Vietnam

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For other uses, see Vietnam (disambiguation).

Coordinates:  16°N 108°E

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam  (Vietnamese)

Flag

Emblem

Motto: Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc

"Independence – Liberty – Happiness"

Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca
(English: "Army March")

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 Show globe Show map of ASEAN Show all
Location of Vietnam (green)
in ASEAN (dark grey)  –  [Legend]

Capital Hanoi

21°2′N 105°51′E

Largest city Ho Chi Minh City(Saigon)

National language Vietnamese[n 1]

Ethnic groups 85.7% Vietnamese[n 2]

53 minorities[show]

Religion 73.2% Folk or Irreligious
12.2% Buddhism
8.3% Christianity
4.8% Caodaism
1.4% Hoahaoism
0.1% Other religions[3]

Demonym(s) Vietnamese

Government Unitary Marxist-Leninistone-party soc
ialistrepublic

• Party General Nguyễn Phú Trọng[n 3]

Secretary andPresident
• Prime Minister Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
• Chairwoman of National Nguyễn Thị Kim Ngân
Assembly
• Vice President Đặng Thị Ngọc Thịnh
• First Deputy Prime Trương Hòa Bình
 Minister

Legislature National Assembly

Formation
• First imperial dynasty c. 2879 BC
• Last imperial dynasty 1 June 1802
• Independence 2 September 1945
declared fromFrance
• Geneva Accords 21 July 1954
• Reunification 2 July 1976[4]
• Current constitution 28 November 2013[n 4]

Area
• Total 331,212 km2(127,882 sq mi) (65th)
• Water (%) 6.38

Population
• 2018 estimate 95,545,962[6] (15th)
• Density 276.03/km2(714.9/sq mi) (46th)

GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate
• Total  $770.227 billion[7](35th)

• Per capita  $8,066[7] (128th)

GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate
• Total  $261.637 billion[7](47th)

• Per capita  $2,740[7] (129th)

Gini (2014) 37.6[8]
medium

HDI (2018)  0.693[9]
medium · 118th

Currency đồng (₫) (VND)

Time zone UTC+07:00 (Vietnam Standard Time)

Date format dd/mm/yyyy

Driving side right

Calling code +84

ISO 3166 code VN

 Internet TLD .vn

This article
contains Vietnamesetext. Without
proper rendering support, you may
see question marks, boxes, or other
symbolsinstead of chữ nôm, chữ
Hán andchữ quốc ngữ.

Vietnam (Vietnamese: Việt Nam pronounced [vîət nāːm] ( listen)), officially the Socialist

Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam), is the
easternmost country on the Southeast Asian Indochinese Peninsula. With an estimated
95.5 million inhabitants as of 2018, it is the 15th most populous country in the world.
Vietnam shares its land borders with China to the north, and Laos and Cambodia to the
west. It shares its maritime borders with Thailand through the Gulf of Thailand, and
thePhilippines, Indonesia and Malaysia through the South China Sea.[n 5] Its capital
city is Hanoi, while its most populous city and commercial hub is Ho Chi Minh City, also
known by its former name of Saigon.
Archaeological excavations indicate that Vietnam was inhabited as early as
the Paleolithic age. The ancient Vietnamese nation was annexed by China in the 2nd
century BC, which subsequently made Vietnam a division of China for over a
millennium. The first independent monarchy emerged in the 10th century AD. This
paved the way for successive imperial dynasties as the nation expanded geographically
southward until European colonialism in the mid-19th century. Modern Vietnam was
born upon theProclamation of Independence from France in 1945. Following
Vietnamese victory against the French in the First Indochina War, which ended in 1954,
the nation was divided into two rival states: communist North and anti-communist South.
Conflicts intensified in the Vietnam War, which saw extensive US intervention in support
of South Vietnam and ended with North Vietnamese victory in 1975.
After North and South Vietnam were reunified under a unitary socialist government in
1976, the country became economically and politically isolated until 1986, when
the Communist Party initiated a series of economic and political reforms that facilitated
Vietnamese integration into world politics and the global economy. As a result of the
successful reforms, Vietnam has enjoyed a high GDP growth rate, consistently ranked
among the fastest-growing countries in the world. It nevertheless faces challenges
including poverty,corruption and inadequate social welfare. By 2010, Vietnam had
established diplomatic relations with 178 countries. It is a member of such international
organisations as the United Nations (UN), the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the World
Trade Organization (WTO).

Contents
 1Etymology
 2History
o 2.1Prehistory
o 2.2Dynastic Vietnam
o 2.3French Indochina
o 2.4First Indochina War
o 2.5Vietnam War
o 2.6Reunification and reforms
 3Geography
o 3.1Climate
o 3.2Biodiversity
o 3.3Environment
 4Government and politics
o 4.1Foreign relations
o 4.2Military
o 4.3Administrative divisions
o 4.4Human rights and sociopolitical issues
 5Economy
o 5.1Agriculture
o 5.2Science and technology
o 5.3Tourism
 6Infrastructure
o 6.1Transport
o 6.2Energy
o 6.3Telecommunication
o 6.4Water supply and sanitation
o 6.5Health
o 6.6Education
 7Demographics
o 7.1Urbanisation
o 7.2Religion
o 7.3Languages
 8Culture
o 8.1Literature
o 8.2Music
o 8.3Cuisine
o 8.4Media
o 8.5Holidays and festivals
o 8.6Sports
 9See also
 10Footnotes
 11Notes and references
o 11.1Notes
o 11.2References
 11.2.1Print
 11.2.2Legislation, case law and government source
 11.2.3Academic publications
 11.2.4News and magazines
  11.2.5Websites
 11.2.6Free content
 12External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of Vietnam
The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm]) is a variation of Nam
Việt (Chinese: 南越; pinyin: Nányuè; literally "SouthernViệt"), a name that can be traced
back to the Triệu dynasty of the 2nd century BC.[11] The word Việt originated as a
shortened form of Bách Việt (Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè), the name of a group of
people then living in southern China and Vietnam. [12] The form "Vietnam" (越南) is first
recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình. The name has also been
found on 12 stelescarved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam
Pagoda in Hải Phòng that dates to 1558.[13] In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (who later
became Emperor Gia Long) established the Nguyễn dynasty. In the second year of his
rule, he asked the Jiaqing Emperor of the Qing dynasty to confer on him the title 'King of
Nam Viet/Nanyue' (南越 in Chinese) after seizing power in Annam. The Emperor
refused since the name was related to Zhao Tuo's Nanyue, which included the regions
of Guangxi and Guangdong in southern China. The Qing Emperor, therefore, decided to
call the area "Viet Nam" instead.[n 6][15] Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was
used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[n 6] It was revived in the early 20th century in Phan
Bội Châu's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist
Party (VNQDĐ).[16] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both
theimperial government in Huế and the Việt Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt
Nam.[17]

History
Main article: History of Vietnam

Part of a series on the

History of Vietnam

Ancient[show]

Imperial[show]
 Dynastic[show]

Colonial[show]

Republic[show]

By Topic[show]

Timeline

 Vietnam portal

 v
 t
 e

Prehistory

A Đông Sơn bronze drum,c. 800 BC.

Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now

Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age. Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000
BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam.
[18]
 The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle
Pleistocene provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang
Hum.[19][20][21] Teeth attributed toHomo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have been found
at Dong Can,[22] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[23][24] Lang Gao[25][26] and Lang
Cuom.[27] By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation in the Ma
River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture,[28][29] notable
for its bronze casting used to make elaborate bronze Đông Sơn drums.[30][31][32] At this
point, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Langand Âu Lạc appeared, and the
culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Maritime Southeast
Asia, throughout the first millennium BC. [31][33]
Dynastic Vietnam
Territorial expansion of Vietnam, 1009–1840

The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings first established in 2879 BC is considered

the first Vietnamese state in the History of Vietnam(then known as Xích Quỷ and
later Văn Lang).[34][35] In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He
consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An
Dương Vương.[36] In 179 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuodefeated An Dương
Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue.[29] However, Nanyue was
itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han dynasty in 111 BC after the Han–
Nanyue War.[15][37] For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained
mostly under Chinese rule.[38][39] Early independence movements, such as those of
the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu,[40] were temporarily successful,[41] though the region
gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý
dynasty between AD 544 and 602.[42][43][44] By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained
autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the Khúc family.[45]
In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the forces of the
Chinese Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and achieved full independence for
Vietnam after a millennium of Chinese domination. [46][47][48] Renamed Đại Việt (Great Viet),
the nation enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần dynasties. During the rule of the
Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[49][50] Meanwhile,
theMahāyāna branch of Buddhism flourished and became the state religion.[48]
[51]
 Following the 1406–7 Ming–Hồ War, which overthrew theHồ dynasty, Vietnamese
independence was interrupted briefly by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored
by Lê Lợi, the founder of theLê dynasty.[52] The Vietnamese dynasties reached their
zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of EmperorLê
Thánh Tông (1460–1497).[53][54] Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded
southward in a process known as nam tiến("southward expansion"),[55] eventually
conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Empire.[56][57][58]
From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much
of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty's
power.[59] After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled.
Actual power, however, was divided between the northern Trịnh lords and the
southern Nguyễn lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a
truce was called in the 1670s.[60] During this period, the Nguyễn expanded southern
Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands in
the Mekong Delta.[56][58][61] The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây
Sơn brothers established a new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long, and they
were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh, aided by the
French.[62] Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn dynasty, ruling
under the name Gia Long.[61]
French Indochina
Main articles: Cochinchina Campaign, Sino-French War, Tonkin campaign, French
Indochina, and Empire of Vietnam
French Indochina in 1913

In the 1500s, the Portuguese became acquainted with the Vietnamese coast, where

they reportedly erected a stele on the Chàm Islands to mark their presence.[63] By 1533,
they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local
turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China
and Japan.[63] After having successfully settled Macau andNagasaki to begin the
profitable Macau-Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in
trade with Hội An, where many Portuguese traders and Catholic missionaries set foot in
the Vietnamese kingdom.[63] The Dutch also tried to establish contact with Vietnam
through the central part of Quinam in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after
several violent encounters with the locals. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) only
managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after
leaving Dejima in Japan to establish trade for silk.[64] Meanwhile, in 1613, the
first British attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident
involving the British East India Company. By 1672 the British managed to establish
relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in Phố Hiến.[65]
Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in the area around Đàng
Trong and actively dispersed missionaries.[66][67]The Vietnamese kingdom began to feel
threatened by continuous Christianisation activities.[68] Following the detention of several
missionaries, the French Navy received approval from their government to intervene in
Vietnam in 1834, with the aim of freeing imprisoned Catholic missionaries from a
kingdom that was perceived as xenophobic.[69] Vietnam's sovereignty was
gradually eroded by France, which was aided by the Spanish and large Catholic militias
in a series of military conquests between 1859 and 1885. [70][71]
In 1862, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.
[72]
 By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern
parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three
Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.
[73][74]
 The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on
Vietnamese society.[75] A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and
Catholicism was propagated widely.[76] Most French settlers in Indochina were
concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in Saigon, and in Hanoi, the colony's capital.[77]

The Grand Palais built for the 1902–1903 world's fair as Hanoi became French Indochina's capital.

Guerrillas of the royalist Cần Vương movement massacred around a third of Vietnam's

Christian population during the colonial period as part of their rebellion against French
rule.[78][79] They were defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance by the Catholics
in reprisal for their earlier massacres. [80][81] Another large-scale rebellion, the Thái Nguyên
uprising, was also suppressed heavily.[82] The French developed a plantation economy to
promote the export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee.[83] However, they largely ignored
the increasing demands for civil rights and self-government.

Hanoi Opera House, taken in the early 20th century, from rue Paul Bert(now Trang Tien street).

A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan
Châu Trinh,Phan Đình Phùng, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Hồ Chí Minh fighting or calling
for independence.[84]This resulted in the 1930 Yên Bái mutiny by the Vietnamese
Nationalist Party (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny caused an
irreparable split in the independence movement that resulted in many leading members
of the organisation becoming communist converts.[85][86][87]
The French maintained full control over their colonies until World War II, when the war
in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1940. Afterwards,
the Japanese Empire was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while permitting the
pro-Vichy Frenchcolonial administration to continue. [88][89] Japan exploited Vietnam's
natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in afull-scale takeover of
the country in March 1945. This led to the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which resulted
in up to two million deaths.[90][91]
First Indochina War
Main articles: First Indochina War; Democratic Republic of Vietnam; State of
Vietnam; State of Vietnam referendum, 1955; and Operation Passage to Freedom

Situation of the First Indochina Warat the end of 1954.

  Areas under Việt Minh control
  Areas under French control
  Việt Minh guerrilla encampment / fighting

In 1941, the Việt Minh, a nationalist liberation movement based on a Communist

ideology, emerged under the Vietnamese revolutionary leader Hồ Chí Minh. The Việt
Minh sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese
occupation.[92][93]Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its puppet Empire of
Vietnam in August 1945, anarchy, rioting, and murder were widespread, as Saigon's
administrative services had collapsed. [94] The Việt Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed
a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September. [93]
Earlier, in July 1945, the Allies had decided to divide Indochina at the 16th parallel to
allow Chiang Kai-shek of the Republic of China to receive the Japanese surrender in
the north while Britain's Lord Louis Mountbatten received their surrender in the south.
The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France. [95][96]
However, as the French were weakened by the German occupation, British-
Indian forces together with the remaining Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army
Group were used to maintain order and to help France re-establish control through
the 1945–1946 War in Vietnam.[97]Hồ Chí Minh initially chose to take a moderate stance
to avoid military conflict with France. He asked the French to withdraw their colonial
administrators, and for aid from French professors and engineers to help build a modern
independent Vietnam.[93] However, theProvisional Government of the French
Republic did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and
dispatched theFrench Far East Expeditionary Corps to restore colonial rule. This
resulted in the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.
[92][93][98]
 The resulting First Indochina War lasted until July 1954. The defeat of French
colonialists and Vietnamese loyalists in the 1954 battle of Điện Biên Phủ allowed Hồ
Chí Minh to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequentGeneva
Conference.[93][99]

Partition of French Indochina after the 1954 Geneva Conference

The colonial administration was therefore ended and French Indochina was dissolved
under the Geneva Accords of 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms
of Cambodia and Laos. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative
regions at the Demilitarised Zone, roughly along the 17th parallel north, pending
elections scheduled for July 1956.[n 7] A 300-day period of free movement was permitted,
during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholics, moved south, fearing
persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United
States military through Operation Passage to Freedom.[104][105] Thepartition of Vietnam by
the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam
would be reunited after elections in 1956. [106] However, in 1955, the southern State of
Vietnam's prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum
organised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu, and proclaimed himself the president of
the Republic of Vietnam.[106] At that point the internationally recognised State of
Vietnam effectively ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Vietnam in the
south– supported by the United States, France, Laos, Republic of China and Thailand–
and Hồ Chí Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north– supported by
the Soviet Union, Sweden,[107] Khmer Rouge, and the People's Republic of China.[106]
Vietnam War
Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War
Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted
various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction" and "land reform", which resulted in
significant political repression.[108] During the land reform, testimony from North
Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village
residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions.
[109]
Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower
estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. [109]
[110]
 However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives
indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time,
although likely greater than 13,500.[111] In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese
subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956)
by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political re-education
centres".[112][113] This program incarcerated many non-communists, although it was also
successful at curtailing communist activity in the country, if only for a time. [114] The North
Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by
November 1957.[115] The pro-Hanoi Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign in South
Vietnam in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government. [116] From 1960, the Soviet
Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support. [117]
[118][119]

Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft spraying Agent Orange during theOperation Ranch Hand as part of the
overall herbicidal warfare operation called Trail Dust with the aim to deprive the food and vegetation cover of
the Việt Cộng, c. 1962–1971.

In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's Catholic regime erupted into mass

demonstrations, leading to a violent government crackdown. [120]This led to the collapse of
Diệm's relationship with the United States, and ultimately to a 1963 coup in which he
and Nhu were assassinated.[121] The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen
successive military governments, before the pairing of Air MarshalNguyễn Cao Kỳ and
General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965.[122] Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered
Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971. [123] During
this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South
Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States began
increasing its contribution of military advisers, using the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident as
a pretext for such intervention.[124] US forces became involved in ground combat
operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.
[125][126]
 The US also engaged in a sustained aerial bombing campaign.
Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material
aid and 15,000 combat advisers.[117][118][127] Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng
carried supplies along the Hồ Chí Minh trail, which passed through theKingdom of Laos.
[128]

The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 Tết Offensive.
Although the campaign failed militarily, it shocked the American establishment and
turned US public opinion against the war. [129] During the offensive, communist
troops massacred over 3,000 civilians at Huế.[130][131] A 1974 US Senate subcommittee
estimated nearly 1.4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed or wounded between 1965
and 1974—over half the result of US and South Vietnamese military actions. [132] Facing
an increasing casualty count, rising domestic opposition to the war, and growing
international condemnation, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles in the
early 1970s. This process also entailed an unsuccessful effort to strengthen and
stabilise South Vietnam.[133] Following the Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973, all
American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973. [134] In December 1974,
North Vietnam captured the province of Phước Long and started a full-scale offensive,
culminating in the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975.[135] South Vietnam was ruled by
a provisional government for almost eight years while under military occupation by
North Vietnam.[136]
Reunification and reforms
Further information: Re-education camp (Vietnam), Vietnamese boat people, and Đổi
Mới
On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of
Vietnam.[137] The war left Vietnam devastated, with the total death toll standing at
between 966,000 and 3.8 million. [138][139][140] In the aftermath of the war, under Lê Duẩn's
administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had
collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding
Western fears.[141] However, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to re-education
camps, where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to
perform hard labour.[142] The government embarked on a mass campaign
of collectivisation of farms and factories.[143] In 1978, responding to the Khmer
Rouge government of Cambodia, who had been invading and massacring Vietnamese
residents in the border villages in the districts of An Giang and Kiên Giang,[144] the
Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia and removed them from power after
occupying Phnom Penh.[145] The intervention was a success, resulting in the
establishment of a new pro-Vietnam socialist government, the People's Republic of
Kampuchea, which ruled until 1989.[146] This action, however, worsened relations with
China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a brief incursion
into northern Vietnam in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet
economic and military aid, while mistrust towards the Chinese government began to
escalate.[147]
At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in December
1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership. [148]
[149]
The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyễn Văn Linh, who became the party's
new general secretary.[148] Linh and the reformers implemented a series of free-
market reforms known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation") which carefully managed the transition
from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[150][151] Though the
authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government
encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and
foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries. [151][152] The
Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial
production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also
caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities. [153][154][155]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Vietnam

Nature attractions in Vietnam, clockwise from top: Hạ Long Bay, Yến River and Bản-Giốc Waterfalls

Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochinese Peninsula between the

latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and 110°E. It covers a total area of
approximately 331,212 km2 (127,882 sq mi).[n 8] The combined length of the country's
land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.
[156]
 At its narrowest point in the central Quảng Bình Province, the country is as little as 50
kilometres (31 mi) across, though it widens to around 600 kilometres (370 mi) in the
north.[157] Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no
more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area, [158] and tropical
forests cover around 42%.[159] The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular
region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[160] is smaller but more intensely developed
and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Once an inlet of
the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits.[161]
[162]
 The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more
than 3 metres (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers
and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 metres
(196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year.[163][164] The exclusive economic zone of
Vietnam covers 417,663 km2 (161,261 sq mi) in the South China Sea.[165]

Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range, a part of the Fansipan which is the highest summit on the Indochinese
Peninsula.

Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite

Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the
highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested
land.[166] The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a
result of intense cultivation.[167] Several minor earthquakes have been recorded in the
past. Most have occurred near the northern Vietnamese border in the provinces of Điện
Biên, Lào Cai and Sơn La, while some have been recorded offshore of the central part
of the country.[168][169] The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the
Red River Delta. Fansipan (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in Lào Cai
Province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high.[170] From
north to south Vietnam, the country also has numerous islands; Phú Quốc is the largest.
[171]
The Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the
world since its discovery in 2009. The Ba Bể Lake andMekong River are the largest lake
and longest river in the country.[172][173][174]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Vietnam

Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam.

Nha Trang, a popular beach destination has a tropical savanna climate.

Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, Vietnam's
climate tends to vary considerably for each region. [175] During the winter or dry season,
extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the
northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up
considerable moisture.[176] The average annual temperature is generally higher in the
plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north.
Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong
Delta, ranging from between 21 and 35 °C (69.8 and 95.0 °F) over the year.[177]In Hanoi
and the surrounding areas of Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower
between 15 and 33 °C (59.0 and 91.4 °F).[177]Seasonal variations in the mountains,
plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures
varying from 3 °C (37.4 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (98.6 °F) in July and
August.[178] Vietnam receives high rates of precipitation in the form of rainfall with an
average amount from 1,500 mm (59 in) to 2,000 mm (79 in) during the monsoon
seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.
[179]
 The country is also affected by tropical depressions, tropical storms andtyphoons.
[179]
 Vietnam is one of the world's countries most vulnerable to climate change, with 55%
of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas. [180][181]
Biodiversity
Main articles: Wildlife of Vietnam and List of endangered species in Vietnam

Native species in Vietnam, clockwise from top-right: crested argus, a peafowl, red-shanked douc,Indochinese

leopard, saola.
As the country is located within the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam is one of twenty-five
countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. This was noted in
the country's National Environmental Condition Report in 2005. [182] It is ranked 16th
worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's
species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10%
are endemic. Vietnam's fauna includes: 307 nematode species, 200oligochaeta,
145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. 840 birds
and 310 mammals are found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are
endemic.[182] Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites, the Hạ Long Bay and Phong
Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park together with nine biosphere reserves including: Cần Giờ
Mangrove Forest, Cát Tiên, Cát Bà, Kiên Giang, the Red River Delta, Mekong
Delta, Western Nghệ An, Cà Mau and Cu Lao Cham Marine Park.[183][184][185]

The pink lotus, widely regarded by the Vietnamese as the national flowerof the country, symbolises beauty,
commitment, health, honour and knowledge.[186][187][n 9]

Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all

microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.
[182]
 In recent years, 13genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly
described in Vietnam.[182] Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant
muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one
new bird species, the endangered Edwards's pheasant.[189] In the late 1980s, a small
population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last
individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010. [190] In
agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve
original cultivar centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300
cultivars of 115 species.[182] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the
preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas,
including 30 national parks.[182]
Environment
Main article: Environmental issues in Vietnam
Sa Pa mountain hills withagricultural activities

In Vietnam, wildlife poaching has become a major concern. In 2000, a non-

governmental organisation (NGO) called Education for Nature - Vietnam was founded to
instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country. [191] In the
years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese
youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the
NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their
leaders' arrests.[191] A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the
illegal export of rhinoceros horns from South Africadue to the demand for them as a
medicine and a status symbol.[192][193]
The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use
of the chemical herbicide Agent Orange, which continues to cause birth defects and
many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas
affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8 million
Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects. [194][195][196] In 2012,
approximately 50 years after the war,[197] the US began a US$43 million joint clean-up
project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages. [195]
[198]
 Following the completion of the first phase in Đà Nẵng in late 2017,[199]the US
announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site
of Biên Hòa, which is four times larger than the previously treated site, at an estimated
cost of $390 million.[200]
Natural fog in northwest Vietnam(Tây Bắc).

The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year ($431.1 million) for
monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals. [201] In
2018, the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation, working with Vietnamese
military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant
construction costs were funded by the company itself. [202][203] One of the long-term plans to
restore southern Vietnam's damaged ecosystems is through the use
of reforestation efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the
war. It started by replanting mangrove forests in the Mekong Delta regions and in Cần
Giờ outside Hồ Chí Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not
eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons. [204]
Apart from herbicide problems, arsenic in the ground water in the Mekong and Red
River Deltas has also become a major concern. [205][206]And most notoriously, unexploded
ordnances (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the
long wars.[207] As part of the continuous campaign to demine/remove UXOs, several
international bomb removal agencies from the United Kingdom,[208] Denmark,[209] South
Korea[210] and the US[211] have been providing assistance. The Vietnam government
spends over VNĐ1 trillion ($44 million) annually on demining operations and additional
hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training
and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.[212] In 2017 the Chinese government also
removed 53,000 land mines and explosives left over from the war between the two
countries, in an area of 18.4 km2 (7.1 sq mi) in the Chinese province
of Yunnan bordering the China–Vietnam border.[213]

Panoramic view of Hạ Long Bay

Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Vietnam and Government of Vietnam

Political Structure in Vietnam

Government Structure in Vietnam

Vietnam is a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic, one of the

two communist states (the other being Laos) in Southeast Asia.[214] Although Vietnam
remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies
have grown increasinglycapitalist,[215][216] with The Economist characterising its leadership
as "ardently capitalist communists".[217] Under the constitution, theCommunist Party of
Vietnam (CPV) asserts their role in all branches of the country's politics and society.
[214]
 The president is the electedhead of state and the commander-in-chief of the military,
serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the
second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state
appointments and setting policy.[214]

Nguyễn Phú Trọng

General Secretary& President
Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
Prime Minister

Nguyễn Thị Kim Ngân

National Assembly Chairperson

The general secretary of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions,

controlling the party's national organisation.[214] Theprime minister is the head of
government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime
ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations
affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam.
These include theVietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties.[214]

The National Assembly of Vietnambuilding in Hanoi

The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral state legislature composed of 498

members.[218] The legislature is open to all parties. [citation needed] Headed by achairman, it is
superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being
appointed from members of the National Assembly. [214]The Supreme People's Court of
Vietnam, headed by a chief justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is
also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand
the provincial municipal courts and manylocal courts. Military courts possess special
jurisdiction in matters of national security. Vietnam maintains the death penalty for
numerous offences.[219]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Vietnam

President Trần Đại Quang with Russian President Vladimir Putinon 19 November 2016.

US Secretary of State Rex Tillersonaccompanies US President Donald Trump to a commercial deal signing
ceremony with Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017.

Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various
Chinese dynasties.[220] Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam
maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with
the Western Bloc.[220] Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and
insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over
the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem
"Nam quốc sơn hà" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "Bình Ngô đại cáo".
Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace, [220] significant territorial
tensions remain between the two countries over the South China Sea. [221] Vietnam holds
membership in 63 international organisations, including the United
Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie(La Francophonie),
and World Trade Organization (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-
governmental organisations.[222] As of 2010 Vietnam had established diplomatic relations
with 178 countries.[223]
Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence,
self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well openness and
diversification/multilateralisation with international relations.[224][225] The country declares
itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of
their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative
development projects.[151][224] Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to
restore diplomatic ties with Western countries.[226] Relations with the United States began
improving in August 1995 with both nations upgrading their liaison offices to embassy
status.[227] As diplomatic ties between the two nations grew, the United States opened
a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City while Vietnam opened its consulate in San
Francisco. Full diplomatic relations were also restored with New Zealand, which opened
its embassy in Hanoi in 1995;[228] Vietnam established an embassy in Wellington in 2003.
[229]
 Pakistan also reopened its embassy in Hanoi on October 2000, with Vietnam
reopening its embassy in Islamabad in December 2005 and trade office in Karachi in
November 2005.[230][231] In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised
relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms embargo on sales of
lethal arms to Vietnam.[232]
Military
Main article: Vietnam People's Armed Forces

Examples of the Vietnam People's Armed Forces weaponry assets. Clockwise from top right: T-54B
tank,Sukhoi Su-27UBK fighter aircraft,Vietnam Coast Guard Hamilton-class cutter, and Vietnam People's
Armychemical corps with Type 56.

The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army (VPA),

the Vietnam People's Public Security and the Vietnam Civil Defence Force. The VPA is
the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into
the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's
Air Force, the Vietnam Border Defence Force and the Vietnam Coast Guard. The VPA
has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary
forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[233] In 2015, Vietnam's military expenditure totalled
approximately US$4.4 billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.
[234]
 Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei,[235] India,[236] Japan,
[237]
 Laos,[238]Russia,[239][240] Singapore[235] and the US.[241] In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN
treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[242][243]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Vietnam
Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: tỉnh, from the Chinese 省, shěng).
[244]
 There are also five municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương), which are
administratively on the same level as provinces.
A clickable map of Vietnam exhibiting its 58 provinces and 5 centrally controlled municipalities.
Red River Delta Northeast Northwest North Central Coast

Bắc Giang Điện Biên Hà Tĩnh

Bắc Kạn Hòa Bình Nghệ An
Bắc Ninh Cao Bằng Lai Châu Quảng Bình
Hà Nam Hà Giang Sơn La Quảng Trị
Hải Dương Lạng Sơn Thanh Hóa
Hưng Yên Lào Cai Thừa Thiên–Huế
Nam Định Phú Thọ
Ninh Bình Quảng Ninh
Thái Bình Thái Nguyên
Vĩnh Phúc Tuyên Quang
Hà Nội (municipality) Yên Bái
Hải
Phòng (municipality)
Central Highlands South Central Coast Southeast Mekong Delta

Đắk Lắk Bình Định Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu An Giang

Đắk Nông Bình Thuận Bình Dương Bạc Liêu
Gia Lai Khánh Hòa Bình Phước Bến Tre
Kon Tum Ninh Thuận Đồng Nai Cà Mau
Lâm Đồng Phú Yên Tây Ninh Đồng Tháp
Quảng Nam Hồ Chí Minh Hậu Giang
Quảng Ngãi City (municipality) Kiên Giang
Đà Long An
Nẵng (municipality) Sóc Trăng
Tiền Giang
Trà Vinh
Vĩnh Long
Cần
Thơ (municipality)

A Communist Party propaganda poster in Hanoi

The provinces are subdivided into provincial municipalities (thành phố trực thuộc

tỉnh), townships (thị xã) and counties (huyện), which are in turn subdivided into towns
(thị trấn) or communes (xã). The centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided
into districts (quận) and counties, which are further subdivided into wards (phường).
Human rights and sociopolitical issues
See also: Human rights in Vietnam
Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of
all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern freedom of
association, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press. In 2009, Vietnamese
lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested and charged with the capital crime of subversion;
several of his associates were also arrested. [245][246] Amnesty International described him
and his arrested associates as prisoners of conscience.[245]
Vietnam is predominantly a source country for trafficked persons who are exploited for
labor.[247] A number of citizens, primarily women and girls, from all ethnic groups in
Vietnamand foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Vietnam.[248][249]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Vietnam

Share of world GDP (PPP)[7]

Year Share

1980 0.18%

1990 0.23%

2000 0.32%

2010 0.43%

2018 0.52%

Tree map showing Vietnam's exports in 2012

Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on agriculture—
primarily wet rice cultivation.[250] Bauxite, an important material in the production
of aluminium, is mined in central Vietnam.[251] Since reunification, the country's economy
is shaped primarily by the CPV through Five Year Plans decided upon at the plenary
sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses. [252] The collectivisationof
farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of
central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Despite strict
state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, corruption in
state-owned enterprises, poor quality and underproduction.[253][254][255] With the decline in
economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of
the Eastern bloc in the late 1980s, and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, as
well as the negative impacts of the post-war trade embargo imposed by the United
States,[256][257] Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by devaluing its exchange rate to
increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development. [258]

Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, theLandmark 81 located in Bình Thạnh,Ho Chi Minh City.

In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the CPV introduced socialist-oriented

market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private
ownership began to be encouraged in industry, commerce and agriculture and state
enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.[259][260] This led to the
five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.
[261]
 As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual gross
domestic product (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.[262][263] The United States ended
its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994. [264] Despite the 1997 Asian financial
crisis affecting Vietnam by causing an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per annum,
its economy began to recover in 1999,[259]with growth at an annual rate of around 7%
from 2000 to 2005 making it one of the world's fastest growing economies. [265]
[266]
 According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), growth remained strong
even in the face of the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010, although
Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate hit 11.8% in December 2010 with the country's
currency, the Vietnamese đồng being devalued three times.[267][268]
VinFast company is a Vietnamese car manufacturer.

Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per
day, has declined significantly in Vietnam and the relative poverty rate is now less than
that of China, India and the Philippines.[269] This decline can be attributed to equitable
economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise
of inequality.[270] These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the
initial stages of the Đổi Mới program, investment in poorer remote areas, and
subsidising of education and healthcare.[271][272] Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has
applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of
the economy to international markets. [270][273]Manufacturing, information technology and
high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy.
Though Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is currently the third-largest
oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day
(50,600 m3/d).[274] In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest
crude petroleumproducer in the Asia and Pacific region.[275] The United States purchased
the highest amount of Vietnam's exports,[276] while goods from China were the most
popular Vietnamese import.[277]
According to a December 2005 forecast by Goldman Sachs, the Vietnamese economy
will become the world's 21st-largest by 2025,[278]with an estimated nominal GDP of $436
billion and a nominal GDP per capita of $4,357. [279] Based on findings by the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2012, the unemployment rate in Vietnam stood at 4.46%.[7] That
same year, Vietnam's nominal GDP reached US$138 billion, with a nominal GDP per
capita of $1,527.[7] The HSBC also predicted that Vietnam's total GDP would surpass
those ofNorway, Singapore and Portugal by 2050.[279][280] Another forecast
by PricewaterhouseCoopers in 2008 stated Vietnam could be the fastest-growing of the
world's emerging economies by 2025, with a potential growth rate of almost 10% per
annum in real dollar terms.[281]Apart from the primary sector economy, tourism has
contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94 million foreign visitors
recorded in 2015.[282]
Agriculture
Terraced rice fields in Sa Pa

As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of

agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashew nuts, with a one-
third global share;[283] the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the
world's market;[284] and the second-largest rice exporter in the world after Thailand since
the 1990s.[285] Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter
of coffee.[286] The country has the highest proportion of land use for permanent
crops together with other nations in the Greater Mekong Subregion.[287] Other primary
exports include tea, rubber and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP
has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production
in other sectors of the economy has risen.
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Vietnam

A Vietnamese-made TOPIO 3.0humanoid ping-pong-playing robot displayed during the 2009 International

Robot Exhibition (IREX) inTokyo.[288][289]

In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly
0.45% of its GDP.[290] Since the dynastic era, Vietnamese scholars have developed many
academic fields especially in social sciences and humanities. Vietnam has a
millennium-deep legacy of analytical histories, such as the Đại Việt sử ký toàn
thư of Ngô Sĩ Liên. Vietnamese monks, led by the abdicated Emperor Trần Nhân Tông,
developed the Trúc Lâm Zen branch of philosophy in the 13th century.
[291]
 Arithmetic and geometry have been widely taught in Vietnam since the 15th century,
using the textbook Đại thành toán pháp by Lương Thế Vinh. Lương Thế Vinh
introduced Vietnam to the notion of zero, while Mạc Hiển Tích used the term số
ẩn (Eng: "unknown/secret/hidden number") to refer to negative numbers. Furthermore,
Vietnamese scholars produced numerous encyclopaedias, such as Lê Quý Đôn's Vân
đài loại ngữ.
In modern times, Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in
various fields of study, most notably in mathematics.Hoàng Tụy pioneered the applied
mathematics field of global optimisation in the 20th century,[292] while Ngô Bảo Châu won
the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic
forms.[293][294] Since the establishment of the Vietnam Academy of Science and
Technology (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its
first national space flight program especially after the completion of the infrastructure at
the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.[295][296] Vietnam has also made significant
advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[288][289] One
of Vietnam's main messaging apps, Zalo, was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a
Vietnamese hacker who later worked with the country's largest information
technology service company, the FPT Group.[297]

Vietnamese science students working on an experiment in their university lab.

According to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to
science research and development in 2011.[298]Between 2005 and 2014, the number of
Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' Web of
Science increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a
modest starting point.[299] Publications focus mainly on life sciences (22%),physics (13%)
and engineering (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of
diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding. [299] Almost 77% of all papers published between
2008 and 2014 had at least one international co-author. The autonomy which
Vietnamese research centres have enjoyed since the mid-1990s has enabled many of
them to operate as quasi-private organisations, providing services such as consulting
and technology development.[299] Some have 'spun off' from the larger institutions to form
their own semi-private enterprises, fostering the transfer of public sector science and
technology personnel to these semi-private establishments. One comparatively new
university, the Tôn Đức Thắng University which was built in 1997, has already set up 13
centres for technology transfer and services that together produce 15% of university
revenue. Many of these research centres serve as valuable intermediaries bridging
public research institutions, universities, and firms.[299]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Vietnam
Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site is a major tourist destination.

Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the country, contributing 7.5% of

the gross domestic product. Vietnam welcomed over 12.9 million visitors in 2017, an
increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest growing tourist
destinations in recent years. The vast majority of visitors in 2017, 9.7 million, came
from Asia. China (4 million), South Korea (2.6 million) and Japan (798,119) made up
half of all international arrivals in 2017.[300] Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors
from Europe with almost 1.9 million visitors in 2017. Russia (574,164) and the United
Kingdom (283,537), followed closely by France (255,396) and Germany (199,872) were
the largest source of international arrivals from Europe. Other significant international
arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).[300]
The most visited destinations in Vietnam are Ho Chi Minh City with 5.8 million
international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6 million andHạ Long, including Hạ Long
Bay with 4.4 million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most visited cities in the
world.[301] Vietnam is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia. In
2018, Travel + Leisure ranked Hội An as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to
visit.[302]

Infrastructure
Transport
Main articles: Transport in Vietnam, Rail transport in Vietnam, and List of airports in
Vietnam
Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French
colonial era when it was used to facilitate the transportation of raw materials to its main
ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.
[303]
 Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level,
provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district
level, urban roads managed by cities and towns and commune roads managed at the
commune level.[304] In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about 188,744
kilometres (117,280 mi) of which 93,535 kilometres (58,120 mi) are asphalt roads
comprising national, provincial and district roads. [304] The length of the national road
system is about 15,370 kilometres (9,550 mi) with 15,085 kilometres (9,373 mi) of its
length paved. The provincial road system has around 27,976 kilometres (17,383 mi) of
paved roads while 50,474 kilometres (31,363 mi) district roads are paved.[304]
HCMC–LT–DG section of the North–South Expressway.
Tan Son Nhat International Airport is the busiest airport in the country.

Bicycles, motorcycles and motor scooters remain the most popular forms of road

transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately
owned cars has been increasing in recent years.[305] Public buses operated by private
companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. Road
accidents remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation with an average
of 30 people losing their lives daily. [306] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in both
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City especially with the growth of individual car ownership. [307]
[308]
 Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express from Ho Chi
Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly 1,726 kilometres (1,072 mi).[309] From Hanoi,
railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from
Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thái Nguyên, and the
northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build
a high-speed railway—shinkansen (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.
[310]
 Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and
maintenance of high-speed trains.[311]The planned railway will be a 1,545 kilometres
(960 mi)-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels. [312][313] The trains
will travel at a maximum speed of 350 kilometres (220 mi) per hour.[313][314] Plans for the
high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government
decided to prioritise the development of both the Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City metros
and expand road networks instead.[309][315][316]

The port of Hai Phong is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam.

Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi

Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Đà Nẵng and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi
Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the nation's largest airport handling the majority of
international passenger traffic.[317] According to a state-approved plan, Vietnam will have
another seven international airports by 2025 including: Vinh International Airport, Phu
Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, Phu Quoc International
Airport, Cat Bi International Airport, Can Tho International Airport, and Long Thanh
International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual
service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.
[318]
 Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger
aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020. [319] Several private airlines also operate in
Vietnam, includingAir Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific
Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea
ports, including: Cam Ranh, Đà Nẵng, Hải Phòng, Ho Chi Minh City, Hạ Long, Qui
Nhơn, Vũng Tàu, Cửa Lò and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive
network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over 47,130 kilometres
(29,290 mi) of navigable waterwayscarrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[320]
Energy
Main articles: Energy in Vietnam and List of power stations in Vietnam

Sơn La Dam in northern Vietnam, the largest hydroelectric dam in Southeast Asia.[321]

Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the nationwide Vietnam Electricity

Group (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation
system with a total power capacity of 25,884 MW.[322] Other energy sources
are PetroVietnam (4,435 MW), Vinacomin (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from build–
operate–transfer (BOT) investors.[323]
Most of Vietnam's power is generated by either hydropower or fossil fuel power such
as coal, oiland gas, while diesel, small hydropower and renewable energy supplies the
balance.[323] The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a nuclear reactor as
the path to establish another source for electricity from nuclear power. The plan was
abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the
project due to widespread public concern over radioactive contamination.[324]
The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls
nearly 70% of the country's domestic market forliquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[325] Since
2011, the company also operates five renewable energy power plants including the
Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW),
Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW) and Vũng
Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).[326]
According to statistics from British Petroleum (BP), Vietnam is listed among the 52
countries that have proven crude oil reserves. In 2015 the reserve was approximately
4.4 billion barrels ranking Vietnam first place in Southeast Asia, while the proven gas
reserves were about 0.6 trillion cubic meters (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia
after Indonesiaand Malaysia.[327]
Telecommunication
Main article: Telecommunications in Vietnam
Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and
Telecommunications General Corporation (now the VNPT Group) which is a state-
ownedcompany.[328] The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was
reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive
policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military
Electronic and Telecommunication Company (Viettel, which is wholly owned by the
Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication
Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT. [328] VNPT's monopoly
was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree. [329] By 2012,
the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, Vinaphone and MobiFone. The
remaining companies included: EVNTelecom, Vietnammobile and S-Fone.[330] With the
shift towards a more market-orientated economy, Vietnam's telecommunications market
is continuously being reformed to attract foreign investment, which includes the supply
of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure. [331]
Water supply and sanitation
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam

In rural areas of Vietnam, piped water systems are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national
organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies.

Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310 billion m³. The rainy
season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.[332] Most of the country's urban water
supply systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10
years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage
Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service
coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely
developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population with about one
third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply. [333]There is also
concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply
systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated wastewater directly into the
water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue,
most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and
pollutes the surface water.[333]
In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and
foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing water
filtration systems. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious
public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as
the high levels of arsenic in groundwater sources.[334] The government
of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related
sectors including water treatmentprojects.[335][336][337] Regarding sanitation, 78% of Vietnam's
population has access to "improved" sanitation—94% of the urban population and 70%
of the rural population. However, there are still about 21 million people in the country
lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015. [338] In
2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply, and drainage industry
had been applying hi-tech methods and information technology (IT) to sanitation issues
but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution. [339] The health
ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide
beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice since there
have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water
supplies as well unhygienic conditions reported every year. [340]
Health
Main article: Health in Vietnam
By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources. [341] In 2016,
Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and
theinfant mortality rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.[8][342][343] Despite these
improvements, malnutrition is still common in rural provinces.[155] Since the partition,
North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to
the hamlet level.[344] After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service
was established.[155] In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree
as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces and the
introduction of charges.[271]Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage
of nurses, midwives and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds
per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report
of Vietnamese Health Ministry.[345] The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical
weapon by the US military during the war left tangible, long-term impacts upon the
Vietnamese people that persist in the country today.[346][347] For instance, it led to three
million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused
directly by exposure to the chemical and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated. [348]
Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria.
The malaria mortality rate fell to about five percent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after
the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment. [349] Tuberculosis (TB)
cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in
the country after respiratory-related illness.[350] With an intensified vaccination program,
better hygiene and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of
TB cases and new TB infections.[351] In 2004, government subsidies covering about 15%
of health care expenses.[352] That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be
one of 15 nations to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan. [353] By the
following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
cases, of which 16,528 progressed to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS);
9,554 have died.[354] The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be
much higher. On average between 40–50 new infections are reported daily in the
country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV and the
figure has remained stable since 2005.[355] More global aid is being delivered through The
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to fight the spread of the disease
in the country.[351] In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens
of the country to stop eating dog and cat meat as it can cause diseases
like rabies and leptospirosis. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were
found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among
Vietnamese on social media, though many still disagreed saying the meat is an
irresistible habit.[356]
Education
Main article: Education in Vietnam

Indochina Medical College in Hanoi, the first modern university in Vietnam

Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities

and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General
education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: kindergarten, elementary
schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public
schools have been constructed across the country to raise the nationalliteracy rate,
which stood at 90% in 2008.[357] Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and
Ho Chi Minh City with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series
of reforms by the government. Basic education in the country is relatively free for the
poor although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children
without some form of public or private assistance.[358] Regardless, Vietnam's school
enrolment is among the highest in the world.[359][360] The number of colleges and
universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In
higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the
national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well the
burden on students to repay them.[361][362]Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has
grown tenfold to over 2.2 million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher
education.[363] A number of foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam,
including Harvard University (USA) and theRoyal Melbourne Institute of
Technology (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered
significant growth but still need to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree
on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial
control is in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in
education especially for the poor to have access to basic education. [364]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Vietnam, Vietnamese people, and Ethnic groups in
Vietnam

Cultural dance performed by one of54 recognised Vietnamese ethnic groups.

Population[6]

Year Million

1950 24.8

2000 80.3

2018 95.5

As of 2018, the population of Vietnam stands at approximately 95.5 million people. [6] The
population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total
population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million. [365] In 2012, the country's population
was estimated at approximately 90.3 million.[366] Based on the 2009 census, 70.4% of the
Vietnamese population are living in rural areas while only 29.6% live in urban areas.
The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased which is
attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation. [367] The dominantViet or Kinh ethnic
group constitute nearly 73.6 million people or 85.8% of the population. [366] Most of their
population is concentrated in the country's alluvial deltas and coastal plains. As a
majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over
the country.[368] Despite this, Vietnam is also home to 54 other ethnic minority groups,
including the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thai and Nùng.[366] Many ethnic minorities such as
the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands which cover two-
thirds of Vietnam's territory.[369]
Other uplanders in the north migrated from southern China between the 1300s and
1800s.[370] Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the Central Highlands was
almost exclusively Degar (including over 40 tribal groups); however, the South
Vietnamese government at the time enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous
areas.[371][372] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders.[368]
[370]
 Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely from South China,
migrated to the country as administrators, merchants and even refugees. [373] Since the
reunification in 1976 an increase of communist policies nationwide resulted in the
nationalisation and confiscation of property especially from the Hoa in the south and the
wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam. [374][375] Furthermore, with the
deterioration of Sino-Vietnamese relations after the border invasion by Chinese
government in 1979 many Vietnamese were wary of Chinese government's intentions.
This indirectly caused more Hoa people in the north to leave the country. [373][376]
Urbanisation
See also: List of cities in Vietnam

A panorama of Ho Chi Minh City, which has the highest urbanisation rate in Vietnam.

District 1, Ho Chi Minh City.

The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2017 is estimated to be around
32.753 million people (with the urbanisation rate at 35.7%). [377] Since 1986, Vietnam's
urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented
the Đổi Mới economic program, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising
property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red
River Delta and Southeast regions respectively) increased their share of the total urban
population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively. [378] The Vietnamese
government, through its construction ministry, forecasts the country will have a 45%
urbanisation rate by 2020. Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with
economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth
rate.[379] Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural
areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large
number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities. [380]

Urbanisation in west Hanoi

A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living
than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in
changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP;
in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%. [381] In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of
Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps
to improve basic services which increase people's standards of living. Access to
electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in
2009.[381] In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies shows that
only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in
2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation
has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and
water pollution.[381]
Many Vietnamese use mopeds for transportation since they are relatively cheap and
easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and
air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from
0.5 million in 2001 to 4.7 million in 2013.[381] With rapid development, factories have
sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water. An example is the 2016 Vietnam
marine life disaster caused by the Formosa Ha Tinh Steel Company illegally discharging
toxic industrial waste into the ocean. This killed many fish and destroyed marine
habitats in Vietnamese waters resulting in major losses to the country's economy. [382] The
government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by
decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has
introduced more regulations for waste handling by factories. Although the authorities
 also have schedules for collecting different types of waste, waste disposal is another
problem caused by urbanisation. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of
Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste
accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes
attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort household
waste since waste sorting is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.[383]

 v

 t

 e
Largest cities and municipalities in Vietnam
Vietnam General Statistics Office (2015)
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name
1 Hồ Chí Minh City Municipality 8,146,300 11 Buôn Ma Thuột
2 Hà Nội Municipality 7,216,000 12 Huế
3 Hải Phòng Municipality 1,763,000 13 Thái Nguyên
4 Đà Nẵng Municipality 1,328,000 14 Vũng Tàu
Hồ Chí Minh City 5 Cần Thơ Municipality 1,248,000 15 Qui Nhơn
6 Biên Hòa Đồng Nai 1,104,495 16 Long Xuyên
7 Nha Trang Khánh Hòa 792,397 17 Việt Trì
8 Vinh Nghệ An 490,000 18 Bắc Ninh
9 Hải Dương Hải Dương 403,893 19 Thủ Dầu Một

Hà Nội 10 Đà Lạt Lâm Đồng 356,393 20 Thái Bình

Religion
Main article: Religion in Vietnam
Religion in Vietnam (2014)[3]

  Vietnamese folk religion or not religious population (73.2%)

  Buddhism (12.2%)
  Catholicism (6.8%)
  Caodaism (4.8%)
  Protestantism (1.5%)
  Hoahaoism (1.4%)
  Others (0.1%)

Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy freedom of belief
and religion.[384] All religions are equal before the law and each place of worship is
protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to
undermine state law and policies.[384][385] According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese
people did not believe in a god.[386] Based on government findings in 2009, the number of
religious people increased by 932,000.[367] The latest official statistics, presented by the
Vietnamese government to the United Nations special rapporteur in 2014,[3] indicate the
overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24 million of a total
population of almost 90 million.[3] Formally recognised religious communities include: 11
million Buddhists, 6.2 million Catholics, 1.4 million Protestants, 4.4
million Caodaisms followers, 1.3 million Hoahaoism Buddhists as well as
75,000 Muslims, 7,000 Baha'ís and 1,500 Hindus.[3]
Mahāyāna is the dominant branch of Buddhism among the Kinh majority who follow the
religion, while Theravāda is practised in almost entirely by the Khmer minority. About
7% of the population is Christian—made up of six million Roman Catholics and one
million Protestants.[3]Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam by Portuguese missionaries
(Jesuits) from nearby Portuguese Macau and Malacca towards Annam, and from
remnants of persecuted Japanese Catholics between the 16th and 17th centuries.
French missionaries aided by Spanishmissionaries (Dominicans) from
neighbouring Spanish East Indies towards Tonkin actively sought converts in the 19th
and 20th centuries.[387][388][389] A significant number of Vietnamese people are also
adherents of Caodaism, an indigenous folk religion, which has structured itself on the
model of the Catholic Church together with another Buddhist section of Hoahaoism.
[390]
 Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries
throughout the modern civil war,[391] where it was largely accepted among the
highlandMontagnards of South Vietnam.[392] The largest Protestant churches are the
Southern Evangelical Church of Vietnam (SECV) and the Evangelical Church of
Vietnam North (ECVN). Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of
ethnic minorities.[391] Although it is one of the country's minority religions, and has a
briefer history than Catholicism, Protestantism is the country's fastest-growing religion,
expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades. [391][393] Several other minority faiths exist in
Vietnam, these include: Bani, Sunni and non-denominational sections of Islam which is
practised primarily among the ethnic Cham minority.[394] There are also a few Kinh
adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well as Hindus among the
Cham's.[395][396]
Languages
The national language of the country is Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt), a tonal Austroasiatic
language (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population. In its early
history, Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters before a different meaning set of
Chinese characters known as Chữ nôm developed between the 7th–13th century.[397][398]
[399]
 The folk epic Truyện Kiều (The Tale of Kieu, originally known as Đoạn trường tân
thanh) by Nguyễn Du was written in Chữ nôm.[400] Quốc ngữ, the Romanised Vietnamese
alphabet used for spoken Vietnamese, was developed in the 17th century by
the Jesuit Alexandre de Rhodes and several other Catholic missionaries by using the
alphabets of the Romance languages, particularly the Portuguese alphabet, which later
became widely used through Vietnamese institutions during the French colonial period.
[397][401]
 Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages,
including: Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng and Hmong.
The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct
languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the Malayo-
Polynesian language families.[402] In recent years, a number ofsign languages have
developed in the major cities.
Traditional Vietnamese calligraphy.

The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated

Vietnamese as a second language, especially among the older generation and those
educated in the former South Vietnam, where it was a principal language in
administration, education and commerce. Vietnam remains a full member of
the International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie) and education
has revived some interest in the language.[403] Russian, and to a lesser
extent German, Czech and Polish are known among some northern Vietnamese whose
families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. [404] With improved relations
with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has
been increasingly used as a second language and the study of English is now obligatory
in most schools either alongside or in place of French. [405][406] The popularity
of Japanese and Korean has also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian
nations have strengthened.[407][408][409]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Vietnam

The Temple of Literature in Hanoi

The Imperial City of Huế

The Municipal Theatre (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City

Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Đông Sơn
culture with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.[28][31] Some elements of the nation's
culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of Confucianism, Mahāyāna
Buddhism andTaoism in its traditional political system and philosophy.[410][411] Vietnamese
society is structured around làng (ancestral villages);[412] all Vietnamese mark a common
ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[413][414] The influence
of Chinese culture such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien and Hainanese cultures is
more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.
[415]
 Despite this, there is are Chinatowns in the south, such as in Chợ Lớn, where many
Chinese have intermarried with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them. [416] In the
central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and Khmer culture are
evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts as well within their population as the
successor of the ancient Sa Huỳnh culture.[417][418] In recent centuries, Western cultures
have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese. [411]

Vietnamese traditional white school uniform for girls in the country, the áo dài with the addition of nón lá, a
conical hat.

The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity (nhân nghĩa) and
harmony (hòa) in which family and community values are highly regarded. [415] Vietnam
reveres a number of key cultural symbols,[419] such as the Vietnamese dragon which is
derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's national father, Lạc Long Quân is
depicted as a holy dragon.[413][420][421] The lạc is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national
mother Âu Cơ. Other prominent images that are also revered are
the turtle, buffalo andhorse.[422] Many Vietnamese also believe in
the supernatural and spiritualism where illness can be brought on by
a curse or sorcery or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical
practitioners,amulets and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may
be employed to treat the ill person.[423] In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has
been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs. [411] For
many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were
shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to
neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian as well to Western culture and media. [424]
The main Vietnamese formal dress, the áo dài is worn for special occasions such as
weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many
high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing
include: the áo tứ thân, a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, a form of the thân in
five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's
undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women; the áo gấm,
a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the áo the, a variant of the áo
gấm worn by grooms at weddings.[425][426] Traditional headwear includes the standard
conical nón lá and the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao.[426][427] In tourism, a number of
popular cultural tourist destinations include the former Imperial City of Huế, the World
Heritage Sites of Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, Hội An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal
regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the Marble Mountains.[428][429]
Literature
Main articles: Vietnamese literature, Vietnamese poetry, and Vietnamese fairy tales
Vietnamese dragon on Emperor Khải Định's c. 1917 scroll in British Librarycollection.

Vietnamese literature has centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition
of folk literature based on the typical six–to-eight-verse poetic form called ca dao which
usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[430] Written literature has been found
dating back to the 10th century Ngô dynasty, with notable ancient authors
including: Nguyễn Trãi, Trần Hưng Đạo, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some
literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nói in ca trù.
[431]
 Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the tao đàn.
Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the
first literary transformation movement of thơ mới emerging in 1932.[432] Vietnamese folk
literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of
three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and
shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally,
and has unknown authors. Myths consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes,
creator gods and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life. [433] They
consist of creation stories, stories about their origins (Lạc Long Quân and Âu
Cơ), culture heroes (Sơn Tinh  and  Thủy Tinh) which are referred to as a mountain and
water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales. [416][434]
Music
Main article: Music of Vietnam
Ca trù trio performance in northern Vietnam

Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern
regions.[435] Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally
more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol
invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.
[436]
 Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the Chinese
musical tradition along with those of Japan, Korea and Mongolia.[437] Nhã nhạc is the
most popular form of imperial court music, Chèo is a form of generally satirical musical
theatre, while Xẩm or hát xẩm (xẩm singing) is a type of Vietnamese folk music. Quan
họ (alternate singing) is popular in the former Hà Bắc Province (which is now divided
into Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang Provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music
called Hát chầu văn or hát văn is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. Nhạc dân
tộc cải biên is a modern form of Vietnamese folk music which arose in the 1950s,
while ca trù (also known as hát ả đào) is a popular folk music. Hò can be thought of as
the southern style of Quan họ. There is a range of traditional instruments, including
the đàn bầu (a monochord zither), theđàn gáo (a two-stringed fiddle with coconut body),
and the đàn nguyệt (a two-stringed fretted moon lute). In recent times, there have been
some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with
modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate
the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing
styles.[438]
Bolero music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different
style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.
[439]
 However, the modern Vietnamese music industry, known as V-pop, is making its
mark in the entertainment field. Many Vietnamese artists have started to collaborate
with foreign artists and producers, especially South Korean, to facilitate the entrance
of K-pop into the Vietnamese market while also promoting V-pop overseas. [440] For
example, in 2014, the South Korean seven-member boy band BTS (방탄소년단)
collaborated with Vietnamese singer Thanh Bùi on the single called "Danger".[440][441] In
2018, South Korean artist and idolPark Ji-yeon (박지연) collaborated with Soobin
Hoàng Sơn on two versions of the title track called "Between Us" (Vietnamese: Đẹp
Nhất Là Em; Korean: 우리사이) to promote the two countries’ partnership in terms of the
music industry.[442] V Live, which is a South Korean live video streaming service, also
collaborated with RBW Entertainment Vietnam (a subsidiary of the Korean
entertainment company) to produce Vietnamese-based shows. V Live also launched
special monthly mini-concerts called "V Heartbeat Live" to connect V-pop and K-pop
idols.[443] South Korean entertainment company SM Entertainment signed an agreement
with IPP Group to move into the country's market and promote joint business. [444] The
company held its 2018 Global Audition in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in search for
new talents among the Vietnamese youth.[445]
Cuisine
Main article: Vietnamese cuisine

Some of the notable Vietnamese cuisine, clockwise from top-right: phở noodle, chè thái fruit dessert, chả giò
spring roll and bánh mì sandwich.

Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements"

(Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet
(earth).[446] Common ingredients include: fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh
herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes
use: lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon
cinnamon, bird's eye chilli, limeand basil leaves.[447] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is
known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil and reliance on herbs and vegetables;
it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide. [448] The use of meats such as
pork, beef and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater
fish, crustaceans (particularly crabs), and molluscs became widely used. Fish sauce,
soy sauce, prawn sauce and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam
has a strong street food culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the
country.[449] Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as gỏi cuốn (salad roll), bánh
cuốn (rice noodle roll),bún riêu (rice vermicelli soup) and phở noodles originated in the
north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants. [450]
[451]
 Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder
northern climate limits the production and availability of spices. [452] Black pepper is
frequently used in place of chillis to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the
south also are usually served cold with ice cubes, especially during the annual hot
seasons; in contrast, in the north hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate.
Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include: cà phê đá (Vietnamese iced
coffee), cà phê trứng (egg coffee), chanh muối (salted pickled lime juice), cơm
rượu (glutinous rice wine), nước mía (sugarcane juice) and trà sen (Vietnamese lotus
tea).[453]
Media
Main article: Media of Vietnam

Vietnam Television (VTV), the mainstate television

Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on
Publication.[454] It is generally perceived that the country media sector is controlled by the
government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are
relatively outspoken.[455][456] The Voice of Vietnam (VOV) is the official state-run national
radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented
transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while Vietnam
Television (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam
has regulated public internet access extensively using both legal and technical means.
The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[457] The
collaborative project OpenNet Initiativeclassifies Vietnam's level of online political
censorship to be "pervasive",[458] while Reporters Without Borders (RWB) considers
Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies". [459] Though the government of
Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against
obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are
deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked. [460]
Holidays and festivals
Main articles: Public holidays in Vietnam and List of festivals in Vietnam

Special Tết decoration in the country seen during the holiday

The country has eleven national recognised holidays. These include: New Year's Day
on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year (Tết) from the last day of the last lunar month to
fifth day of the first lunar month; Hung Kings Commemorations on the 10th day of the
third lunar month;Reunification Day on 30 April; International Workers' Day on 1 May;
and National Day Celebration on 2 September.[461][462][463] During Tết, many Vietnamese
from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead
ancestors.[464][465] Older people will usually give the young a lì xì (red envelope) while
special holiday food, such as bánh chưng (rice cake) in a square shape together with
variety of dried fruits, are presented in the house for visitors.[466] Many other festivals are
celebrated throughout the seasons, including theLantern Festival (Tết Nguyên
Tiêu), Mid-Autumn Festival (Tết Trung Thu) and various temple and nature festivals.
[467]
 In the highlands,Elephant Race Festivals are held annually during the spring; riders
will ride their elephants for about 1.6 km (0.99 mi) and the winning elephant will be
given sugarcane.[468] Traditional Vietnamese weddings remain widely popular and are
often celebrated by expatriate Vietnamese in Western countries.[469] In Vietnam, wedding
dress has been influenced by Western styles, with the wearing of white wedding
dresses and black jackets; however, there are also many who still prefer to choose
Vietnamese traditional wedding costumes for traditional ceremonies. [470]
Sports
Main articles: Sport in Vietnam and List of Vietnamese traditional games
The Vovinam, kim ke and bình định martial arts are widespread in Vietnam,[471]
[472]
 while football is the country's most popular sport.[473] Its national team won the ASEAN
Football Championship twice in 2008 and 2018 and reached the quarter-finals of 2019
AFC Asian Cup,[474][475][476] its junior team of under-23 became the runners-up of 2018 AFC
U-23 Championship and reached fourth place in 2018 Asian Games, while the under-
20 managed to qualify the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup for the first time in their football
history.[477][478] The national football women's team also traditionally dominates
the Southeast Asian Games, along with its chief rival, Thailand. Other Western sports
such asbadminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess are also widely popular.
Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952, when it competed
as the State of Vietnam. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam
competed in the games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the
reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,
attending every Summer Olympics from 1988 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic
Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) in 1979.[479] Vietnam has never participated in the Winter Olympic
Games. In 2016, Vietnam won their first gold medal at the Olympics.[480] In 2020, Vietnam
will host the inaugural Formula One Vietnam Grand Prix in the city of Hanoi.
[481]
 Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi
Minh City, Hanoi and Soc Trang.[482]

See also
 Index of Vietnam-related articles
 Outline of Vietnam
 Asia portal
 Vietnam portal

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289. ^ Jump up to:a b Borel 2010.
290. ^ Việt Nam News 2010.
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292. ^ Koblitz 2009, p. 198.
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295. ^ Vietnam National Space Centre 2016.
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Notes and references

Notes
1. ^ The Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam states
that Vietnamese is the "national language", rather than the "official
language"; Vietnamese is the only language used in official documents
and legal proceedings de facto.[1]
2. ^ Also called Kinh people.[2]
3. ^ Nguyễn Phú Trọng is also Secretary of the Central Military
Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The first priority
political position in one party communist state, Vietnam isGeneral
Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, not President of
Vietnam.
4. ^ In effect since 1 January 2014.[5]
5. ^ The South China Sea is referred to in Vietnam as the East Sea
(Biển Đông).[10]
6. ^ Jump up to:a b At first, Gia Long requested the name "Nam Việt", but
the Jiaqing Emperor refused.[11][14]
7. ^ Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of
Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-
communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any
division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh
proposal[100] that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision
of "local commissions".[101] TheUnited States, with the support of South
Vietnam and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",
[102]
 which provided for United Nations-supervised unification elections.
The plan, however, was rejected by Soviet and other communist
delegations.[103]
8. ^ See List of countries and dependencies by area.
9. ^ The national symbol of Vietnam is officially recognised in the
country's legal documents, including in the Constitution, which
establishes the national flag, national emblem and national anthem.
Although Vietnam is a country with many flowers, there is no
document recognising its national flower. Other Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and all of Vietnam's
neighbours have national flowers. The Lotus has been chosen
by India as its national flower, but this does not preclude Vietnam
making the same choice. Many countries have chosen the same
flower as their national flower; for example, the rose is the national
flower of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom).[188]

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Spheres. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-4073-0396-3.
 Sharma, Gitesh (2009). Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam. Rajkamal
Prakashan.ISBN  978-81-905401-4-8.
 Isserman, Maurice; Bowman, John Stewart (2009).  Vietnam War.  Infobase
Publishing.ISBN 978-1-4381-0015-9.
 Koblitz, Neal (2009).  Random Curves: Journeys of a
Mathematician. Springer Science + Business Media.  ISBN  978-3-540-
74078-0.
 Cottrell, Robert C. (2009).  Vietnam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-
4381-2147-5.
 Asian Development Bank (2010).  Asian Development Outlook 2010
Update.  Asian Development Bank. ISBN 978-92-9092-181-3.
 Lockard, Craig A. (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 2:
Since 1450.Cengage Learning.  ISBN  978-1-4390-8536-3.
 Elliott, Mai (2010). RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War
Era. RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8330-4915-5.
 Gustafsson, Mai Lan (2010).  War and Shadows: The Haunting of
Vietnam.  Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-5745-6.
 Jones, Daniel (2011).  Cambridge English Pronouncing
Dictionary.  Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76575-6.
 Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. (2011). The Complete Costume
Dictionary.  Scarecrow Press.ISBN 978-0-8108-4004-1.
 Pike, Francis (2011). Empires at War: A Short History of Modern Asia
Since World War II.I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-029-9.
 Vierra, Kimberly; Vierra, Brian (2011).  Vietnam Business Guide: Getting
Started in Tomorrow's Market Today.  John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-
118-17881-2.
 Vo, Nghia M. (2011). Saigon: A History. McFarland &
Company.  ISBN  978-0-7864-8634-2.
 Khoo, Nicholas (2011). Collateral Damage: Sino-Soviet Rivalry and the
Termination of the Sino-Vietnamese Alliance.  Columbia University
Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15078-1.
 Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James (2011). The Tongking Gulf
Through History.University of Pennsylvania Press,
Incorporated.  ISBN  978-0-8122-4336-9.
 Zwartjes, Otto (2011).  Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa
and Brazil, 1550-1800.  John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-
90-272-4608-0.
 Frankum Jr., Ronald B. (2011). Historical Dictionary of the War in
Vietnam.  Scarecrow Press.  ISBN  978-0-8108-7956-0.
 Tucker, Spencer C. (2011).  The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A
Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political,
Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO.ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0.
 Tonnesson, Stein (2011).  Vietnam 1946: How the War Began.  University
of California Press.ISBN  978-0-520-26993-4.
 Kỳ Phương, Trần; Lockhart, Bruce M. (2011). The Cham of Vietnam:
History, Society and Art.  NUS Press.  ISBN  978-9971-69-459-3.
 Thaker, Aruna; Barton, Arlene (2012). Multicultural Handbook of Food,
Nutrition and Dietetics.  John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-35046-1.
 Keith, Charles (2012).  Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to
Nation.  University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95382-6.
 Olson, Gregory A. (2012).  Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical
Adaptation. MSU Press.  ISBN  978-0-87013-941-3.
 Waite, James (2012).  The End of the First Indochina War: A Global
History.  Routledge.ISBN 978-1-136-27334-6.
 Vo, Nghia M. (2012). Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88
Tales. McFarland & Company.  ISBN  978-0-7864-9060-8.
 Muehlenbeck, Philip Emil; Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012).  Religion and the
Cold War: A Global Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press.  ISBN  978-0-
8265-1852-1.
 Rabett, Ryan J. (2012). Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic:
Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary.  Cambridge
University Press.  ISBN  978-1-107-01829-7.
 Li, Xiaobing (2012).  China at War: An Encyclopedia.  ABC-
CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-415-3.
 Gilbert, Adrian (2013).  Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times
to the Present Day. Taylor & Francis.  ISBN  978-1-135-95697-4.
 Chico, Beverly (2013).  Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural
Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia.  ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-
063-8.
 Boobbyer, Claire; Spooner, Andrew (2013).  Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos
Footprint Handbook.  Footprint Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-907263-64-4.
 Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens,
Gerhard (2013).Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in
Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas.  Springer
Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-33377-4.
 Willbanks, James H. (2013).  Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to
the Most Controversial Conflict in American History.  Skyhorse
Publishing.  ISBN  978-1-62636-528-5.
 Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The
Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World
Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4518-49-9.
 van Dijk, Ruud; Gray, William Glenn; Savranskaya, Svetlana; Suri, Jeremi;
et al. (2013).Encyclopedia of the Cold War. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-
92311-2.
 Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2013). Water Resources and Food
Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta.  Springer Science + Business
Media. ISBN 978-3-319-02198-0.
 Lim, David (2014). Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam.  Taylor
& Francis.ISBN  978-1-317-81859-5.
 Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great
Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power.  Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers.  ISBN  978-1-4422-2303-5.
 Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). China's Encounters on
the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two
Millennia. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-28248-3.
 de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014).  Practical Knowledge in
Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes.  Taylor
& Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-80333-1.
 Eggleston, Michael A. (2014). Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization
and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts.  McFarland
Publishing.  ISBN  978-0-7864-7772-2.
 Dennell, Robin; Porr, Martin (2014).  Southern Asia, Australia, and the
Search for Human Origins.  Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-
72913-1.
 Hong Lien, Vu; Sharrock, Peter (2014). Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger:
A History of Vietnam. Reaktion Books.  ISBN  978-1-78023-388-8.
 Gibbons, William Conrad (2014).  The U.S. Government and the Vietnam
War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965-
1966.  Princeton University Press.ISBN 978-1-4008-6153-8.
 Ooi, Keat Gin; Anh Tuan, Hoang (2015). Early Modern Southeast Asia,
1350-1800.Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-55919-1.
 Oxenham, Marc; Buckley, Hallie (2015).  The Routledge Handbook of
Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific
Islands. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-53401-3.
  Duy Hinh, Nguyen; Dinh Tho, Tran (2015).  The South Vietnamese Society.
Normanby Press.ISBN 978-1-78625-513-6.
 Yao, Alice (2016).  The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the
Bronze Age to the Han Empire.  Oxford University Press.  ISBN  978-0-19-
936734-4.
 Howe, Brendan M. (2016). Post-Conflict Development in East
Asia.  Routledge.  ISBN  978-1-317-07740-4.
 Thanh Hai, Do (2016).  Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics,
Security and Legality.Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-39820-2.
 Phuong Linh, Huynh Thi (2016).  State-Society Interaction in Vietnam. LIT
Verlag Münster.ISBN  978-3-643-90719-6.
 Ozolinš, Janis Talivaldis (2016).  Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East
and West Perspectives.  Springer Publishing.  ISBN  978-3-319-25724-2.
 Howard, Michael C. (2016). Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A
History.  McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-2440-2.
 Kiernan, Ben (2017).  Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the
Present.  Oxford University Press.  ISBN  978-0-19-516076-5.
 DK (2017). The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History. Dorling
Kindersley Limited.ISBN  978-0-241-30868-4.
 Travel, DK (2017).  DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor
Wat. Dorling Kindersley Limited.  ISBN  978-0-241-30136-4.
 Moïse, Edwin E. (2017).  Land Reform in China and North Vietnam:
Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level.  University of North
Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7445-5.
 Hinchey, Jane (2017). Vietnam: Discover the Country, Culture and People.
Redback Publishing.  ISBN  978-1-925630-02-2.
 Kort, Michael (2017).  The Vietnam War Re-Examined.  Cambridge
University Press.ISBN 978-1-107-04640-5.
 Trieu Dan, Nguyen (2017).  A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve
Generations on the Banks of the Hat River. McFarland
Publishing.  ISBN  978-0-7864-8779-0.
 Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017).  Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners:
Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable
Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing.  ISBN  978-1-4629-1956-7.
 Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). Sustainable Development of
Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River
Basin.  Springer Publishing.ISBN 978-981-10-5613-0.
 Zhu, Ying; Ren, Shuang; Collins, Ngan; Warner, Malcolm (2017).  Business
Leaders and Leadership in Asia. Taylor & Francis.  ISBN  978-1-317-
56749-3.
 Dohrenwend, Bruce P.; Turse, Nick; Wall, Melanie M.; Yager, Thomas J.
(2018).  Surviving Vietnam: Psychological Consequences of the War for US
Veterans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-090444-9.
 Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global
South. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9.
 Dinh Tham, Nguyen (2018). Studies on Vietnamese Language and
Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography. Cornell University Press.  ISBN  978-
1-5017-1882-3.
 Dayley, Robert (2018).  Southeast Asia in the New International Era.  Taylor
& Francis.ISBN  978-0-429-97424-3.
 Chen, Steven (2018).  The Design Imperative: The Art and Science of
Design Management.Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-78568-4.
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Free content

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