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design
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Urban design is the process of designing and

shaping the physical features of cities, towns,
and villages and planning for the provision of
municipal services to residents and visitors.
Although it deals with issues of a larger scale
than architecture, it cannot be understood as a
wholly separated field of research and design, since
the quality of one depends on the quality of the
other. In fact, it is this very interdependency, which
has been termed ‘’relational design’’ [1] by
Barcelona-based architect Enric Massip-Bosch,
which makes urban design and architecture
inextricably linked in many university education
programs, especially in Europe. This tendency
towards reintegration in architectural studies is also
taking momentum in the USA.[2]
Urban design deals with the larger scale of groups
of buildings, infrastructure, streets and public
spaces, whole neighbourhoods and districts, and
entire cities, with the goal of making urban
environments that are equitable, beautiful,
performative, and sustainable.
Urban design is an inter-disciplinary field that
utilizes the procedures and the elements
of architecture and other related professions,
including landscape design, urban planning, civil
engineering and municipal engineering.[3] [4] It
borrows substantive and procedural knowledge
from public administration, sociology, law, urban
geography, urban economics and other related
disciplines from the social and behavioral sciences,
as well as from the natural sciences.[5] In more
recent times different sub-subfields of urban design
have emerged such as strategic urban
design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban
design, and sustainable urbanism. Urban design
demands an understanding of a wide range of
subjects from physical geography to social science,
and an appreciation for disciplines, such as real
estate development, urban economics, political
economy and social theory.
Urban designers work to create inclusive cities that
protect the commons, ensure equal access to and
distribution of public goods, and meet the needs of
all residents, particularly women, people of color,
and other marginalized populations. Through
design interventions, urban designers work to
revolutionize the way we conceptualize our social,
political and spatial systems as strategies to
produce and reproduce a more equitable and
innovative future.
 Dubai Sports City in Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Urban design is about making connections between

people and places, movement and urban form,
nature and the built fabric. Urban design draws
together the many strands of place-making,
environmental stewardship, social equity and
economic viability into the creation of places with
distinct beauty and identity. Urban design draws
these and other strands together, creating a vision
for an area and then deploying the resources and
skills needed to bring the vision to life.
Urban design theory deals primarily with the design
and management of public space (i.e. the 'public
environment', 'public realm' or 'public domain'),
and the way public places are used and
experienced. Public space includes the totality of
spaces used freely on a day-to-day basis by the
general public, such as streets, plazas, parks and
public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately
owned spaces, such as building facades or
domestic gardens, also contribute to public space
and are therefore also considered by urban design
theory. Important writers on urban design theory
include Christopher Alexander, Peter
Calthorpe, Gordon Cullen, Andres Duany, Jane
Jacobs, Mitchell Joachim, Jan Gehl, Allan B.
Jacobs, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi, Colin Rowe, Robert
Venturi, William H. Whyte, Camillo Sitte, Bill Hillier
(Space syntax) and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk.

Contents
 1History
 1.1Modern Urban Design
 1.1.1Current Trends
 1.1.2Paradigm Shifts
 2New Approaches
 2.1Debates in Urbanism[18]
 3Urban Design as an Integrative Profession
 3.1Relationships With Other Related Disciplines
 4The Urban Design Education
 5Issues
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

History[edit]
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Although contemporary professional use of the

term 'urban design' dates from the mid-20th
century, urban design as such has been practiced
throughout history. Ancient examples of carefully
planned and designed cities exist in Asia, Africa,
Europe and the Americas, and are particularly well
known within Classical Chinese, Roman and Greek
cultures (see Hippodamus of Miletus).[citation needed]
European Medieval cities are often, and often
erroneously, regarded as exemplars of undesigned
or 'organic' city development.[citation needed] There are
many examples of considered urban design in the
Middle Ages (see, e.g., David Friedman, Florentine
New Towns: Urban Design in the Late Middle Ages,
MIT 1988). In England, many of the towns listed in
the 9th century Burghal Hidage were designed on a
grid, examples including Southampton, Wareham,
Dorset and Wallingford, Oxfordshire, having been
rapidly created to provide a defensive network
against Danish invaders.[citation needed] 12th century
western Europe brought renewed focus on
urbanisation as a means of stimulating economic
growth and generating revenue.[citation
needed] The burgage system dating from that time
and its associated burgage plots brought a form of
self-organising design to medieval towns.[citation
needed] Rectangular grids were used in
the Bastides of 13th and 14th century Gascony,
and the new towns of England created in the same
period.[citation needed]
Throughout history, design of streets and deliberate
configuration of public spaces with buildings have
reflected contemporaneous social norms or
philosophical and religious beliefs (see, e.g., Erwin
Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism,
Meridian Books, 1957). Yet the link between
designed urban space and human mind appears to
be bidirectional.[citation needed] Indeed, the reverse
impact of urban structure upon human behaviour
and upon thought is evidenced by
both observational study and historical record.
[citation needed] There are clear indications of impact
through Renaissance urban design on the thought
of Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei (see, e.g.,
Abraham Akkerman, "Urban planning in the
founding of Cartesian thought," Philosophy and
Geography 4(1), 1973). Already René Descartes in
his Discourse on the Method had attested to the
impact Renaissance planned new towns had upon
his own thought, and much evidence exists that the
Renaissance streetscape was also the perceptual
stimulus that had led to the development of
coordinate geometry (see, e.g., Claudia Lacour
Brodsky, Lines of Thought: Discourse,
Architectonics, and the Origins of Modern
Philosophy, Duke 1996).
The beginnings of modern urban design in Europe
are associated with the Renaissance but,
especially, with the Age of Enlightenment.[citation
needed] Spanish colonial cities were often planned, as
were some towns settled by other imperial cultures.
[citation needed] These sometimes embodied utopian
ambitions as well as aims for functionality and good
governance, as with James Oglethorpe's plan
for Savannah, Georgia.[citation needed] In
the Baroque period the design approaches
developed in French formal gardens such
as Versailles were extended into urban
development and redevelopment. In this period,
when modern professional specialisations did not
exist, urban design was undertaken by people with
skills in areas as diverse
as sculpture, architecture, garden
design, surveying, astronomy, and military
engineering. In the 18th and 19th centuries, urban
design was perhaps most closely linked with
surveyors (engineers) and architects. The increase
in urban populations brought with it problems of
epidemic disease,[citation needed] the response to which
was a focus on public health, the rise in the UK
of municipal engineering and the inclusion in British
legislation of provisions such as minimum widths of
street in relation to heights of buildings in order to
ensure adequate light and ventilation.[citation needed]
Much of Frederick Law Olmsted's work was
concerned with urban design, and the newly
formed profession of landscape architecture also
began to play a significant role in the late 19th
century.[6]
Modern Urban Design[edit]
 Ebenezer Howard's influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban
growth through garden city "off-shoots"

Dubai main street.

In the 19th century, cities were industrializing and

expanding at a tremendous rate. Private business
largely dictated the pace and style of this
development. The expansion created many
hardships for the working poor and concern for
public health increased. However, the laissez-
faire style of government, in fashion for most of
the Victorian era, was starting to give way to a New
Liberalism. This gave more power to the public. The
public wanted the government to provide citizens,
especially factory workers, with healthier
environments. Around 1900, modern urban design
emerged from developing theories on how to
mitigate the consequences of the industrial age.
The first modern urban planning theorist was
Sir Ebenezer Howard. His ideas, although utopian,
were adopted around the world because they were
highly practical. He initiated the garden city
movement in 1898 garden city movement.[7] His
garden cities were intended to be planned, self-
contained communities surrounded by parks.
Howard wanted the cities to be proportional with
separate areas of residences, industry, and
agriculture. Inspired by the Utopian novel Looking
Backward and Henry George's work Progress and
Poverty, Howard published his book Garden Cities
of To-morrow in 1898. His work is an important
reference in the history of urban planning.[8] He
envisioned the self-sufficient garden city to house
32,000 people on a site 6,000 acres (2,428 ha). He
planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces,
public parks, and six radial boulevards, 120 ft
(37 m) wide, extending from the center. When it
reached full population, Howard wanted another
garden city to be developed nearby. He envisaged
a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a
central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and
rail.[9] His model for a garden city was first created
at Letchworth[10] and Welwyn Garden
City in Hertfordshire. Howard's movement was
extended by Sir Frederic Osborn to regional
planning.[11]
In the early 1900s, urban planning became
professionalized. With input
from utopian visionaries, civil engineers, and local
councilors, new approaches to city design were
developed for consideration by decision makers
such as elected officials. In 1899, the Town and
Country Planning Association was founded. In 1909,
the first academic course on urban planning was
offered by the University of Liverpool.[12] Urban
planning was first officially embodied in
the Housing and Town Planning Act of
1909 Howard's ‘garden city’ compelled local
authorities to introduce a system where all housing
construction conformed to specific building
standards.[13] In the United Kingdom following this
Act, surveyor, civil engineers, architects,
and lawyers began working together within local
authorities. In 1910, Thomas Adams became the
first Town Planning Inspector at the Local
Government Board and began meeting with
practitioners. In 1914, The Town Planning
Institute was established. The first urban planning
course in America wasn’t established until 1924
at Harvard University. Professionals developed
schemes for the development of land, transforming
town planning into a new area of expertise.
In the 20th century, urban planning was forever
changed by the automobile industry. Car oriented
design impacted the rise of ‘urban design’. City
layouts now had to revolve around roadways and
traffic patterns.
In June 1928, the International Congresses of
Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded at the
Chateau de la Sarraz in Switzerland, by a group of
28 European architects organized by Le
Corbusier, Hélène de Mandrot, and Sigfried Giedion.
At the CIAM was one of many 20th
century manifestos meant to advance the cause of
"architecture as a social art".
Team X was a group of architects and other invited
participants who assembled starting in July 1953 at
the 9th Congress of the International Congresses of
Modern Architecture (CIAM) and created a schism
within CIAM by challenging its doctrinaire approach
to urbanism.
In 1956, the term  “Urban design” was first used at
a series of conferences hosted by Harvard
University. The event provided a platform for
Harvard's Urban Design program. The program also
utilized the writings of famous urban planning
thinkers: Gordon Cullen, Jane Jacobs, Kevin Lynch,
and Christopher Alexander.
In 1961, Gordon Cullen published The Concise
Townscape. He examined the traditional artistic
approach to city design of theorists including
Camillo Sitte, Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin.
Cullen also created the concept of 'serial vision'. It
defined the urban landscape as a series of related
spaces.
In 1961, Jane Jacobs published ' The Death and Life
of Great American Cities. She critiqued
the Modernism of CIAM (International Congresses of
Modern Architecture). Jacobs also claimed crime
rates in publicly owned spaces were rising because
of the Modernist approach of ‘city in the park’. She
argued instead for an 'eyes on the street' approach
to town planning through the resurrection of main
public space precedents (e.g. streets, squares).
In the same year, Kevin Lynch published The Image
of the City. He was seminal to urban design,
particularly with regards to the concept of legibility.
He reduced urban design theory to five basic
elements: paths, districts, edges, nodes,
landmarks. He also made the use of mental maps
to understanding the city popular, rather than the
two-dimensional physical master plans of the
previous 50 years.
Other notable works:
Architecture of the City by Aldo Rossi (1966)
Learning from Las Vegas by Robert Venturi (1972)
Collage City by Colin Rowe(1978)
The Next American Metropolis by Peter
Calthorpe(1993)
The Social Logic of Space by Bill Hillier and Julienne
Hanson (1984)
The popularity of these works resulted in terms that
become everyday language in the field of urban
planning. Aldo Rossi introduced 'historicism' and
'collective memory' to urban design. Rossi also
proposed a 'collage metaphor' to understand the
collection of new and old forms within the same
urban space. Peter Calthorpe developed a
manifesto for sustainable urban living via medium
density living. He also designed a manual for
building new settlements in his concept of Transit
Oriented Development (TOD). Bill Hillier and
Julienne Hanson introduced Space Syntax to predict
how movement patterns in cities would contribute
to urban vitality, anti-social behaviour and
economic success. 'Sustainability', 'livability', and
'high quality of urban components' also became
commonplace in the field.
Current Trends[edit]
 Jakriborg in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a new
urbanist eco-friendly new town near Malmö

Today, urban design seeks to create sustainable

urban environments with long-lasting structures,
buildings, and overall livability. Walkable urbanism
is another approach to practice that is defined
within the Charter of New Urbanism. It aims to
reduce environmental impacts by altering the built
environment to create smart cities that
support sustainable transport. Compact urban
neighborhoods encourage residents to drive less.
These neighborhoods have significantly lower
environmental impacts when compared
to sprawling suburbs.[14] To prevent urban
sprawl, Circular flow land use management was
introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land
use patterns.
As a result of the recent New Classical
Architecture movement, sustainable
construction aims to develop smart growth,
walkability, architectural tradition, and classical
design.[15][16] It contrasts
from modernist and globally uniform architecture.
In the 1980s, urban design began to oppose the
increasing solitary housing estates and suburban
sprawl.[17] Managed Urbanisation with the view to
making the urbanising process completely
culturally and economically and environmentally
sustainable, and as a possible solution to the urban
sprawl, Frank Reale has submitted an interesting
concept of Expanding Nodular Development
(E.N.D.) that integrates many urban design and
ecological principles, to design and build smaller
rural hubs with high-grade connecting freeways,
rather than adding more expensive infrastructure
to existing big cities and the resulting congestion.
Paradigm Shifts[edit]
Throughout the young existence of the Urban
Design discipline, many paradigm shifts have
occurred that have affected the trajectory of the
field regarding theory and practice. These
paradigm shifts cover multiple subject areas
outside of the traditional design disciplines.
 Team 10 - The first major paradigm shift was the
formation of Team 10 out of CIAM, or
the Congres Internationaux d’Architecture
Moderne. They believed that Urban Design
should introduce ideas of ‘Human Association’,
which pivots the design focus from the individual
patron to concentrating on the collective urban
population.  
 The Brundtland Report and Silent Spring -
Another paradigm shift was the publication of
the Brundtland Report and the book Silent
Spring by Rachel Carson. These writings
introduced the idea that human settlements
could have detrimental impacts on ecological
processes, as well as human health, which
spurred a new era of environmental awareness
in the field.  
 The Planner's Triangle - The Planner's Triangle,
created by Scott Cambell, emphasized three
main conflicts in the planning process. This
diagram exposed the complex relationships
between  Economic Development, Environmental
Protection, and Equity and Social Justice. For the
first time, the concept of Equity and Social
Justice was considered as equally important as
Economic Development and Environmental
Protection within the design process.
 Death of Modernism (Demolition of Pruitt Igoe) -
Pruitt Igoe was a spatial symbol and
representation of Modernist theory regarding
social housing. In its failure and demolition,
these theories were put into question and many
within the design field considered the era of
Modernism to be dead.  
 Neoliberalism & the election of Reagan - The
election of President Reagan and the rise
of Neoliberalism affected the Urban Design
discipline because it shifted the planning process
to emphasize capitalistic gains and spatial
privatization. Inspired by the trickle down
approach of Reaganomics,  it was believed that
the benefits of a capitalist emphasis within
design would positively impact everyone.
Conversely, this led exclusionary design
practices and to what many consider as “the
death of public space”.
 Right to the City - The spatial and political battle
over our citizens rights to the city has been an
ongoing one. David Harvey, along with Dan
Mitchell and Edward Soja, discussed rights to the
city as a matter of shifting the historical thinking
of how spatial matter was determined in a
critical form. This change of thinking occurred in
three forms: ontologically, sociologically, and the
combination of this socio-spatial dialect.
Together the aim shifted to be able to measure
what matters in a socio-spatial context.  
 Black Lives Matter (Ferguson) - The Black Lives
Matter movement challenged design thinking
because it emphasized the injustices and
inequities suffered by people of color in urban
space, as well as emphasized their right to public
space without discrimination and brutality. It
claims that minority groups lack certain spatial
privileges, and that this deficiency can result in
matters of life and death. In order to reach an
equitable state of urbanism, there needs to be
equal identification of socio-economic lives
within our urban scapes.
New Approaches[edit]
There have been many different theories and
approaches applied to the practice of urban design.
New Urbanism is an approach that began in the
1980s as a place-making initiative to combat
suburban sprawl. Its goal is to increase density by
creating compact and complete towns and
neighborhoods. The 10 principles of new urbanism
are: walkability, connectivity, mixed-use and
diversity, mixed housing, quality architecture and
urban design, traditional neighborhood structure,
increased density, smart transportation,
sustainability, and quality of life. New urbanism and
the developments that it has created are sources of
debates within the discipline, primarily with the
landscape urbanist approach but also due to its
reproduction of idyllic architectural tropes that do
not respond to the context. Andres
Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Peter Calthorpe,
and Jeff Speck are all strongly associated with New
Urbanism and its evolution over the years.
Landscape Urbanism is a theory that first surfaced
in the 1990s, arguing that the city is constructed of
interconnected and ecologically rich horizontal field
conditions, rather than the arrangement of objects
and buildings. Charles Waldheim, Mohsen
Mostafavi, James Corner, and Richard Weller are
closely associated with this theory.
Everyday Urbanism is a concept introduced by
Margaret Crawford and influenced by Henry
Lefebvre that describes the everyday lived
experience shared by urban residents including:
commuting, working, relaxing, moving through city
streets and sidewalks, shopping, buying and eating
food, running errands. Everyday urbanism is not
concerned with aesthetic value. Instead, it
introduces the idea of eliminating the distance
between experts and ordinary users and forces
designers and planners to contemplate a ‘shift of
power’ and address social life from a direct and
ordinary perspective.
Tactical Urbanism (also known as DIY Urbanism,
Planning-by-Doing, Urban Acupuncture, or Urban
Prototyping) is a city, organizational, or citizen-led
approach to neighborhood-building that uses short-
term, low-cost, and scalable interventions and
policies to catalyze long term change.
Top-up Urbanism is the theory and implementation
of two techniques in urban design: top-down and
bottom-up. Top-down urbanism is when the design
is implemented from the top of the hierarchy -
normally the government or planning department.
Bottom-up or grassroots urbanism begins with the
people or the bottom of the hierarchy. Top-up
means that both methods are used together to
make a more participatory design, so it is sure to
be comprehensive and well regarded in order to be
as successful as possible.
Infrastructural Urbanism is the study of how the
major investments that go into making
infrastructural systems can be leveraged to be
more sustainable for communities. Instead of the
systems being solely about efficiency in both cost
and production, infrastructural urbanism strives to
utilize these investments to be more equitable for
social and environmental issues as well. Linda
Samuels is a designer investigating how to
accomplish this change in infrastructure in what
she calls "next-generation infrastructure" which is
“multifunctional; public; visible; socially productive;
locally specific, flexible, and adaptable; sensitive to
the eco-economy; composed of design prototypes
or demonstration projects; symbiotic;
technologically smart; and developed
collaboratively across disciplines and agencies.”
Sustainable Urbanism is the study from the 1990s
of how a community can be beneficial for the
ecosystem, the people, and the economy for which
it is associated. It is based on Scott Campbell’s
planner’s triangle which tries to find the balance
between economy, equity and the environment. Its
main concept is to try and make cities as self-
sufficient as possible while not damaging the
ecosystem around it, today with a increased focus
on climate stability. A key designer working with
sustainable urbanism is Douglas Farr.
Feminist Urbanism is the study and critique of how
the built environment effects genders differently
because of patriarchal social and political structures
in society. Typically, the people at the table making
design decisions are men, so their conception
about public space and the built environment relate
to their life perspectives and experiences, which do
not reflect the same experiences of women or
children. Dolores Hayden is a scholar who has
researched this topic from 1980 to present day.
Hayden’s writing says, “when women, men and
children of all classes and races can identify the
public domain as the place where they feel most
comfortable as citizens, Americans will finally have
homelike urban space.”
Educational Urbanism is an emerging discipline, at
the crossroads of urban planning, educational
planning and pedagogy. An approach that tackles
the notion that economic activities, the need of new
skills at workplace, and the spatial configuration of
the workplace rely on the spatial reorientation in
the design of educational spaces and the urban
dimension of educational planning.
Black Urbanism is an approach in which black
communities are active creators, innovators, and
authors of the process of designing and creating
the neighborhoods and spaces of the metropolitan
areas they have done so much to help revive over
the past half century. The goal is not to build black
cities for black people but to explore and develop
the creative energy that exists in so-called black
areas: that has the potential to contribute to the
sustainable development of the whole city.
Debates in Urbanism[18][edit]
Underlying the practice of urban design are the
many theories about how to best design the city.
Each theory makes a unique claim about how to
effectively design thriving, sustainable urban
environments. Debate over the efficacy of these
approaches fills the urban design discourse.
Landscape Urbanism and New Urbanism are
commonly debated as distinct approaches to
addressing suburban sprawl. While Landscape
Urbanism proposes landscape as the basic building
block of the city and embraces horizontality,
flexibility, and adaptability, New Urbanism offers
the neighborhood as the basic building block of the
city and argues for increased density, mixed uses,
and walkability. Opponents of Landscape Urbanism
point out that most of its projects are urban parks,
and as such, its application is limited. Opponents of
New Urbanism claim that its preoccupation with
traditional neighborhood structures is nostalgic,
unimaginative, and culturally problematic.
Everyday Urbanism argues for grassroots
neighborhood improvements rather than master-
planned, top-down interventions. Each theory
elevates the roles of certain professions in the
urban design process, further fueling the debate. In
practice, urban designers often apply principles
from many urban design theories. Emerging from
the conversation is a universal acknowledgement of
the importance of increased interdisciplinary
collaboration in designing the modern city. [19]

Urban Design as an Integrative

Profession[edit]
 L'Enfant's plan for Washington DC

Gehl Architects' project for Brighton New Road employing shared

space

Urban designers work with architects, landscape

architects, transportation engineers, urban
planners, and industrial designers to reshape the
city. Cooperation with public agencies, authorities,
and the interests of nearby property owners is
necessary to manage public spaces. Users often
compete over the spaces and negotiate across a
variety of spheres. Input is frequently needed from
a wide range of stakeholders. This can lead to
different levels of participation as defined in
Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation.[20]
While there are some professionals who identify
themselves specifically as urban designers, a
majority have backgrounds in urban
planning, architecture, or landscape architecture.
Many collegiate programs incorporate urban design
theory and design subjects into their curricula.
There are an increasing number of university
programs offering degrees in urban design at the
post-graduate level.
Urban design considers:
 Pedestrian zones
 Incorporation of nature within a city
 Aesthetics
 Urban structure – arrangement and relation of
business and people
 Urban typology, density and sustainability -
spatial types and morphologies related to
intensity of use, consumption of resources and
production and maintenance of viable
communities
 Accessibility – safe and easy transportation
 Legibility and wayfinding – accessible
information about travel and destinations
 Animation – Designing places to stimulate public
activity
 Function and fit – places support their varied
intended uses
 Complementary mixed uses – Locating activities
to allow constructive interaction between them
 Character and meaning – Recognizing
differences between places
 Order and incident – Balancing consistency and
variety in the urban environment
 Continuity and change – Locating people in time
and place, respecting heritage and
contemporary culture
 Civil society – people are free to interact as civic
equals, important for building social capital
 Participation / engagement – including people in
the decision-making process can be done at
many different scales.
Relationships With Other Related Disciplines[edit]
The original urban design was thought to be
separated from architecture and urban planning.
Urban design has developed to a certain extent,
but it still comes from the foundation of
architecture. Most urban designers are primarily
trained in architecture. It is often considered as a
branch under the architecture, urban planning
and landscape architecture and essentially the
construction of the urban physical environment.
Now urban design is more integrated into the social
science-based, cultural, economic, political and
other aspects. Not only focus on space and
architectural groups, but also look at the whole city
from a broader and more holistic perspective to
shape a better living environment. Compared to
architecture, the spatial and temporal scale of
urban design processing is much larger. It deals
with neighborhoods, communities, and even the
entire city.

The Urban Design Education[edit]

Following the 1956 Urban Design conference,
Harvard University established the first urban
design graduate program, The Master of
Architecture in Urban Design. Urban design
programs explore the built environment from
diverse disciplinary backgrounds and points of
view. The pedagogically innovative combination of
interdisciplinary studios, lecture courses, seminars,
and independent study creates an intimate and
engaged educational atmosphere in which students
thrive and learn. Soon after in 1961, Washington
University in St. Louis founded their Master of
Urban Design program. Today, seventeen urban
design programs exist in the United States:
 Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI
 Ball State University - Indianapolis, IN
 Columbia University - New York, NY
 City College of New York - New York, NY
 Georgia Tech - Atlanta, GA
 Harvard University - Cambridge, MA
 New York Institute of Technology - New York, NY
 Pratt - Brooklyn, NY
 Savannah College of Art and Design - Savannah,
GA
 University of California - Berkeley, CA
 University of Maryland - College Park, MD
 University of Miami - Miami, FL
 University of Michigan - Ann Arbor, MI
 University of Notre Dame - Notre Dame, IN
 University of Pennsylvania - Philadelphia, PA
 University of Texas - Austin, TX
 Washington University in St. Louis - St. Louis, MO
 Urban Design Center Kashiwa-no-ha

Issues[edit]
The field of urban design holds enormous potential
for helping us address today’s biggest challenges:
an expanding population, mass urbanization, rising
inequality, and climate change. In its practice as
well as its theories, urban design attempts to tackle
these pressing issues. As climate change
progresses, urban design can mitigate the results
of flooding, temperature changes, and increasingly
detrimental storm impacts through a mindset of
sustainability and resilience. In doing so, the urban
design discipline attempts to create environments
that are constructed with longevity in mind. Cities
today must be designed to minimize resource
consumption, waste generation, and pollution while
also withstanding the unknown impacts of climate
change. In order to be truly resilient, our cities need
to be able to not just bounce back from a
catastrophic climate event, but to bounce forward
to an improved state.
Justice is and will always be a key issue in urban
design. As previously mentioned, past urban
strategies have caused injustices within
communities in capable of being remedied via
simple means. As urban designers tackle the issue
of justice, they often are required to look at the
injustices of the past and must be careful not to
overlook the nuances of race, place, and
socioeconomic status in their design efforts. This
includes ensuring reasonable access to basic
services, transportation, and fighting against
gentrification and the commodification of space for
economic gain. Organizations such as the Divided
Cities Initiatives at Washington University in St.
Louis and the Just City Lab at Harvard work on
promoting justice in urban design.
Until the 1970s, the design of towns and cities took
little account of the needs of people with
disabilities. At that time, disabled people began to
form movements demanding recognition of their
potential contribution if social obstacles were
removed. Disabled people challenged the 'medical
model' of disability which saw physical and mental
problems as an individual 'tragedy' and people with
disabilities as 'brave' for enduring them. They
proposed instead a 'social model' which said that
barriers to disabled people result from the design of
the built environment and attitudes of able-bodied
people. 'Access Groups' were established
composed of people with disabilities who audited
their local areas, checked planning applications and
made representations for improvements. The new
profession of 'access officer' was established
around that time to produce guidelines based on
the recommendations of access groups and to
oversee adaptations to existing buildings as well as
to check on the accessibility of new proposals.
Many local authorities now employ access officers
who are regulated by the Access Association. A new
chapter of the Building Regulations (Part M) was
introduced in 1992. Although it was beneficial to
have legislation on this issue the requirements
were fairly minimal but continue to be improved
with ongoing amendments. The Disability
Discrimination Act 1995 continues to raise
awareness and enforce action on disability issues in
the urban environment.

See also[edit]
 Activity centre
 Complete streets
 Crime prevention through environmental design
 Neighbourhood character
 New Urbanism
 Placemaking
 Sustainable urbanism
 Urban planning
 Urbanism
 Urban density
 Walkability

References[edit]
1. ^ Massip-Bosch, E., Architecture & The City: A Relational
Design Primer’’, upcoming publication (2020).
2. ^ Salama, A., O'Reilly, W., Noschis, K., Architectural
Education Today: Cross-cultural Perspectives, ARTI-ARCH,
2002.
3. ^ Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H.
(2013). Co-evolutions of planning and design: Risks and
benefits of design perspectives in planning systems. Planning
Theory, 12(2), 177-198.
4. ^ Moudon, Anne Vernez (1992). "A Catholic Approach to
Organizing What Urban Designers Should Know". Journal of
Planning Literature. 6 (4): 331–
349. doi:10.1177/088541229200600401.
5. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge.
p. 692. ISBN 978-0415862875.
6. ^ "Frederick Law Olmsted". fredericklawolmsted.com.
7. ^ Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones (2010). Urban and Regional
Planning. Routledge. ISBN 9780203861424.
8. ^ "To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform".
9. ^ Goodall, B (1987), Dictionary of Human Geography,
London: Penguin.
10. ^ Hardy 1999, p. 4.
11. ^ History 1899–1999 (PDF), TCPA, archived from the
original (PDF) on 2011-07-27.
12. ^ "urban planning".
13. ^ "The birth of town planning".
14. ^ Ewing, R "Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban
Development and Climate Change" Archived 2010-12-24 at
the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.
15. ^ Charter of the New Urbanism
16. ^ "Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future".
Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
 17. ^ Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities.
American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.
18. ^ Fishman, Robert (2005). Michigan Debates on Urbanism.
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan. ISBN 1-891197-35-
5.
19. ^ Kelbaugh, Douglas (2015). "The Environmental Paradox of
the City, Landscape Urbanism, and New
Urbanism". Consilience (13): 1–15. ISSN 1948-
3074. JSTOR 26427272.
20. ^ Arnstein, Sherry (1969). "A Ladder of Citizen
Participation"(PDF). Journal of the American Planning
Association. 35: 216–224.

Further reading[edit]
 Carmona, Matthew, and Tiesdell, Steve, editors, Urban
Design Reader, Architectural Press of Elsevier Press,
Amsterdam Boston other cities 2007, ISBN 0-7506-6531-9
 Larice, Michael, and MacDonald, Elizabeth, editors, The
Urban Design Reader, Routledge, New York London
2007, ISBN 0-415-33386-5

External links[edit]
 Cities of the Future: overview of important urban design
elements

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URBAN PLANNING

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DESIGN

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REAL ESTATE DEVELOPMENTS

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P Urban design
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search

Urban design is the process of designing and

shaping the physical features of cities, towns,
and villages and planning for the provision of
municipal services to residents and visitors.
Although it deals with issues of a larger scale
than architecture, it cannot be understood as a
wholly separated field of research and design, since
the quality of one depends on the quality of the
other. In fact, it is this very interdependency, which
has been termed ‘’relational design’’ [1] by
Barcelona-based architect Enric Massip-Bosch,
which makes urban design and architecture
inextricably linked in many university education
programs, especially in Europe. This tendency
towards reintegration in architectural studies is also
taking momentum in the USA.[2]
Urban design deals with the larger scale of groups
of buildings, infrastructure, streets and public
spaces, whole neighbourhoods and districts, and
entire cities, with the goal of making urban
environments that are equitable, beautiful,
performative, and sustainable.
Urban design is an inter-disciplinary field that
utilizes the procedures and the elements
of architecture and other related professions,
including landscape design, urban planning, civil
engineering and municipal engineering.[3] [4] It
borrows substantive and procedural knowledge
from public administration, sociology, law, urban
geography, urban economics and other related
disciplines from the social and behavioral sciences,
as well as from the natural sciences.[5] In more
recent times different sub-subfields of urban design
have emerged such as strategic urban
design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban
design, and sustainable urbanism. Urban design
demands an understanding of a wide range of
subjects from physical geography to social science,
and an appreciation for disciplines, such as real
estate development, urban economics, political
economy and social theory.
Urban designers work to create inclusive cities that
protect the commons, ensure equal access to and
distribution of public goods, and meet the needs of
all residents, particularly women, people of color,
and other marginalized populations. Through
design interventions, urban designers work to
revolutionize the way we conceptualize our social,
political and spatial systems as strategies to
produce and reproduce a more equitable and
innovative future.

Dubai Sports City in Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Urban design is about making connections between

people and places, movement and urban form,
nature and the built fabric. Urban design draws
together the many strands of place-making,
environmental stewardship, social equity and
economic viability into the creation of places with
distinct beauty and identity. Urban design draws
these and other strands together, creating a vision
for an area and then deploying the resources and
skills needed to bring the vision to life.
Urban design theory deals primarily with the design
and management of public space (i.e. the 'public
environment', 'public realm' or 'public domain'),
and the way public places are used and
experienced. Public space includes the totality of
spaces used freely on a day-to-day basis by the
 general public, such as streets, plazas, parks and
public infrastructure. Some aspects of privately
owned spaces, such as building facades or
domestic gardens, also contribute to public space
and are therefore also considered by urban design
theory. Important writers on urban design theory
include Christopher Alexander, Peter
Calthorpe, Gordon Cullen, Andres Duany, Jane
Jacobs, Mitchell Joachim, Jan Gehl, Allan B.
Jacobs, Kevin Lynch, Aldo Rossi, Colin Rowe, Robert
Venturi, William H. Whyte, Camillo Sitte, Bill Hillier
(Space syntax) and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk.

Contents
 1History
 1.1Modern Urban Design
 1.1.1Current Trends
 1.1.2Paradigm Shifts
 2New Approaches
 2.1Debates in Urbanism[18]
 3Urban Design as an Integrative Profession
 3.1Relationships With Other Related Disciplines
 4The Urban Design Education
 5Issues
 6See also
 7References
 8Further reading
 9External links

History[edit]
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Although contemporary professional use of the
term 'urban design' dates from the mid-20th
century, urban design as such has been practiced
throughout history. Ancient examples of carefully
planned and designed cities exist in Asia, Africa,
Europe and the Americas, and are particularly well
known within Classical Chinese, Roman and Greek
cultures (see Hippodamus of Miletus).[citation needed]
European Medieval cities are often, and often
erroneously, regarded as exemplars of undesigned
or 'organic' city development.[citation needed] There are
many examples of considered urban design in the
Middle Ages (see, e.g., David Friedman, Florentine
New Towns: Urban Design in the Late Middle Ages,
MIT 1988). In England, many of the towns listed in
the 9th century Burghal Hidage were designed on a
grid, examples including Southampton, Wareham,
Dorset and Wallingford, Oxfordshire, having been
rapidly created to provide a defensive network
against Danish invaders.[citation needed] 12th century
western Europe brought renewed focus on
urbanisation as a means of stimulating economic
growth and generating revenue.[citation
needed] The burgage system dating from that time
and its associated burgage plots brought a form of
self-organising design to medieval towns.[citation
needed] Rectangular grids were used in
the Bastides of 13th and 14th century Gascony,
and the new towns of England created in the same
period.[citation needed]
Throughout history, design of streets and deliberate
configuration of public spaces with buildings have
reflected contemporaneous social norms or
philosophical and religious beliefs (see, e.g., Erwin
Panofsky, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism,
Meridian Books, 1957). Yet the link between
designed urban space and human mind appears to
be bidirectional.[citation needed] Indeed, the reverse
impact of urban structure upon human behaviour
and upon thought is evidenced by
both observational study and historical record.
[citation needed] There are clear indications of impact
through Renaissance urban design on the thought
of Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei (see, e.g.,
Abraham Akkerman, "Urban planning in the
founding of Cartesian thought," Philosophy and
Geography 4(1), 1973). Already René Descartes in
his Discourse on the Method had attested to the
impact Renaissance planned new towns had upon
his own thought, and much evidence exists that the
Renaissance streetscape was also the perceptual
stimulus that had led to the development of
coordinate geometry (see, e.g., Claudia Lacour
Brodsky, Lines of Thought: Discourse,
Architectonics, and the Origins of Modern
Philosophy, Duke 1996).
The beginnings of modern urban design in Europe
are associated with the Renaissance but,
especially, with the Age of Enlightenment.[citation
needed] Spanish colonial cities were often planned, as
were some towns settled by other imperial cultures.
[citation needed] These sometimes embodied utopian
ambitions as well as aims for functionality and good
governance, as with James Oglethorpe's plan
for Savannah, Georgia.[citation needed] In
the Baroque period the design approaches
developed in French formal gardens such
as Versailles were extended into urban
development and redevelopment. In this period,
when modern professional specialisations did not
exist, urban design was undertaken by people with
skills in areas as diverse
as sculpture, architecture, garden
design, surveying, astronomy, and military
engineering. In the 18th and 19th centuries, urban
design was perhaps most closely linked with
surveyors (engineers) and architects. The increase
in urban populations brought with it problems of
epidemic disease,[citation needed] the response to which
was a focus on public health, the rise in the UK
of municipal engineering and the inclusion in British
legislation of provisions such as minimum widths of
street in relation to heights of buildings in order to
ensure adequate light and ventilation.[citation needed]
Much of Frederick Law Olmsted's work was
concerned with urban design, and the newly
formed profession of landscape architecture also
began to play a significant role in the late 19th
century.[6]
Modern Urban Design[edit]

Ebenezer Howard's influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban

growth through garden city "off-shoots"

Dubai main street.

In the 19th century, cities were industrializing and
expanding at a tremendous rate. Private business
largely dictated the pace and style of this
development. The expansion created many
hardships for the working poor and concern for
public health increased. However, the laissez-
faire style of government, in fashion for most of
the Victorian era, was starting to give way to a New
Liberalism. This gave more power to the public. The
public wanted the government to provide citizens,
especially factory workers, with healthier
environments. Around 1900, modern urban design
emerged from developing theories on how to
mitigate the consequences of the industrial age.
The first modern urban planning theorist was
Sir Ebenezer Howard. His ideas, although utopian,
were adopted around the world because they were
highly practical. He initiated the garden city
movement in 1898 garden city movement.[7] His
garden cities were intended to be planned, self-
contained communities surrounded by parks.
Howard wanted the cities to be proportional with
separate areas of residences, industry, and
agriculture. Inspired by the Utopian novel Looking
Backward and Henry George's work Progress and
Poverty, Howard published his book Garden Cities
of To-morrow in 1898. His work is an important
reference in the history of urban planning.[8] He
envisioned the self-sufficient garden city to house
32,000 people on a site 6,000 acres (2,428 ha). He
planned on a concentric pattern with open spaces,
public parks, and six radial boulevards, 120 ft
(37 m) wide, extending from the center. When it
reached full population, Howard wanted another
garden city to be developed nearby. He envisaged
a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a
central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and
rail.[9] His model for a garden city was first created
at Letchworth[10] and Welwyn Garden
City in Hertfordshire. Howard's movement was
extended by Sir Frederic Osborn to regional
planning.[11]
In the early 1900s, urban planning became
professionalized. With input
from utopian visionaries, civil engineers, and local
councilors, new approaches to city design were
developed for consideration by decision makers
such as elected officials. In 1899, the Town and
Country Planning Association was founded. In 1909,
the first academic course on urban planning was
offered by the University of Liverpool.[12] Urban
planning was first officially embodied in
the Housing and Town Planning Act of
1909 Howard's ‘garden city’ compelled local
authorities to introduce a system where all housing
construction conformed to specific building
standards.[13] In the United Kingdom following this
Act, surveyor, civil engineers, architects,
and lawyers began working together within local
authorities. In 1910, Thomas Adams became the
first Town Planning Inspector at the Local
Government Board and began meeting with
practitioners. In 1914, The Town Planning
Institute was established. The first urban planning
course in America wasn’t established until 1924
at Harvard University. Professionals developed
schemes for the development of land, transforming
town planning into a new area of expertise.
In the 20th century, urban planning was forever
changed by the automobile industry. Car oriented
design impacted the rise of ‘urban design’. City
layouts now had to revolve around roadways and
traffic patterns.
In June 1928, the International Congresses of
Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded at the
Chateau de la Sarraz in Switzerland, by a group of
28 European architects organized by Le
Corbusier, Hélène de Mandrot, and Sigfried Giedion.
At the CIAM was one of many 20th
century manifestos meant to advance the cause of
"architecture as a social art".
Team X was a group of architects and other invited
participants who assembled starting in July 1953 at
the 9th Congress of the International Congresses of
Modern Architecture (CIAM) and created a schism
within CIAM by challenging its doctrinaire approach
to urbanism.
In 1956, the term  “Urban design” was first used at
a series of conferences hosted by Harvard
University. The event provided a platform for
Harvard's Urban Design program. The program also
utilized the writings of famous urban planning
thinkers: Gordon Cullen, Jane Jacobs, Kevin Lynch,
and Christopher Alexander.
In 1961, Gordon Cullen published The Concise
Townscape. He examined the traditional artistic
approach to city design of theorists including
Camillo Sitte, Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin.
Cullen also created the concept of 'serial vision'. It
defined the urban landscape as a series of related
spaces.
In 1961, Jane Jacobs published ' The Death and Life
of Great American Cities. She critiqued
the Modernism of CIAM (International Congresses of
Modern Architecture). Jacobs also claimed crime
rates in publicly owned spaces were rising because
of the Modernist approach of ‘city in the park’. She
argued instead for an 'eyes on the street' approach
to town planning through the resurrection of main
public space precedents (e.g. streets, squares).
In the same year, Kevin Lynch published The Image
of the City. He was seminal to urban design,
particularly with regards to the concept of legibility.
He reduced urban design theory to five basic
elements: paths, districts, edges, nodes,
landmarks. He also made the use of mental maps
to understanding the city popular, rather than the
two-dimensional physical master plans of the
previous 50 years.
Other notable works:
Architecture of the City by Aldo Rossi (1966)
Learning from Las Vegas by Robert Venturi (1972)
Collage City by Colin Rowe(1978)
The Next American Metropolis by Peter
Calthorpe(1993)
The Social Logic of Space by Bill Hillier and Julienne
Hanson (1984)
The popularity of these works resulted in terms that
become everyday language in the field of urban
planning. Aldo Rossi introduced 'historicism' and
'collective memory' to urban design. Rossi also
proposed a 'collage metaphor' to understand the
collection of new and old forms within the same
urban space. Peter Calthorpe developed a
manifesto for sustainable urban living via medium
density living. He also designed a manual for
building new settlements in his concept of Transit
Oriented Development (TOD). Bill Hillier and
Julienne Hanson introduced Space Syntax to predict
how movement patterns in cities would contribute
to urban vitality, anti-social behaviour and
economic success. 'Sustainability', 'livability', and
'high quality of urban components' also became
commonplace in the field.
Current Trends[edit]

Jakriborg in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a new

urbanist eco-friendly new town near Malmö

Today, urban design seeks to create sustainable

urban environments with long-lasting structures,
buildings, and overall livability. Walkable urbanism
is another approach to practice that is defined
within the Charter of New Urbanism. It aims to
reduce environmental impacts by altering the built
environment to create smart cities that
support sustainable transport. Compact urban
neighborhoods encourage residents to drive less.
These neighborhoods have significantly lower
environmental impacts when compared
to sprawling suburbs.[14] To prevent urban
sprawl, Circular flow land use management was
introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land
use patterns.
As a result of the recent New Classical
Architecture movement, sustainable
construction aims to develop smart growth,
walkability, architectural tradition, and classical
design.[15][16] It contrasts
from modernist and globally uniform architecture.
In the 1980s, urban design began to oppose the
increasing solitary housing estates and suburban
sprawl.[17] Managed Urbanisation with the view to
making the urbanising process completely
culturally and economically and environmentally
sustainable, and as a possible solution to the urban
sprawl, Frank Reale has submitted an interesting
concept of Expanding Nodular Development
(E.N.D.) that integrates many urban design and
ecological principles, to design and build smaller
rural hubs with high-grade connecting freeways,
rather than adding more expensive infrastructure
to existing big cities and the resulting congestion.
Paradigm Shifts[edit]
Throughout the young existence of the Urban
Design discipline, many paradigm shifts have
occurred that have affected the trajectory of the
field regarding theory and practice. These
paradigm shifts cover multiple subject areas
outside of the traditional design disciplines.
 Team 10 - The first major paradigm shift was the
formation of Team 10 out of CIAM, or
the Congres Internationaux d’Architecture
Moderne. They believed that Urban Design
should introduce ideas of ‘Human Association’,
 which pivots the design focus from the individual
patron to concentrating on the collective urban
population.  
 The Brundtland Report and Silent Spring -
Another paradigm shift was the publication of
the Brundtland Report and the book Silent
Spring by Rachel Carson. These writings
introduced the idea that human settlements
could have detrimental impacts on ecological
processes, as well as human health, which
spurred a new era of environmental awareness
in the field.  
 The Planner's Triangle - The Planner's Triangle,
created by Scott Cambell, emphasized three
main conflicts in the planning process. This
diagram exposed the complex relationships
between  Economic Development, Environmental
Protection, and Equity and Social Justice. For the
first time, the concept of Equity and Social
Justice was considered as equally important as
Economic Development and Environmental
Protection within the design process.
 Death of Modernism (Demolition of Pruitt Igoe) -
Pruitt Igoe was a spatial symbol and
representation of Modernist theory regarding
social housing. In its failure and demolition,
these theories were put into question and many
within the design field considered the era of
Modernism to be dead.  
 Neoliberalism & the election of Reagan - The
election of President Reagan and the rise
of Neoliberalism affected the Urban Design
discipline because it shifted the planning process
to emphasize capitalistic gains and spatial
privatization. Inspired by the trickle down
approach of Reaganomics,  it was believed that
the benefits of a capitalist emphasis within
design would positively impact everyone.
Conversely, this led exclusionary design
practices and to what many consider as “the
death of public space”.
 Right to the City - The spatial and political battle
over our citizens rights to the city has been an
 ongoing one. David Harvey, along with Dan
Mitchell and Edward Soja, discussed rights to the
city as a matter of shifting the historical thinking
of how spatial matter was determined in a
critical form. This change of thinking occurred in
three forms: ontologically, sociologically, and the
combination of this socio-spatial dialect.
Together the aim shifted to be able to measure
what matters in a socio-spatial context.  
 Black Lives Matter (Ferguson) - The Black Lives
Matter movement challenged design thinking
because it emphasized the injustices and
inequities suffered by people of color in urban
space, as well as emphasized their right to public
space without discrimination and brutality. It
claims that minority groups lack certain spatial
privileges, and that this deficiency can result in
matters of life and death. In order to reach an
equitable state of urbanism, there needs to be
equal identification of socio-economic lives
within our urban scapes.

New Approaches[edit]
There have been many different theories and
approaches applied to the practice of urban design.
New Urbanism is an approach that began in the
1980s as a place-making initiative to combat
suburban sprawl. Its goal is to increase density by
creating compact and complete towns and
neighborhoods. The 10 principles of new urbanism
are: walkability, connectivity, mixed-use and
diversity, mixed housing, quality architecture and
urban design, traditional neighborhood structure,
increased density, smart transportation,
sustainability, and quality of life. New urbanism and
the developments that it has created are sources of
debates within the discipline, primarily with the
landscape urbanist approach but also due to its
reproduction of idyllic architectural tropes that do
not respond to the context. Andres
Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Peter Calthorpe,
and Jeff Speck are all strongly associated with New
Urbanism and its evolution over the years.
Landscape Urbanism is a theory that first surfaced
in the 1990s, arguing that the city is constructed of
interconnected and ecologically rich horizontal field
conditions, rather than the arrangement of objects
and buildings. Charles Waldheim, Mohsen
Mostafavi, James Corner, and Richard Weller are
closely associated with this theory.
Everyday Urbanism is a concept introduced by
Margaret Crawford and influenced by Henry
Lefebvre that describes the everyday lived
experience shared by urban residents including:
commuting, working, relaxing, moving through city
streets and sidewalks, shopping, buying and eating
food, running errands. Everyday urbanism is not
concerned with aesthetic value. Instead, it
introduces the idea of eliminating the distance
between experts and ordinary users and forces
designers and planners to contemplate a ‘shift of
power’ and address social life from a direct and
ordinary perspective.
Tactical Urbanism (also known as DIY Urbanism,
Planning-by-Doing, Urban Acupuncture, or Urban
Prototyping) is a city, organizational, or citizen-led
approach to neighborhood-building that uses short-
term, low-cost, and scalable interventions and
policies to catalyze long term change.
Top-up Urbanism is the theory and implementation
of two techniques in urban design: top-down and
bottom-up. Top-down urbanism is when the design
is implemented from the top of the hierarchy -
normally the government or planning department.
Bottom-up or grassroots urbanism begins with the
people or the bottom of the hierarchy. Top-up
means that both methods are used together to
make a more participatory design, so it is sure to
be comprehensive and well regarded in order to be
as successful as possible.
Infrastructural Urbanism is the study of how the
major investments that go into making
infrastructural systems can be leveraged to be
more sustainable for communities. Instead of the
systems being solely about efficiency in both cost
and production, infrastructural urbanism strives to
utilize these investments to be more equitable for
social and environmental issues as well. Linda
Samuels is a designer investigating how to
accomplish this change in infrastructure in what
she calls "next-generation infrastructure" which is
“multifunctional; public; visible; socially productive;
locally specific, flexible, and adaptable; sensitive to
the eco-economy; composed of design prototypes
or demonstration projects; symbiotic;
technologically smart; and developed
collaboratively across disciplines and agencies.”
Sustainable Urbanism is the study from the 1990s
of how a community can be beneficial for the
ecosystem, the people, and the economy for which
it is associated. It is based on Scott Campbell’s
planner’s triangle which tries to find the balance
between economy, equity and the environment. Its
main concept is to try and make cities as self-
sufficient as possible while not damaging the
ecosystem around it, today with a increased focus
on climate stability. A key designer working with
sustainable urbanism is Douglas Farr.
Feminist Urbanism is the study and critique of how
the built environment effects genders differently
because of patriarchal social and political structures
in society. Typically, the people at the table making
design decisions are men, so their conception
about public space and the built environment relate
to their life perspectives and experiences, which do
not reflect the same experiences of women or
children. Dolores Hayden is a scholar who has
researched this topic from 1980 to present day.
Hayden’s writing says, “when women, men and
children of all classes and races can identify the
public domain as the place where they feel most
comfortable as citizens, Americans will finally have
homelike urban space.”
Educational Urbanism is an emerging discipline, at
the crossroads of urban planning, educational
planning and pedagogy. An approach that tackles
the notion that economic activities, the need of new
skills at workplace, and the spatial configuration of
the workplace rely on the spatial reorientation in
the design of educational spaces and the urban
dimension of educational planning.
Black Urbanism is an approach in which black
communities are active creators, innovators, and
authors of the process of designing and creating
the neighborhoods and spaces of the metropolitan
areas they have done so much to help revive over
the past half century. The goal is not to build black
cities for black people but to explore and develop
the creative energy that exists in so-called black
areas: that has the potential to contribute to the
sustainable development of the whole city.
Debates in Urbanism[18][edit]
Underlying the practice of urban design are the
many theories about how to best design the city.
Each theory makes a unique claim about how to
effectively design thriving, sustainable urban
environments. Debate over the efficacy of these
approaches fills the urban design discourse.
Landscape Urbanism and New Urbanism are
commonly debated as distinct approaches to
addressing suburban sprawl. While Landscape
Urbanism proposes landscape as the basic building
block of the city and embraces horizontality,
flexibility, and adaptability, New Urbanism offers
the neighborhood as the basic building block of the
city and argues for increased density, mixed uses,
and walkability. Opponents of Landscape Urbanism
point out that most of its projects are urban parks,
and as such, its application is limited. Opponents of
New Urbanism claim that its preoccupation with
traditional neighborhood structures is nostalgic,
unimaginative, and culturally problematic.
Everyday Urbanism argues for grassroots
neighborhood improvements rather than master-
planned, top-down interventions. Each theory
elevates the roles of certain professions in the
urban design process, further fueling the debate. In
practice, urban designers often apply principles
from many urban design theories. Emerging from
the conversation is a universal acknowledgement of
the importance of increased interdisciplinary
collaboration in designing the modern city. [19]

Urban Design as an Integrative

Profession[edit]

L'Enfant's plan for Washington DC

Gehl Architects' project for Brighton New Road employing shared

space

Urban designers work with architects, landscape

architects, transportation engineers, urban
planners, and industrial designers to reshape the
city. Cooperation with public agencies, authorities,
and the interests of nearby property owners is
necessary to manage public spaces. Users often
compete over the spaces and negotiate across a
variety of spheres. Input is frequently needed from
a wide range of stakeholders. This can lead to
different levels of participation as defined in
Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation.[20]
While there are some professionals who identify
themselves specifically as urban designers, a
majority have backgrounds in urban
planning, architecture, or landscape architecture.
Many collegiate programs incorporate urban design
theory and design subjects into their curricula.
There are an increasing number of university
programs offering degrees in urban design at the
post-graduate level.
Urban design considers:
 Pedestrian zones
 Incorporation of nature within a city
 Aesthetics
 Urban structure – arrangement and relation of
business and people
 Urban typology, density and sustainability -
spatial types and morphologies related to
intensity of use, consumption of resources and
production and maintenance of viable
communities
 Accessibility – safe and easy transportation
 Legibility and wayfinding – accessible
information about travel and destinations
 Animation – Designing places to stimulate public
activity
 Function and fit – places support their varied
intended uses
 Complementary mixed uses – Locating activities
to allow constructive interaction between them
 Character and meaning – Recognizing
differences between places
 Order and incident – Balancing consistency and
variety in the urban environment
 Continuity and change – Locating people in time
and place, respecting heritage and
contemporary culture
 Civil society – people are free to interact as civic
equals, important for building social capital
 Participation / engagement – including people in
the decision-making process can be done at
many different scales.
Relationships With Other Related Disciplines[edit]
The original urban design was thought to be
separated from architecture and urban planning.
Urban design has developed to a certain extent,
but it still comes from the foundation of
architecture. Most urban designers are primarily
trained in architecture. It is often considered as a
branch under the architecture, urban planning
and landscape architecture and essentially the
construction of the urban physical environment.
Now urban design is more integrated into the social
science-based, cultural, economic, political and
other aspects. Not only focus on space and
architectural groups, but also look at the whole city
from a broader and more holistic perspective to
shape a better living environment. Compared to
architecture, the spatial and temporal scale of
urban design processing is much larger. It deals
with neighborhoods, communities, and even the
entire city.

The Urban Design Education[edit]

Following the 1956 Urban Design conference,
Harvard University established the first urban
design graduate program, The Master of
Architecture in Urban Design. Urban design
programs explore the built environment from
diverse disciplinary backgrounds and points of
view. The pedagogically innovative combination of
interdisciplinary studios, lecture courses, seminars,
and independent study creates an intimate and
engaged educational atmosphere in which students
thrive and learn. Soon after in 1961, Washington
University in St. Louis founded their Master of
Urban Design program. Today, seventeen urban
design programs exist in the United States:
 Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI
 Ball State University - Indianapolis, IN
 Columbia University - New York, NY
 City College of New York - New York, NY
 Georgia Tech - Atlanta, GA
 Harvard University - Cambridge, MA
 New York Institute of Technology - New York, NY
 Pratt - Brooklyn, NY
 Savannah College of Art and Design - Savannah,
GA
 University of California - Berkeley, CA
 University of Maryland - College Park, MD
 University of Miami - Miami, FL
 University of Michigan - Ann Arbor, MI
 University of Notre Dame - Notre Dame, IN
 University of Pennsylvania - Philadelphia, PA
 University of Texas - Austin, TX
 Washington University in St. Louis - St. Louis, MO

Urban Design Center Kashiwa-no-ha

Issues[edit]
The field of urban design holds enormous potential
for helping us address today’s biggest challenges:
an expanding population, mass urbanization, rising
inequality, and climate change. In its practice as
well as its theories, urban design attempts to tackle
these pressing issues. As climate change
progresses, urban design can mitigate the results
of flooding, temperature changes, and increasingly
detrimental storm impacts through a mindset of
sustainability and resilience. In doing so, the urban
design discipline attempts to create environments
that are constructed with longevity in mind. Cities
today must be designed to minimize resource
consumption, waste generation, and pollution while
also withstanding the unknown impacts of climate
change. In order to be truly resilient, our cities need
to be able to not just bounce back from a
catastrophic climate event, but to bounce forward
to an improved state.
Justice is and will always be a key issue in urban
design. As previously mentioned, past urban
strategies have caused injustices within
communities in capable of being remedied via
simple means. As urban designers tackle the issue
of justice, they often are required to look at the
injustices of the past and must be careful not to
overlook the nuances of race, place, and
socioeconomic status in their design efforts. This
includes ensuring reasonable access to basic
services, transportation, and fighting against
gentrification and the commodification of space for
economic gain. Organizations such as the Divided
Cities Initiatives at Washington University in St.
Louis and the Just City Lab at Harvard work on
promoting justice in urban design.
Until the 1970s, the design of towns and cities took
little account of the needs of people with
disabilities. At that time, disabled people began to
form movements demanding recognition of their
potential contribution if social obstacles were
removed. Disabled people challenged the 'medical
model' of disability which saw physical and mental
problems as an individual 'tragedy' and people with
disabilities as 'brave' for enduring them. They
proposed instead a 'social model' which said that
barriers to disabled people result from the design of
the built environment and attitudes of able-bodied
people. 'Access Groups' were established
composed of people with disabilities who audited
their local areas, checked planning applications and
made representations for improvements. The new
profession of 'access officer' was established
around that time to produce guidelines based on
the recommendations of access groups and to
oversee adaptations to existing buildings as well as
to check on the accessibility of new proposals.
Many local authorities now employ access officers
who are regulated by the Access Association. A new
chapter of the Building Regulations (Part M) was
introduced in 1992. Although it was beneficial to
have legislation on this issue the requirements
were fairly minimal but continue to be improved
with ongoing amendments. The Disability
Discrimination Act 1995 continues to raise
awareness and enforce action on disability issues in
the urban environment.

See also[edit]
 Activity centre
 Complete streets
 Crime prevention through environmental design
 Neighbourhood character
 New Urbanism
 Placemaking
 Sustainable urbanism
 Urban planning
 Urbanism
 Urban density
 Walkability

References[edit]
1. ^ Massip-Bosch, E., Architecture & The City: A Relational
Design Primer’’, upcoming publication (2020).
2. ^ Salama, A., O'Reilly, W., Noschis, K., Architectural
Education Today: Cross-cultural Perspectives, ARTI-ARCH,
2002.
3. ^ Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H.
(2013). Co-evolutions of planning and design: Risks and
benefits of design perspectives in planning systems. Planning
Theory, 12(2), 177-198.
 4. ^ Moudon, Anne Vernez (1992). "A Catholic Approach to
Organizing What Urban Designers Should Know". Journal of
Planning Literature. 6 (4): 331–
349. doi:10.1177/088541229200600401.
5. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge.
p. 692. ISBN 978-0415862875.
6. ^ "Frederick Law Olmsted". fredericklawolmsted.com.
7. ^ Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones (2010). Urban and Regional
Planning. Routledge. ISBN 9780203861424.
8. ^ "To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform".
9. ^ Goodall, B (1987), Dictionary of Human Geography,
London: Penguin.
10. ^ Hardy 1999, p. 4.
11. ^ History 1899–1999 (PDF), TCPA, archived from the
original (PDF) on 2011-07-27.
12. ^ "urban planning".
13. ^ "The birth of town planning".
14. ^ Ewing, R "Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban
Development and Climate Change" Archived 2010-12-24 at
the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.
15. ^ Charter of the New Urbanism
16. ^ "Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future".
Traditional Architecture Group. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
17. ^ Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities.
American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.
18. ^ Fishman, Robert (2005). Michigan Debates on Urbanism.
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan. ISBN 1-891197-35-
5.
19. ^ Kelbaugh, Douglas (2015). "The Environmental Paradox of
the City, Landscape Urbanism, and New
Urbanism". Consilience (13): 1–15. ISSN 1948-
3074. JSTOR 26427272.
20. ^ Arnstein, Sherry (1969). "A Ladder of Citizen
Participation"(PDF). Journal of the American Planning
Association. 35: 216–224.

Further reading[edit]
 Carmona, Matthew, and Tiesdell, Steve, editors, Urban
Design Reader, Architectural Press of Elsevier Press,
Amsterdam Boston other cities 2007, ISBN 0-7506-6531-9
 Larice, Michael, and MacDonald, Elizabeth, editors, The
Urban Design Reader, Routledge, New York London
2007, ISBN 0-415-33386-5

External links[edit]
 Cities of the Future: overview of important urban design
elements
 show

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rint/export
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
 বাংলা
 Deutsch
 Español
 Bahasa Indonesia
 日本語
 Português
 Русский
 中文
19 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 7 May 2020, at 16:56 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia F