Pakistan Studies

BS/BA/BSc/BCOM/BBA

Abdul QadirMushtaq
Contributors

Zil-e-Huma Rafique (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Tohid Ahmed Chatha (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Iffat Tahira (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Zaghaim Sarfraz (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Umer Yaqub (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Hamid Iqbal (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Fariha Sohil (Lecturer, GC University Faisalabad)

Contents

1. Evolution and growth of Muslim society in the Sub-continent

2. War of independence
3. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement
4. Partition of Bengal
5. Shimla Deputation
6. All India Muslim League
7. Lakhnow Pact
8. Iqbal’s vision of Pakistan, A philosophical and Political Study
9. Congress Ministries
10. Pakistan Resolution
11. Initial Difficulties at the Establishment of Pakistan
12. Political Culture of Pakistan
13. Foreign policy of Pakistan
Chapter: 1

Evolution and growth of Muslim society in the Sub-continent

The history of Indian sub-continent started in 2000 BC from the Indus valley civilization,
which was developed near Indus River. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were its major cities.
Native people were known as Coal and Dravidians. The Aryans came here in 1000 BC, and
settled near Ganges River. These people started a new religion Hinduism with a caste system
(Brahman, Kshatriyas, Veshas, Shudras), Idol worship and tradition of satti. They made the
native people as their lower caste (Shudras). The first important Hindu reign was Maurya
dynasty. Its third generation Prince Asoka left Hinduism and became the follower of
Buddhism. After Mauryans, Scythians, Huns and Yueh-chis ruled over Indian Sub-Continent
for many centuries.
Indian Sub-continent was the Island of many religions and cultures. Although Islam spread
rapidly in the world as soon as it surfaced in the world, but it established its foothold in the
Indo-Pak Sub-continent in the beginning of 8th Century A.D. It was during the rule of sixth
Umayyad caliph, Walid bin Abdul Malik (705-715 A.D), when an overarching incidence of
ship looting occurred near Debal, (a sea port). The ships, carrying widows and children of
deceased Arab soldiers, sent by the king of Ceylon (present day Sri-Lanka) to the Umayyad
Governor, Hajjaj bin Yousef, To save these people, He sent his emissary to the Rajput king,
But he bluntly turned down the Governor’s claim said the pirates were not under his sway.
Hajjaj decided to send the young Imaduddin Muhammad bin Qasim to teach the raja a lesson
and release the prisoners.
Muhammad bin Qasim then led a glorious Muslim army and invaded Sindh in 712 A.D. The
Raja was killed in the battle field and his demoralized army retreated. Muhammad bin Qasim
not only released the prisoners along with the looted ships but also established Islamic
society/rule in Sindh. Qasim continued to expand the Muslim society beyond Sindh. He
marched up to Multan where he defeated Raja Gor Singh.
Hajjaj bin Yousef had been died in 714 A.D and, within months administrative changes
occurred in Damascus. Walid bin Abdul Malik was replaced by his brother Suleman bin
Abdul Malak (715-717 A.D). The new ruler Suleman called off the best Generals from
around their respective destinations. Muhammad Bin Qasim was replaced by Yazid bin
Kabashi. Qasim’s rule, though short, is marked by the historians as marvelous and
magnificent. He gave relieved the local population scourged by the extra judicious rule of the
erstwhile rajas in general and Raja Dahir in particular. Furthermore, he espoused inter-
religious harmony and brought prosperity and good governance in the areas under his
domain. With the passage of time rule of Umayyads finally evaporated in 750 A.D. They
were succeeded by the Abbasids. (750-1258 A.D) The Abbasid rulers time after time sent
their governors in the Sub-continent. Due to weak Abbasid ruler, who acceded to the throne
later on, lost sway over the territories of the Sub-continent at the end of 9th Century. In the
10th Century Afghans invaded the Sub-continent through renowned Khyber Pass. The most
important of them was Mahmud of Ghazni, Mahmud ruled the sub-continent from 997-1030
A.D. He wanted to expand his rule across India and attacked seventeen times in this regard.
He was a great warrior. He reduced the influence Hindushahi Kingdom being prevalent in
India. He became known as an Idol Breaker after the destruction of Somnath temple.
However, he died in 1030. Mahmud appointed Khusru Malik as the governor of Lahore.
However, after many years the Ghoris headed by Muhammad Ghori and paced their empire
around 1185. Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghuri is among the one who played an important
role in the establishment of Muslim rule, especially in North India. He defeated the fearsome
army of Prithvi Raj Chauhan in 1192 A.D in the second battle of Tarain. He had the credit to
establish the first Muslim rule in Delhi. Sultanate Period continued till 1526. Ibrahim Lodhi
was the last ruler of Delhi Sultanate after that Mughal or Turk Sultanate started, Zaheer-ud-
Din Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the battle of Pani Pat and became new ruler of India.
This Mughal period continued till 1857, But after Aurangzeb’s death (1707), No renowned
king came to the surface of indian sub-continent due to lack of leader ship and the absence of
strong centralized govt , most of the states announced their independence and at the time of
war of independence 1857 , The Mughal kingdom limited only to Delhi and surroundings.
After the war of independence the last Mughal rule came to an end.
Causes of down fall of Muslim rule in Subcontinent
Seventeen/Eighteenth century witnessed major change in to two continents of the world i.e.;
Europe and Asia.
In Europe strong monarchies and corporate communities or merchant communities were on
the rise where as India the Rule of Muslims in India was taking last breath. Several causes
lead to the decline of Muslims power in India contributory factors which proved last straw for
Muslim empire in India.
1) No succession Plan:- first and Major reason of decline of Muslim rule in Indian
subcontinent was that there was no succession in Muslims after the death of one king his
brothers, sons fought with each other and only powerful has ascend to throne and weaker was
killed or incardinated.
2) Geographical expansion of The Empire:- The second reason was that the empire of
Muslim was vast and it stretched from Present India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. It was near to
impossible to govern that vast area while sitting in one capital city which ultimately created
the feeling of sovereignty in small states which led to unrest in small states.

3) Deterioration of Morality: - Most of Kings were fond of liquor and women these two
factors lead the way for decline of Mughal Empire. Abundance of wealth, luxurious life and
leisure made them reckless and incompetent to rule.

4) Lack of organized Army specially Navy:- Muslims were lacked the organized Army
after death of Jahangir. The commanders of the Army were involved in conspiracies in order
to get to the throne where as their main focus was the power then to concentrate on
Preparation to face aggression from outside. Portuguese, French and English, Dutch entered
through sea route for commercial purposes where they captured coastal areas and built their
Garrisons and formed strong organized force consisted of locals as well their own manpower.

5) Intellectual Bankruptcy: - As Muslim rules indulged in immoral activities, their

concentration to create a viable education had diverted to leisure and luxurious life.

6) Corrupt administration: - Ministers, courtiers accepted bribes which ultimately weekend

the foundation of Muslim rule in Indian.

7) Invasion of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali: - Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739) and
Ahmed Shah Abdali (1761) in India worsened the situation for Mughal rulers. Destruction of
Delhi, loot and plunder of Nadir Shah not only weekend the authority of ruler but also the
empire had become economically weak, Because he took Koh-e-noor Diomand , Taos throne,
Lots of architects, constructors and treasure with him.
8) Rise of Sikhs and Marathas: - During the days of Farukhsiar and Jahandar Shah, Banda
Bahadar killed the governor of Sirhandi Wazir khan and captured the area of Punjab. The
nationalism of Marathas also rose to the extent rather to call Delhi sultanate, Shah wali Ullah
requested Ahmed shah abdali to attack India once again and saved the Muslims from the
brutality of Marathas.
So in the battle of Pani Pat 1761, Marhattas power was crushed by Ahmad Shah abdali and
on his return back the vaccum was created which was later filled by the British company,
which was established in 1600.
9) Advent of East India Company: - Advent of British East India company into Indian soil
in 1608 when they got permission from Jahangir to open their trade buildings, they came to
India as the traders and then they started their disruptive activities and finally became the
rulers of Subcontinents.
Chapter: 2

CAUSES OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE-1857

The mass uprising of the people of Indo-Pakistan against the British rule in 1857 was not a
spontaneous reaction of alien rule but the eruption of the volcano of discontent that had kept
shouldering for about a century. The causes of the War of Independence were political,
economic, social, religious and military.

(A) POLITICAL CAUSES

The East India Company got strongly implanted in the Sub-continent after its historic victory
over Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757. Soon afterwards in 1764 the
British recorded another important triumph in the Battle of Buxar. This time the English
defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor. This
victory further brightened the prospects of the Company in the country. Later on through
skilful diplomacy, the British continued their policy of expansion. By the end of the first half
of the 19th century, they succeeded in removing from their way the main hurdles of the lion
of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, the Marathas, the Sikhs and the state of Oudh. As a result territorial
limits of the British Empire increased at a tremendous pace. By 1857, that is about a hundred
years after the battle of Plassey the frontiers of the British territory included provinces like
Bengal, Bihar, Oudh, Maysore, Maharashtra, Sindh, Punjab, Kashmir and North West
Frontier. W. Hastings (1773-85), Lord Cornwallis (1786-93), Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)
and Dalhousie (1848-56) were great annexationists. They annexed many states.

 Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie applied Doctrine of Lapse for the expansion of
the British Empire. According to this doctrine the rulers of the states were not allowed
to adopt sons. As a result, their states were annexed by the company. Lord Dalhousie
annexed many states through Doctrine of Lapse which created a great sense of
insecurity among the princes and the general public.
 Annoyance of rulers of State: The policy of ruthless expansion adopted by the
British created a lot of bitterness. Lord Dalhousie left no stone unturned for the
expansion of the English territory. He annexed states on the grounds of Doctrine of
lapse and misgovernment. As such the rulers of the affected states like Sindh, Punjab,
Jhansi, and Oudh became sworn enemies of the Company.

 Confiscation of Estates: The nobles were granted large estates by past rulers which
served as a source of their honorable living. The British Government reversed this
policy and confiscated thousands of such estates. As a result, numberless affected
persons turned against the Company. That is why, the deposed landlords were the
standard bearers of the war of Independence.

(B) ECONOMIC CAUSES OF THE WAR

The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of local industry, permanent settlement,
large scale unemployment, monopoly of trade by the English and the Stamp Act were some
important economic causes of the war.

 New Agrarian Policy: The new agrarian policy of the Government shook the
foundations of the village communities. The Zamindars were asked to provide
documentary proof of their holdings; otherwise, they were deprived of their lands.
The rate of taxes on the lands increased burdening the Zamindars and the cultivators.
These steps alienated the majority of the working class from the Government. This
class was in the front rank when the war of Independence broke out in 1857.

 Destruction of Local Industry: Due to Industrial Revolution of England, cheaper

and superior goods flowed into the markets of the Sub-continent. The local industry
could not compete with the imported stuff and suffered badly. Millions of people were
left jobless. This resulted in frustration among the lower classes.

 Permanent Settlement: The after effects of the permanent settlement of lands were
very disastrous for the landowners. It had fixed the income of the Government but had
put the Zamindar under a lot of pressure. They had to deposit regularly a fixed amount
which was not always possible. The defaulters were very often degraded and
subjected to oppression by the collectors. These acts created a lot of bitterness and
discontent among the peasants.

 Unemployment: The British did not trust the Indians. As a result they were not
appointed on important jobs and high posts. This policy resulted in unemployment for
the educated classes. The policy of annexation to the British Empire also left
thousands of people jobless.

 Domination of trade by the English: The British facilitated their trade in Indo-
Pakistan. Many seaports were declared fee ports and custom duty on imported goods
was withdrawn. These steps ruined the local industry. Imported goods flooded local
markets that were cheaper and superior in quality. Consequently the local working
class became distressed.

 Court Fee Stamps: The English Government declared court fee compulsory to be
paid in the form of court stamps. Thus the people were denied the right of free justice.
The general public greatly resented this action.

(C) RELIGIOUS CAUSES

 Propagation of Christianity: Although at the outset the English had shown respect
towards all religious but with the passage of time, they changed their mind and
devised

ways and means for the propagation of Christianity in Indo-Pakistan. The

Government officials often became vocal in their intentions to convert the locals to
Christianity.
The missionaries enjoyed full government support. They were allowed to perform their work
at all public places. The Bible was included in the syllabi of various educational institutions.
Orphans, widows and distressed people were converted to Christianity. Moreover as act was
passed through which the converts were allowed to inherit their ancestral properties. The
Indians became suspicious of this act because they thought that this act was passed in order to
facilitate conversion to Christianity. It may be interesting to note that even the highest ranked
officials did not conceal their efforts of preaching Christianity. To quote Lord Dalhousie:

Keeping in view all these facts is interesting to note that the leaders of the war of
Independence like Nana Sahib, Rani of Jhansi, Maharaja Peshwa Bahadur and Bahadur Shah
Zafar called upon the people to defend their faith against the propagation of Christianity.

 Introduction of New Inventions: In the mid of the 19th Century, the British
introduced in Indo-Pakistan many inventions like railway, post and telegraph.
Moreover they made English as medium of education. These inventions made the
Indians suspicious of the intentions of the British. They considered these inventions as
moves of some ulterior motives on the part of the rulers.

 Jehad Movement: In 1826, Syed Ahmed Shaheed launched the Jehad Movement
second. It was a sort of large-scale effort by the Muslims to snatch freedom from alien
rule. After their initial successes at Akora and Hazru, the Mujahdeens were defeated
at Balakot in 1831. The JehadMovement though failed to achieve immediate aims yet
it succeeded in kindling a flame of freedom which served as a beacon of inspiration
for the coming generations.
 Anti-Religion Laws: The British Government enacted many laws which were
contradictory to the fundamentals of various religions of Indo-Pakistan. For example,
rape was declared a civil offence. It greatly aroused the feeling of the Muslims.
Similarly the widow remarriage act offended Hindu religious sentiments. The
abolition of the age-old Hindu custom of Sati produced the dame results.

(D) SOCIAL CAUSES

 Mockery of Cultural Heritage: The British considered the Muslims as their

archenemy in the sub-continent because the Muslims had been the rulers of the
country in the recent past. The British were afraid of the Muslim cultural heritage
which was very rich in all aspects. The English wanted to prove their culture as
superior to others. Thus they adopted a policy of ridiculing the Muslim culture. This
attitude greatly agitated Muslim religious feelings.

 Insulting treatment with the People: A hundred year rule over the sub-continent had
given the English as air of superiority. They considered themselves a super creation
and often resorted to insulting attitude towards the people of the sub-continent. The
Company adhered to a policy of racial discrimination which preferred white over the
black. The people of Indo-Pakistan were greatly agitated by this attitude.

(E) MILITARY CAUSES

 Disbanded Armies of annexed States: The Company annexed many states to the
British Empire under ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ and misgovernment. The British disbanded
 the armies of the annexed states resulting in thousands of unemployed local soldiers.
Consequently a number of families were rendered economically distressed. These
policies created a class which wanted to get rid of the British rule.

 Dearth of English troops: In the middle of the 19th century most of the British
troops were stationed in Punjab where they were deployed during and after the
conquest of Punjab. Similarly the Crimean War had ended in 1856 but the English
troops had not returned yet. Eventually the number of troops in Bengal and central
parts of the country was very small but the ratio of the Indian troops had increased in
the Company Army which tilted the balance in favor of the natives and they were
encouraged to launch the War of Independence.

 Greased cartridges: The use of greased cartridges proved as the immediate cause of
the war. It was rumored that the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow or pig.
This situation agitated the religious feelings of both the Muslim and Hindu soldiers
and created widespread discontent among the native soldiers. Keeping with their
religious beliefs they refused to use these cartridges.

EVENTS OF THE WAR

The first incident of the war took place on 26th February 1857 when the native soldiers of the
19th Native Infantry at Behrampur refused to use the greased cartridges. Then on 19th march
1857, Mangal Pande a native soldier of the 34th native infantry fired at his British officers.
His fellows did not join him. As a result he was caught and hanged. However, all the 34th
native infantry was disbanded on 6th May 1857. The war was triggered on 10 MAY 1857 and
the flames of war soon spread to all parts of the country. Meerat, Delhi, Lucknow, Baraille,
Kanpur and Jhansi were the prominent centers of the struggle for independence.
The freedom fighters of Meerat reached Delhi and occupied the city without any resistance.
They placed Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor on the throne. The British faced
much difficulty. They appealed to the Sikhs of Punjab for assistance. The Sikhs joined hands
with the British to fight against the Muslims. Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed and deported
to Rangoon forever. The 24 Mughal princes were shot dead.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF WAR

The war of independence of 1857 failed to achieve its immediate political objectives.
Following were the causes of this failure.

 Lack of Leadership and Discipline: The freedom fighters fought mostly in

independent groups at different places led by leaders of their particular regions. There
was no leader who could single handed lead all the groups. The revolutionaries lacked
discipline. Thus their efforts could not get the required momentum.

 Lack of Unity: There was no unity among the freedom fighters. They fought
independent of one another. As a result they could not assemble their resources
against a common enemy. They were defeated at different places. On the other hand
the British fought the war of their survival with dedication and purpose.
  Lack of Resources: The freedom fighter lacked resources of all types. They were
short of equipment and food-stuffs. They had to face well equipped and well-
organized enemy. The Mughal Emperor had no treasury to support the war.

 Lack of Popular Support: The War of Independence never assumed the shape of a
concerted national struggle. It lacked popular support. Although it spread to various
parts of the country yet some places did not take part in the war i.e Swat, Peshawar,
Kohat, Layyah, Multan

 Superior Technology of English troops: The British troops fought with latest
weapons. They had the backing of the latest technology. There were also led by
capable and experienced generals

 Non-cooperation of the Rulers of the State: The rulers of different states of Indian
sub-continent Pakistan did not come to help the freedom fighters. Thus the War
remained confined to a few centers.

 Non-Cooperation of Sikhs of Punjab: The Sikhs of Punjab considered the Muslims

as their traditional enemies. They decided to support the British in the War of
Independence. The Sikh soldiers played a decisive role in the recovery of Delhi from
the freedom fighters.
 Role of Traitors: The British succeeded in finding traitors in the ranks of the freedom
fighters. Maulvi Rajab Ali and Hakeem Ehsan Ullah blew off the royal ammunition
depot at Delhi. Thus the revolutionaries suffered a great set back.

 Return of British troops from Crimea: The War of Crimea ended in 1856. The
British troops fighting there were free to return to the sub-continent. The War of
Independence started in 1857. In the beginning the Company had to depend on the
few soldiers present in the country. But soon afterwards the surplus troops from
Crimea poured into Indo-Pakistan. These troops were experienced and equipped with
latest weapons. The balance of war tilted in favor of the English. The freedom fighters
fighting without formidable resources could not avoid the inevitable defeat for long.

EFFECTS OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The War of Independence 1857 despite its failure changed the entire political, social and
economic outlook of the sub-continent. The British were forced to revive their policy. Some
important effects of the war were as under.

 Immediately after the war, through the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858, the crown
took over the control from the East India Company. Lord Canning the last
Governor General of the East India Company became the first Viceroy of the
 British Government in India. Consequently the Indians were placed on equality
with the subjects of the British crown.
 The British Government abolished the Doctrine of Lapse
 The policy of annexations was totally abandoned. Rulers of the sates were
guaranteed that there would be no more annexations.
 After the War the number of European soldiers was increased in Sub-continent. It
is estimated that there were 65,000 European soldiers against 140,00 native
soldiers. The army was reorganized into separate regiments. The artillery was
totally put under the control of Europeans.
 One ugly effect of the war of Independence was that the English subjected the
Muslims to oppression. The British considered Muslims responsible for the War
of Independence. Accordingly the head of repression fell more heavily on the
Muslims than on the Hindus. Many of the leading Muslims were hanged or exiled.
 As a result of the War the British Government changed its agrarian policy in Indo-
Pakistan. The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was reconsidered. The land owners
were provided safeguards.
 After the War the British wrath was directed at the Muslims. The properties of the
Muslims were confiscated and they were subjected to all sorts of terror and
repression. The British adopted a discriminatory policy towards the Hindus and
the Muslims. The Hindus were given preference over the Muslims. Soon a wide
gulf between the two communities assumed dangerous proportions.
 The failure of the War of Independence War encouraged the Christian
missionaries to resume the propagation of their religion with new vigor

Chapter: 3

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement

Introduction
Sir Syed Ahmed khan was one in all the lofty and significant personalities of Muslim of
South Asia. He was endued with the question of head and heart, pen and mind. He was a
flexible, genius and an excellent Muslim, scholar, social reformer,
educationist, leader and ideologist who rendered priceless works for the reconstruction of
Muslims in sub-continent. Sir Syed’s works and ideas resulted as Aligarh movement.
Challenges after War of Independence 1857:
The effectiveness of his temperament can solely be measured in relevancy of his age and
time and also the challenges he faced and his reactions to those challenges. After 1857 the
Muslims of British India had faced miserable situation. British had 
held responsible Muslims for muting and that they tried to debilitate Muslims in such a
way that they never raised themselves once more. British consistently vanquished Muslims
and this reality was acknowledged additionally by Nehru. Nehru said, ‘the heavy hand of
British fell more heavily upon Muslims than Hindus.’ Khalid bin Saeed opines, ‘Muslims
were not only defeated in their outlook but also sulky.

Sir Syed had swished against two forces; one was British who were the chief opponent of
Muslims and were able to masticate Muslims. Alternative part he had to swish against was
his co-religionists. Muslims were underneath the impact of orthodox spiritual leaders. These
Ulemas were terribly conservative and that they doubted each effort of British to be against
themselves. Sir Syed had to seize power from ulemas and to influence Muslims to find
out English to maneuver forward in recently introduced system of presidency.

His strategy
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan created education as his strategy as corner stone. He constructed the
entire structure of education. As his writer Graham said, “Educate, educate, educate.”

Objectives:
His objective was education and education was to be created through reciprocal action.
Following were the objectives articulated by Sir Syed:

1. To exclude misunderstanding between British and Muslims.

2. To stay Muslims away from perturbation politics.
3. To keep aloof from politics.
4. Preservation of Muslim’s rights and interests

Services of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

Political Services:

Rapprochement between British and Muslims:

By taking these measures into consideration, Sir Syed brought reconciliation between British
and Muslims of South asia. In ‘Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind’ (Causes of Indian Revolt), Sir
Syed bravely and courageously curst country for the mutiny (war of independence). He tried
to obstruct the impression that Muslims were insurgents. He wrote the book ‘Loyal
Muhammadans of India’ within which he enlightened the services and works of
those Muslims who remained faithful to British.
Sir Syed additionally wrote ‘Tareekh-e-Srkashi-e-Bajnor’. He got revealed 502 copies of
‘causes of Indian revolt’ to give a way British members of House of Commons and
Parliament. Sir Syed was aware of the facts that the reconciliation
wasn't potential till the spiritual bad blood wasn't reduced between crescent and cross. He
tried to get rid of the harshness between two religions. He wrote, ‘Tabeen-ul-kalam’ that was
tafseer of Holy Bible. In this book, he wrote that Bible was divine book and tried to bring
same things between Bible and Quran.
Sir Syed additionally wrote, ‘Risala-e-Ahkam-e-Tam-e-Ala-e-Kitab’, within
which he established that Christians were individuals of Book and it absolutely was allowed
religiously to marry and dine with Christians.
Sir Syed engaged country in his instructional front e.g. he created Duke of Argile a patron of
scientific society. Lord Edward George Earle Bulwer-Lytton inaugurated Aligarh College.
Early principles of Aligarh school and college were all English. Sir Syed established ‘British
Indian Association’ with British. Aligarh College received huge grants from British
government.

Advice to the Muslims:

Because Sir Syed could believe that unless Muslims desisted from politics
British can still vanquish them and that they could sustain British indignation.
He perceived that British had returned to remain in India and it had been impossible for
Muslims to overthrow British. Therefore, Sir Syed was not in favor of any perturbation
politics. He opposed Central Muhammadan Association of Syed Ameer Ali. He alternatively
tried to redirect Muslim energy towards the accession of education.

Preservation of Muslim Identity

For the preservation of Muslim identity, Sir Syed took following steps:

a. Opposition of Indian National Congress:

Sir Syed opposed congress as a result of it had been Associate in nursing exclusive Hindu
party. Congress volunteered the state of one nation theory and asked for jobs on
the merit, however Muslims disagreed on each fronts. Muslims believed that they're a
separate nation and were totally different from Hindus in faith, culture, tradition, language
and customs. The congress demand of jobs on advantage was unacknowledged by Sir Syed.
He opined that Muslims were less in range and were additionally backward in education and
social outlook, thus jobs should run to Muslims in proportion of their population.

b. Establishment of Separate Platform for Muslims:

Sir Syed advised Muslims not to took part in the politics, but he provided Muslims with
different forums to raise their demands and grievances e.g. Muhammadan Educational
Conference, British-Indian Association, Indian Patriotic Association.

c. Expanded on Ideology for Muslim Bourgeoisie:

Sir Syed expounded separatist ideology for Muslims bourgeoisie. This became the
fountainhead of new awakening in Muslim salariat and middle class.

Supporter of Two Nation Theory:

Sir Syed was the primary one that explained the two-nation theory in unambiguous terms. He
was the primary one that for the primary time self-addressed the Muslims of India as a
“Qaum”, Associate in Nursing Urdu word which might be paraphrased as ‘Nation’. By
explaining the two nation theory, Sir Syed led the muse of Muslim separatism in India.

Savior of Urdu Language:

Aligarh movement saved Urdu from disappearance and notwithstanding the backing of Brits,
Hindi did not replace Urdu chiefly attributable to the efforts of Sir Syed Ahmad and his
teammates.

Educational Services:
i. Patronized the Muslims towards modern education:

Sir Syed believed that if the Muslims failed to get education, they'll lose social status and

advancement. It absolutely was solely through conveyance education to Muslims
that they'll restrain from agitation and political theory, solely vehicle for development was
education. In the start, Sir Syed was in favor of formal language education however in later
years, he believed that every Muslim ought to receive English and occidental education.

ii. Opening of Educational Institutions:

Sir Syed Ahmed Provided a number of institutions for the purpose of education:

 Madrassah Muradabad (1859)

 Ghazipur Madrassah (1862)
 MAO Aligarh School (1875)
 MAO College (1877)
 Muhammadan Educational Conference (1886)

Moreover, Sir Syed employed his journals and magazines for this purpose.

iii. Establishment of Muhammadan Educational Conference:

This conference was established in 1886 ‘to extend the scope of Aligarh’s activates.’ Sir Syed
believed that solely education couldn't be enough for the wants of Muslims.
This instructional conference was created with immense perspective.
Muhammadan instructional conference verified to be a national platform for Muslims
of Asian nation and acted as a forerunner of Muslim League.

iv. Translation of books through Scientific Society:

Scientific society was a tool and agency of education of the Muslims of India. More than 800
books on different subjects were translated by this society in Urdu.

Religious Services:
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a devout Muslim. He tried to bring Muslim unity through
religious unity and harmony. He wrote famous book, ‘Khutbat-e-Ahmdia’ in rebuttal to
allegations of William Muir’s book ‘The life of Muhammad.’

Other Notable works are as follow,

1. Ahkam Tu'am Ahl-Kitab, Kanpur, 1868.

2. Al-Du'a Wa'l Istajaba, Agra, 1892.
3. Al-Nazar Fi Ba'z Masa'il Imam Al-Ghazzali, Agra.
4. Izalat ul-Chain as Zi'al Qarnain, Agra, 1889.
5. Zila al-Qulub ba Zikr al-Mahbub, Delhi, 1843.
6. Khulq al-Insan ala ma fi al-Quran, Agra, 1892.
7. Kimiya-i-Sa'dat, 2 fasl, 1883.
8. Mazumm ba nisbat tanazzul ulum-i-diniya wa Arabiya wa falsafa-i-Yunaniya,
Agra, 1857.
9. Namiqa fi Bayan Mas'ala Tasawwur al-Shaikh, Aligarh, 1883.
10. Tarjama fawa'id al-afkar fi amal al-farjar, Delhi 1846.
11. Tarqim fi qisa ashab al-kahf wal-Raqim, Agra, 1889.
12. Tasfiyad al'Aquid (Being the correspondence between Syed Ahmad Khan and
Maulana Muhammad Qasim of Deobund).
13. Rah-i-Sunnat dar rad-i-bid'at, Aligarh, 1883.
14. Risala Ibtal-i-Ghulami, Agra, 1893.
15. Risala ho wal Mojud, 1880.
16. Risala Tahqiq Lafzi-i-Nassara, 1860.
17. Risala Tehzeeb-ul-Ikhlaq
18. Risala Asbab-e-baqhawat-e-Hind
19. Tarikh-e-Sarakashi Binjaur

20. Tabyin-ul-Kalam fi Tafsir-al-turat-wa'l Injil ala Mullat-al-Islam (The Mohomedan

Commentary on the Holy Bible).
21. Tafsir-ul-Qura'n(7 Volumes)
22. Tafsir al-Jinn Wa'l Jan ala ma fi al-Qur'an, (Agra, 1891).
23. Tafsir-a-Samawat, Agra.
24. Tahrir fi Usul al-Tafsir, Agra, 1892.

Impacts:
Sir Syed played invaluable services and contributions for the Muslims in the subcontinent.
This movement had great consequences upon the coming generations of the Indians.

A. Political Impacts:
i. To bridge the gulf between British and Muslims
ii. Promotion of Muslim’s rights
iii. Aligarh as Nursery of Leaders
 iv. Provided basis for Muslims Organizations
v. Forerunner of Pakistan Movement
vi. Successful in controlling the tide of decline
vii. Saved urdu language
B. Educational Impacts
i. Muslim Institutional basis
ii. Doors of material prosperity
iii. Provided core of Educated Muslims
iv. Emergence of Educated Class
C. Social Impacts
i. Reform of Muslim society
ii. Transformation of social outlook
D. Religious Impacts
i. Adjustment of Islamic values with modern requirements
ii. Transition between medieval and modern period
E. Cultural Impacts
i. Introduction of western culture to Muslims
ii. Tradition of bilingualism
iii. Urdu as medium of instruction

Conclusion
The enormity of Sir Syed’s contribution cannot be denied. Aligarh movement stood also a
movement of ideas and change Muslim’s social, political and cultural outlook.
Chapter: 4
PARTITION OF BENGAL

Introduction
Perhaps nothing illustrates so well the validity of Sir Syed Ahmed khan's reading of
the Hindu mind as the agitation against the partition of Bengal. The act of Curzon
administration plunged the country into deep and fearful internal strike and fueled the
Muslims out of their political lethargy.

Causes of Partition

a. Bengal was too big:

Bengal with an area of 189000 square miles, embracing the population of about 86
million was too unwieldy to be administered efficiently by one lieutenant governor. He could
not make even a tour difficult for running administration of the whole province when it
needed. Its huge size made Bengal very complicated.

Linguistic Difference.

There was a great language difference between the population of the Eastern and
western parts of Bengal. The Bengali language spoken in the Eastern Part was known as
Musalmani, While the Western Bengalis considered their language superior. .

High Rate of Crime:

In Bengal as a province, the crime rate was very high. It had become impossible for
the Police to control the criminals and anti-social elements. Police had become virtually
almost non-existent.

Lack of Educational Facilities:

The British allocated minimal funds for the education sector of East Bengal. This
meager allocation of funds could not provide any fruitful impacts over the people of East
Bengal. Resultantly, East Bengal had become a victim of shameful government apathy.

No Progress in Eastern Districts:

 In the united province of Bengal, the British utilized all welfare funds in the Western•
districts of Bengal. They had no allocation and funds for the opening of new projects and
programmers in the Eastern zone of Bengal. Resultantly, the East Bengal lacked progress and
prosperity as compared to the western Bengal

No Trade for East Bengal:

The Export trade of Assam was hampered because Calcutta authorities were
indifferent from the needs of Chittagong port and there was an urgent need to take the matter
out of their purview.

Dr. Abdul Hamid said about the partition of Bengal, "If it had not been attempted by Curzon,
it could not be delayed much longer after him."

Partition Plan:

In 1905, the provinces of Bengal and Assam were reconstituted so as to form two
provinces of manageable size. Bengal had a population of 54 million with 42 million Hindus.
East Bengal and Assam was the other province with the population of 18 million Muslims
and 12 million Hindus. Decca was made its capital. It consisted of 106650 square miles.

Muslim's Response:

It received favorable response from the Muslims. Though the Muslims never made a
demand for partition of Bengal, but it was beneficial for Muslims in many respects.

Muslim Numerical Advantage:

The new province had a population of 31 million with 18 million Muslims having
numerical superiority over the Hindus.

Widened the Muslim Prosperity:

The possibility of Muslim economic uplift grew brighter. It was hoped that they
would get rid of the hundred years of exploitation.

Free From Hindu Restraints:

 Muslims hoped that their status would be raised in society as they were in numerical
strength. They hoped that they would be free from the restraints of Hindu society.

Political Uplift:

The partition would result in the political uplift of the Muslims in Bengal. Now they
would be able to secure jobs and representation in the government institutions.

Need of Muslim Organization (AWL):

The events following the partition of Bengal strengthened the desire of the Muslims to
organize themselves politically as a separate community. The birth of All India Muslim
League on 30th December 1906 came as an expression of that desire.

Hindu Response:

Hindus did not like this partition, as it dealt a death blow to their monopolies and
exclusive hold on economic, political life of the whole Bengal. Hindus called it as a
deliberate attempt of the British government to disrupt the national solidarity and Bengali
nationalism. They termed Lord Curzon as the upholder of the British official policy of
"Divide and Rule".

Reaction from Hindu Capitalists:

Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of the betterment of the Muslims.
The Hindu capitalists wanted to continue the exploitation of the Muslims.

Loss of the Practice of Hindu Lawyers:

Hindu lawyers opposed partition. They thought that the new province would have its
separate courts, thus their practice would be affected.

Loss of Political Domination:

 After the partition of Bengal, Hindus did not want to share their power with the
Muslims in the subcontinent. They perceived that partition of Bengal meant they would lose
their political dominance over the whole province. So they did not want to lose it.

Reaction of Hindu Press:

Hindu press was not different from that of the Hindu advocates. Hindus had their
monopoly over the whole press of the province. They were afraid that newspapers would be
established in the new province.

Annulment at Delhi Coronation Darbar:

King George V announced the annulment of Bengal at Delhi Coronation Darbar on
12th December 1911. Prof. Shafiq-ur-Rehman said, "The most settled of the all the settled
facts was unsettled by the announcement by the King at Delhi".

Results and Effects:

The partition of Bengal had serious consequences upon the Indian subcontinent. The
Congress and Hindu reaction towards the partition of Bengal made the Muslims convinced
that they would not want Muslim representation in the Indian administrative structure. They
had no courage to face the Muslim prosperity. Nawab Salim Ullah says, "The partition of
Bengal bestowed new life and new image to the Muslims." Muslims developed self-
confidence in them and were on the way of gradual progress. It proved that Congress did not
care for any community except Hindus. The annulment of the partition of Bengal proved that
in future, Muslims would have to fight for their rights alone. The thinking of Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan "Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations" proved correct.

Conclusion:

It may be concluded that the partition of Bengal exposed the Hindu mentality towards
the Muslim representation in the British administrative system. It also illustrates the opinion
of Sir Syed Ahmad khan towards the Hindu mind. The annulment of the partition of Bengal
only satisfied Hindu urge, but it provided nothing to the Muslims. The act of Curzon
administration plunged the country into deep and fearful internal strife and brought the two
communities into open hostility, fueling the Muslims out of their political lethargy.
Chapter: 5
SHIMLA DEPUTATION

Introduction:
 Shimla deputation is regarded as a landmark in the history of modern Muslim India. It
marked the beginning of Muslim impetus to Muslim nationalism. For the first time, Hindu
Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plan.

Background/ Factors

Death of Sir Syed Ahmed

Muslim politics followed the path devised by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan for almost a
quarter of a century. Sir Syed had advised Muslim to eschew politics as long as he was alive.
He safeguarded the rights and interests of Muslims. But his demise in 1898, created a
vacuum. There was no body left to step into his shoes and Muslims were lacking any other
personality to organize Muslims. Muslims were left with no other option but to enter politics.

Rise of Hindu Nationalism:

With the passage of time, Indian nationalistic politics assumed anti-Muslim hues as it
was evident from anti-Muslim role played by B.G Tilak, Balpal Lal (Lala Lajpat Roy, Bipan
Chandra Pal. These nationalist Hindus used cultural symbols like Shiwa Jee cult and Gan Pati
festivals to evoke Hindu passion and sentiments against Muslims. This nationalism received
further impetus by the rise of Indian National Congress, which proved to be an exclusive
Hindu party.

Results of 1892 Elections:

In 1892, Indian council elections were held and for the first time, elective principle
was introduced in India. These actually were nominations in which the government gave
representation among the provided list of members. These elections were held on the basis of
joint electorates; therefore, no Muslim representative could be elected. Muslims grew
suspicious about the repercussions of the transplantation of Western representation model in
India. (West minister model)

2nd phase of Urdu Hindi Controversy:

On 18th April, 1900, U.P Governor Anthony Mac Donne Declared Hindi as second
official language in UP. This aroused Muslim concerns and apprehensions and they realized
that they had to enter politics to safeguard their rights.
Anti-partition Movement against the Partition of Bengal:

After the partition of Bengal, Hindus launched a vilification campaign against

Muslims of Bengal. This also became one of the factors behind the formation of Shimla
deputation.

Coming of Liberal Party to Power in England:

In 1905, Liberal Party came to power in England and its coming to power presaged
more sweeping democratic reforms in India. Now Lord Minto was appointed as Viceroy and
John Morley- as Secretary of State for India. Minto was a constitutionalist and he had been
serving as Governor General of Canada, a self-governing dominion. Their appointments
aroused great expectations among the Indians that a new dose of reforms would be
introduced. Muslims feared that these reforms would be based on joint electorates, so they
presented their demands to Lord Minto.

Morley's Budget Speech:

On 20th July, 1906, Morley made a budget speech in the House of Commons. It
foreshadowed the transplantation of western representative in India as per British model.
Morley later instructed Viceroy Minto to look into the prospects of new democratic reforms.
Minto established a committee comprising members of the Governor General's executive
council. This committee is known as 'Arnold Committee.' These developments awakened
Muslims from slander and galvanized their activity behind the formation of Shimla
deputation and Muslim League. Dr. Razi Wasti is of the view that Muslims had awakened in
20th Century and Shimla Deputation was outcome of this awakening.

Formation of Shimla Deputation:

Nawab Mohsin-ui-Mulk took serious notice of these developments of Money's budget

speech. The other dignitaries of Muslims were Nawab Ismail Khan, Khwaja Yousaf Shah;
Hassan Bilgarami, Nawab Ali Choudhry. They diverted Muslim attention towards that issue.
Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk wrote letter to Archbold, principal of Aligarh College. In this letter,
he expressed the desire that Muslims wanted to see Viceroy Lord Minto. Mohsin-ul-Mulk
asked Archbold to keep contact with Dunlop Smith, Secretary of Governor General Minto.
He contacted Dunlop Smith and wrote back to Mohsin-ul-Mulk on 10th August in which he
told that Viceroy was willing to see Muslim deputation. After receiving Viceroy's positive
response, they started preparation for the formation of deputation.

For this purpose: a meeting of Muslims was held in Lucknow on 15-16 September.
During this meeting, its address was prepared by Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Nawab Imad-ud-Din,
Syed Hassan Bilghari. Shimla Deputation comprised of 35 members. It included Muslims
representatives from all over India. The prominent members of Simla Waqar Deputation
included Sir Agha Khan who also headed the delegation. Other included Mohsin-ul-Mulk,
Wagar-ul-MulkNawab Salim ullah Khan, Sir Adam jee Pir Bhai. The deputation met viceroy
on 1st October, 1906.

Features/Demands of Shimla Deputation:

The address of Shimla Deputation was extremely moderate in tone. It complimented

British rule which brought freedom of worship. The deputation cutinized the system of
representation in municipalities, district boards and legislative council and dwell deeply on
problems of Muslims as a community.

Demands:

The Shimla deputation presented the following charter of demands to the Governor
General:

a. The Muslims should be given the right to vote under separate electoral system.
b. The Muslims should be given representation in the Imperial Legislative Council in
excess of their population.
c. Electoral system should be given preference over nomination system as far as
possible.
d. The Muslims should be given their due share in the gazette and non-gazette cadres
assorting to a specific proportion.
e. The Muslims should be appointed as the Judges of High courts as well as Chief
courts.
f. Seats should be reserved for Muslims in the Senates and Syndicates of various
universities.
g. Financial help should be given for the setting up of a Muslim university.
 The Muslims should be given representation in the Executive council of Governor
General. This address ended on the note of loyalty to British Raj. Viceroy's response to the
deputation was non-committal but it was extremely sympathetic. Viceroy agreed with the
deputation that scheme of electoral representation in India would be doomed to mischievous
failure, if it aimed at granting personal enfranchisement, regardless of beliefs and traditions
of communities living in India. Viceroy told the Muslims that their rights and interests would
be preserved
v
Reactions:

Hindu politicians and writers referred to the demands of Shimla deputation with
contempt. Writers tried to lessen the importance of Shimla deputation. Amrit Bajar Patrika
commended that it was not an All India deputation rather it was engineered by interested
officials. Congress leaders called it the beginning of unending Imperial policy of divide and
rule. These Hindu leaders described it as a ploy-scheme. Some of the Hindus termed it as a
command performance.

Muslims, by and large, welcomed the Shimla deputation. Syed Ameer Ali described it
as most important declaration made by Viceroy of India after Lord Rippon of 1882.

Significance:

i. First formal demand of separate electorates on the basis of two-nation theory.

ii. For the first time, Hindu-Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plane.
iii. Beginning of Muslim political movement in India.
iv. Demands of Shimla deputation Magna Carta of Pakistan movement.
v. Minot’s acceptance of demand of separate electorates.
vi. Razi Wasti mentions in his book, "Political Triangle in India" its fiscal and inevitable
consequence was the partition of India and emergence of Pakistan.
vii. Jamil-ud-din Ahmad describes in his book, "Early Phase of Muslim Political
Movement", "The new generation that was coming out of the Aligarh College or was
influenced by the spirit of the Aligarh Movement was imbibing a national
consciousness. They were becoming alive to their duty to strive for an honorable
place for their nation in the larger political life that was opening out in the country.
viii. For Syed Ameer Ali, it contained and carried two fold significance.
a. Muslim Politics
 b. British policy
ix. Remained focal point of Muslim politics in the subsequent
years.
x. Great impetus to Muslim nationalism in India.
xi. Its various demands were accepted.
xii. It made possible the survival of Muslims in India.
xiii. Abdul Hamid describes in his book “Muslim Separatism in India” The acceptance of
the deputation's demand proved to be a turning point in the history of the sub-
continent. Its final and inevitable consequence was the partition of 1947.
Shimla Deputation as Command Performance

"The Hindu press of Calcutta subsequently started a smear campaign against the
sponsors of this deputation which only served to consolidate the Muslims. Muhammad Ali,
who accompanied the deputation and called it a "command performance" in his presidential
address to the Coronado Congress of 1923. This may be a piece of brilliant rather than
accurate phrase-making, he also says: From whatever source the inspirations of Muslims
have proceeded there is no doubt. That the Muslim cause was this time properly advocated.
In the common territorial elections the Muslims had certainly not succeeded in securing
anything like adequate or real representation.

The British administration in India systematically pursued of pro-Muslim policies was

untenable. No imperialism is conscious-stricken. The British might have been partial to
Muslims here and there, but they never hesitated to reverse their plans when it suited their
interests. Even if the deputation was a command performance, the deputations did not make a
dictated demand. They got an opportunity to voice a grievance from which they had suffered
for long. Hindu writers usually refer to the Shimla Deputation with contempt, for they saw it
as just one of the many symptoms of the anti-national and unpatriotic proclivities of the
Indian Muslims. Mr. Lal Bahadur typifies this attitude when he says 'the evidence in this
respect (of its being a command performance) is so overwhelming that any attempt at its
refutation, would be altogether useless’.

This overwhelming evidence adduced by him consisted, first, of Arch bold s letter to
Mehdi Ali naked; secondly Arch Bold’s letter written to an unnamed correspondent saying
that he had taken a leading part in the whole affair, that he was in possession of much
interesting and relevant correspondence and that it was not his place to publish what he
remembered about it; and thirdly the fact that Arch bold was at Shimla when the College was
in session. Arch Bold’s letter to Mehdi Ali had been examined already. His own testimony
about his great role in the transaction and his reluctance to speak on the subject did not justify
the verdict that Lal Bahadur has based on undisclosed evidence.

Moreover, Archbold’s criticism of Aligarh leadership may have been prejudiced for
the circumstances in which he was made to leave Aligarh were far from flattering, and this
might have resulted in his later references to the institution and its associates being oblige and
uncomplimentary. Finally if it had been associated with Aligarh and its affairs, he would have
realized that Aligarh had its long vacation in the rainy season and that it was usual for
Principals of M.A.O. College to spend this period at Shimla.

A close study of the whole affair suggests that the deputation represented the early
stirring of a national consciousness. It forestalled and, therefore, weakened the conflict
between the Muslims and the Government which actually developed after 1911. in that case
the Muslims might well have launched a struggle on their own initiative. in this particular
instance, success was achieved before the struggle had started and this created the unfortunate
impression that the Government was fighting the political battle on behalf of the Muslims.
The idea was assiduously propagated by the Hindu Press and, tragically enough, some
important sections of the Muslims could not get rid themselves of such a comforting and
reassuring notion.
Chapter: 6

ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE (DECEMBER 1906)

Introduction:

The establishment of Muslim League is considered a milestone of Muslim politics in

India. It marked a real beginning of true Muslim political struggle in 20th century. It paved
way and played a vital role in spear-heading its final destination i.e. Pakistan It also played a
remarkable role in creating unity among the Muslims and gathered them at one platform.

Factors Leading to the Establishment of AIML:

Death of Sir Syed:

Muslim tried to avoid politics during Sir Syed's time, but they joined politics after his
death due to the necessity of hour. Muslims had to enter politics at the turn of the century.

Rise of Hindu Nationalism:

The second factor that forced Muslims to enter politics was rise of Hindu nationalism.
This nationalism was expounded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Roy; Bepun Chandra
Pal. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote a series of articles against cow slaughter and presented Shiwa
Jee, a notorious anti-Muslim warrior, as a hero. He introduced Gan Pati festival. These were
the symbols of heightened, anti-Muslim posture and took the shape of Muslim enmity.

Elections of 1892:

The results of 1892 elections resulted in Muslim reawakening. For the first time,
elective principle was introduced at council level in India and in these elections no Muslim
representative could get elected. This arouse the apprehension among Muslims that if this
unabated system of elections would be continued, Hindu majoritarian rule would be
established and Muslims would be subjected to perpetual subjugation based on West Minister
Model.

Resurgence of Urdu Hindi Controversy:

Syed Raza All is of the view that, "The seeds planted by MC Donald on April, 18,
1900, slowly got firm roots in ground and in six years appeared in the form of a plant.'
Establishment of Indian National Congress came into being in 1885 and walked for one
nation theory. It by passed Muslim and joint elections, jobs on merit were demanded by
Congress. Muslim realized that they needed to have a separate political party. Urdu-Hindi
controversy was the main motive behind the creation of AIML because Muslims realized that
their interests could not be safeguarded without a party.

In 1900, some 3,000 Muslim delegates assembled in Lucknow. It was the first
political meeting of Muslims since 1857. Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Waqar-ul-Mulk were
forerunners of the AIML.

On account of the government opposition, a political party could not be established

because government had threatened to stop grant-in-aid to the Aligarh Institute.

Anti-Muslim Agitation against the Partition of Bengal:

Though Bengal was partitioned on the basis of administrative reason, but Hindus
started a vilification campaign against the Muslims. Amid this movement, Muslims badly felt
a need for a political party to counterpoise Congress propaganda.

Role of Muslim Press:

Paisa Akhbar, Aligarh Institute Gazette, Pioneer, Shifaul-Mulk, Asrar-e-Jadeed, Al-

Azeem, Urdue-Mualla sowed a realization among its readers a sense of political awareness.
All Raza contended that Muslims would come to politics. In the support of growing demand
of a political party, Nawab Ismail Khan, Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Molvi Mehdi Hassan wrote
forceful articles.

Coming of Liberal Party to Power:

In 1905, Liberal Party won the elections in England and appointed Lord Minto as
Viceroy and John Morley as Secretary of State of India. The appointment of Minto and
Morley presaged the introduction of more democratic reforms in India. This arose the
expectations of Muslims regarding the prospective changes based on the principle of joint
electorates.
Morley's Budget Speech:

John Morley made his famous speech on 20th July, 1906 in House of Commons. This
speech foreshadowed the transplantation, of Western representative institutions in India. This
development awakened the Muslims from deep slumber and compelled them to action. Minto
established an Committee in order to implement new reforms. Amid this backdrop, Mohsin-
ul-Mulk and other Muslim dignitaries now proceeded to raise the demand for separate
electorate at higher level by arranging a meeting with Viceroy.

Shimla Deputation:

Shimla Deputation met Viceroy on 1st October, 1906 and demanded the solution of
certain issues by presenting them td Viceroy. Viceroy assured the deputation of sympathetic
consideration but there was no guarantee that Viceroy would abide by his commitment,
therefore, Muslims deemed it necessary to establish a political party in order to maintain and
constantly pressurize the Viceroy to accept the demands raised by Shimla deputation. So this
proved to be the immediate cause behind the establishment of AIML.

Miscellaneous Factors:

K.K. Aziz, in his book, The Making of Pakistan', considers four factors to be crucial
for the creation of AIML.

a. One belief expounded by Sir Syed that Muslims were a separate entity.
b. The Hindu character of Indian National Congress.
c. Muslims' desire to have their own exclusive electorates for all representative
institutions.
d. Political awakening among Muslims was in direct proportion to the spread of
education.
Mati'-ur-Rehman attributed the establishment of League that it was neither a Mushroom
growth, nor it was a creation.

Establishment of AIML:

After Simla deputation, Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Sir Agha Khan, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan
showed intention of making a political party for Muslim interests e.g. Syed Ameer Ali
stressed the need for the establishment of a separate political party. Nawab Salim Ullah Khan
proposed that the name of political party should be, 'All India Muslim Confederacy.' This
must be deliberated after the session of AIMEC in December in Dhaka. This demand of
Nawab Saleem was opposed by Hindu newspaper, 'Bengali,' which said that AIML reminds
us of Khalsa confederacy.

On 30thDecember, 1906, AIMEC session was head and after the session a separate
meeting was held by delegates. Some 3,000 Muslim delegates met under the president ship of
Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk and decided to establish AIML. The resolution for the establishment
of AIML was moved by Nawab Salim Ullah Khan, seconded by Hakeem Ajmal and
supported by dozens of delegates.

Objectives of AIML:

The resolution which was moved for the establishment of AIML stated its objectives
which are as follows:

a. To foster a sense of loyalty towards the British government among the Muslims
b. To look after the political interests of Muslims.
c. To bring about a better understanding between Muslim and other communities.
Organization and Structure:

The membership of League was limited to just 400 members. A central committee
was established, which was later remained 'council of AIML.' Its executive body comprised
one president, 6 six vice presidents, one secretary and two joint secretaries. The central
committee (council) was to elect president for each annual session. During 1908-1919, there
were two permanent presidents, Sir Agha Khan (1908-1912) and Raja Shahid of
Mehmoodabad till 1919. After 1934, AIML elected its presidents annually. During 1908-
1933, 7 secretaries served AIML. From 1936, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan became
secretary and held this office till 1947.

a. April 1907, Pune Muslim League was established by Maulvi Rafiuddin.

b. In November, 1908, Madras Muslim League was established.
c. In 1909. AIML was organized at district level in Deccan. In the same year (1909)
Bombay Presidency Muslim League was established.
d. In October, 1909, East Bengal Muslim League was established.
e. On December, 01, 1907, Punjab Muslim League was established.
Change of Creed:

On 22nd March, 1913 Jinnah proposed to change the creed of Muslim League. Now,
a fourth objective was added to its already three existing objectives and that was: To attain
suitable self-government for India under the aegis of British.

Factors Responsible for Change in Creed of AIML:

i. Disillusionment with British:

ii. Anti-Muslim Policies of British:
Muslims grew increasingly disillusioned towards the British on account of anti-Muslim
policies of British. Now, the British began supporting anti-Muslim forces against the Turkey
(Ottoman Empire). Kanpur Mosque tragedy, delay in elevating the status of Aligarh College
to university by government also created a rift between Muslims and British.

Annulment of Partition of Bengal:

British annulled or revoked the partition of Bengal on 12th December, 1911 on the
demands of Hindus.

Invasion of Turkey by Balkan States (1911-1912):

In Turko-Balkan War, British openly sided with anti-Turk forces which infuriated
Muslims. Muslims sent twenty three members medical delegation to Turkey under Dr.
Ansari. It comprised of 4 doctors, and 6 dispensers. 19 out of 23 members went to Turkey on
their own expenditure.

Radical Change Inside AIML:

Central office of AIML was shifted from Aligarh to Lucknow, was a more congenial
place for political activities. Other changes were:

a. All India Muslim League reduced the age limit for its members from 25 to 21 years.
b. All India Muslim League reduced the membership fee from Rs.25 down to Rs.20, and
provided an opportunity for the new members that the membership fee could be paid
in installments.
c. Emergence of new cadres of leadership which was known as young group and Aziz
Mirza was appointed as new Secretary. These young people were more nationalist.
 d. In 1912, Ameer Ali resigned as President of London Muslim League, Sir Agha Khan
resigned as Permanent President of AIML. Mohsin-ul-Mulk died in 1907.
This change of old guard was changed and replaced by new nationalist cadre which could
cooperate with Hindus.

Role of Jinnah:

In 1913, Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined All India Muslim league because of
Mulana Muhammad Ali Johar, who convinced him to join. The extremist
leadership of Indian National congress was also replaced and the new group was
in favour of joint venture against British government. Jinnah was in the favor of
Hindu Muslim unity,So he insisted that AIML's political objective should be re-
determined. Attainment of self government became its new goal and now its
objective became identical with those of Indian National Congress.

Chapter: 7

LUCKNOW PACT (1916)

Introduction:

Lucknow pact is regarded as a milestone in the political constitutional history of

India. It is regarded as high water mark of Hindu Muslim unity. It is most illuminating
document of Hindu Muslim Unity. It was first and last pact concluded between Congress and
League on the contentious issue of separate electorate.

Factors / Background:

Lucknow Pact was not a result of an accident but rather it was expression of
sentiments of unity and cooperation which were developing since the beginning of 2nd
decade of 20th century since 1912 between Hindus and Muslims.

Change in Muslim Politics in the Beginning of the 2nd Decade of 20th

Century:

With the beginning of 2nd decade of 20th century, Muslim politics underwent change
and this was outcome of various factors such as annulment of partition of Bengal, Kanpur
Mosque tragedy, delay in elevating of Aligarh College to university standard, pathetic and
deplorable conditions of Muslims in Balkan, Russian depredations in Mashad etc. these
factors caused Muslims to be disillusioned from British and they realized that they have to
forge the policy of creed of loyalty towards British.

Emergence of New Educated Leadership:

The new leadership started talking in new idiom and raised anti-imperialist slogans in
line with the popular sentiments. This new period was heralded by Waqar-ul-Mulk. In
Muslim League, the progressive elements started to rise. Mirza Aziz became secretary of
AIML and admission fee to League was decreased and age limit was also reduced for
membership of AIML.

Rise of New Brand of Journalism:

It was evident from the popularity of new Muslim press such as Comrade, Al-Hilal,
Hamdard, Zamindar, Moulana Mohammad Ali Johar, Shoukat Ali, Abul-Kalam Azad, Zafar
Ali Khan started open criticism of government. They gave new bent to Muslim nationalistic
sentiments.

Efforts for Hindu Muslim Unity:

Since 1910, the Muslim leadership started new efforts for unity. Now they realized
that in order to get more and more rights, Hindu Muslim unity is inevitable. In 1910, Hakim
Ajmal Khan in his inaugural address of AIML session expressed these sentiments of Hindu-
Muslim unity. Even some British supported this initiative. Congress patron, Sir William
Wattenberg started negotiations with Congress leaders for this purpose. Amid this
background, Calcutta Unity Conference was convened which was participated by 60 Hindu
and 40 Muslim delegates. Though this conference inconclusive, but it certainly was a big
initiative towards Hindu Mulim unity.

Role of Muslim League London Branch:

The Muslim league London Branch in its annual report of 1912 contained suggestions
to overcome Hindu-Muslim differences. London Muslim League branch proposed the
establishment of representative boards of two communities in order to resolve the communal
issue. It proposed that Muslim should stop cow slaughter and Hindus should stop interfering
in Muslim prayers. These efforts changed the Hindu mentality and Hindus became
particularly sympathetic towards Muslims. These sympathies were expressed in Congress
meetings. For instance, Congress sympathized with Balkan Muslims. In December, 1912, an
annual session of Congress was held at Bankipur which was presided by Holker, he
expressed his grief over the plight of Balkan Muslims.

Change in Muslim League Creed:

Congress's attitude had become sympathetic but British cold shoulder towards
Muslims had forced the AIML to change its creed. On 22nd March, 1913, in Muslim League
Lucknow session, League changes its creed and added fourth objective in its programmer:4th
Objective: Attainment of self-governance under the aegis of British.

This change in creed paved the way for Lucknow pact and their stance altered and
diverged towards one end of unity. Muslim politics drew closer towards the nationalistic
aspirations.

Role of Liberal Leadership:

Another factor that paved way for Lucknow pact was liberal leadership. At that point
of time, both Congress and AIML were dominated by liberal elements and espoused the
cause of Hindu-Muslim unity. These included Gokhalie, S.P. Sinha, Barrister Mazhar-ul-Haq,
Jinnah, Mojmadar, Anne Besant, Hakim Ajmal Khan. It was said that Lucknow pact is the
last act of liberal leadership. Now the leadership was ready to take initiative for Hindu-
Muslim unity and was ready for unconditional cooperation with British.

Jinnah's Role / Efforts:

Jinnah's inclusion in League cemented the Hindu-Muslim unity. Jinnah forced AIML
to change the policies of League. Jinnah was member of both parties. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay
describes in his book, From Plassey to Partition, "The anti-Congress and pro-government
attitude of the Muslim League was also changing with the induction of younger men, like
Muhammad Ali, Wazir Hasan or Abul Kalam Azad into its leadership. Muhamamd Ali
Jinnah was brought in and became a bridge between the League and the Congress."'

Outbreak of World War I:

In 1914, the war increased the realization that it was right time to present joint
demands. It was appropriate time to put their demands because British badly needed Indian
support.

Lucknow Pact other Developments Leading towards the Pact:

Both parties decided to hold their annual session at the same place and during same
period. It was for the first time in the history of India that Congress and League held their
annual session in December, 1915 in Bombay. Muslim League session was presided by
Barrister Mazhr-ul-Haq and Congress session was presided by S.P Sinha. In these sessions,
both parties established committees for joint constitutional pact. These committees met on
Nov, 1916 in Calcutta and jointly prepared a scheme. This scheme was passed by both parties
in their annual session in Lucknow in Dec, 1916. Muslim League session was presided by
M.A. Jinnah and Congress session was presided by Arnika Charan Mojamdar.

Features of Lucknow Pact:

Followings were the important aspects of the Lucknow pact:

i. The Hindus agreed to the right of separate electorate for the Muslims, for the first and
last time.
ii. The Hindus conceded that the Muslims would have one third representation in the
Imperial Legislative Council.
 iii. A weightage formula was proposed under which the Muslims would get less
representation than their population in the legislative council in those provinces where
they were in majority but more in provinces where they were in minority.
iv. It was decided that no non-official member would present
any bill, resolution or a part of it, related to another nation in any elected body if three
fourth of the members of the affected nation opposed it.
v. It was demanded that the members of the Imperial
Legislative Council be increased to 150 and 4/5 of its members be directly elected by
the public The president of the Council be elected by the members themselves and not
selected by the government. It was proposed that total members of the legislative
councils of larger provinces should be 125 and that of the smaller should be from 50
to 75.
vi. It was demanded that members of the central and provincial
legislative councils be given the right to move adjournment motions.
vii. It was demanded that the control of the Secretary of State
and that of the government of India over the provincial governments be curtailed to
give them more autonomy. Nobody from Indian Civil Services should be made either
the governor or head of the Provincial governments.
viii. It was demanded that all the members of the councils
should have the right to ask supplementary questions. Till then only the questioner
himself had this right to do so.
ix. All sources except customs, post and telegraphs, salt,
opium and railways be transferred to the provincial government.
x. The council of the Secretary of State for India be disbanded
and two Assistant Secretaries may be appointed to assist him instead; one of them
must be an Indian. Besides, the salary of the Secretary of the State must be disbursed
from the British exchequer instead from the Indian treasury.
xi. Half of the members of the Executive Council of the
Governor General must be Indian who should be elected by the members of the
Imperial legislative council.
xii. The same method should be adopted for the members of
the Executive Council of the governors.
Judiciary must be separated from the executive and no officer should be delegated with
judicial authority.
Significance/ Impacts:

The Lucknow Pact occupies 'a unique significance in the constitutional history of the
subcontinent.

i. Jamil-ud-din Ahmed, describes Lucknow pact in his book as the only bright spot in
Hindu Muslim relation.
ii. A firm foundation was laid for the political advance of Muslims.
iii. The way was also opened for joint efforts by Hindus and Muslims for the attainment
oi the goal of self-government.
iv. This was first and last pact concluded on the issue of separate electorates.
v. A great success for League as Congress conceded all the important Muslim demands
crucial for Muslims.
a. Congress accepted the Muslim separate existence as a nation.
b. Weightage in Muslim minority provinces. Luck now pact also accepted League as a
separate representative organization of the Muslims.
c. Created conclusive environment for launching of joint anti-imperialist movement.
vi. Under the impact of this pact, the subsequent years witnessed movements which
jointly launched by Hindus and Muslims for instance, Rowlett Act agitation, and
agitation against Jallianwala Bagh incident and non-cooperation movement or
Khilafat movement.
vii. Carried great constitutional significance in future:
It had great impact on subsequent constitution making efforts e.g. Government of India
Act 1919 recognized the principle of responsible governments though in a defective manner
at provincial level in form of principle of diarchy e Similarly, the scheme of representation of
Muslim community in the central and provincial legislatures as embodied in Lucknow pact
was generally followed in Montague Chelmsford reforms.

Criticism:

Muslim Advantages:

The Muslims got representation in excess to their population where they were in
minority but it did not make government in their provinces. In Punjab, Muslims had to
surrender 1/10 of their seats. In Bengal, Muslims got one quarter of seats. Muslims were
never in a position to form a government and remained in minority. Muslims agreed to forge
a 'quarter of .seats which they were entitled on the basis of population.

Weightage Formula:

These effects were felt after the elections of 1937 and 1946 as League encountered
more difficult implications forgotten in new zeal of formation of a united front against British
and of presenting a joint statement of demand.

Criticism of lqbal, Ch. Khaliq uz Zaman and Syed Noor Ahmed:

Iqbal was not happy with the Lucknow pact and expressed his displeasure at the pact
in later years. He contended that the pact could only be proved successful if it was intended to
join one nation. If its aim was to express two nations, this plan was a failure.

Syed Noor Ahmed was of the view that It proved momentarily successful but these could not
be sustained in the long run.

Similarly, Ch. Khaliq-uz-Zaman also criticized the Lucknow pact and branded it a
product of political inexperience of Muslims. He was of the view that it saved the seeds of
partition of Bengal and Punjab.

Conclusion - End Note:

The Lucknow pact failed as the spirit of cooperation behind the pact was dried out. It
could' not be sustained. He said: "Lucknow pact was signed on the fundamental principle of
two separate entities."
Chapter: 8

Iqbal’s Vision of Pakistan: A Philosophical and Political Study

‘The pen is mightier than the sword’. Muslims of India experienced the expression of sword
in the War of independence 1857 which failed to accomplish their goal and reviving the
glorious Muslim rule. On the contrary the services rendered through pen cultivated thoughts
in the masses, facilitated them in releasing their strength to overcome weaknesses and
motivated them cherished their dreams. Allama Iqbal stood distinguished in this regard. He
experienced intellectual growth and conveyed and nurtured his thoughts to the Muslims of
India to understand and strife for their separate identity. He was a political philosopher who
provided ideological foundations to Pakistan movement and came to be known as ‘spiritual
father of Pakistan’, Architect of Pakistan’.

The philosophical thoughts enunciated by Iqbal were not a spontaneous outcome. Various
developments in his life enabled him to evolve and unfold his ideas about Islamic
universalism and Muslim nationalism. In the initial years these thoughts underwent through
changes and were articulated through his poetry. Later Iqbal felt a need to step in the political
ground to change his thoughts in reality. In this attempt Iqbal is considered to be an idealist
who ignored the complications which exist in the real world. But despite of these charges
Iqbal, though not being a charismatic and active politician, had given the direction to the
Muslim leadership for the separate homeland for the Muslims. He crystallized these thoughts
in his Presidential Address at Allahabad Session (December 1930) of the All India Muslim
League. Before making a political study it is important to look its philosophical dimension
which served as a spirit of his concept of Pakistan.

Iqbal’s Vision of Pakistan: A Philosophical Study

Iqbal in the early years of his life stood for composite Indian nationalism. His Urdu poetry
before 1906 and specifically poems such as ‘The New Temple’ and ‘The Indian Anthem’
bear ample testimony to this fact. His visit to Europe was a turning point and his thoughts
altered from composite Indian Nationalism to Muslim Nationalism. Iqbal visited Europe in
1905 and returned to India in 1908. During this period Iqbal acquired law degree at Lincoln’s
Inn, a Bachelor of Arts at Cambridge and a Doctor of Philosophy at Munich University.
Territorial Nationalism and Imperialism

It was his stay that he was able to closely observe the political developments in Europe. He
made a deep observation to explore the basis of their political models. In this exercise he
highlighted the inherent flaws which were responsible for creating tensions between
countries. It was nationalism based on love for land i.e. territorial nationalism. It was prime
factor to provoke selfishness among the countries to protect their national interests. Iqbal
concluded that territorial nationalism was of gross misuse. According to Iqbal it was, for
instance, a weapon of European Imperialism which destroyed the unity of Muslim world. The
Imperialistic designs of Europe were in great need of this effective weapon-the propagation
of the European conception of nationalism in Muslim countries-to shatter the unity of Islam
into pieces.

Iqbal also believed that imperialism destroyed the uniqueness of subservient countries.
Imperial powers demolish their identity to strengthen their rule without opposition. In 1938
he restated that imperial powers not only subjugated weaker peoples but also robbed them of
their religion, literature, and cultural traditions.

Indian Nationalism and Islamic Universalism

After his return to Europe Iqbal’s abandoned the concept of composite Indian nationalism
and adopted Muslim Nationalism. He also carved out his views on Islamic universalism. He
believed that European concept of nationalism cannot be applied to India. He asserted that
according to European notion India is not a land with one nation. Because two major
communities living in India i.e. Hindus and Muslims do not share common language,
common culture, common history which is the basis of nationalism. Rather Muslims possess
separate identity with their own religious and cultural values. These views were expressed in
his poem ‘The Anthem of the Islamic Community’.

To Iqbal territorial nationalism and Islam were contradictory and irreconcilable. Iqbal
reasoned that mission of Islam was to demolish idolatry, it could not approve of patriotism
(born out of nationalism), which was nothing but “a subtle form of idolatry”. He wrote a
poem ‘Territorial Nationalism’ and in one its couplet said:

Country is the supreme among all the contemporary idols.

He said that: God’s creation is divided into nations by territorial nationalism. So the
Territorial nationalism creates division in the Muslims community. And the roots of Islamic
nationality are destroyed by it.

Ummah or Single Muslim Nation

Iqbal advocated that Muslims have their own basis of nationalism whose origins lie in Islam.
Islam did not follow the confined scope of nationalism. Its membership would not be
determined by birth or domicile, it did not consider the natural, historical and cultural
differences of different races but it is based on common faith. Muslims living in different
parts of the world with variant socio-cultural backgrounds, ethnic divisions and cultural
values constitute a single Muslim nation i.e. ummah. It was Islamic universalism which was a
basis of Muslim nationalism.

Iqbal, in the meanwhile, also defended Muslim fanaticism by defining it as “patriotism for
religion”. He reasoned that Muslim fanaticism is justifiable on the grounds that since all
nations were fanatical concerning the basis of their nationality (i.e. their country), then
Muslims were equally fanatic since their nationality was based on religion. In his address to
the National League of London on December 10, 1932 he said:

Now with regard to communalism and Pan-Islamism I want to say a few words to you. If a
man belongs to a cultural community, he feels that it is his duty to protect that culture. In that
case I appeal to you whether you will upon such a man as unpatriotic. I think it is the duty of
every Briton to protect his country if his country is in danger. In the same way it is the duty
of every Muslim to protect his culture, his faith, if he finds that these things are not
safeguarded.

Muslim Nationalism

Iqbal believed that the ultimate goal of Muslims should be the strengthening of Muslim
nationalism for the attainment of Islamic universalism. For this purpose Muslims should be
concerned with the problem of survival and protection of their separate identity. Iqbal
believed that Muslims of India have their separate identity. Muslims are not just the
community but a separate cultural entity. Attainment of political power was essential to retain
uniqueness of Muslims. He envisioned an ideal state which works for the creation of Muslim
ummah. It should be designed on divine law of Islam, and free of all artificial distinctions
between men.

Ideal Muslim State

Iqbal’s perception of an Islamic state was not a theocracy but a state that attempts to realize
the spiritual principles of Tawhid, equality, solidarity, and freedom in a definite human
organization. Along with the ideal state Iqbal’s ideal society was one of the perfect social
equality, founded not on an economic, but a spiritual basis, “where the poor tax the rich”,
private ownership was a trust, and a capital was not “allowed to accumulate so as to dominate
the real producer of the wealth.”

Iqbal propagated these views through his poetry and different political forums. It became an
instrument for stimulating activism among Muslims. He made these thoughts an ideological
foundation for his concept of Pakistan. Iqbal’s ideas also convinced the Muslim League
leadership to take inspiration for the creation of Pakistan.

Iqbal’s Vision of Pakistan: A Political Study.

Iqbal not only an active politician but was a political philosopher. He lacked the spell-binding
skills of an orator in both his speeches and statements. His speeches resembled much more
resembled the lectures of a professor in university than the rhetoric of a seasoned politician.
Despite of this inefficiency he used the national and international political forum to safeguard
the interests of the Muslims of India. He entered into politics for this cause and marked the
historic achievement by articulating the concept of Pakistan in 1930.

Iqbal started his political career during his stay at London. He was elected to the executive
committee of the league’s British chapter. Later, he contested the elections for the Punjab
Legislative Assembly. He remained member of the assembly from 1926-1930. During his
tenure he made various proposals for the socio-economic uplift of his people. These included:
1) improvement in the economy of Punjab; 2) grants-in-aid to the poor; 3) transfer of taxing
authority to the provinces; 4) grant-in-aid to Muslim educational institutions; 5) ban on
defamatory statements against the founders of religions. Thus, the protection of Muslims’
rights and interest remained his prime concern.
Iqbal gained political prominence in 1930 when he delivered Muslim League Presidential
Address at Allahabad. For the first time the idea of separation was propounded from the
platform of the Muslim League. He started his address by highlighting the religio-cultural
separate identity of Muslims in India. He said:

Communalism, in the higher sense, is indispensable to the formation of harmonious whole in

India. The units of Indian society are not territorial. The principles of European democracy
cannot be applied to India without recognizing the facts of communal groups.

He also stated:

I would like to see the Panjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan
amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within or without British Empire, the
formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final
destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.

Some writers are of the view that Iqbal wanted only a consolidated Muslim unit within the
confederation of India but this is incorrect. If it had been so he would not have mentioned
within the British Empire or without it. Another charge against Allahabad Address is that it
presented a grand vision of a Muslim state in North-India but remained silent over Bengal, a
Muslim majority province in the east.

Iqbal also participated in the Second and Third London Round Table Conferences (1931,
1932). These conferences were held to seek the constitutional avenues for India towards its
eventual self-determination. In the III RTC Iqbal elaborated upon his solution to communal
problem i.e. the establishment of Muslim state in northwest India. Lord Lothian stated that
Iqbal’s solution seemed to be viable but it would take at least another 25 years to realize.

Among Muslims, Chaudhry Rahmat Ali also exploited this fabrication in his own purpose.
He asserted that he was the founder of Pakistan National Movement and coined the term
Pakistan. He maintained that Iqbal in his Allahabad Address had used the word state not a
sovereign state but as a part of proposed Indian Federation. In his assessment he completely
ignored the words ‘outside British Empire’. Chaudhry Rahmat Ali also claimed to be the
author of Now or Never: Are We to Live or Perish?this contained a scheme for Pakistan.It
was a brain child of four Muslim students, namely Muhammad Aslam Khan (Khattak)
President, Khyber Union; Rahmat Ali (Choudhary);  Sheikh Mohammad Sadiq (Sahibzada);
and Inayatullah Khan(of Charsada) Secretary, Khyber Union. This pamphlet was no more
than an exaggerated echo of Iqbal’s 1930 suggestion. Chaudhry Rahmat Ali was not a
founder of Pakistan’s scheme yet his propaganda worked in the popularization of the demand
for Pakistan.

Iqbal did not ever slip away from his concept of Pakistan but could not effectively propagate
after presenting it owing to the internal crisis in the Muslim League. He worked to convince
Jinnah to return to India and worked for the Muslims of India to cherish their goal. The
correspondence between Jinnah and Iqbal during May 1933 to November 1934 provided
Jinnah the political conditions of India and a need for the protection of Muslims. Jinnah also
got a clear conception of Iqbal’s thoughts and motivated him to come back to India with new
energy.  He preferred Jinnah over other Muslim leaders as he had confidence in his
competence. He wrote to Jinnah:

I know you are a Busy man but I do hope you won’t mind writing to you often, as you are the
only Muslim in India to whom the community has right to look up for safe guidance through
the storm which is coming to North-West India, and perhaps to the whole of India.

On the other hand he also appealed Muslims to join hands with Jinnah. He believed that “a
united front can be formed under the leadership of Muslim League. And the Muslim League
can succeed only on account of Jinnah. Now none but Jinnah is capable of leading the
Muslims”.

Jinnah returned to India with new spirit and started mobilizing masses for the Muslim cause.
The process was accelerated due to the arbitrary rule of Congress ministries from 1937-1939.
This 27 months rule exposed the authoritative and hegemonic designs of Congress upon
Muslims if left on the mercy on Hindu rule. The ideas of Muslim separatism had already been
in the Indian political atmosphere.

The scheme demanded in Pakistan Resolution 1940 was almost similar to the concept
expressed by Iqbal in Allahabad Address in 1930. Thus, Iqbal’s concept of a separate
homeland served as a foundation of political demand for Pakistan in 1940. This was also
affirmed by Jinnah in these words “Iqbal is no more amongst us, but had he been alive he
would have been happy to know that we did exactly what he wanted us to do.
Chapter: 9

Congress Ministries (1937-1939)

After the act of 1935, the elections we're announced and in the end of 1936, the elections
were held in Indian Subcontinent. Even though Muslim League and Congress were against
the Government of India Act 1935, yet it was implemented in the winter of 1937. Now, what
lay before them was the task of persuading their concerned masses to support them in the
upcoming elections. But Muslim League, which stood for separate electorates, was
unfortunately divided in several factions owing to personal and ideological differences.
Congress, on the other hand, was raising slogans of joint electorates. Congress also wanted
Hindi to be declared as the official language in the Deva Nagri script, while Muslims were in
favor of Urdu in Persian script to be officially declared as the national language of the Indian
sub-continent.

Although the presidential addressbut1930 and the name of Pakistan was in the hand of
Muslim league , But Muslim league went to election with no clear cut programmer. The
result of elections came as a huge shock to both the parties. Congress, who claimed to be
representing 95% of the total Indian population, could not even secure 40% of the seats. It
won almost 706 seats out of 1,771 in 8 out of 11 provinces. Its success was restricted to
Hindu-majority provinces only. As for the results for the Muslim League, they were greatly
disappointing. Out of 491 Muslim seats, it could only capture 106 and 26 of them were taken
by Congress. Hence, the final success of the elections was named in the favor of Congress,
which gained majority in Bihar, Orissa, Madras and U.P and other regions.

The Congress didn’t set up ministries for about four months demanding British government
to not interfere in its legislative affairs. Discussions between them took place, and at last, the
British agreed without making any formal amendment to the Government of India Act 1935.
As a result of which, Congress ministries were formed in July 1937 in 8 out 11 provinces:
Assam, Bengal, Behar, Bombay, CP, Madras, NWFP, Orissa, Punjab, Sindh, UP, but with
bitter policy against Muslims: Hindi became the national language, Congress flag became the
national flag, and Bande Matram became the national anthem. A strict prohibition was laid on
cow slaughter and singing of Bande Matram, taken from the novel of Chandra Chatterji, was
started in schools. Construction of new mosques was banned and Muslims were harassed
while they offered prayers.

Twenty-seven months of Congress rule were characterized by rising political Hinduism,

which seemed to be working only for the welfare of Hindu community and revenging the
previous 700-year Muslim rule over them, as stated by some Congress leaders. Educational
reforms were introduced that were purely anti-Muslim in spirit. The purpose of Warda
Taleemi Scheme was to displace the idea of two nation theory from minds of Muslim
children, while Vidya Mandar Scheme aimed at promoting Hindu culture by making Mandar
education necessary at elementary level. Muslims were also kept back in economic circle.
They were expelled from government offices and career opportunities were closed for them.
Their trade and agriculture was a target of Hindu’s harm, and they couldn’t appeal justice
which already had Hindu imprints upon it. As a result, and to nobody’s surprise but huge
dismay, massive Hindu-Muslim riots took place.
Several reports such as “Pirpur Report”, “Muslim Sufferings under Congress Rule”, and “The
Sharif Report” were issued by Muslims leaders to give word and voice to the injustice and
cruelty they were receiving under Congress reign, and they found expression in newspapers.

When World War II started in 1939, the British were fighting against the Axis Powers. The
Viceroy of India announced India’s involvement without consulting its representative
political leaders. Congress asked for transfer of power in repayment of their cooperation in
war, which the British government denied. As a result, Congress ministries resigned in
December 1939. Thus came to an end the nightmarish rule which had terrorized Muslim
community beyond imagination. Quaid-i-Azam asked the Muslims to observe it as a ‘Day of
Deliverance’ on 22 December 1939 with peace and without any harmful intent towards any
other nation. Prayers of thanksgiving and gratitude were offered and Muslims took a sigh of
relief from the atrocities committed against them in the two-year Congress rule.

Chapter: 10
Pakistan Resolution

PREAMBLE
Pakistan Resolution was the turning point in the history of Pakistan. It provides a way to the
Muslims ,leading to the destination of a complete independence . Attitude of Hindus:

Hindus clearly stated that they would not tolerate another community in India by saying:
"India belong to the Hindus and if Muslims wish to live in India, they should Hinduism."
The Hindus tried to destroy Muslim identity by introducing Hindi as a medium of education.

CONGRESS OPERATION
The Congress neglected the Muslim in every field and supported the Hindus. It did not
recognize Muslim as a considerable party in India. In his address Nehru stated that: "There
are only two parties in the country, the congress and the British." According of Quaid-e-
Azam: "The sole aim and object of the congress is to annihilate every other organization in
the country.”
PARTITION PROPOSALS

By 1937, the political conditions of Sub Continent compelled the Muslim political leaders to
seriously consider the partition of India. The idea of Indian partition was not a new one, a
number of partition proposals had been forwarded previously by many Muslim leaders like
Syed Ahmed Shaheed, Mohammad Abdul Qadir, Allama Iqbal, Syed Jamal Uddin Afghani,
Abdul Halim Sharar etc.

PROPOSAL GIVEN BY ALLAMA IQBAL

The most reasonable proposal was given by Allama Iqbal. The poet, philosopher while
delivering his presidential address at the annual session of the Muslim League at Allahabad in
December 1930 said:

"India is a continent of Human Beings belonging to different languages, having different

religion; therefore, I demand the formation of separate Muslim State for the Muslims of
India."

CHAUDRY REHMAT ALI'S SCHEME

Chaudry Rehmat Ali proposed his scheme of partition of India. He declared:

"North of India is Muslim and we shall keep it Muslim. Not only that ,we will make it a
Muslim State"
He coined the word "Pakistan" in which 'P' stands for Punjab, 'A' stands for Afghanistan,
(N.W.F.P) 'K' for Kashmir ,'S' for Sindh and 'tan' stands for Baluchistan. The word Pakistan
means "The land of Pure".

THE PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

In 1940,the 27th annual session of Muslim League was held at Lahore from 22 to 24 march in
Minto Park (Iqbal Park). 25 member committee of All India Muslim league drafted the
Lahore resolution. Under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam, a resolution was passed on
23rd March,1940.The Resolution was moved by Bengal Chief Minister Maulvi Fazlul Haq
and seconded by Chaudry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, supported by Sir Zafar Ali khan, Nawab Ismail,
Sardar aurangzeb ,Sir Abdullah Haroon, Qazi Esa etc. It stated that:
"No Constitution plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is
designed on the following basic principles, viz, that geographically contiguous units are
democrat into regions which should be so constituted, with such territorial adjustment as may
necessary, that the areas in which Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-
Western and Eastern zones of India, should be grouped to constitute independent states in
which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign...adequate, effective and
mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities for
the protection of their religion ,cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights."

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS OF QUAID-E-AZAM

The Quaid-e-Azam delivered a historic address at this moment highlighting the distinct
national character of the Muslims of India. He said:
"Musalmans are not a minority at is commonly known and understood. One has only got to
look around even today, According to the British map of India, out of 11 provinces,4
provinces where the Muslims dominate more or less are functioning not with standing the
decision of the Congress High Command to non-cooperate and prepare coercive disobedience
.Musalmans are nation according to any definition of a nation and they must have their
homelands, their territory and their state. We wish to live in peace and harmony with our
neighbors as a free and independent people. We wish our people to developed to the fullest
our spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in
consonance with our own ideals and according to the genius of our people."

MUSLIMS ACCEPTANCE AND HINDUS REJECTION OF THE RESOLUTION

The Resolution was unanimously accepted by the Muslims who had assembled the meeting
plan in a large number. The Hindu readers and newspaper raise a hue of cry after the
Resolution. They refused it and referred to the partition as "Vivisection of Motherland".
Gandhi said that:
"Dividing India was like dividing a cow."
Quaid-e-Azam warned the Hindus that:
"If the Hindus tried to get the whole of India they would lose the whole, but if they gave one-
third to the Muslims they would get two-thirds."

IMPORTANCE OF PAKISTAN RESOLUTION

The Pakistan Resolution is a land mark in the history of the Muslims of India. This famous
Resolution results in the creation of Pakistan. The acceptance of Pakistan Resolution
strengthened the Two Nation Theory which was the basis of Muslim struggle for
Independence.

CONCLUSION
Pakistan Resolution was a demand for the protection and safeguard of the national identity of
the Muslims. With the passage of Pakistan Resolution, the Muslims began to acquire new
hope and confidence in their destiny. The Resolution infused high spirits among the Muslims
who were now determined to fight to the last minute for the accomplishment of Pakistan.
Chapter: 11

Initial Difficulties at the Establishment of Pakistan

PREFACE

Pakistan came into being on 14 august 1947.The emergence of Pakistan, after a long and
arduous freedom movement, was infect a great victory of the democratic idea of life. The
Indian Muslims happily and valiantly laid down their lives and properties to achieve a
destination in which they saw the fulfillment of their dreams of living an independent life free
from Hindu or British dominance. Quaid-e-Azam on 15th August, 1947 said:
"My thoughts are with those valiant fighters in our cause who readily sacrificed all they had
including their lives to make Pakistan possible."

INITIAL DIFFICULTIES OF PAKISTAN

From its very inception, Pakistan faced a large number of problems. Some of the initial
difficulties were:

1. Choice of Capital and Establishment of Government

The first problem that Pakistan had to face was to choose a capital to form a Government and
to establish a secretariat Karachi was chosen as the capital of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam took
the office of the Governor General Liaqat Ali Khan was appointed as Prime Minister and a
Cabinet of experienced persons was selected. Arrangements were to be made to bring the
officials who had opted for Pakistan from Delhi to Karachi.

2. Unfair Boundary Distribution

A boundary commission was set up under a British Chairman, Sir Cyril Redcliff. He misused
his powers and handed over Muslim majority areas like Gurdaspur, Ferozpur, Jullander to
India hence providing them a gateway to Kashmir. Quaid-e-Azam called it:
" An unjust incomprehensible and even perverse award."

3.The Massacre of Muslim Refugees in India

On the birth of Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs became more furious. In a planned move, Muslim
properties were set on fire and they were compelled to leave Bharat for Pakistan with nothing
but their lives. Millions of refugees were killed before they reached Pakistan. Many migrants
were looted and had to be provided boarding immediately as they reached Pakistan.10.25
millions migrated from India to Pakistan and about 2.5 million from Pakistan to India.

4.Division of Military and Financial Assets

In order to embarrass Pakistan financially India did a lot of dishonesty in the matters of
Pakistan which were concerned with its benefits. Pakistan was promised to get Rs.750
million but the Bharat Government refused to give .Pakistan received only 200million.
Pakistan also did not receive the due share of the military assets. This dishonest attitude put
Pakistan into great difficulties.

5.Canal Water Dispute

Most of the rivers flowing in Pakistan have their origin in India. The unjust RedCliff awards
handed over Madhupur and Ferozepur headworks to India. In 1948,india stopped water
supply to Pakistani canals to damage the Pakistani agriculture. However on 9th September,
1960 on agreement called "Indus Basin Treaty" was signed between the two countries.
According to this treaty 3 rivers, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas given to India and 3 rivers Indus, Chenab
and jehlum were given to Pakistan.

6. Kashmir Dispute

Kashmir dispute is the most important and unsolved problem. Kashmir is the natural part of
Pakistan because at the time of partition 85% of the Kashmir's total population was Muslim.
The Hindu Dogra rule, who was secretly with the Government of India declared Kashmir as a
part of India. Pakistan has continuously insisted that Kashmir must get their right of self-
determination but due to non-cooperation of India, Kashmir issue still remain unsolved.

7. Constitutional Problem

The constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even till 1956. Lack of a permanent
constitution created, chances of unscrupulous interference in democratic progress of Pakistan.

8.Annexation of Princely States

In United india, there were almost 600 states. At the time of partition, All Indian princely
states were given the right to link up with either of dominions.10 states decided to go with
Pakistan. However, the fate of following states remained undecided.
Junagadh and Munawadar

The Muslim Nawab governing Junagadh favored in acceding to Pakistan. But Indian
Government sent Army troops towards Junagadh and occupied the state by force in
November, 1947. Munawadar state was also annexed by India.

Hyderabad Deccan

Hyderabad Deccan was the largest and richest state ruled by Muslim ruler Nizam who
decided to remain independent. But pressure tactics began to be applied by Indian
Government and Mount Batten .India attacked Hyderabad on 13th September 1948 and
forcibly annexed this state to India.

9.Electricity Problem

Due to transfer of Muslim majority areas to Bharat and unfair demarcation, electricity system
of West Punjab was disrupted because all power stations were at Mundi, a predominantly
Muslim majority area gifted to Bharat but Quiad-e-Azam said:
"If we are to exist as a nation we will have to face the problems with determination and
force."

CONCLUSION

Pakistan came into being as a free Muslim state in quite unfavorable circumstance, It had no
resources, it had to build up its administrative machinery from a scratch. But Supreme efforts
were made by the Quiad-e-Azam and his colleagues to grapple with the situation .His golden
principles "Unity " "Faith" and "Discipline" gave way to Pakistan for a bright future of a
strong and well developed country .In his last message to the nation on 14th August 1948, he
told the nation:
"The foundation of your state have been laid and it is now for you to build and build as
quickly and as you can."
Chapter 12
Political Culture of Pakistan
The political culture is a particular distribution of political attitudes, values, feelings,
information and skills. As peoples’ attitude effect what they do, a nation’s political culture
affects the conduct of its citizens and leaders throughout the political system.

As a nation we have adopted such attitudes and modes of behaviors which have deeply
affected the conduct of our citizen and have left an ever-lasting impact on the conduct and
behavior of our leaders. Our attitudes as a nation have affected our political system by
introducing unique trends in politics. The multiple party systems, an important feature of our
political setup, has not helped us to gain political maturity but rather contributed greatly in
developing a Machiavellian state in Pakistan. The institutions in the political system of
Pakistan like the military, the bureaucracy and judiciary instead of strengthening the roots of
democracy, helped greatly in promoting the undemocratic, autocratic and ‘Yes Sir Syndrome’
in our political and administrative system by their own ignorance and disregard for the
democratic norms. They became plaything in the hands of the ambitious, inefficient and
corrupt politicians who destroyed their morals and professional integrity by using them to
grind their own axe. There are religious Ulema, a dominant sector of the political system of
Pakistan, who have used their religion to blackmail the successive governments. They had
made the best use of their agitational muscle in the destabilization of political system of the
country. Our political system reflects the trends, attitudes and perception floated by the
political institutions and actors. It exhibits the divergent, conflicting and the polarized views
of our leaders, political and religious parties and institutions on the national issues which
promote hatred and hostility. The main characteristics of the political culture of Pakistan are
as fallow:-

1. Undemocratic

It is a common knowledge that ever since independence we have done great damage to the
democratic institutions by our intolerant attitudes. They are frequent party defections by the
party members. We are not used to criticism and lack in tolerance which is considered a pre-
requisite for the success of democracy.

Unfortunately democracy in Pakistan was grafted on an authoritarian State and society, and
was not the outcome of any major struggle between the privileged and unprivileged, the
powerful and powerless. Such a struggle would have brought democratic harmony to the
state.

It is usually the party in power who strikes at the roots of democracy by adopting autocratic
and repressive methods to subdue the quarreling opposition. The members of opposition are
harassed. They are implicated in false cases and sent to jail. The public meetings of the
opposition parties are disturbed. The agitations and rallies of the opposition are brutally lathi
charged, the participants of the rallies including the women are manhandled, insulted and sent
to jail for disturbing public peace and law and order.
However the people in Pakistan like to have democracy, but there are trends in society which
hinders its growth and they cannot be done away with overnight. Our institutions simply
abhor democracy. They have often charged the political parties with failure to practice inner
party democracy and with frequent changes of party loyalties on the part of the party
members.

Military rulers in the past have invariably opposed democratic trends on the same pretext that
the political parties are a major independent in the growth of democracy. They often stated
publicity that the ‘bloody civilians cannot manage the country, if it is to exist, a more
disciplined section of the society must take over the responsibility to govern it’.

2. Horse Trading

The phrase ‘Horse Trading’ was the first used in the American politics which means, to
bargain or trade shrewdly. Horse Trading basically relates to defection of a member
belonging to one party who, on being allured from the other side for a ministerial assignment
or other material benefits like bank loans, huge amounts, residential or commercial plots and
lucrative jobs for self and relatives, sells his loyalty and joins the other party.

Trading commences the moment when a legislator uses defection to bargain for something
and he change loyalty for another party. It becomes ‘Horse Trading’ when the legislator
dictates onerous terms for consideration as a reward for his defection such as a heavy price, a
high office and other benefits. Horse Trading has been rated as a highly pernicious, immoral
and unethical act.

Horse Trading or defection has become the scourge of our political system. It has struck at
the roots of democracy in Pakistan by blocking the way of democratic development of
political institutions. It leads the political instability and chaos which may eventually rock the
very foundation of democracy. It emerged during the first tenure of Benazir government
when efforts to destabilize her government were launched by the opposition parties. The
government, however, was able to frustrate the move of the opposition to dislodge the
government. The government had a narrow escape when it was able to disperse the no
confidence move by a narrow margin.

Subsequent governments have also indulged in the immoral practice of Horse Trading. The
term Horse Trading was replaced by a new nomenclature as ‘Lotacracy’ during the recent
times when the PML was split into two clear factions. A number of legislators defeated the
PML (N) and set up separate group after the name of ex-PM Muhammad Khan Junejo. These
MPAs and MNAs were the close political allies of Nawaz Shareef who decided to desert him
in his political battle with other parties.

The political parties can play an effective role in crushing the serpent of Horse Trading which
is quickly devouring the democratic and healthy elements in our political system. It can be
done by agitating the votes of the constituencies of those politicians who change their party
loyalties and thus indulge in the loathsome activity of Horse Trading. But unfortunately the
situation in our country is contrary to that. All political parties when they are hurt by
‘defections’ cry out loudly but when it suits them, they welcome it.

3. Power Politics

Majority of our political elite and ruling classes belong to the heirs of the collaborators of the
British rulers. Their forefathers and ancestors were the proteges of the Britishers who
sprinkled innumerable favors on them for the personal service they rendered to their British
benefactors. These collaborators extended their utmost and sincere cooperation at the
experience of their brethren and jointed hands with the invaders for personal gains. In order
to justify his collaborative action the local collaborators glorified the invaders. In the return
of collaborators were allowed to rule his people and area on behalf of the foreign returns.

The collaborators, which constituted the local elite, developed the power worship inclination
that continues to be a significant trend of political set up of Pakistan. The power worshipers
disregard the vices of the power holder. He glorifies everyone who happens to be in the
power slot and justifies collaborating with him. Due to the tendency of power worship of
political system has been confined to the few privileged classes and the general public has no
say and role to play. ‘We have a closed political system in which the senior echelons of civil
and military bureaucracy operate in a clandestine manner. The ordinary citizens are not
allowed to play a part in this moves made by the stalwarts to score points against each other.
They have become politically apathetic because their past struggle for the dethronement of
the incompetent rulers did not produce any positive results’. The power worship has become
the chief characteristics of our political elite, a quality they inherited from their ancestral
predecessors.

4. Intolerance

Intolerance to others point of view is a glaring characteristic of our political culture. In

Pakistan, criticism is not tolerated, particularly when the person being criticized is a known
and established leader, the criticism is rebuffed with hostility. The critics are branded as
disloyal and anti-state worthy to be condemned to the gallows. An easy way to deal with the
opponent’s point of view, which is never considered with a rational and cool approach, is to
declare him a foreign agent, a CIA man of a KGB tool, a traitor or a heretic fit for the stake.
As the dissenter understands that his views will not be welcomed, he restores to plotting
against the leadership and forms his own group to split the party.

False cases are instituted against the opponents to involve them in the treason cases. The
opponent’s party is banned and all its record is confiscated and offices sealed. A dissenter
within the party harassed with kidnapping, brutal beating, arrest and implication in the false
cases and eventually killed in a mysterious way. By these tactics the opponent is refrained
from spreading his views.

The educational institutions have turned into battle fields where rival political factions,
through their allied student organizations, adopt gruesome methods to silence the opposing
group. Even the polished, enlightened and serious political leaders resort to violent tactics
and threaten to pull out tongues and break legs of the people who dare to speak against their
ideas.

5. Ultimatums

Pakistan’s political culture displays widely the politics of ultimatums and threats. Usually the
leaders of opposition frequently hurl ultimatums at the government if their demands and
dictates are not met by the authorities. Their demands usually revolve around the resignations
of the high functionaries of the government and they set the last date for meeting their
demands. They issue threats of launching movement from one corner of the country to the
other or ‘wheel jam’, ‘gherao’, ‘jallao’, or Dharna’s. The opposition asks the P.M or the
President to step down, or the P.M. is asked to tender public apology on the government’s
policy or decisions. If the P.M or the President do not accede the opposition’s demands, the
opposition launches a campaign to weaken the government. It damages public property by
ransacking and resorts to sabotage activities to shake the government from its feet.

6. Male Domination

Like other social spheres, Pakistan’s political system is also dominated by the male members
of the society. Male Domination is an obvious feature of our political culture. Woman plays a
subordinate role in the triable and feudal set-up. She is referred to as ‘footwear’ for the man.
Many political leaders, who vociferously plead for women’s rights, keep their own wives and
other ladies well within the confines of their homes.

7. Factionalism

Our rural society, the core of our political system, is divided into zones of influence with
every village having two power centers led by rival Chaudharies and Khans. The situation is
also reflected within the political parties where it has assumed the form of Factionalism. The
ambitious politicians very much like to lead their groups within the party. The party is thus
split into various factions each of them led by the prominent party leader. Factionalism thus
has become the prominent feature of our political culture.

8. Corruption

Corruption of all sorts such as political corruption, moral corruption and fiscal corruption has
permeated in the body politics of Pakistan. It has become the inseparable element of our
political culture. Although corruption is generally associated with bribery, it also includes
misappropriation, misuse of power, favoritism, nepotism and the government servants and
politicians receiving gifts and presents from the people.

Political corruption may be defined as the adoption of immoral practices in which politicians
indulge in order to defeat their rivals and to win the elections with the ultimate aim of
ascending the political power. The politicians also employ corrupt and unethical means to
cling on to power if they already happen to hold it.
Money and blackmailing are the two effective instruments of political corruption. It is usually
the party in power which tends to involve in political corruption. It has an edge over the
opposition in terms of financial resources and the arm twisting organs of the state machinery.
These methods are used extensively to extract political allegiance out of the opponents and
the dissident party members.
Chapter 13

DETERMINANTS OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

The foreign policy of a country reflects the behavior pattern of a nation based on its collective
wisdom in dealing with other nations. It can neither be based permanently on the wishful
thinking of an individual nor on the idealism of a group. The foreign policy of a nation
compared to its internal policy is much more important and significant, as any change in the
latter may not have any dire consequences whereas a change in former may have. A number
of factors have to be kept in view in this regard. The following five factors are discernible in
the formulation of Pakistan’s foreign policy.

(i) Ideological Obligation

(ii) Historical Legacy

(iii) Geographical location

(iv) The Indian threat

(v) Economic Compulsions

Ideological Obligation

Islamic ideology is a very important factor in the determinations of Pakistan’s foreign policy.
Pakistan calls itself a Muslims country for two reasons; firstly more than 85 percent of the
population adheres as to Islam. Secondly, Pakistan was created to meet the irresistible urge of
Muslims of the subcontinent to have homeland of their own. The late P.M Liaqat Ali Khan
once said:

“The underlying idea of the movement for the achievement of Pakistan was not just to add
one more country to the conglomeration of countries in the world or to add one more patch of
color to the multi-colored global map. Pakistan came into being as a result of the urge felt by
the Muslims of this subcontinent to secure a territory, however limited, where the Islamic
ideology and way of life could be practiced and demonstrated to the world. A cardinal feature
of this ideology is to make Muslim brotherhood a living reality. It is therefore, part of the
mission which Pakistan has set before itself to do everything in its power to promote closer
fellowship and cooperation between Muslim countries.”
It should be noted that pro-Islamic tendencies formed the basic part of the thinking of the
leaders struggling for Pakistan. The Muslim leadership championing the cause of the
Musalmans of India spoke also for the grievances of the Muslims all over the world.

The world events affecting the Muslim fraternity came regularly under consideration in the
formal gatherings of the Muslims. The Russo-Turkish war (1877), the Anglo-Afghan war
(1878), the Greco-Turkish war (1897), the Italian invasion of Libya (1911) and the Balkan
war (1912), formed part of the annual resolutions of the Muslim political gatherings that had
been held during this period. Dr. M.A. Ansari was deputed under the same spirit to lead a
medical mission in the Balkan war in support of the Turks. Similarly, the Muslim League
session at Calcutta in 1912 condemned the Russian encroachment on the Iranian territory.
The Khilafat agitation after World War I in support of the Turks is one of the landmarks in
the Indian Muslims struggle against the British. The Agha Khan led a mission to London in
1921 for the restoration of Khilafat and as a protest against the British damaging the Islamic
unity in the Turko-Arab world. The Muslim League in its annual session at Aligarh in 1925
condemned the British action in Iraq. The fall of the King of Afghanistan in 1929 was
lamented that year and Nadir Khan’s achievements in Afghanistan were hailed in 1933
Howrah session. The west’s move in 1933 to hand over Palestine to the Jews and the wartime
division of Iran in 1941 were strongly condemned in such annual session of the Muslim
League. The Muslim League in its 1943 Karachi session asked the allied Powers to give
freedom to Libya then liberated from Italian control and to set Morocco, Algeria and Tunis
free from the clutches of France.

On June 6, 1946, while speaking at a meeting of the All-India Muslim League Council,
Quaid-i-Azam warned the West against the consequences of assigning Palestine to the jews
and condemned the Dutch imperialist hold on Indonesia.

A nation so imbued with affection for its brethren faults all along its struggle for a homeland,
could not ignore this interest on achieving a state. “With the birth of Pakistan the hope of
Pan-Islamic unity and brotherhood brightened afresh amongst the Islamic State of Asia.”

In fact, from the very beginning Pakistan made concerted efforts to come closer to the
Muslim countries of the world, and to form a union of the Islamic nations. This policy has
been consistently pursued by its policy makers to this day and is likely to be pursued in
future.
HISTORICAL LEGACY:

Both India and Pakistan were successors to an administration which carried certain defence
objectives in the area. The subcontinent had been the haunt of foreign invaders from the north
since times immemorial. The Russian expansion in the north-west of India and the Chinese
presence in the north east urged the British authorities in the subcontinent to devise a
mechanism assuring safety against the northern threats. The British northern command at
Rawalpindi, the Quetta Staff Training College, the extension of Indian railway line Chaman
and Landikotal, the creation of the militia force in the tribal belt in the north-west and the
establishment of a powerful intelligence and surveillance station at Peshawar are but a few
instances in this regard. This threat perception, as of natural consequence, was inherited by
both the successive states after the partition of India in 1947. The Russian advances
southward during the last century had aroused international concern the world over and the
new state of Pakistan could not shut its eyes to it. Pakistan inherited from the British files of
the India office the fear of Russia like that of China by India. The decision makers of
Pakistan’s foreign policy always sought western assistance to stem the Russian advance
towards their territory, though at present there is an interregnum period in this threat
perception.

Geographical Location

Geography controls political environment of a country and the prize of modern international
politics is the earth. The term may also be used to describe political geography considered in
terms of the structure of the world and its component states, or to refer to those aspects of
foreign policy planning that must take into account various geographical factors such as
location, size, shape, climate and topography. Geopolitics, therefore, involves varying
degrees of historical determinism based on geography and it also affects the country’s foreign
policy and her national interests. Napoleon aptly said about 175 years ago that, “The foreign
policy of a country is determined by its geography_ the political significance of an area bears
a well defined relation to its climate, land-forms and natural resources.” Ideologies can
change, socio-political systems can change, but a state must retain a territorial personality.
The security of a state depends largely on a vigilant policy towards its neighbours which
postulates o sound frontier policy. It was Lord Curzon, shortly after ceasing to be Viceroy of
India who said “Frontiers are indeed the razor’s edge on which hang suspended the modern
issues of war or peace, of life or death to nations.”
When we look at Pakistan’s location, the first thing which strikes us is accuracy of the
statement that “The foreign policy of Pakistan largely begins and ends at her borders, more
particularly at the Indian border. It is not just a coincidence that Pakistan’s most troublesome
international problems concern its relations with India. A cursory look at the map of Pakistan
indicates that roughly half of Pakistan’s land frontiers meet with India, about one third with
Afghanistan, approximately one sixth with Iran and very small strip with China. Russia is
also very close to it through her former republic of Tajikistan. To the south of Pakistan lie
Arabian Sea and the gateway both to the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Aden which links the
Arabian Sea with the Mediterranean via Red Sea and the Suez Canal, the main trade route
between Europe and Asia. This geographical setting has a direct bearing on Pakistan’s
foreign policy in more than one ways. Half of its land borders which meet with India have
been dominated by the fear of Indian aggression. Pakistan joined the defense pacts with the
United States in the past largely to protect her frontiers against possible aggression from
India. Even in the present day scenario the 70 per cent GNP which is being spent on defense
sector is only because the country cannot afford to let India play with her territorial integrity
and national sovereignty.
Pakistan and Afghanistan have a common frontier of about 1200 miles. After the creation of
Pakistan, the successive Afghan Governments with the backing of India and Russia decried
the validity of this border on ethnic grounds and laid claim to a big chunk of Pakistan
territory and had fended and supported the Pukhtunistan idea in more than one ways. Later in
December 1979 when the former Soviet Union sent its forces into Afghanistan, this border
become highly vulnerable and Pakistan was forced to seek Western and American assistance
for making her defense impregnable against a super power. After the Soviet withdrawal from
Afghanistan in 1989, that country was plunged into a protracted civil war. With the
disintegration of Soviet Union and emergence of new Central Asian States, Pakistan looked
forward to unique economic opportunities, but the civil war in Afghanistan became a major
snag in developing economic and trade relations between Pakistan and Central Asian States.
All the easily accessible land routes to these states pass through Afghanistan which can only
be functional when peace is restored in that country. These land routes are identified along
the following main arteries:

(i) Chaman, Qandahar, Heart, Turghundi, kushka

(In Turkmenistan across Afghan border)
(ii) Chaman, Qandahar, Heart, Mazar Sharif, Termez.
 (Uzbekistan)
(iii) Peshawar, Jalalabad, Kabul, Termez.

Pakistan shares about 590 miles of common frontier with Iran. Almost without exception,
Pakistan has enjoyed very cordial relations with Iran since its inception in 1947. Iran was the
first country to recognized Pakistan as an independent state. In the time of need, Iran came
out with strong moral and material support for Pakistan. The close and warm ties between the
two countries have been expressed through their mutual association in CENTO and RCD and
the presently formed ECO. The Pakistani decision makers attached great importance to
developing close friendly relations with Iran from the very outset.
China and Pakistan have a common frontier of about 400 miles between Xin Jiang and
northern areas of Pakistan. China is a big power and close relations with this mighty
neighbour have become a cornerstone of our foreign policy. China is the only world power
that has never let Pakistan down.

Pakistan is also very close to the Persian gulf and the gulf of Aden areas which are the main
source of oil supply to the west, its location at the head of the Arabian sea (the trade route via
the Suez Canal between Europe and Asia) have a significant importance to the United States
for its strategic interests in the region. The decision makers of Pakistan’s foreign policy are
fully conscious of it and have not failed to use its importance to the country’s advantage.

Other elements of geo-politic, size and population also have their bearing on Pakistan’s
foreign policy. Among the Muslim countries and other Asian countries only a few are bigger
than Pakistan in terms of size and population. This partly explains why Pakistan is not
prepared to accept an inferior position in international affairs. The arid and semi-arid climate
of Pakistan along with the ethnic characteristics produce a healthy and well built population
on the country whom the British have often chosen to call a martial race.’ The land of
Pakistan is fertile with adequate irrigation facilities under the Indus river system. Some
valuable mineral resources are also available such as gypsum, rock salt, limestone, crude oil,
coal, chromites, sulphur, iron and natural gas. There is also not much imbalance in its import-
export ration which characterizes most of the third world countries. All this provides Pakistan
the necessary power base of a medium range power and encourages its decision makers to
play an important role for Pakistan in world affairs.
INDIAN THREAT

From the day of independence, Pakistan was involved in a bitter and prolonged struggle for
her very existence and survival. Its strategic environment has been largely conditioned by its
perception of a security threat from India. The two nations have fought three wars (1948,
1965 and 1971) within the last five decades and experienced countless border clashes. To
obviate any threat from India, Pakistan’s security planners, in defence terms, have been
constantly engaged in search for a near parity situation with India. A ceaseless effort to
improve and expand.