdnss/​capcp/​index​-en​.aspx (accessed 22 February 2019).
4
Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, About CAP-AU-STD: The Australian Government Profile
of the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP), available at www​.bom​.gov​.au/​metadata/​CAP​-AU/​About​.shtml
(accessed 22 February 2019).

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Chapter 5
Box 7: Common alerting protocol (continued)

To overcome potential delays and ensure integrity of alert messages, it’s important that a
CAP based Alert and Warning system streamlines the process of gathering and disseminating
alert messages to multiple channels. For example, after an alerting authority crafts a CAP
alert message and sends it to FEMA IPAWS, the system will automatically authenticate,
validate and seamlessly broadcast the alert message to desired dissemination pathways.
This efficiency is the result of a great deal of interaction with alert originators during training
and exercises with authorized IPAWS alerting authorities, supplemented by continuous
coordination with industry and vendor communities.

Recommendation 5

The NETP should contain information on all existing telecommunication/ICT networks (public
and private) available for use in a disaster event, a vulnerability and risk analysis of these
telecommunication/ICT networks, and network contingency plans for when emergencies
and disasters occur. This information should be periodically reviewed and updated.

Recommendation 6

Multi-hazard early warning systems should be designed and deployed, linking all hazard-
monitoring systems when possible to take advantage of economies of scale and enhance
sustainability and efficiency through a multipurpose user-centric framework. An inventory
of such systems, together with the processes used to activate them, should be included in
the NETP and periodically reviewed and updated.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

6. International cooperation and coordination

International cooperation and coordination are important matters to consider when responding to
an emergency, specially to ensure coherence in the management of risk of disasters. It is helpful to
develop an understanding of existing treaties, conventions and other programmes that offer additional
tools for use during and after emergency events. This is especially true in developing countries, where
greater technical and humanitarian assistance may be required.

6.1 Emergency telecommunication cluster

Clusters are groups of humanitarian organizations whose aim is to “strengthen system-wide
preparedness and technical capacity to respond to humanitarian emergencies, and provide clear
leadership and accountability in the main areas of humanitarian response”.1 They also aim to enhance
predictability, accountability and partnerships at the country level by improving prioritization and
clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of humanitarian organizations.2

The Emergency Telecommunications Cluster (ETC) is led by the World Food Programme (WFP), and
consists of a global network of organizations that work together to provide timely and effective inter-
agency communications services in humanitarian emergencies.

In order to achieve the above, ETC relies on its network of members and partners, including the ITU,
to carry out its critical work around the world. These members and partners also include UN agencies
and programmes, NGOs, governments and other humanitarian organizations.3

6.2 International Telecommunication Union

This specialized UN agency, in cooperation with governments and the private sector, seeks, among
other things, to coordinate the exploitation of telecommunication networks and services, and promote
the global development of ICTs.4

Besides promoting the development of telecommunication/ICTs and spectrum management, all of

which are useful and necessary in disaster management, ITU has also stipulated that the organization
shall “promote the adoption of measures for ensuring the safety of life through the cooperation of
telecommunication services” (ITU, 2006b), as well as prioritize the effective use of telecommunications
during disaster and emergency response.5

In fulfilling this task, ITU produces a series of manuals on emergency telecommunications; develops
emergency radiocommunication specifications applicable to all phases of a disaster (preparedness,
mitigation, response and recovery); maintains a database of available frequencies for emergency
radiocommunication services on land and space; and develops international standards on various
technologies to cope with emergency situations, including the Emergency Telecommunications Service
(ETS), the International Emergency Preferences Scheme (IEPS) and a Common Alerting Protocol (CAP).

1
Available at www​.humanitarianresponse​.info/​en/​about​-clusters/​what​-is​-the​-cluster​-approach (accessed 21 February
2019).
2
Ibid.
3
ETC members and Observers, available at www​.etcluster​.org/​etc​-members​-and​-observers (accessed 21 February
2019).
4
About International Telecommunication Union (ITU), available at www​.itu​.int/​es/​about/​Pages/​default​.aspx (accessed
21 February 2019).
5
Through resolutions and recommendations adopted during recent World Telecommunication and
Radiocommunication Conferences, as well as in ITU’s plenipotentiary conferences, and through active participation in
activities linked to the Tampere Convention.

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Chapter 6
6.3 Tampere Convention6
The Tampere Convention (see Annex E) is designed to facilitate the use of telecommunication resources
for disaster mitigation and relief, by establishing a framework for international cooperation for states,
non-governmental entities and intergovernmental organizations. It provides a legal framework for using
telecommunications within the scope of international humanitarian assistance. This framework, when
applied in conjunction with nationally developed procedures and bilateral and multilateral agreements,
reduces regulatory barriers and gives protections to personnel providing telecommunication support,
all the while respecting the national interests of the country receiving assistance.

In order to promote the use of telecommunication/ICTs by emergency teams, the Tampere Convention
recognizes that it is necessary to abstain temporarily from the application of national legislation
on imports, licensing and use of communications equipment. It also guarantees legal immunity to
personnel who use emergency ICTs during catastrophes. The above is important considering that, in
many countries, legislation continues to hinder, or even prohibit, (e.g., by applying restrictive laws to
imports, organizational barriers or high costs) the arrival and timely installation of communications
equipment in affected territories.

A country can express its consent to be bound by Tampere Convention by any of the
following means:1

• By definitive signature
• By signature subject to ratification, acceptance, or approval followed by deposit of an
instrument of ratification, acceptance or approval
• By deposit of an instrument of ratification

1
United Nations Treaty Collection, available at https://​treaties​.un​.org/​pages/​ViewDetails​.aspx​?src​=​TREATY​&​
mtdsg​_no​=​XXV​-4​&​chapter​=2
​ 5​&​clang​=​_en (accessed 21 February 2019).

It is important to note the difference between the signature and the ratification:

Signing: include all the negotiations that precede the treaty. By signing a treaty, a state expresses
the intention to comply with the treaty. However, this expression of intent in itself is not binding. Sixty
countries have signed the Convention.

Ratification: approval of agreement by the state. Once the treaty has been signed, each state will
deal with it according to its own national procedures. In the Netherlands, parliamentary approval is
required. After approval has been granted under a state’s own internal procedures, it will notify the
other parties that they consent to be bound by the treaty. This is called ratification. The treaty is now
officially bind. Forty-nine countries have ratified the Convention.

Nonetheless, ascension to an international treaty can require consultations or approvals of different

legislative and executive bodies at the national level. It may also be necessary to adapt national laws
and regulations to avoid conflict with particular articles of the treaty.

6
Based on: www​.itu​.int/​en/​ITU​-D/​Emergency​-Telecommunications/​Documents/​Tampere​_Convention/​Tampere​
_convention​.pdf (accessed 21 February 2019).

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It is important to consider that the accession and the adaptation of national laws and
regulations are not sufficient to ensure that the Convention will be effective in a disaster
situation. In particular, efficient implementation at the national level requires all of the
different government agencies and national authorities involved in disaster management,
including customs and excise officials at the border approving the importation of emergency
equipment, to be aware of the treaty terms and to have put national procedures in place,
and have a clear knowledge of the framework.

Finally, the Convention has binding force for those Member States that have expressed their consent
to be bound by the Tampere Convention. However, bilateral or multilateral agreements between one
or more countries that are not signatories can borrow provisions from the Convention or apply it in
its entirety.

6.4 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is part of the United
Nations secretariat and is responsible for bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure a coherent
response to emergencies. Specifically, OCHA coordinates humanitarian action to ensure that people
affected by a crisis receive the assistance and protection they need. OCHA also works to overcome
obstacles that prevent humanitarian aid from reaching people affected by crises and provides
leadership to mobilize assistance and resources on behalf of the humanitarian system.7

OCHA also acts as the Tampere Convention global operational coordinator8 and, as such, it has a number
of tasks aimed at improving coordination and information sharing with regard to telecommunication
assistance. Among other responsibilities, the operational coordinator shall execute the responsibilities
regarding general provisions, provision of telecommunication assistance, termination of assistance,
and payment or reimbursement of costs or fees, as well as seek the cooperation of other appropriate
United Nations agencies, particularly ITU, to assist it in fulfilling the objectives of the Convention.9

6.5 United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

The United Nations General Assembly appointed UNDRR as the secretariat of the International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction. As such, this office has the mandate to guarantee the implementation of this
strategy, and serve as the focal point in the United Nations system for coordination and synergies
between United Nations disaster risk reduction activities, regional organizations and activities in the
socio-economic and humanitarian fields.10 UNDRR also supports the implementation, follow-up and
review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.11

UNDRR’s main duties include ensuring that the “reduction of risk of disasters” includes adapting to
climate change; increasing investment for disaster risk reduction; building disaster-resilient cities,
schools and hospitals; and strengthening the international system for “Disaster Risk Reduction”,
among others (United Nations, 2015a).

7
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, available at www​.unocha​.org/​about​-us/​who​-we​
-are (accessed 21 February 2019).
8
Tampere Convention, available at www​.itu​.int/​en/​ITU​-D/​Emergency​-Telecommunications/​Documents/​Tampere​
_Convention/​Tampere​_convention​.pdf (accessed 21 February 2019).
9
Ibid.
10
UNDRR, available at www​.unisdr​.org/​who​-we​-are/​mandate (accessed 21 February 2019).
11
Ibid. This framework is a voluntary, non-binding agreement that traces an approach to disaster risk reduction. See
more at https://​www​.unisdr​.org/​we/​coordinate/​sendai​-framework (accessed 5 august 2019).

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Chapter 6
Finally, UNDRR manages Prevention Web, a website with information on disaster risk management,
and also publishes reports regarding the management of emergencies on a regular basis, including a
Global Assessment Report, along with other documents and statistics (ITU, 2013).

6.6 Bilateral agreements

Many of the existing international instruments for disaster response are in the form of bilateral treaties
and agreements. These can be between countries, or even between the branches of international
organizations and aid agencies in different countries. The scope of cooperation foreseen in these
treaties varies widely but can include the donation of materials in response to a single emergency or
formal technical assistance (e.g., training, assistance with relief personnel, and goods and equipment
in place on the affected territory), among other things.

Regarding telecommunication/ICTs in particular, these kinds of agreements are very important in

all phases of disaster management. Agreements between neighbouring countries, for example, can
facilitate the deployment of telecommunication equipment in a timely manner after a disaster, or
offer satellite solutions in cases where terrestrial communications services may have been damaged
or networks are overwhelmed by increased traffic demands after an emergency occurs (Tampere
Convention, 1998). Also, bilateral or multilateral agreements can be useful for countries where specific
telecommunication/ICT equipment or services might not be available or are otherwise insufficient.
These treaties can also be useful for sharing information and know-how regarding the use of telecom/
ICT, capacity building or training on the use of equipment during the mitigation and preparedness
phases, and deploying relief personnel or telecommunication/ICT experts during the response and
recovery phases.

Recommendation 7

The NETP should include a description of, and reference to, all international cooperation
and coordination treaties and bilateral agreements that the country has signed regarding
disaster management. In particular, countries are encouraged to take steps to ratify and
implement the Tampere Convention and to take the necessary actions to put plans, policies,
and procedures in place at national and local level, to ensure that the Convention and any
other disaster management agreements relating to telecommunication/ICTs will be effective
in a disaster situation. Such policies are necessary regardless of whether or not a country
has ratified the Tampere Convention.

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7. Development of capacities and drills

Preparing for management of an emergency requires continuous training and capacity-building
efforts for both those leading emergency responses and the wider community. The development of
capacity requires not only practice drills, training activities, tests and other exercises, but also the
development of the curriculum for these activities and the evaluation and possible modification of
existing procedures and policies in light of limitations identified during capacity-building activities.

Capacity building is key to improving the speed, quality and effectiveness of emergency preparedness
and response. Capabilities related to humanitarian needs (food, telecom/ICTs, medical supplies,
shelter, etc.) must be developed with a focus on increasing the capacity of staff to respond to
challenging scenarios, improving accountability and measurement of outcomes, and reducing risk of
disasters where possible.

An effective NETP should include a practical strategy for enhancing the above-mentioned capacities
and capabilities. Beyond the humanitarian needs identified above, enhancing capacity for emergency
response must occur in all identified areas, such as institutional capacity, telecommunication/ICT
network infrastructure and other areas identified throughout the planning process.

On capacity-building and skills development, focus should be on, but not limited to:

• identifying best practices in existing programmes and developing operating procedures and
other guidance that respond to the needs of relevant stakeholders;
• enhancing emergency management programmes through better information sharing;
• identifying risk assessment and risk management methodologies;
• developing, documenting and maintaining information regarding national emergency
management decision-makers;
• identifying critical infrastructure to better support emergency preparedness and response;
• conducting regional workshops, skills enhancement seminars and conferences; and
• developing and conducting various drills, including talk-through/walk-through exercises, and
functional and full-scale simulations.

Additionally, training needs to encompass multiple subjects, from basic aspects of the use of
telecommunication/ICT during emergencies to technical concepts. Training exercises should be
held frequently, given the potential for high staff turnover in some of the organizations involved in
disaster management. While in many routine operations it is common for new team members to
learn their duties while doing the work (on-the-job training), this practice is not sufficient in the case
of emergency telecommunications. Implementing periodic training exercises builds staff familiarity
with additional responsibilities during an emergency event and allows them to familiarize themselves
with some of the potential challenges that could arise (ITU, 2001).

Trainings must also be accompanied by practical activities, such as simulated emergency drills or tests
held at all levels. These tests provide national training opportunities for individuals and groups, and
highlight areas that require further improvement, be it additional training or upgrading of equipment.

Likewise, such training activities provide an opportunity to confirm the availability and reliability of
emergency equipment that is not frequently used. Training exercises can help catch problems – for
example, inadequate storage of equipment or deterioration of battery life – before responders must
rely upon this equipment in a real emergency. These activities may also help reveal other issues,
such as the loss of instruction manuals or auxiliary parts or lack of understanding of how to operate
key equipment.

It is important to note that training exercises must be realistic enough to expose weaknesses in
procedures or equipment, but at the same time must be simple enough so that inexperienced staff

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Chapter 7
can learn how an emergency response functions. After an exercise, time should be spent reviewing
the deficiencies encountered and the mistakes made, so that the lessons learned can be noted and
applied in a real emergency. Given that disaster response occurs in highly fluid situations, training
exercises are one of the most dynamic, effective tools in the development of operational procedures
and contingency planning.

In summary, effective training and exercise programmes can bolster emergency responders’
proficiency with communications equipment, as well as improve their ability to execute policies,
plans and procedures governing the use of communications (United States Department of Homeland
Security, 2014).

Furthermore, training exercises and practical activities include terrestrial mobile radio systems to
ensure that critical voice communications are available to emergency services during an emergency
response. However, training exercises should also consider other communications technologies that
might be integrated into response and recovery operations, including wireless broadband and satellite
communications.

In addition, it is widely acknowledged that disaster response depends on teamwork. Therefore, it is

important that training exercises include all potentially relevant stakeholders. Inclusive preparedness
exercises increase the familiarity of all stakeholders with the specific roles of others involved in
emergency response at the sectoral, organizational, and individual level. Within an organization, an
understanding of the mandate and the working modalities of others involved in emergency operations
is indispensable, in particular for those in charge of communications (ITU, 2001).

Finally, the NETP should establish some recommendations to use all available technologies and target
gaps in emergency communications (United States Department of Homeland Security, 2014). These
recommendations include:

• Develop training and exercise programmes that target gaps in emergency communications
capabilities and use new technologies.
• Identify opportunities to integrate more private and public sector communications stakeholders
into training and exercises.
• Use regional governance structures to develop and promote training and exercise opportunities.
• Leverage technologies, conferences and workshops to increase training and exercise
opportunities.
• Promote awareness of and cross-training among local and national personnel responsible for
communications through training and exercises.
• Develop and share best practices on processes to recognize trained communications personnel.
• Improve local territories’ ability to track and share trained communications personnel during
response operations.
• Ensure that the capacity building process is continuous and account for the turnover in personnel.

Drills and simulations in practice

In the case of telecommunication drills and simulations (see Annex F), exercises should include as
many different stakeholders as possible, to ensure a comprehensive response in an emergency
situation. That is, these exercises should be designed to include participation from entities including
the telecommunications regulator, ministry of telecommunications, national disaster management
agency, meteorological and geophysics departments, telecommunication service providers (including
the private sector and amateur radio groups), power utilities, humanitarian organizations (local and
international) and communities.

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Figure 8: Training ladder

Source: ITU

Appropriate planning is important for successful drills and simulations, and should consider the
following factors:

• Start with a concept note that outlines the goal and expected outcomes of the exercise, including the
required resources and the timeline. The concept note will introduce stakeholders to the exercise.
• Write the scenario: All exercises, from table-top exercises (TTX) to full-scale drills, require a
scenario. The scenario is the script that sets the stage for the exercise. Ensure that the scenario
is realistic and linked to the overall goals of the exercise.
• Create an evaluation plan: It will be the main element that makes the exercise a valuable
learning experience.
• Conduct the exercise: Check that all equipment and other resources are in place. Brief the
participants and then run the scenario.
• Monitor: Evaluate how participants respond to key events. Have the objectives and outcomes
been met?

Finally, drills and simulations should end with an “after action” or debrief, in which the participants
and facilitators of the exercise share their experiences, challenges faced, and provide feedback. This
is the most important part of an exercise. The debrief should set the course of action for areas that
need improvement or adjustment, as well as identify the areas of strength.

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Chapter 7
Box 8: NetHope1

ETC partner NetHope conducted a preparedness training and field exercise in Panama in
July 2018. It was designed to offer a real-life experience configuring wireless networks in
the field, as well as to develop capacities such as team building, leadership abilities, agility
and working together toward a shared purpose.

The training hosted more than a dozen expert trainers, several observers, a documentary
filmmaker, and more than 50 participants from 9 of NetHope’s 56 member organizations
(SOS Children’s Villages, CARE, Catholic Relief Services, Christian Aid, International Federation
of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Medical Teams International, Mercy Corps,
Plan International, and Save the Children) and employees from tech partners Facebook,
Microsoft, Google and Amazon Web Services. It consisted of two parts: (a) classroom training
on both technical matters and the mental and physical challenges of being deployed in
disaster situations; and (b) an in-field re-enactment of a disaster situation that was held on
the grounds of Ciudad del Saber, a former United States of America military base located
alongside the Panama Canal.

All the trainers were experienced emergency responders from NetHope, Cisco, Ericsson
Response, Red 52, and Save the Children, each having deployed many times to a variety
of disasters, including earthquakes and hurricanes. The planning of the exercise included
identifying, shipping and storing thousands of kilograms of communications and power
equipment from many different locations, arranging travel, housing and meal logistics for
more than 75 participants and support staff, finding and securing locations for the exercise to
take place, and designing the presentations and simulation scenario, among other activities.

1
NetHope (2018), Planning a disaster: detail and expertise required for disaster preparation training.

Box 9: Earthquake drills1

In 2015, local governments in Japan implemented earthquake drills as part of the 2015
Comprehensive Disaster Management Drill Framework. Among other exercises, the
framework developed a drill to test crisis management systems, including initial response,
information gathering and transmission. In this drill, exercises were conducted to gather
and transmit information on how disaster management-related organizations use
communications networks such as the Central Disaster Prevention Radio Network and
satellite-based mobile phones. Also, the framework included a drill to secure and manage
lifelines, such as electricity, gas, water and communications lifelines, among others. The
drills were also an opportunity to inspect relevant equipment and ensure it was being used
appropriately.

1
World Bank (2016), Learning from disaster simulation drills in Japan.

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Box 10: gear.UP1

gear.UP is a large-scale inter-agency operational exercise and functional training event

designed to further advance emergency response capabilities of the global ICT and logistics
humanitarian community.

ETC and the UN Logistics Cluster work together to integrate aspects of the full-scale field
simulation exercise (OpEx Bravo) and the Logistics Response Team Training (LRT). The combined
exercise – called gear.UP – allows each cluster to practice various emergency response
functions, providing opportunities to support each other as they would in a real emergency.

In particular, this exercise involves an intensive seven-day field simulation held annually
and led by WFP as global leader of ETC and the Logistics Cluster. In the field, the exercise
tests, among other things, IT and telecoms, including satellite connectivity, networking and
drone operations, as well as other skills, such as coordination and information management.
Apart from the above-mentioned agencies, the exercise is developed in conjunction
with FITTEST2 Training Services, the German Federal Agency for Technical Relief (THW),
and the Government of Luxembourg. OpEx Bravo and LRT is held near Stuttgart, Germany
at the THW Training Centre. Participants from UN agencies, Stand-by Partners and NGOs are
also invited to attend.

1
Emergency Telecommunications Cluster, OpEx Bravo and LRT (gear.UP), available at www​.etcluster​.org/​
training/​opex​-bravo​-lrt (accessed 22 February 2019).
2
The Fast Information Technology and Telecommunications Emergency and Support Team (FITTEST),
is a team of qualified instructors from WFP, each with extensive experience in both emergency and
development settings. (See www1​.wfp​.org/​FITTEST and www​.etcluster​.org/​content/​wfp​-fittest​-training​
-services, both accessed 22 February 2019.)

Recommendation 8

The NETP should include a mechanism for enhancing training and capacity building for
both the administrators leading emergency responses and the wider community using and
providing telecommunication/ICTs in emergencies. This requires not only practice drills,
training activities, tests and other exercises, but also the development of the curriculum
for these activities and the evaluation and possible modification of any existing procedures
and policies.

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Chapter 8
8. Support for people with specific needs
Disasters are especially difficult for vulnerable people, such as persons with disabilities, children, the
elderly, migrant workers, the unemployed, people with lack of connectivity skills and those displaced
from their homes due to previous disasters. It is important to ensure that disaster management plans
reflect and respond to their needs. The following is a series of recommendations for inclusive disaster
planning (ITU, 2017a; 2017c):

• Consult with members of vulnerable populations directly and facilitate their involvement at all
stages of the disaster management process.
• Ensure that accessibility and usability of telecommunication/ICTs are considered during
any project on telecom/ICT-based disaster management processes or telecom/ICT-based
development projects.
• Use multiple strategies and mechanisms to promote accessible telecom/ICT, including legislation,
policy, regulation, license requirements, codes of conduct and monetary or other incentives.
• Build the capacity of vulnerable populations to use telecommunication/ICTs in disaster situations
through programmes to raise awareness, trainings and skills development programmes.
• Use multiple modes of communication to provide information before, during and after disasters,
including vulnerable groups:

o accessible websites and mobile apps designed as per current Web Content Accessibility
Guidelines (WCAG);
o radio and television public service announcements (including methods to increase
accessibility, such as audio, text, captions and sign language interpretation);
o announcements and advice sent through SMS; multimedia messaging service; mass e-mails
to citizens from government authorities, aid and relief agencies, and others;
o accessible electronic fact sheets, handbooks and manuals;
o multimedia, including presentations, webinars, webcasts and videos, including on popular
sites such as YouTube;
o dedicated social media such as Facebook pages and Twitter accounts created by governments
and disaster response organizations;
o citizen-focused working groups and discussion forums.

• Be aware of the potential for misuse of personal data of vulnerable populations in disaster
situations, and develop ethical norms and standards for data sharing.
• Provide information packs, guides and manuals; conduct public awareness campaigns in multiple
accessible formats in different languages; and provide sensitized resource persons to impart the
contents of these packs to persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups.
• Develop, promote and distribute mainstream and assistive technologies that can be used during
emergencies and disasters, and provide the necessary training to persons who use them.
• Develop frameworks to facilitate inter-agency collaboration and conduct drills and trust-
building initiatives.
• Specify accessible telecommunication/ICT infrastructure as part of procurement guidelines
wherever applicable.
• Ensure that all services, facilities and infrastructure developed after a disaster are accessible
and inclusive.
• Provide information in multiple formats and through multiple modes about ongoing recovery
efforts and how to get help or access resources.

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• Review disaster response efforts to assess any challenges for vulnerable groups, discuss lessons
learned, and undertake efforts to fix any issues in telecom/ICT-based disaster management services.

The use of several different types of telecommunication/ICTs can be vital for supporting all people
including people with specific needs such as those with disabilities during emergencies, considering
the different difficulties that could arise according to the type of disability. We are all possible users
of different types of telecommunication/ICTs (anyone with a permanent or temporary disability could
be in need of a specific type of technology based on the specific need of that specific moment).
Therefore, it is important to ensure that technologies provide several alternatives to communicate and
ensure that every person can be able to communicate based on his/her abilities. For example, blind
people cannot see, but they can hear; paralyzed people can hear and see, but they cannot run, or a
blind person or a person that just had cataract surgery will not see but will be able to hear; a person
with a mobility impairment or a person with a broken leg will not be able to run, etc. The deaf or
hard of hearing can see, but they cannot hear alarms, EWSs, radio reports, or any other kind of alert
or auditory information. Consequently, the strategies for preparing and responding to emergencies
should include all available telecommunication/ICTs and take into account all possible needs that
every person might have.

Telecommunication/ICTs can be a key tool in disaster response and management operations, providing
the possibility to use multiple modes and channels to reach all people, without discrimination of age,
gender, ability or location. Apart from traditional forms of telecommunication/ICT (TV and radio), the
world of telecommunication/ICTs includes different mechanisms that can facilitate communication
to people with disabilities: landlines, mobile audio, text/SMS messages and Internet-based services
and resources such as websites, video, instant messaging over the Internet, voice services on Internet
protocol, web conferencing, social networks that allow instant communication and exchange of
photos/videos and satellite communications.

However, the content for disaster preparedness and planning materials may be inaccessible for all
people unless these are created and delivered in multiple formats through multiple media. For example,
public television advertisements, online videos and exclusively audio-based web transmissions will
be inaccessible to deaf people unless they are accompanied by subtitles or interpretation of sign
language. Other examples of the incorporation of multiple forms of telecommunication/ICTs are
presented in Annex G.

Box 11: Wireless Emergency Alerts1

Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) is an alert protocol in the United States of America with
the purpose of broadcasting emergency alerts to mobile devices. This system enables
geographically targeted alerts and warnings in the form of text-like messages that are
broadcast only from cell towers in the specific area where the emergency occurred. Also,
these messages sent by WEA include a distinctive attention signal and vibration that is
noticeable for people with hearing impairments or vision-related disabilities.

Since its launch in 2012, the WEA system has been used more than 40 000 times to warn
the public about dangerous weather, missing children and other critical situations, all
through alerts on compatible mobile phones and other mobile devices. It has also enabled
government officials to target emergency alerts to specific geographic areas – Lower
Manhattan, for example.2

1
National Council on Disability (2014).
2
United States Federal Communications Commission. Wireless Emergency Alerts Consumer Guide.
Available at www​.fcc​.gov/​consumers/​guides/​wireless​-emergency​-alerts​-wea (accessed 22 February 2019).

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Chapter 8
Box 12: PLUSVoice1

PLUSVoice Co. is a Japanese company that offers a free remote video relay service in areas hit
by the earthquake and tsunami of 2011 in Japan for people who are deaf or have a hearing
impairment. In particular, this technology uses sign language interpreters to give relevant
information to people in Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima shortly after a disaster occurs. The
free videos can be accessed via smartphones.

PLUSVoice began its remote interpreting service in 2002 through videophones placed in
government offices and shops, so that people with hearing problems could communicate
with officials and shop clerks. The company expanded the service the following year, aiming
directly at individuals who used videophones, e-mail and faxes (Japan Times, 2012). The
company introduced the free remote video relay service in 2012, taking advantage of the
increased usage of smartphones.

This service is very useful in countries such as Japan where, according to a 2006 estimate
by the Health, Labour and Welfare Ministry, the number of people with hearing or speech
disabilities in Japan is nearly 360 000.

1
Qureshi (2012), Accessible ICT tools and services in disaster and emergency preparation.

Box 13: Get Ready Get Through1

The Government of New Zealand created a website called Get Ready Get Through,2 which
includes information in accessible formats, such as MP3 files, e-text, DAISY talking books, audio
CDs and cassettes, and Braille. The website contents are also available in multiple languages.

In particular, the website provides information on types of disasters, such as earthquakes,

storms, floods, tsunamis, volcanoes and others; how to create and practice a household
emergency plan; and how to assemble and maintain an emergency survival kit. It also gives
recommendations regarding getaway kits in case people are forced to evacuate on short notice.3

1
Qureshi (2012).
2
Get Ready Get Through, available at www​.getthru​.govt​.nz/​(accessed 22 February 2019).
3
Ibid.

Recommendation 9

The NETP should detail how to support continued availability of multiple forms of
telecommunication/ICTs to provide messages and inform/alert all impacted people, including
those with specific needs, and marginalized communities. It is important to ensure that the
NETP correctly describes, and appropriately responds to everyone’s needs.

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Annex A: Emergency communications checklist 1

I. Preparedness
a) Administration and responsibility setting
Establishment and clarification of roles and responsibilities within a government and with stakeholders is one
of the most basic – but critical – parts of developing a disaster communications management plan. Points of
contact should be identified within the various agencies, and decision-making authority and responsibilities
in key areas should be clarified. In cases where there may be overlapping expertise or responsibility within
an agency, or across multiple agencies, governments should work in advance to clearly determine leads and
lines of responsibility to save time and improve the overall response when disaster strikes.

Government roles and responsibilities

□ What government agency/ministry is responsible for disaster management and response
overall in the country?
□ What other ministries are involved/should be involved in disaster preparedness
and response? What are their respective roles or mandates? What is the role of the
communications regulator and ministry? Is the communications ministry or regulator a
participant in the activities of the national disaster management authority?
□ What authorities (legislation or mandates) enable each ministry/agency to respond to
certain aspects of disaster response that will help guide identification of leads and roles
and responsibilities?
□ Who leads on particular aspects of response in each of those agencies in the event of a
disaster? Does that lead vary depending on the type of disaster? How is disaster response
coordinated within a ministry and organization? Who are the backup points of contact in
case the disaster impacts the lead person? What authority/decision-making ability does
each point of contact have and in what area/subject matter?
□ How does the lead disaster management ministry coordinate with other relevant ministries
across government? How frequently does the core contact group coordinate, meet or
conduct drills/exercises between disasters? Who maintains the point of contact list, and
how often is it updated? Does it contain all possible contacts both for home and work?
□ How is telecommunication/ICTs prioritized or addressed within the country’s disaster
management framework?
□ How is disaster response management responsibility or authority managed between
central government and local or provincial/state governments?

b) External coordination
Disaster response involves many actors/stakeholders, such as the central government, local communities,
state/provincial authorities, public safety officials, the private sector, relief and technology organizations,
hospitals, citizen groups and civil society organizations, the UN, and foreign governments. In order to
support an effective and coordinated response, a disaster communications plan should incorporate these
external actors (stakeholders), and they should be actively involved in preparedness activities.

1
ITU (2017c).

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Annex A
I. Preparedness
□ Ensure coordination processes, define partnerships and establish points of contact with
external organizations. These may include:

• Private telecommunication entities (carriers and equipment);

• Other ministries;
• Local and state/provincial government agencies;
• NGO relief and response organizations, hospitals;
• United Nations/ ITU;
• Foreign governments/military;
• Volunteer technical communities;
• Amateur radio;
• Citizen and community groups, civil society organizations.

□ Who are the actors in your country that have been involved in or could improve/enable
disaster response? Which foreign/international actors could support the response? How
are citizens and local communities involved in disaster response planning? How are citizens
informed about disaster response plans?
□ Who are the points of contact in each organization, and how will the government engage/
exchange information with those organizations before, during and after a disaster? What
types of information or situational awareness can be shared by these stakeholders? What
types of information or situational awareness can be provided to these stakeholders to
facilitate a response?
□ How will you coordinate with these actors/stakeholders when developing a disaster
response plan? How will you coordinate with these actors in any preparedness activities?
How frequent will those communications or interactions be? What is your stakeholder
engagement strategy or plan? Does your government have any requirements or legislation
governing stakeholder engagement, public outreach or advisory committees?
□ Do external international actors require credentialing to enter the affected areas or visas to
enter into the country when a disaster occurs? Have expedited processes been established in
advance for both the entry of experts and communications equipment in times of disaster?
□ How are persons with disabilities and specific needs included in preparedness activities?
How are these specific needs taken into account in planning?

c) Training and exercises

Once roles and responsibilities are defined, exercises are the best way to prepare teams to respond effec-
tively to an emergency. Exercises should be designed to engage team members and get them working
together to manage the response to a hypothetical incident. Exercises enhance knowledge of plans, allow
members to improve their own performance and identify opportunities to improve capabilities to respond
to real events with further training and education.

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I. Preparedness
Exercises are a great method to:
• Evaluate a preparedness programme;
• Identify planning and procedural deficiencies;
• Test or validate recently changed procedures or plans;
• Clarify roles and responsibilities;
• Obtain participant feedback and recommendations for programme improvement;
• Measure improvement compared with performance objectives;
• Improve coordination between internal and external teams, organizations and entities;
• Validate training and education;
• Increase awareness and understanding of hazards and the potential impacts of hazards;
• Assess the capabilities of existing resources and identify needed resources.2

Some considerations are provided below:

□ Is training or certification mandatory for officials designated to support a response effort?
Consideration should be given to what type of training or certification may be needed for
each type of personnel, and how regularly it should take place.
□ Do exercises include both internal stakeholders and external, non-governmental partners?
Consideration should be given to how regularly exercises take place among various
stakeholders. Are drills conducted to ensure that the public is aware of disaster response
plans and can recognize and react to a warning (for example, how to respond if an early
warning alarm is triggered)?
□ Are telecommunication/ICT exercises conducted separately and/or as part of more
comprehensive national disaster exercises? How do national disaster exercises incorporate
the role and priority of addressing telecom/ICTs?
□ Which communications exercises are held (e.g., Early warning system testing, or regional/
national outage responses and restoration)?
□ Are exercises tailored to the types of disasters known to your country, i.e., extreme
weather, flood, earthquake, wildfires, humanitarian responses or cyberattack?
□ Which agencies or ministries oversee and participate in communications-related exercises
or drills? What are their roles? What is the role of local communities or governments?
□ How are stakeholders – such as communications operators and suppliers, and
technology-focused organizations/associations – engaged in disaster response or disaster
communications exercises? Are they part of the exercise planning process?
□ Are outage reporting requirements of carriers exercised? Do carriers follow a uniform
reporting process, and know which contacts to report outages to and how?
□ Is online training available for stakeholders prior to exercises?
□ How is feedback collected after an exercise to help improve procedures or performance?
Which stakeholders would you request feedback from? Is an “after action” report done,
and is it circulated to participants?

2
United States Department of Homeland Security, available at www​.ready​.gov/​business/​testing/​exercises (accessed 23
February 2019).

50
 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
I. Preparedness
d) Infrastructure and technology
Telecom/ICTs are a critical tool facilitating disaster early warning, relief and response. One objective of a
disaster communications plan is to help ensure the continuity or restoration of communications in the
event of a disaster. Below are some considerations related to infrastructure and technology when develop-
ing and implementing a disaster communications management plan during the preparedness phase.

□ Technology inventory or assessment: A wide range of technologies and services can

and should be used to support disaster communications response. When developing a
plan, it is helpful to take stock of the technologies used by stakeholders (government,
responders, citizens) to communicate on a daily basis, and which are often used in times of
emergency. Such technologies could include emergency dispatch services; amateur radio;
first responder systems, including radio and public safety broadband; television and radio
broadcasting; terrestrial mobile networks; wireline voice networks; broadband networks;
satellite networks; and social media.
□ Redundancy and resiliency planning: Ensuring operational continuity and preparing for
continuity and restoration of primary communications channels to minimize outages.
□ Power: Available and pre-positioned power sources (for infrastructure and individuals).
What backup power resources are available for operators, governments, responders and
citizens, and how are these resources prioritized for restorations? Are processes in place
to expedite or facilitate fuel delivery for communications network generators? Are there
guidelines in place for critical facilities to have backup power supplies?
□ Identification and training of key public and private personnel: Regular training should
take place for those personnel who will need to use and maintain/test emergency
communications equipment. Local communities and local staff should also be considered
for training in the use and maintenance of such equipment.
□ Identifying critical sites/priority sites for restoration: What mechanisms are in place to
prioritize critical sites for restoration efforts? How are these priority sites communicated to,
and discussed with operators?
□ Establish situational awareness and reporting mechanisms (public/private sector
cooperation), such as a communications-focused advisory committee: How is information
about business continuity plans exchanged with government officials?
□ Spectrum and frequency planning: Licensing/authorizations, including expedited frequency
and type approvals, emergency spectrum management and authorization, expedited
licensing approvals and possible temporary/emergency authorities: Has there been an
assessment of any regulatory or policy barriers to entry or operation of needed equipment
for disaster relief or restoration of networks?
□ Priority and expedited customs procedures for approved/authorized incoming
communications equipment.
□ Consideration of emergency and network resilience/redundancy needs/requirements
in national telecommunication development plans (e.g., broadband or infrastructure
development plans).

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

I. Preparedness
□ Human factors: Preparedness plans should take into account that many personnel or
their families may be directly impacted by a disaster and will be operating under stressful
circumstances.
□ “Harmonized” outage reporting: To increase situational awareness and more rapidly
identify needed resources for telecommunication/ICT restorations or to provide
appropriate information to the public, authorities can identify terminology and a common
format for reporting of outages to ensure a common understanding of status and
requirements.
□ Use of “Big Data” analytics to support disaster prediction and forecasting or projecting
possible impact or risk, and to support decision-making and allocation of resources:
What data sets are available for government or public use to aid in disaster response and
risk reduction planning? What policies are in place to ensure that data can be shared
by operators with responders in a way that protects individual privacy, while enabling
response? What collaboration or public–private partnerships could support improved use
of data in support of disaster preparedness?
□ Establishing emergency alerting systems:

1) Mechanisms and technologies (broadcast, mobile, machine-to-machine/sensor

networks; remote sensing technologies; Big Data; integration of delivery mechanisms,
social media): What technologies and applications are best suited for the environment,
geography, type of disasters and method of communication needed by citizens? Are
multiple platforms used to ensure information gets to those affected? How should
existing alert systems adapt to new technologies while also ensuring the broadest
delivery of alerts? How to incorporate social media platforms?
2) Alert content (language, CAP, accessibility considerations): Which officials are
empowered to authorize the sending of an alert? What consideration is given to
ensuring citizens are informed, while avoiding “alert fatigue”? What information is
placed in an alert and what standard is used to avoid confusion?
3) Enabling policies: Expectations of carriers or broadcasters, policies and procedures for
preparing, approving and disseminating messaging.
4) Regular/ongoing national and regional alerting exercises and system testing: Who is
involved in testing? How often will tests take place?
5) Public education: Working with local communities and civil society to recognize early
warnings and act on them.
6) How do alerts and early warning systems take account of those most vulnerable
to disasters, such as persons with disabilities, including radio and television
announcements or alerts, and information distributed through SMS, e-mails, etc.

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Annex A
I. Preparedness
□ Accessibility considerations:

1) How are members of vulnerable populations consulted regarding their needs? How
are capacities of vulnerable populations developed, for example, through awareness-
raising programmes or trainings? Are information materials, including websites or
apps, accessible?
2) Are accessibility and usability of ICTs considered in projects? What strategies and
mechanisms are used to promote accessible ICTs, including legislation, policy,
regulations, license requirements, codes of conduct, and monetary or other incentives?
3) Are information materials provided targeting vulnerable populations? Are public
awareness campaigns conducted in multiple accessible formats in different languages,
along with sensitized resource persons to impart the contents of these packs to
persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups?
4) Following a disaster, are disaster response efforts reviewed to assess challenges for
vulnerable groups, discuss lessons learned, and undertake efforts to fix any issues in
ICT-based disaster management services?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

II. Response, relief and restoration

a) Communications channels and information sharing
Telecom/ICTs are tools to support exchange of critical information between those affected by a disaster,
including citizens and those participating in response, relief and restoration activities. While operational
continuity or ongoing availability of the underlying technologies is important when developing a response
plan, it is also important to understand the channels of communication and types of information that need
to be shared. Flexibility is important, as needs quickly evolve during a disaster.

□ What Information is being communicated? What types of information are needed (and
could be provided) by certain parties? (These types of information include network outage
status; safety and location of family members or key personnel; meteorological and seismic
information; the location of shelters; damage and infrastructure assessments (including
status of roads or transportation systems to allow for movement of supplies or personnel);
rules and regulations associated with emergency equipment approvals and operation;
response coordination, including what supplies or personnel are needed to support relief
and restoration efforts; and who is able to provide support).
□ Who is communicating? What are the channels of communication? Who has priority to
communicate?

• Intragovernmental communications;
• Government to UN or NGOs that provide relief and response;
• Interactions between Government and UN/NGO responders and private sector
(telecommunication/ICT providers);
• Government to public, UN/NGOs to public;
• Public to government/UN/NGO community;
• Private sector to public;
• Private sector to private sector;
• Citizen to citizen.

□ Are backup or diverse/redundant means of communication in place in case of outages? Has

consideration been given to whether a disaster may render a planned communication tool
unusable and what redundant means of communication might be used? (For example, if
the expectation is to communicate via conference call, how will accommodation be made
if the phone networks are down?) Are portable communication units available to establish
temporary connectivity?
□ Ensuring accuracy of data/verifying information: Consideration should be given to how
to verify and report/disseminate information before acting upon it to ensure the most
efficient use of resources and improve coordination and decision-making.
□ Understanding cultural norms and behaviours: Different cultural groups may communicate
in different ways, or trust information from different types of sources. Consideration should
be given to linguistic and cultural behaviours and how they affect communication.
□ Social media: How can social media be used as a tool for collecting data and sharing
information for two-way communications? How do relief and response authorities respond
to requests for help received via social media? What partnerships can be established to
best use social media tools? How do citizens use social media for information gathering and
exchange during a disaster, as compared with other tools?
□ Establishing mechanisms for communicating across and with diverse groups; sharing
information/situational awareness/reporting.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
II. Response, relief and restoration
b) Infrastructure and technology
In evaluation of damage and re-establishment of networks, communication must happen rapidly between
those assessing the damage, determining priority of restoration efforts and directing assistance, and those
providing emergency communications services. Determinations should be made in advance, whenever
possible, about points of contact for functions such as technical coordination and sharing of network
outage information. In addition, there should be backup (redundant) networks in place for government
and first responder use in order to facilitate restoration efforts, such as dedicated government communica-
tions networks.

Evaluation of damage/ICT assessment

□ What is the role of the communications ministry/regulator regarding reporting damage or
outages to public or commercial telecommunication networks and enabling continuity and
restoration, and how is that role defined (through a license, etc.)?
□ Who will be the designated ministry/regulator or point of contact to collect, analyse and
react to/report/release information regarding damage to networks? What information and
analysis from operators should be obtained and utilized? How will these information needs
be communicated in advance to operators?
□ For those networks that are commercial or public, are there reporting requirements
already in place that would establish a process, format and timeline for submitting
evaluations? If not, can government set up a coordinating mechanism by which to establish
expectations and receive information?
□ Will initial damage assessments be connected to award disaster recovery funding?
□ For government networks, which inter-agency coordination and information-sharing
processes will need to be established? Will public or private networks be more suitable/
reliable for this purpose?
□ Are there policies in place that consider communications network status, needs, conditions and
requests, and that enable the maintenance and restoration of the following communications
capabilities? What process is followed to determine the priority of each restoration?

• Local agency land mobile radio systems;

• Emergency dispatch services;
• Status of terrestrial systems/public mobile systems;
• Broadcast radio/TV stations;
• Amateur radio services;
• In-country VSAT provider availability;
• Pre-positioned emergency MSS equipment;
• Internet services.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

II. Response, relief and restoration

Establishment of emergency connectivity 
□ Which emergency telecommunication partners will be contacted in the event of a disaster?
What information will be provided to them, and how will they be contacted?
□ How will offers of assistance from foreign governments, humanitarian organizations or the
private sector be received and processed?
□ Who are the points of contact to authorize incoming equipment or allocate requested
frequencies? Is there a mechanism to ensure timely coordination with local operators to
avoid interference?
□ Which emergency ICT resources will be pre-positioned and at which priority locations, and
by whom? Who has authorization to activate or distribute? How will these pre-positioned
resources be maintained and tested? What consideration is given to fuel supplies for power
generators and restoration of telecommunication networks?
□ Ensure coordination between telecommunication teams and the central disaster
management institutions to meet needs: Consider which networks and communications
technologies are most used by first responders (e.g., land mobile radio vs. mobile data
services), or by the public to reach emergency services, and could therefore be prioritized
for immediate restoration or additional maintenance support. How can government
agencies facilitate private sector restoration of networks?
□ Where will emergency connectivity be first established? Consider whether there are
previously determined disaster recovery sites that will require immediate connectivity, or
whether connectivity will be required for mobile disaster recovery centres.

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Annex A
II. Response, relief and restoration
Maintenance and re-establishment of networks
□ Is there a source of expert advice and assistance for government agencies with respect to
restoring government networks and telecommunication infrastructures? In cases where
government uses private networks, will restoration be carried out by government or private
sector technicians? Consider whether there are commercial networks in place to use as
backup for closed government networks in the event of disruption. Does government have
mechanisms or emergency procedures in place to facilitate customs clearance or import of
equipment needed for restoration of critical networks, or to facilitate entry of any external
expert personnel needed to restore and rebuild networks?
□ Is there a process in place to routinely test networks designed for emergency
communication?
□ Are commercial or public network operators encouraged to have a business continuity plan
in place? How frequently are restoration plans exercised and updated?
□ Is there a plan for reporting on progress of network restoration? How frequently are these
plans exercised?
□ Is information related to network outages and restoration activity safeguarded and
classified appropriately to mitigate security concerns?
□ What is the single government point of contact for sharing communications outage and
restoration information with other stakeholders? Having one point of contact can prevent
duplication of effort on the operators’ part.
□ Has a forum for operators to share information and coordinate possible assistance been
established? Consider the group’s mandate, operational procedures or guidelines, and
ways in which to utilize this forum.
□ Consider whether a procedure could be put in place to allow the government to share
sensitive threat information with network operators.
□ What procedure is in place to assist operators with critical items such as physical access
and expedited fuel deliveries?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Simple scoring approach to the checklist

No. Question Response Comments
[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
I. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES &
COORDINATION PROVISIONS

1. Is there a designated government ministry/agency responsible

for disaster management in the country?

2. Does the lead disaster management ministry/agency coor-

dinate with other relevant ministries across government for
disaster management?

3. Are there any ICT-specific legislations or mandates which enable

the ICT ministry/agency and the national ICT regulator, to
respond to certain aspects of preparedness and response?

4. Is there a standard operating procedure in place, outlining the

role and mandate of the ICT ministry/agency and regulator, with
regards to preparedness and response?

5. Are there clearly defined points of contact established for disas-

ter management in the respective agencies/ministries involved?

6. Can key contacts (identified in question 5) be reached at any

time of the day or night?

7. Is there a national emergency telecoms cluster group estab-

lished, representing key ICT contact persons?

8. Does the core ICT contact group meet yearly to coordinate and/
or conduct drills/exercises?

9. Are roles, goals, and responsibilities coordinated across national

to sub-national and community levels?

10. Are there mechanisms that help emergency response agencies

and policymakers to plan and implement interoperability solu-
tions for data and voice communications including governance,
standard operating procedures (SOPs), technology, training and
exercises, and usage of interoperable communications?

11. Are there methods/tools that jurisdictions that can be used to

track progress in strengthening interoperable communications
across the country?

12. Is telecommunications/ICT prioritized, or addressed, as a

critical function or priority within the country’s disaster man-
agement framework?

13. Does the communications ministry/agency or regulator coor-

dinate with, and participate in, the activities of the national
disaster management agency?

14. Has a national-level ICT Working Group been established?

15. Does the national ICT Working Group meet regularly?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
No. Question Response Comments
[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
16. Has an up-to-date national ICT capacity assessment been done,
which covers macro and micro assessments of country-level ICT
infrastructure?

17. Is there an updated available list of telecommunications, infor-

mation technology (IT), payment technology, and payment
switch providers?

18. Are relevant tools available for rapid beneficiary registration and
assistance delivery?

19. Is a roster of national IT service providers available and accessible?

20. Have network operators identified their internal “surge capac-

ity”, to be able to recover post-disaster?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/20 X 100

II. EXTERNAL COORDINATION WITH KEY STAKEHOLDERS

21. Is there a stakeholder engagement plan in place for disaster pre-

paredness and response?

22. Is there a regularly updated list of key points of contact for

primary organizations working in disaster risk management
(including government private sector, civil society, United
Nations, and all key others)?

23. Is the list of key point of contact shared with these entities (men-
tioned in question 22)?

24. Are these multiple stakeholders (mentioned in question 22)

coordinated with frequently for preparedness and response
readiness activities and actions?

25. Do key stakeholders have the ICT tools needed to communicate

during non-disaster periods and emergency operations?

26. Are citizens involved in disaster risk reduction and response

initiatives?

27. Are citizens informed about disaster response preparedness and

plans?

28. Are there any requirements or legislations governing stakeholder

engagement, public outreach, or advisory committees?

29. Have processes been established in advance for both the entry
of experts and communications equipment in times of disaster,
such as the ratification of the Tampere Convention?

30. Is there a fast-track process for importation of telecoms equip-

ment in times of emergency?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

No. Question Response Comments

[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
31. Are persons with disabilities, specific needs, and other vulnera-
ble groups, included in disaster preparedness activities?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/11 X 100

III. CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: TRAININGS AND SIMULATION

EXERCISES

32. Is ICT-specific training or certification mandatory for officials who

are involved in disaster risk management?

33. Do such trainings (mentioned in question 32) take place regularly?

34. Do ICT-specific trainings and exercises include different con-

cerned key stakeholders, in addition to government participants?

35. Are telecommunication drills conducted to ensure that the public

is aware of disaster response plans, including the most efficient
means of communications to help reduce network congestion,
together with recognition and reaction to a warning signal (e.g.,
response to an early warning mechanism such as a siren)?

36. Has a personal communications plan for family check-ins and

evacuations been prepared?

37. Are communications/ICT exercises conducted, as part of more

comprehensive national disaster exercises?

38. Are communications/ICT exercises tailored to the types of fre-

quently occurring disasters in the country?

39. In communications/ICT exercises, are complex emergencies

considered that could address multiple hazards in a “worst
case scenario”?

40. Do other government agencies or ministries oversee and/or par-

ticipate in communications-related exercises or drills?

41. Are different non-government stakeholder participants in disas-

ter response or disaster communications exercises?

42. Do all the ICT sector stakeholders participating in disaster exer-

cises or drills have clearly defined roles and responsibilities?

43. Are outage reporting requirements of carriers exercised?

44. Do carriers follow a uniform reporting process, and know which

contacts to report the outages (induced by disaster) to, and how?

45. Is online ICT training, or are “read-aheads”, available for ICT

stakeholders prior to exercises?

46. Is feedback collected after exercises or drills to help improve pro-

cedures or performance for the future?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
No. Question Response Comments
[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
47. Is an “after action” performed after an exercise or drill?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/16 X 100

IV. INFRASTRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGY: REQUIREMENTS,

PLANNING AND MAINTENANCE

48. Is a regular technology inventory or assessment undertaken?

49. Does such an inventory or assessment (as mentioned in

question 48) have a mapping of infrastructure and networks
available (publicly)?

50. Is redundancy and resiliency planning undertaken for telecom

providers?

51. Are there opportunities to support or encourage telecom-

munication operators in doing the redundancy and resiliency
planning? This could include advisory efforts, opportunities
to engage in drills and exercises, and after actions, informa-
tion-sharing efforts.

52. Are processes in place for the government to help expedite,

facilitate, prioritize, or enable fuel delivery for communications
network generators?

53. Are there available and pre-positioned power sources for tele-
communication networks?

54. Are there guidelines in place for critical facilities to have back-up
power supplies?

55. Are regular technical trainings conducted for those personnel

who will need to use and maintain/test emergency communica-
tions equipment, particularly that which is pre-positioned?

56. Do first responders know where the pre-positioned equipment is

located or where imported ICT equipment can be collected for use?

57. Are local communities and local staff also considered for
training in the use and maintenance of emergency telecommu-
nications equipment?

58. Have critical /priority telecommunication sites being identified

for restoration?

59. Are there mechanisms in place to prioritize critical telecommuni-

cation sites for restoration efforts?

60. Are related reporting mechanisms in place?

61. Has there been an assessment of ICT regulatory and/or policy

barriers to entry or operation of needed equipment for disaster
relief or restoration of networks?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

No. Question Response Comments

[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
62. In the above-mentioned ICT assessment (question 61), have
special measures been determined in case of an emergency,
including identification of equipment for replacement, sources
for rapidly sourcing equipment in times of need, determining
redundant backup systems, and logistics capacity?

63. Is connectivity information, including data sets, available for

government or public use to aid in disaster response and risk
reduction planning?

64. Is information about business continuity plans exchanged

between government and industry officials?

65. Have emergency and network resilience/redundancy needs and

requirements been considered in the national telecommunica-
tions development plan?

66. Are policies in place to ensure that data can be shared by oper-
ators with responders in a way that protects individual privacy,
while enabling response?

67. Are multiple channels (such as television, Radio, Short Message

Service, messaging, etc.) employed to ensure information gets to
those affected quickly and effectively?

68. Is social media employed to share information regarding disaster

risk reduction?

69. Are regular/ongoing national and regional alerting exercises and

system-testing taking place?

70. Is public education undertaken to sensitize communities on early

warning for early action?

71. Are members of vulnerable populations consulted regarding

their specific needs in disaster scenarios?

72. Is there an early warning alerting system in place?

73. Is the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) employed for early warn-
ing purposes?

74. Are information materials including websites or applications

(“apps”) accessible for disaster preparedness?

75. Are the above-mentioned “apps” (in question 74) promoted

widely to the public?

76. Are information materials being shared in advance on ways

that users of communications can lessen network congestion
in a disaster?

77. Are ICT capacities of vulnerable populations being developed in

disaster risk management?

78. Are accessibility and usability of ICTs considered in forthcoming

disaster preparedness projects?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
No. Question Response Comments
[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
79. Are disaster readiness information materials provided targeting
vulnerable populations?

80. Are public awareness campaigns conducted on disaster risk

reduction themes in multiple accessible formats in different
prevalent languages?

81. Following a disaster, are disaster response efforts reviewed to

assess challenges for vulnerable groups, and determine follow
up actions?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/34 X 100

(a) ICT assessment & damage mitigation

82. Is there a designated focal point at the ministry/regulator to col-

lect, analyse, and react to/report/release information regarding
damage to networks?

83. Is a mechanism in place to enable communications operators to

provide the government information about the scale and scope
of communications outages, and their progress on restoration in
a way that enables governments to plan and act?

84. Is the reporting system separate or “firewalled” from regulatory

functions to enable more open reporting on outages?

85. For those networks that are commercial or public, are there
reporting requirements in place that would establish a har-
monized process, format, and timeline carriers to submit
evaluations?

86. Will initial damage assessments be connected to award disaster

recovery funding?

87. Have interagency coordination and information sharing pro-

cesses been established?

88. Are there policies in place that consider communications net-

work status, needs, conditions and requests, and that enable the
maintenance and restoration of the following communications
capabilities?

89. Is standardized reporting on outages undertaken by the regula-

tor at regular intervals, identifying the
number of telecom sites that are up and/or down?

90. Are telecoms recovery plans produced, to recover or continue

the operation and use of telecoms infrastructure in the event
of disaster?

91. Do the above-mentioned telecoms recovery plans (in question 90)

detail coverage areas and network carrying capacity – including
provision of special services and network access for affected areas?

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

No. Question Response Comments

[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
92. As a business continuity management (BCM) measure post-di-
saster, are network recovery mitigation plans made available by
network operators, and are accessible?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/11 X 100

(b) Emergency connectivity provisions & approach

93. Has the government identified relevant network operators and

service providers, including domestic telecommunications pro-
viders and international satellite operators, who may be involved
in providing emergency communications services?

94. Is there a maintained list containing updated details for all rele-
vant telecoms service provider recovery teams?

95. Is there a system in place for offers of financial and human

capacity assistance from foreign governments, humanitarian
organizations, or private sector to be received and processed?

96. Is the ICT ministry or regulator the contact for authorization of

incoming equipment (such as frequency and type approvals), or
to allocate requested frequencies?

97. Has the government created frequency allocations, in confor-

mance with the international table of allocations, for critical
satellite communications frequency bands – including in the L, C,
Ku, and Ka bands?

98. Is there a mechanism to ensure timely coordination with local

operators to avoid interference?

99. Are emergency ICT resources prepositioned at priority locations?

100. Does the government encourage or enable carriers to preposi-

tion emergency ICT resources?

101. Is there a process in place for regular tests of the pre-positioned

equipment to ensure its functionality?

102. Is consideration/priority given to fuel supplies for power genera-

tors and restoration of telecommunication networks?

103. Is coordination between national government-specific tele-

communications teams and the central disaster management
institutions undertaken?

104. Is there a prioritization exercise undertaken to determine where

emergency connectivity will first be established?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/12 X 100

(c) Network maintenance and reestablishment

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex A
No. Question Response Comments
[Yes/No] [Qualifying]
Y=1; N=0
105. Is there a source of external expert advice and assistance for
government agencies, with respect to restoring government
communications networks and telecommunication infrastruc-
tures, including industry contacts?

106. Does the government have mechanisms or emergency proce-

dures in place to facilitate customs clearance or importation of
equipment needed for restoration of critical networks, and/or
to facilitate entry of any external expert personnel needed to
restore and rebuild networks?

107. In case of pre-positioned equipment, has a focal point (or points)

been identified to ensure it is well-maintained, and the ICT
equipment is ready-for-use in an emergency?

108. Is there a process in place to routinely test networks designed

for emergency communication?

109. Are commercial or public network operators encouraged to have

a business continuity plan (BCP) in place?

110. Are telecommunications restoration plans frequently exer-

cised and updated?

111. Does the ICT ministry/agency or regulator have information

related to network outages and restoration activity safeguarded,
and classified appropriately, to mitigate security concerns?

112. Does the ICT ministry/agency or regulator have a focal point for
sharing communications outages and restoration information
with other stakeholders?

113. Has a forum for operators to share information and coordinate

possible assistance been established by the ICT ministry/agency
and/or regulator?

114. Has a procedure been put in place to allow the government to

share sensitive risk-related information with network operators
(and vice versa)?

115. Is there a procedure in place to assist operators with critical

items, such as physical access and expedited fuel deliveries?

116. Are there alternate sources of power located and prepared in

case of emergency scenarios?

PERCENTAGE = (Sum of Yes responses)/12 X 100

65
 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Annex B: Types of disasters

Given that there is a need to conduct a risk analysis to establish the vulnerability of a given country
before establishing a national disaster risk management plan, this annex addresses variation in
the types of disasters, as classified by the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
(CRED).1 CRED categorizes disasters as climatological, geophysical, hydrological, meteorological or
technological, among other categories.2

Figure B1: Disaster categories according to CRED

Source: Based on CRED (2017). Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2016.

Climatological disasters
Climate-type disasters refer to those caused by long-lived, meso- to macro-scale atmospheric
processes ranging from intra-seasonal to multidecadal climate variability.3

Examples of climatological disasters include droughts and wildfires. A drought can be defined as a
“prolonged absence or marked deficiency of precipitation,”4 or as “a period of abnormally dry weather
sufficiently prolonged for the lack of precipitation to cause a serious hydrological imbalance”.5 The
resulting impacts of such an imbalance – such as crop damage or a scarcity of water used by people,
animals or plants – can lead to consequences as serious as death.6

Wildfires, on the other hand, are defined as “any uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion or
burning of plants in a natural setting such as a forest, grassland, brush land or tundra, which consumes
natural fuels and spreads based on environmental conditions (e.g., wind, topography).”7

1
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).
2
Other categories of disaster include those of a biological nature, defined as caused by exposure to living organisms
and their toxic substances; and alien type, defined as those caused by asteroids, meteoroids and other extraterrestrial
objects when they pass nearby, enter the atmosphere and/or hit the Earth, or by changes in the interplanetary
conditions affecting the magnetosphere, ionosphere and thermosphere of the Earth. Source: CRED.
3
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).
4
World Meteorological Organization – Meteoterm (https://​public​.wmo​.int/​en/​resources/​meteoterm).
5
Ibid.
6
American Red Cross (www​.redcross​.org/​get​-help/​how​-to​-prepare​-for​-emergencies/​types​-of​-emergencies​.html).
7
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).

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Annex B
Geophysical disasters
These types of disasters originate from activity of the Earth, according to the classification of CRED.
They can include earthquakes, whether on land or under the seabed; volcanic activity; and sudden
terrestrial movements.8

Earthquakes are defined as a “vibratory motion of the ground of a random nature resulting from the
propagation of a disturbance originating inside the Earth’s crust.”9 Earthquakes can occur both on
land and below the ocean floor, and in the latter case can generate large ocean waves or tsunamis.10
A volcano, on the other hand, can be defined as “a vent or fissure in the Earth's surface from which
lava and volatiles are extruded.”11

The third type of disaster of geologic origin is the mass movement of large amounts of terrestrial
material, including any type of downward movement of ground material. These threats include
avalanches, landslides and rock falls.12

Hydrological disasters
Hydrological disasters are those caused by changes in the movement and distribution of surface
and subsurface fresh water and salt water. Such disasters can cause flooding, whether coastal floods
(higher-than-normal water levels along the coast caused by tidal changes or storms); river floods
(due to sudden, heavy rainfall, usually associated with temporary weather events); or ice jam floods
(accumulation of floating ice restricting or blocking a river’s flow and drainage).13

Another hydrological-type disaster is a seiche, which refers to an “oscillation (lasting from a few
minutes to several hours) of the surface of a lake or other small body of water caused by minor
earthquakes, winds, or variations in atmospheric pressure”.14

Meteorological disasters
The term meteorological disasters refers to the hazards caused by short-lived, micro- to meso-scale
extreme weather and atmospheric conditions that last from minutes to days.15 These include extreme
temperatures, fog (small drops of water suspended in the air near the surface of the Earth) and storms.

Extreme temperatures include heat waves, cold waves, and severe winter conditions.16 A storm is defined
as “an atmospheric disturbance involving perturbations of the prevailing pressure and wind fields, on
scales ranging from tornadoes (1 km across) to extratropical cyclones (2 000–3 000 km across).”17

8
Ibid.
9
World Meteorological Organization – Meteoterm (https://​public​.wmo​.int/​en/​resources/​meteoterm).
10
American Red Cross (https://​www​.redcross​.org/​get​-help/​how​-to​-prepare​-for​-emergencies/​types​-of​-emergencies​
.html).
11
World Meteorological Organization – Meteoterm (https://​public​.wmo​.int/​en/​resources/​meteoterm).
12
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).
13
Ibid.
14
World Meteorological Organization – Meteoterm (https://​public​.wmo​.int/​en/​resources/​meteoterm).
15
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be/​Glossary).
16
Ibid.
17
World Meteorological Organization – Meteoterm (https://​public​.wmo​.int/​en/​resources/​meteoterm). Extreme weather
events are known as hurricanes, typhoons or tropical cyclones depending on the region of the world in which they
occur.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Technological disasters
Finally, technological-type disasters are those caused by hazards of human origin, such as industrial,
transport, or other types of accidents, including fire, collapse or explosion of physical infrastructure,
and any other technological disaster that is not considered an industrial or transport accident.18

18
The Emergency Events Database – Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – CRED (https://​www​.emdat​.be/​classification).

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Annex C: Historical disasters by region

Annex C
1

Table C1 presents a summary of the natural and technological disasters that occurred from 1968
to 2017, categorized by continent and type of disaster described in the sections above. The Table
summarizes the number of events that occurred, the number of fatalities and injured, the total
number of people affected, and the number of people left homeless after the emergency.

Table C1: Disasters over the 50-year period 1968–2017

Type of disaster Events Fatalities Injured Affected Homeless Total affected

Africa
Climatological 249 505 166 758 361 810 319 32 088 361 843 165
Geophysical 48 2 805 4 224 271 606 253 285 529 115
Hydrological 783 18 178 10 174 56 480 704 3 841 495 60 332 373
Meteorological 212 4 919 14 116 15 944 315 1 852 465 17 810 896
Technological 1 518 56 335 34 624 373 270 216 811 624 705
Total Africa 2 810 587 403 63 896 434 880 214 6 196 144 441 140 254
Americas
Climatological 292 450 1 637 109 850 315 64 935 109 916 887
Geophysical 299 369 876 675 968 31 476 615 4 274 214 36 426 797
Hydrological 1 221 70 278 55 394 93 387 582 3 801 134 97 244 110
Meteorological 1 240 62 437 1 877 928 152 702 945 3 743 926 158 324 799
Technological 1 301 42 394 57 526 3 213 955 30 237 3 301 718
Total Americas 4 353 545 435 2 668 453 390 631 412 11 914 446 405 214 311
Arab States
Climatological 65 189 701 15 62 291 213 20 000 62 311 228
Geophysical 37 8 395 33 693 1 399 553 742 234 2 175 480
Hydrological 273 10 965 22 307 12 494 389 2 945 145 15 461 841
Meteorological 73 1 234 6 195 4 188 485 55 960 4 250 640
Technological 714 33 129 25 271 18 988 22 835 67 094
Total Arab
States 1 162 243 424 87 481 80 392 628 3 786 174 84 266 283
Asia–Pacific
Climatological 239 6 536 1 919 2 000 231 872 93 181 2 000 326 972
Geophysical 694 912 236 1 577 007 127 624 985 14 871 692 144 073 684
Hydrological 2 159 253 328 1 245 812 3 463 735 595 79 419 927 3 544 401 334
Meteorological 1 723 773 882 794 663 949 398 926 41 851 503 992 045 092

1
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be). All figures belong to the period 1968–
2017.

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 ITU Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans

Type of disaster Events Fatalities Injured Affected Homeless Total affected

Technological 3 312 138 405 220 327 1 812 985 680 470 2 713 782
Total
8 127 2 084 387 3 839 728 6 542 804 363 136 916 773 6 683 560 864
Asia–Pacific
Commonwealth of Independent States
Climatological 38 171 2 319 8 031 194 3 855 8 037 368
Geophysical 42 2 254 2 811 1 027 017 92 086 1 121 914
Hydrological 162 3 731 8 736 5 081 279 306 524 5 396 539
Meteorological 70 58 379 8 876 6 187 536 28 900 6 225 312
Technological 276 8 108 5 218 25 626 10 410 41 254
Total Common-
wealth of
588 72 643 27 960 20 352 652 441 775 20 822 387
Independent
States
Europe
Climatological 126 537 1 213 10 233 832 8 505 10 243 550
Geophysical 168 38 657 118 580 7 626 303 1 688 938 9 433 821
Hydrological 586 6 075 6 145 13 356 770 442 175 13 805 090
Meteorological 665 89 734 23 720 8 684 741 17 603 8 726 064
Technological 855 26 714 51 794 136 976 202 766 391 536
Total Europe 2 400 161 717 201 452 40 038 622 2 359 987 42 600 061
World total 19 440 3 695 009 6 888 970 7 509 099 891 161 615 299 7 677 604 160

Definitions:
- Events: Number of times a disaster occurred.
- Fatalities: Number of people who lost their lives.
- Injured: Number of people suffering physical injuries, trauma and/or illness requiring immediate assistance.
- Affected: Number of people requiring immediate assistance during an emergency period, i.e., requiring assis-
tance to meet basic survival needs such as food, water, shelter, sanitation and immediate medical assistance.
- Homeless: Number of people whose homes were destroyed or severely damaged, and therefore required
shelter after the disaster.
- Total affected: Corresponds to the sum of injured persons, affected and homeless after a disaster.

Source: EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the Epidemiol-
ogy of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).

Over the last five decades, 19 440 disaster events were recorded worldwide,2 which caused more than
3.6 million fatalities, with almost twice as many people injured and a total of more than 7.5 billion
people affected.3 Although technological, hydrological and meteorological disaster types were most
common (7 976, 5 184 and 3 983 events, respectively), geophysical disasters caused the highest
number of deaths (1.33 million). Almost half the total number of people affected by disasters during
the past 50 years (48.5 per cent) were affected by hydrological disasters, while meteorological disasters
generated the highest proportion of people injured (39.6 per cent).

2
The figures presented throughout the document only consider the five types of disasters described in Annex B.
3
EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).

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Annex C
The Asia–Pacific region was the region with the largest number of reported disaster events (8 127),
almost 4 000 events more than in the Americas. The Asia–Pacific region also had the highest number
of fatalities (2.1 million), more than triple the nearly 600 000 deaths recorded in the Africa region,
as explained below.

Africa4
The Africa region reported 2 810 disaster events of natural and technological origin from 1968 to
2017. In these disasters, 587 403 people lost their lives and almost 435 million were affected. The
economic losses produced by these emergencies reached a total of USD 27.3 billion (in 2017 dollars).

Based on the data reviewed, climatological, hydrological and technological disasters such as droughts,
floods and transport accidents represent the greatest vulnerability for countries in the Africa region
in terms of frequency, fatalities and total number of people affected.

Americas5
From 1968 to 2017, 4 353 disaster events occurred in the Americas caused by natural and technological
hazards. These disasters caused 545 535 people to lose their lives, more than 390 million to be directly
affected, and economic damage estimated at USD 1.8 trillion (in 2017 dollars).

The disasters that occurred most frequently were storms, followed by floods and transport accidents.
Although storms occurred most frequently, nearly two-thirds of the fatalities in the continent were
caused by earthquakes.

These events, along with a volcanic eruption in 1985 and a flood in 1999, which caused almost 22 000
and 31 000 fatalities, respectively, suggest that the Americas region is vulnerable to multiple types of
disasters. This includes both geophysical, which cause the most significant impact on human life, and
hydrological and meteorological disasters, which occur more frequently and affect a larger portion
of the population.

Arab States6
More than 1 100 emergency events occurred in the Arab States region during the last 50 years. As
a result, more than 240 000 people were killed, almost 90 000 were injured, more than 80 million
people were affected, and the economic losses reached USD 53.6 billion (in 2017 dollars).

Even though technological and hydrological emergencies were the most frequent in these countries,
with 714 and 273 cases, respectively, the climatological hazards were the ones that took more human
lives (78 per cent of the total death toll in the region) and that affected the most people (74 per cent
of the total affected).

Asia–Pacific7
In the Asia-Pacific region, the 8 127 disaster events that occurred from 1968 to 2017 caused 2 084 387
fatalities, affected more than 6.5 billion people, and generated economic loss of around USD 1.9
trillion (in 2017 dollars).

Almost half of the fatalities (44 per cent) were caused by geophysical disasters, such as earthquakes
or tsunamis, despite the fact that technological disasters were the most frequent emergency event
in the region, with 3 312 individual cases. These facts suggest that earthquakes and tsunamis are the
greatest sources of vulnerability in the region and have the greatest impact on the population (cases

4
Based on EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.

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in China, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, etc.).8 However, of the six disasters
with the highest number of casualties in the region during the period, three were storms, which in
1970, 1991 and 2008 caused more than 590 000 fatalities.

Commonwealth of Independent States9

For this group of countries, the 588 disasters reported from 1968 to 2017 caused the deaths of 72 643
people, left almost 28 000 people injured, and affected more than 20 million people. The economic
losses reached USD 20.5 billion (in 2017 dollars).

Of the total death toll, 80.4 per cent were caused by meteorological hazards, even though only 70 such
events were reported. The 276 technological disasters that occurred in the same period killed more
than 8 000 people (11.2 per cent) and affected nearly 40 000 (0.2 per cent). Climatological hazards,
on the other hand, even though less frequent in the Commonwealth of Independent States, are the
type of hazard that affects the most people, with more than 8 million during the period under study.

Europe10
In Europe, the 2 400 disaster events recorded from 1968 to 2017 caused 161 717 fatalities, affected
more than 40 million people, and caused almost USD 628 billion (in 2017 dollars) in economic losses.

The most frequently occurring disasters were technological, with 855 cases, although extreme
temperatures were the cause of nearly two-thirds of the total disaster-related death toll in the region.

8
PreventionWeb (www​.preventionweb​.net/​english/​countries/​statistics/​index​_region​.php​?rid​=​5).
9
Based on EM–DAT, the Emergency Events Database. Université Catholic De Louvain (UCL) – Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), D. Guha-Sapir, Brussels (www​.emdat​.be).
10
Ibid.

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Annex D: Additional information on telecom/ICTs for emergencies

Annex D
1

This annex describes in more detail the different public and private telecommunication/ICT services –
including radio and television (TV) broadcasting services, among others – that should be considered
in the development of an NETP.

Telecommunication/ICT services
The term “public services” refers to services offered through telecommunication/ICT networks to
which ordinary citizens have access, while the term “private services” refers to services offered
through telecommunication/ICT networks to which specialized users – such as police, fire brigades,
civil protection authorities, government authorities or private companies, among others – have access.
This section also describes Internet and social networks, amateur radio and broadcasting services,
and their use in relation to disaster management.

Public telecommunication/ICT services

Public telecommunication/ICT services, such as voice and data, are provided through three different
types of telecommunication network: fixed, mobile and satellite.

Public telecommunication/ICT services via fixed networks

Fixed networks (e.g., the Public Switched Telephone Network) connect the subscriber through the
local wireline or fibre distribution network – also known as local loop or last mile, with the local
exchange – or through the wireless local loop network (WLL) with a radio base station (RBS). In turn,
local exchanges are connected with other local exchanges within a city, or through interurban lines
for routing long distance calls.

The wireline local loop has advantages and disadvantages in the event of a natural disaster or an emergency:

Disadvantages: In many countries, telephone networks are mainly deployed on poles, which
are vulnerable to catastrophes caused by earthquakes and strong winds. The fall of a pole can
interrupt the circuit and leave the service inoperable for a considerable period, depending on
the damage to routes used to access the infrastructure.
Advantages: If the power supply is interrupted, the telephone service will continue to function,
because it is powered by a battery at the telephone exchange. Although this advantage is
lessened, as many countries are moving to locally powered systems such as Internet Protocol-
based networks that replace analogue networks, there are still countries using centrally powered
systems, e.g., least developed countries, which could take advantage of centrally powered systems.
The installation of cables in underground ducts helps overcome these disadvantages and reduces
the vulnerability of this type of network. On the other hand, the advantage of this type of network
is limited by the common use of cordless telephones in the home, whose base station is powered
by energy from the power distribution network. Therefore, it is recommended to have at least one
telephone powered by the battery at the telephone exchange or to acquire a cordless telephone that
includes a battery in the base station that can power the network interface, allowing functionality
during a power outage.

In the case of WLL, the subscriber’s connection is made through a radio link between the RBS and
the radiocommunications equipment in a fixed location (such as a home or office), which in turn is
connected to the subscriber’s telephone. Even though WLL is less vulnerable to damage to poles, on
which the wireline telephone networks depend, it is dependent on the power distribution network.
When power supply is interrupted, the communication service is also interrupted, because the

1
These sections are mainly based on ITU (2007a), Compendium of ITU's work on Emergency Telecommunications. It is
recommended to refer to said document for additional information on any of the topics presented.

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radiocommunications equipment in the home will not be able to work.2 On the other hand, if the
RBS has an alternative power source and is connected to the telephone exchange through local
cable networks or microwave links, as is sometimes the case, the network might be less vulnerable
to certain types of natural disasters that knock out traditional ICT infrastructure, such as utility poles.

The telephone or local exchanges are the basic element of the telephone systems mentioned above.
In a possible emergency or disaster, different types of risks or failures can present themselves:

• Call congestion: Because the exchanges are designed to simultaneously receive calls of typically
no more than 5 per cent of subscribers in residential areas and 10 per cent in commercial
areas, when the number of simultaneous calls surpasses these thresholds, the local exchange
is blocked, and it is not possible to route calls.
• Power supply interruption: If the supply of power from the power distribution network is interrupted
and, in addition, back generators or batteries fail, it is likely that all telecommunication/ICT services
provided through said local exchange, including voice and data (Internet), will be interrupted.
• Building collapse: The collapse of the building hosting the local exchange can be the result of various
natural events, such as floods, earthquakes, etc. In this case, the telecommunication/ICT services
are interrupted indefinitely for those subscribers who are connected to said local exchange.

To minimize the above-mentioned risks, the following actions should be considered:

• Prioritize access by high-priority users to the available capacity when the local exchange is
congested. It is possible to carry out this prioritization through three strategies:

1. Block all low-priority users, denying general subscriber access to the service.
2. Allow high-priority users to avoid the queue and obtain the next available circuit.

The implementation of any of these options should be coordinated with regulatory entities. In
fact, in many cases, the regulatory authority defines the strategy to be implemented.
• In order to mitigate the need to make difficult decisions regarding blocking or eliminating
particular users, authorities could promote educating consumers and carriers on ways to lessen
network congestion3.
• Install alternative sources of power using solar/gas/diesel/petrol-based generators. In such a
case, it is necessary to establish a plan that allows the supply of fuel in the proper amount so
as not to have subsequent interruptions.
• Local exchanges should be located in areas with minimal exposure to natural disasters or where
the structure and construction of structures is adequate to support them, for example, through
anti-seismic constructions.

Finally, long-distance links between exchanges are required and are typically made through fibre-
optic, microwave or wired networks. In microwave links, relay stations are often installed in hills or
tall buildings. However, these are typically in exposed places, where wind may cause misalignment
of antennas or destruction of towers, or in distant areas that are difficult to access.

In the event of a disaster, the difficulty of reaching these areas may delay the restoration of service.
In this regard, the government should initiate plans to expedite access to remote relay stations.
Additionally, a way to avoid the interruption of communications in these cases is with the installation
of redundant routes or links that can be an alternative if the primary route fails. The regulator should
strive to promote adequate redundancy systems.

2
Unless there is an alternative power supply, e.g., UPS, which is not common.
3
See more at: https://​www​.fcc​.gov/​reports​-research/​guides/​tips​-communicating​-emergency

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Annex D
Public telecommunication/ICT services via mobile networks
Mobile broadband subscriptions have grown more than 20 per cent annually in the last five years,
reaching 4.3 billion subscriptions in 2017, i.e., almost 60 per cent penetration (ITU, 2017b). Similarly,
mobile cellular subscriptions reached more than 7.6 billion in 2017, i.e., more than 100 per cent
penetration. Thus, mobile networks and services have spread throughout the world and therefore
are key in responses to emergency events.

In mobile networks, telecommunication/ICT services are provided through an extensive network of

terrestrial RBSs. These networks are designed to optimize the coverage and capacity of the network.
Generally, the RBSs are in the areas with the highest population density and consequently with the
highest volume of traffic, i.e., in urban areas. However, with the introduction of fourth-generation
systems and the use of spectrum bands below 1 GHz, mobile networks are able to cover rural areas
more efficiently.4 Nevertheless, there are still obstacles to establishing mobile communications in
remote and rural areas, and these are made worse in the event of emergencies or natural disasters.
This is especially true in developing countries, where it is difficult to establish a business model that
is financially viable to cover rural or otherwise remote geographic zones.

Mobile networks, in the same was as fixed networks, also have capacity problems, insofar as they are
designed to provide service to only a portion of total users simultaneously. When network usage is
at or above the maximum, the network becomes congested.

RBS for mobile networks are connected to mobile exchanges through microwave links, optical fiber,
or wired networks, similar to fixed networks. Likewise, mobile exchanges are also vulnerable to
power failure and will only remain operational for the period that their on-site batteries and back-up
generators last.

There are also so-called "cells on wheels" or COW radio base stations. These are mobile base stations
that can be rapidly installed in specific locations to increase coverage and capacity when required or
to replace an RBS that has been destroyed. The speed at which COWs can be installed, nonetheless,
depends very much on the accessibility of the specific locations. Earthquakes, floods, mudslides,
and other disasters can make roads impassable and thereby prevent deployment of COWs to the
desired locations.

During an emergency or disaster, mobile networks, similar to fixed networks, can prioritize use of the
network through the mobile exchange to assign a “preferential capacity” to specific users, to allow
these users to make calls even in congested conditions. The regulatory authority must establish who
should belong to the group of users with preferential capacity.

When networks provide SMS and third- and fourth-generation data services, it is recommended to
maintain service by slowing network speeds (storage and retransmitting), as opposed to completely
blocking users. In fact, in an emergency or disaster event, prioritizing SMS and data services such as
e-mail or messaging-over-voice services can help avoid network congestion, because these services
use network capacity more efficiently.

Finally, alerts can be disseminated widely through text message, mobile apps or social media via
mobile systems, allowing messages warning the public of possible risks or emergency events and
natural disasters, to quickly reach a large number of people. Social media, for example, has become
a critical component in all four phases of disaster management. Information on emergency events
witnessed by the public can be sent to public safety organizations through social media. In turn, public

4
Frequencies below 1 GHz are optimal for covering rural areas because the radio-electric signal propagates over
greater distances and consequently less infrastructure and lower costs are required to cover a specific area with voice
and data services.

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safety organizations can plan response strategies, and provide updated and accurate information to
the public.5

Box D1: United States Federal Emergency Management Agency Mobile App1

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Mobile App helps people stay safe
and know what to do before, during, and after disasters. With this simple and easy-to-use
resource, users can:

• Receive emergency alerts for up to five locations nationwide

• Share real-time notifications with loved ones via text, email and social media
• Learn emergency safety tips for over 20 types of disasters
• Prepare for disasters with an emergency kit checklist, emergency family plan, and reminders
• Locate open emergency shelters and disaster recovery centers in their area;
• Toggle between English and Spanish (Note: alerts are only available in English)

Figure D1: FEMA Mobile App

1
United States Federal Emergency Management Agency, available at www​.fema​.gov/​mobile​-app (accessed
22 February 2019).

Public telecommunication/ICT services via satellites

Terrestrial communications services through mobile or fixed networks can be seriously affected after
a natural disaster. The communication towers, telephone exchanges, utility posts and power supply
(on which the wired network relies) can all suffer faults that make communication impossible.

As a result of these vulnerabilities, non-terrestrial wireless solutions such as satellite networks are
important. These networks provide communications services that have very little dependence on
terrestrial infrastructure, since the “base” radio stations are located in Earth orbit.

5
United States Department of Homeland Security (2013). This document contains several social media implementation
methods.

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Annex D
Nowadays, satellite networks provide various communications services: voice, data and video, through
broadband connectivity, for example. These services can be classified into mobile satellite service
(MSS) and fixed satellite service (FSS). Additionally, satellite services are classified into two types of
systems: those that are in geostationary orbit, known as geostationary satellite systems; and those
that are not (non-geostationary orbit), such as the satellite systems found in low-Earth orbit. Satellite
terrestrial terminals range from gateways with large antennas located in a fixed location to small
terminals the size of a mobile phone.

Satellite systems have the capability to offer fixed-to-fixed, mobile-to-mobile, fixed-to-mobile and
point-to-multipoint communications, including interoperability with other communication solutions,
e.g., land mobile radiocommunication services, mobile services, etc. Emergency response teams
can be highly dependent on mobile satellite systems through the use of portable satellite phones
and terminals, and applications such as mobile telephony, push-to-talk radio, emergency response
coordination, messaging and data transfer, among others. Fixed satellite systems use terrestrial
terminals at fixed locations, providing applications such as broadband Internet access, live video,
telemedicine and videoconferencing, among others.

The development of high-throughput satellites—which has increased the efficiency of spectrum use,
modulation, and spot-beam technology—has resulted in a substantial increase in available speed and
capacity over a GSO satellite in the last decade. Today, GSO satellite providers are able to provide
consumers in some regions of the United States of America with speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s. In
addition, the non-geostationary orbit (NGSO) satellite constellations that are in the process of being
planned and deployed will be able to offer high-speed service with low latency on a global basis. In
addition, today there are also light weight easy to install satellite antennas, and WiFi connectivity
through VSAT systems.

Portable or other transportable devices are useful for broadband communications that require voice,
video and data applications. Finally, fixed satellite access equipment is used for various medium- and
long-term operations: for example, monitoring and recovery systems after a disaster.

Figure D2: Satellite systems

Source: ITU

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Private telecommunication/ICT services

Private telecommunication/ICT services provided through private networks are managed directly
by the users of the network, such as firefighters, police, ambulances, relief teams, civil protection,
transport, utilities, State authorities, ministries and defence, as well as other private sector entities. In
some cases, networks are managed by third party operators who provide services to private clients.
These private users can, in an eventual state of emergency, be asked to share these networks to
support the emergency response.

The services that are presented through these networks can be mobile or fixed, whether wired or
wireless. The classification of these services according to ITU is:

• land mobile radiocommunication (LMR) services;

• maritime services;
• aeronautical services;
• positioning services.

Below is a brief description of each of these services.

Land mobile radiocommunication services

LMR systems are the main systems used by public security agencies (e.g., police, civil defence and
firefighters, among others) for public protection and relief operations. These systems, in which only
one user can speak at a time by pressing the button to speak (push-to-talk), have been in use since
the 1930s, evolving from conventional analogue systems, in which there are frequencies and channels
assigned exclusively to groups of users for voice communications, to trunked digital systems, which
are controlled by computer programs that assign a group of frequencies and channels for use by
multiple individuals. These trunked systems allow the sharing of frequencies among a large group of
individuals, increasing capacity and interoperability, reducing congestion of the network, and allowing
a more efficient use of frequencies and communication channels. Likewise, there are LMR systems
based on Internet Protocol, which further increases the capacity and the services offered – e.g., data
– and improves interoperability.

LMR systems are important for the following reasons (United States Department of Homeland
Security, 2016):

• They are the primary means of voice communications among public safety officials.
• They have evolved technologically to provide mission-critical functions.
• Security agencies have been trained in the use of LMR systems.

Likewise, as technologies evolve, there are a variety of systems that may be used by different agencies,
some with conventional LMR systems and others with more advanced systems. This can present
problems in some cases where the systems may not be compatible, preventing communication
between different agencies using different systems.

On the other hand, agencies may be using systems in different bands of the radio spectrum, e.g.,
VHF and UHF or, more specifically, the 700 and 800 MHz bands. These systems do not always allow
interoperability and therefore require additional investments to allow such interoperability.

LMR systems also offer a wide range of features: group, emergency, and/or prioritized calls and
broadcasting; security features such as user authentication and end-to-end encryption; mobility
features such as handover; voice features such as access priority, discrete listening and call duration
limit, among others; data features such as access to databases, GPS location, messaging, file transfer,
video transmission and others. The data transmission of these systems varies from 2.4 kbit/s up to
several Mbit/s.

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Annex D
Maritime services
The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System is designed to increase safety, facilitate navigation
and assist in the rescue of ships in distress through a set of safety procedures, equipment and
communication protocols. This service is used only for boats and is regulated by the International
Convention for the Protection of Human Life at Sea (SOLAS), approved by the International Maritime
Organization, a specialized agency of the UN. The maritime radiocommunication service uses the
frequencies that have been allocated for this purpose in the HF, MF and VHF bands for terrestrial
systems: that is, communications between vessels and between vessels and ground stations.

Aeronautical services
These services are mainly to establish communications with aircraft from ground stations and between
aircraft. For this purpose, different frequency bands have been allocated, e.g., in the 118–136 MHz
band. The international emergency frequency is 121.5 MHz and uses amplitude modulation.

Positioning services
There are a number of global positioning and navigation systems worldwide, including (a) GPS,
developed by the United States of America; (b) the GLONASS system (Global Navigation Satellite
System), developed by the Government of the Russian Federation; and (c) GALILEO, a positioning
system developed by the European Union that will be completed in 2019. These systems use a set
of satellites and Earth stations to determine the position of a terminal, which must be in line of sight
with the satellite: that is, in an open area.

This type of system is essential for rescue work in cases of emergency, because positioning equipment
can help facilitate the search process. Likewise, periodic information on the positioning of rescue
personnel can provide crucial data on the dangers that have been found in affected areas.

Additionally, logistics in the delivery of supplies and aid equipment can be facilitated through the
use of GPS, especially when the transporters are unfamiliar with the area, or a natural disaster has
affected the available transit pathways.

Internet
More than 50 per cent of the global population, i.e., 3.9 billion people, used the Internet in 2018
by either mobile or fixed networks.6 Social media such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, among
others, will reach nearly 2.8 billion users worldwide in 2019.7 Due to the widespread use of the
Internet, it is a tool that supports operations and activities before, during and after a disaster. Access
to the Internet is possible thanks to public telecommunication/ICT networks. In other words, it is not
possible to access the Internet if there is no fixed or mobile telecommunication/ICT service, whether
terrestrial or satellite. Therefore, in disaster situations where the communications service is affected,
access to the Internet is also compromised. However, once the communications service has been
restored, specifically the broadband data service, the Internet is a fundamental tool for dealing with
natural disasters.

It is possible to access through the Internet information resources and applications that support
disaster management activities. The following are some of these ways:

• e-mail;
• weather information;
• news;

6
ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database, available at https://​www​.itu​.int/​en/​ITU​-D/​Statistics/​Pages/​
publications/​wtid​.aspx (accessed 22 February 2019).
7
Statista, available at www​.statista​.com (accessed 22 February 2019).

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• consultation of medical databases;

• registering refugees and displaced persons;
• sending relevant information;
• general information.

The advantages of these information media are the speed at which media on the Internet can be
shared and updated – including, for example, photos, graphics, audio, video, live video and other
relevant information – and that people can subscribe to notification systems that send messages
relevant to emergency situations. On the other hand, the disadvantages are mainly that information
on the Internet is not updated in real time in disaster situations where Internet access cannot
be guaranteed, or that information may be only updated at certain times (United States Federal
Emergency Management Agency, 2005). Therefore, all of the information media used to inform
citizens about possible hazards should be published online in accessible formats so everybody can
access that important content.

Social networks
Social networks, similar to the Internet more generally, are another means for dissemination of
information in a possible emergency. However, it is important that the veracity of the information be
confirmed, without limiting social media. Best practice is for government entities to develop and have
their own applications and information channels on the Internet and social networks, so that citizens
can have confidence in the accuracy of information and the official nature of warning or alerts, as
well as safety reminders and preparedness tips.

Social networks are quite flexible, messages can be short and spread quickly: for example, through
Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, etc. However, it is not possible to control the messages
on social networks once they have been sent, and misinformation can spread. Thus, it is important,
as noted above, that governments build their own applications to inform the people, as well as to
develop the means to verify information reported via social media.

Amateur radio
Radio amateurs have supported communications in emergency situations on a voluntary basis
since the beginning of radio communications. They are experts in radio communications and have
the equipment, skills and necessary frequencies allocated by ITU (2017d) to deploy networks in
emergency events quickly and efficiently. Amateur radio activity is authorized in accordance with the
licenses issued by national governments: therefore, they are authorized to re-establish national and
international communications if necessary.

To ensure that radio amateurs have the training and skills necessary to support communications in
case of an emergency, the International Amateur Radio Union has developed a guide for emergency
telecommunications that allows potential operators to be trained (International Amateur Radio
Union, 2015).

Radio amateurs can help in a possible emergency with communications of different types: for example,
supporting an international institution such as the International Federation of the Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies;8 providing communications to those displaced by the disaster and/or other
relief efforts; providing support to the emergency management agency of the national government
by providing inter-institutional communications; or supporting logistics communications to the
humanitarian agencies on the ground, e.g., firefighters or civil defence workers, among others.

8
The International Federation of the Red Cross and the International Amateur Radio Union signed a Memorandum of
Understanding on Cooperation in Emergency: Telecommunications for Disaster Preparedness and Response, which
has been in place for more than a decade. Available at www​.iaru​.org/​uploads/​1/​3/​0/​7/​13073366/​ifrcandiarumou​.pdf
(accessed 22 February 2019).

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Annex D
The support provided by radio amateurs in cases of emergency has the following advantages:

• There is great coverage, due to the large number of amateur radio stations available and
operating in all regions and in almost every country in the world.
• The coverage of amateur radio stations becomes a network independent of others.
• There are training programmes and simulation exercises for emergencies developed by national
radio amateurs for situations of telecommunications in emergencies.
• They are qualified temporary volunteers who provide skills and experience essential for
emergency telecommunications, with the sole purpose of supporting humanitarian aid services.
• They have skill in solving problems related to the use of telecommunications during emergencies
with often very limited resources.
• Many amateur radio stations trained to handle emergency telecommunications have alternative
power sources, such as battery power, solar power or generator power and can operate during
power disruptions.

The coverage of amateur radio networks can vary between short-range networks, i.e., tens of
kilometres, to long-range networks that exceed 500 km. Additionally, amateur radio satellites can be
used for medium- and long-range communications, fulfilling the function of storage and retransmission.

It is important to mention that radio amateurs should only carry out or accept tasks that are foreseen
in the agreements reached with other stakeholders, such as government authorities, that clarify their
role in emergency operations. Volunteer radio amateurs typically do not make decisions in rescue
operations and are usually only qualified or authorized to send and receive accurate communications.
The normal role of the amateur radio service is to establish and support communications for those
who directly carry out emergency operations.

Finally, it is also important to note that reliance on amateur radio networks can present certain
disadvantages in countries without a robust and active amateur radio population due to an insufficient
number of amateur radio operators.  It is important for administrations in countries without an active
amateur radio service to foster and promote the growth of amateur radio so as to provide an adequate
supply of amateur radio operators is available during emergency telecommunications operations.

Broadcasting
One of the most powerful means of transmitting information to the general public is radio (voice) and
TV broadcasting. Broadcasting is one of the mediums that has been in the public service the longest,
with radio broadcasting dating back to the early twentieth century, and TV broadcasting in service
since 1930. In this sense, radio and TV broadcasting services present one of the highest penetrations
in terms of population.

For the specific case of emergencies and disasters, radio broadcasting plays a fundamental role in
informing the public about the various situations that may arise, including breaking news alerts that
can interrupt the usual programming. The government entities in charge of dealing with emergencies
should be in continuous communication with the radio and television broadcasting stations when
the situation warrants such communication. This ensures that the information that is transmitted to
the public is as up to date and accurate as possible. In addition, the government should also facilitate
access and help journalists who want to cover events in real time from the affected areas. In this
sense, it is recommended to build meeting points for the press near areas of interest but far from
high-risk zones.

Likewise, a warning system can be connected to broadcasting stations in such a way that they can
interrupt the usual programming in case of emergency to transmit information to the public, such
as evacuation orders.

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Finally, as is the case for the infrastructure of other communications, for broadcasting it is important to:

• maintain reserve and alternative power generation systems;

• place transmission stations in areas of low risk in the event of natural disasters; and
• take into account the risks of the area and take appropriate measures (e.g., anti-seismic
constructions) in the construction of transmission and programming stations and the links
between them.

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Annex E: Additional information on the Tampere Convention

Annex E
The Tampere Convention, currently ratified by 36 countries, emerged out of an assembly of 225
delegates from 75 countries in the city of Tampere, Finland, in 1998, and entered into force on 8
January 2005.

This Convention is based on the following basic principles (International Federation of Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies, 2011):

• Reduce regulatory barriers: Signatories agree to reduce regulatory barriers to the transit of
personnel, equipment, materials and information through the affected territory. Parties to the
Convention agree to “reduce or eliminate regulatory barriers to the use of telecommunications
resources for mitigation and disaster relief”. The scope of the agreement includes restrictions
on the mobility of essential personnel and imports/exports, as well as use of certain types of
equipment, radio-frequency spectra, and licensing requirements and fees.
• Guarantee the necessary privileges, immunities and facilities for relief personnel and organizations
providing telecommunication assistance: Signatories agree, as permitted by the national law of
each country, to grant personnel and organizations involved in relief operations:

o Immunity from arrest, detention or prosecution;

o Immunity from confiscation or embargo of their equipment, materials and property;
o Exemptions from tax obligations and other charges (excluding value added tax);
o Access to local facilities;
o Exemption from licensing requirements or fast tracking of licensing applications; and,
o protection of staff, equipment and materials.

• Respect for the sovereignty of the country receiving assistance: Recipient States maintain full
control over the initiation and termination of the assistance, as well as the power to reject all or
part of the assistance offered. Likewise, the recipient countries also maintain the right to direct,
control, coordinate and supervise telecommunication assistance provided under the Convention
within their territory.
• Improve coordination and exchange of information: The United Nations Emergency Relief
Coordinator (supported by OCHA) is designated the “operational coordinator” by the Convention,
with a number of tasks aimed at improving coordination and information sharing regarding
telecommunication assistance. It is also determined that applications for telecommunication
assistance can be made directly to the receiving country or through the operational coordinator.
Furthermore, signatory countries should keep the operational coordinator informed of both
the national authorities responsible for matters relevant to the Convention and the national
authorities that can identify telecommunication resources available for use during disaster
mitigation and response. Finally, in the Convention, the parties agree to share information on
hazards and disasters between each other, non-State entities, intergovernmental organizations
and the public.

Considering the above, ascension to an international treaty can require consultations or approvals
of different legislative and executive bodies at the national level. It may also be necessary to adapt
national laws and regulations to avoid conflict with particular articles of the treaty. Counties that have
signed Tampere must have relevant procedures in place that enable the import of communications
equipment. With this in mind, the following aspects may require special attention from a signatory
country (ITU, 2006b):

• The Convention aims to accelerate and facilitate the use of emergency communications in the
context of international humanitarian assistance. Communications aid can be directly provided

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to national institutions, to a specific location affected by a catastrophe, and/or in support of

other relief or risk management activities.
• The Convention provides for special privileges and the immunity from prosecution of
governmental entities, international organizations, NGOs and other non-State entities.
• The Convention fully protects the interests of States requesting and receiving assistance. The
beneficiary government retains the right to supervise all assistance provided.

Finally, the operation of the Convention is carried out by different non-governmental entities and
intergovernmental organizations. In particular, “The Secretary-General of the United Nations is
the custodian of the Convention (article 16). The Treaty Section of the Office of Legal Affairs of
United Nations Headquarters, New York, is in charge of the relevant procedures. The United Nations
Emergency Relief Coordinator is concerned with coordinating operations for the implementation of
the Convention (article 2). The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(OCHA) is responsible for the fulfilment and performance of the respective functions and works closely
with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Working Group on Telecommunications
in Emergencies (WGET) is the advisory Board for the work.” Source: ITU (2005).

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Annex F: Additional information on drills and exercises

Annex F
In general, four types of drills and simulations can be identified: table-top exercises (TTX), drills,
functional exercises and full-scale exercises:

• Table-top exercises (TTX) refers to a facilitated discussion of a simulated emergency, generally

conducted in a low-stress environment with participants seated around a table.
• A drill is an activity in which specific operations, functions or systems are repeatedly tested in
a supervised setting. It calls for the mobilization and use of resources, such as a weekly radio
check or a monthly fire drill, for example.
• Functional exercises are fully simulated interactive exercises that test the capability of an agency
to respond to a simulated event. This type of exercise aims to test multiple functions of an
emergency plan and deliver a more “real” experience than drills and/or table-top exercises.
• Finally, the full-scale exercise is designed to evaluate the operational capability of emergency
management systems in a highly stressful environment, simulating actual response conditions.
This type of exercise requires a large amount of resources and coordination, as it typically
involves multiple agencies and participants physically deployed in a field location. Full-scale
exercises aim to test almost all functions of an emergency plan.

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Annex G: Additional information on ICT to support people with

specific needs
Incorporation of multiple forms of ICT is key to bringing messages to all people, without discrimination
of age, gender, ability or location. To ensure this inclusiveness, the following considerations are required:

• Public address systems: Alerts in audio and visual formats through public loudspeakers and
electronic displays in public spaces such as railway platforms, consumer markets, parks and
other public areas can reach people who may not have access to personal ICT devices. When
possible, graphics and images should be displayed in addition to text. Sirens can be accompanied
by flashing lights to denote the nature and level of threat.
• Radios: Radios can be used with attachments or with special features to enable use by people
who are deaf or hard of hearing. For example, devices such as the special-needs National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration weather radio in the United States of America can transmit
broadcasts as vibrations, flashing lights and simple texts to alert individuals who are deaf and
hard of hearing of weather and disaster warnings.
• Television: Employing closed captioning or subtitling in local languages can make audio
commentary accessible to people who have hearing impairments or do not understand the
language. In addition, sign language interpreters should be used when providing televised
information about a disaster or emergency situation.
• SMS: If information is sent out only as SMS, people who need non-visual inputs and don’t have access
to high-end devices that can convert text to other formats such as audio will be excluded. Hence,
warnings and alerts should also go out in multiple formats across different dissemination channels.
• E-mail: Notifications should be enabled in multiple languages. The software should be designed
as per accessibility guidelines to enable it to operate seamlessly with a user’s assistive technology.
Some desktop alerting systems can ensure that pop-up messages are delivered in different
formats in addition to just texts and audio beeps. For example, the company Desktop Alert,
Inc. has developed a product that reads out an entire emergency alert message, making it
accessible to people who have visual disabilities, as well as those who may be stationed at a
distance from their computers. Use of graphics within the alert may assist people who have
trouble understanding the language, children and individuals with cognitive disabilities.
• Social networks: Social media sites should also be designed to be accessible and to work with a
user’s assistive technology. Alternative social media sites attempt to fill the gap when traditional
media may not be fully accessible. For example, Easy Chirp20 offers an alternative web-based
interface to Twitter to enable accessibility for persons with disabilities, as well as to provide
access to people using low bandwidths, without Java Script, and those on older browsers. The
Emergency 2.0 Wiki Accessibility Toolkit21 offers education and information to persons with
disabilities on using social media at different stages of a disaster or emergency, and also lists
apps and social media available for use. Finally, although the new versions of the most popular
social networks are offering accessibility features, it is important that the agencies publishing
emergency information on these platforms know about electronic content accessibility to ensure
that the messages are accessible.
• Websites: Websites providing disaster management information must be tested for accessibility
to ensure that persons with disabilities do not face barriers in accessing the important
information shared on the website. Fact sheets, handbooks and manuals may be unusable by
persons using screen readers if they are in formats that cannot be read aloud, such as JPEG
files or inaccessible image-based PDFs. On the other hand, images and graphics are excellent
ways to depict content for children, people with cognitive disabilities, or people with linguistic
differences; however, these must be supplemented with textual information to ensure that
persons with visual impairments are able to understand the information.

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Annex G
Finally, other types of technologies, such as Geographical Information System (GIS), can also be useful
to help people with special needs during an emergency. This computer system, which allows users to
store, analyse and manipulate different types of data according to their geographical attributes and
provide real-time spatial information, can be an effective tool for providing geographic information
to potentially vulnerable areas. For example, information from a disabled person registry can be used
in conjunction with weather, natural conditions and available disaster-response infrastructure to
calculate risks and hazards, both in advance and in real time during disasters. Likewise, GIS can be used
to understand the possible vulnerabilities of different groups of the population and develop specific
efforts during mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. GIS modelling can also help simulate
evacuations and plan safe evacuation routes that are essential for people with reduced mobility, which
can be vital in situations where, for example, previously designated evacuation routes are blocked
(e.g., because of a landslide, accumulation of debris or collapse of buildings) (ITU, 2017a; 2017c).

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(2017b). ICT Facts and Figures. Geneva. Available at www​.itu​.int/​en/​ITU​-D/​Statistics/​pages/​facts/​default​.aspx
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List of ITU-T documents related to emergency telecommunications

– Recommendation ITU-T E.106 "International Emergency Preference Scheme for disaster relief
operations (IEPS)"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.107 "Emergency Telecommunications Service (ETS) and Interconnection
Framework for National Implementations of ETS"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.108 "Requirement for Disaster Relief Mobile Message Service"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.119 "Requirements for safety confirmation and broadcast message
service for disaster relief"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.123 Amendment 1 "Notation for national and international telephone
numbers, e-mail addresses and Web addresses: Contact information in case of emergency for
mobile telephones"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.161.1 "Guidelines to select Emergency Number for public
telecommunications networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T E.164 Supplement 5 “Guidance with regard to the selection of numbers
for helplines for children”
– Recommendation ITU-T H.246 Amendment 1 "Mapping of user priority level and country/
international network of call origination between H.225 and ISUP"
– Recommendation ITU-T H.248.44 "Gateway control protocol: Multi-Level precedence and pre-
emption package"

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– Recommendation ITU-T H.248.81 "Gateway Control Protocol: Guidelines on the Use of the
international emergency preference scheme (IEPS) call indicator and priority indicator in ITU-T
H.248 Profiles", including Amd.2 (2015) with support for DiffServ signaling
– Recommendation ITU-T H.323 Annex M5 for transport of common alerting protocol (CAP)
messages in ITU-T H.323 systems
– Recommendation ITU-T H.460.4 "Call priority designation and country/international network
of call origination identification for H.323 priority calls"
– Recommendation ITU-T H.460.14 "Support for Multi-Level Precedence and Preemption (MLPP)
within H.323 Systems"
– Recommendation ITU-T H.460.21 "Message broadcast for H.323 systems"
– Recommendation ITU-T H.785.0 "Digital signage: Requirements of disaster information services"
– Recommendation ITU-T J.260 "Requirements for Emergency/Disaster Communications over
IPCablecom Networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T J.261 "Framework for implementing preferential telecommunications
in IPCablecom and IPCablecom2 networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T J.262 "Specifications for authentication in preferential telecommunications
over IPCablecom2 networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T J.263 "Specification for priority in preferential telecommunications over
IPCablecom2 networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T L.390 "Disaster management for outside plant facilities"
– Recommendation ITU-T L.392 "Disaster management for improving network resilience and
recovery with movable and deployable ICT resource units"
– Recommendation ITU-T M.3350 "TMN service management requirements for information
interchange across the TMN X-interface to support provisioning of Emergency Telecommunication
Service (ETS)"
– Recommendation ITU-T P.1140 "Speech communication requirements for emergency calls
originating from vehicles"
– Signalling for IEPS support in ISUP: ITU-T Q.761 Amd.3, ITU-T Q.762 Amd.3, ITU‑T Q.763 Amd.4,
and ITU‑T Q.764 Amd.4
– Signalling for IEPS support in BICC: ITU‑T Q.1902.1 Amd.2, ITU‑T Q.1902.2 Amd.3, Q.1902.3
Amd.3, and Q.1902.4 Amd.3
– Signalling for IEPS support in CBC: ITU‑T Q.1950 Amd.1 Annex G
– Signalling for IEPS support in ATM AAL2: ITU‑T Q.2630.3 Amd.1
– Signalling for IEPS support in B-ISUP: ITU-T Q.2762 Amd.1, Q.2763 Amd.1 and Q.2764 Amd.1
– Signalling for IEPS support in DSS2: ITU‑T Q.2931 Amd.5
– Recommendation ITU-T X.1303 "Common Alerting Protocol (CAP V1.1)"
– Recommendation ITU-T X.1303 bis "Common Alerting Protocol (CAP V1.2)"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2074 "Requirements for Internet of Things devices and operation of
Internet of Things applications during disaster"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.1271 "Framework(s) on network requirements and capabilities to support
emergency communications over evolving circuit-switched and packet-switched networks"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2171 “Admission control priority levels in Next Generation Networks”
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2172 “Service restoration priority levels in Next Generation Networks”

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References
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2205 "Next Generation Networks- Emergency Telecommunications –
Technical Considerations"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2222 | Y.4250 "Sensor control networks and related applications in a
next generation network environment"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.2705 "Minimum security requirements for interconnection of
emergency telecommunications service (ETS)"
– Recommendation ITU-T Y.4119 "Requirements and capability framework for IoT-based
automotive emergency response system"

Non-normative publications:
– Supplement 1 to ITU-T E.100 series Recommendations "Framework of disaster management
for disaster relief system"
– Supplement 5 to Recommendation ITU-T E.164 "Guidance with regard to the selection of
numbers for helplines for children"
– Supplement 9 to ITU-T H-Series Recommendations, "Gateway Control Protocol: Operation of
H.248 with H.225.0, SIP, and ISUP in Support of Emergency Telecommunications Service (ETS)/
International Emergency"
– Supplement 12 to ITU-T H-series Recommendations "Gateway control protocol: Priority traffic
treatment by ITU-T H.248 gateways"
– Supplement 35 for ITU-T L-series Recommendations "Framework of disaster management for
network resilience and recovery"
– Supplement 47 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations, "Emergency services for IMT-2000 networks
– Requirements for harmonization and convergence"
– Supplement 53 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Signalling requirements to support the
International Emergency Preferential Scheme (IEPS)"
– Supplement 57 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Signalling Requirements to support the
Emergency Telecommunication Service (ETS) in IP Networks"
– Supplement 61to ITU-T Q-series Recommendation “Evaluation of signalling protocols to support
Y.2171 admission control priority levels”
– Supplement 62 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Overview of the work of standards
development organizations and other organizations on emergency telecommunications service".
A revision of this document was approved by ITU-T SG 11 in February 2014.
– Supplement 63 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Signalling protocol mappings in support of
the Emergency Telecommunications Service in IP networks" approved by ITU-T SG 11 in June 2013.
– Supplement 68 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Emergency Telecommunications Service
(ETS) interoperability limitations" approved by ITU-T SG 11 in December 2015.
– Supplement 69 to ITU-T Q-series Recommendations "Framework for interconnection between
VoLTE-based network and other networks supporting emergency telecommunications service (ETS)"
– Supplement 19 to ITU-T Y-series Recommendations "Risk analysis service over Next
Generation Network"
– Publication in three parts on using submarine cables for climate monitoring and disaster
warning (2012): "Opportunities and legal challenges", "Strategy and roadmap" and "Engineering
Feasibility Study"
– Technical Paper HSTP-DIS-UAV (2018) "Use cases and service scenarios of disaster information
service using unmanned aerial vehicles"

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Abbreviations
CAP Common Alerting Protocol

CRED Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters

CRPD United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

ETC Emergency Telecommunications Cluster

EWS Early Warning System

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency (United States of America)

FSS Fixed Satellite Service

GIS Geographical Information System

GPS Global Positioning System

ICT Information and Communication Technology

ITU International Telecommunication Union

ITU-D International Telecommunication Union Development Sector

ITU-R International Telecommunication Union Radiocommunication Sector

LMR Land Mobile Radiocommunications

MSS Mobile Satellite Service

MTC Ministry of Transportation and Communications (Peru)

NDMO National Disaster Management Organization

NETP National Emergency Telecommunication Plan

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

RBS Radio Base Station

SMS Short Message Service

SOP Standard Operating Procedures

Telecom/ICT Telecommunication and Information and Communication Technology

TTX Table-top exercises

UN United Nations

UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal

WFP World Food Programme

WLL Wireless Local Loop

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Glossary

Glossary
1

Contingency Planning: A management process that analyses disaster risks and establishes arrangements
in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate responses.

Critical infrastructure: The physical structures, facilities, networks and other assets which provide
services that are essential to the social and economic functioning of a community or society.

Disaster: A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to
hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one
or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.

Disaster Management: The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for,
responding to and recovering from disasters.

Disaster Risk: The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a
system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function
of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity.

Disaster Risk Management: A qualitative or quantitative approach to determine the nature and extent
of disaster risk by analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of exposure and
vulnerability that together could harm people, property, services, livelihoods and the environment
on which they depend. 

Early Warning System: An integrated system of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster
risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities systems and processes that enables
individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely action to reduce disaster
risks in advance of hazardous events.

Economic loss: Total economic impact that consists of direct economic loss and indirect economic loss. 
Direct economic loss is the monetary value of total or partial destruction of physical assets existing
in the affected area. Indirect economic loss is a decline in economic value added as a consequence
of direct economic loss and/or human and environmental impacts.

Evacuation: Moving people and assets temporarily to safer places before, during or after the
occurrence of a hazardous event in order to protect them.

Exposure: The situation of people, infrastructure, housing, production capacities and other tangible
human assets located in hazard-prone areas. 

Hazard: A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

Mitigation: The lessening or minimizing of the adverse impacts of a hazardous event.

Preparedness: The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, response and recovery
organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to and recover from
the impacts of likely, imminent or current disasters.

Prevention: Activities and measures to avoid existing and new disaster risks.

Recovery: The restoring or improving of livelihoods and health, as well as economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets, systems and activities, of a disaster-affected community or society,
aligning with the principles of sustainable development and “build back better”, to avoid or reduce
future disaster risk.

1
https://​www​.unisdr​.org/​we/​inform/​terminology​#letter​-h

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Resilience: The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb,
accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient
manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and
functions through risk management.

Response: Actions taken directly before, during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives,
reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected.

Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or
processes which increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets or systems to the
impacts of hazards.

94
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 Thematic reports ITUPublications

ITU Guidelines for

national emergency
telecommunication plans

International Telecommunication Union

Telecommunication Development Bureau
Place des Nations
CH-1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland

ISBN: 978-92-61-29961-3

9 789261 299613

Published in Switzerland
Geneva, 2019