Danny Lehman/CORBIS

The Early
Modern
World 1350–1815
Why It Matters
The modern world began during this period.
Asian empires and European countries
expanded their influence through explora-
tion, which led to colonialism, trade, and
conflict. By the eighteenth century, political
and social revolutions resulted in new
democratic nations.
RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION
CHAPTER 12
1350–1600

THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

CHAPTER 13
1500–1800

CRISIS AND ABSOLUTISM IN EUROPE

CHAPTER 14
1550–1715

THE MUSLIM EMPIRES

CHAPTER 15
1450–1800

THE EAST ASIAN WORLD

CHAPTER 16
1400–1800

REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT

CHAPTER 17
1550–1800

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

CHAPTER 18
1789–1815

The
. Blue Mosque dominates the skyline of old
Istanbul, which is located strategically on the
peninsula where Europe and Asia meet.
Danny Lehman/CORBIS

395
 Renaissance and
Reformation 1350–1600
Section 1 The Renaissance
Section 2 Ideas and Art of the Renaissance
Section 3 The Protestant Reformation
Section 4 The Spread of Protestantism

MAKING CONNECTIONS
How was architecture influenced
by the Renaissance?
Tremendous advances in architecture took place during the Italian
Renaissance. Among the great masterpieces was the dome of St.
Peter’s Basilica shown in the photo. Architect Donato Bramante began
this project for Pope Julius II; however, Michelangelo completed the
design of this structure. In this chapter you will learn about social,
political, economic, and cultural effects of the Renaissance.
• What are some other accomplishments for which Michelangelo
is famous?
• Compare and contrast the design of the dome of St. Peter’s
Basilica to that of more modern domes such as the U.S. Capitol.

1350 1434 1517

Italian Cosimo de’ Medici Martin Luther
Renaissance takes control of presents his
EUROPE begins Florence Ninety-five Theses

1350 1500

THE WORLD 1405 1518

Zheng He of China begins Spanish ship carries first
first voyage of exploration enslaved Africans to the Americas

396
Scala/Art Resource, NY, Paul Hardy/CORBIS
 FPO

ce &
Renaissan ion
Reformat
ice, Florence
Italian Sta tes: Milan, Ven
Analyzing Analyze Germany
how the Renaissance Switzerland
Flanders

1534 1555 and Reformation England

Peace of Augsburg affected various parts Italy

Henry VIII initiates of Europe. Record
creation of Church divides Christianity your findings in a layered-look book.
of England in Germany Make sure you label each effect as
Renaissance or Reformation.
1600

1535
Francisco Pizarro
conquers the Inca Empire
(ISTORY /.,).%
Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 12.

Paul Hardy/CORBIS, (t) HIP/Art Resource, NY, (b) Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY
 The Renaissance
Beginning in Italy and spanning two centuries, the
GUIDE TO READING Renaissance emphasized secularism, awareness of ties to
The BIG Idea the ancient Greek and Roman worlds, and the ability of the
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values Between individual. City-states became centers of political, economic,
1350 and 1550, Italian intellectuals believed they
and social life. Machiavelli influenced political thought, and
had entered a new age of human achievement.
Castiglione defined what made a perfect Renaissance noble.
Content Vocabulary The Renaissance affected everyone, from noble to peasant.
• urban society (p. 398) • mercenaries (p. 400)
• secular (p. 398) • dowry (p. 403)
The Italian Renaissance
Academic Vocabulary
• instability (p. 398) • decline (p. 398) As the Renaissance began, three Italian city-states were the centers
of Italian political, economic, and social life.
People, Places, and Events HISTORY & YOU Do you excel at more than one skill, for example, math and
• Italian Renaissance • Cosimo de´ Medici art? Read to learn about the Renaissance belief in individual ability.
(p. 398) (p. 400)
• Leonardo da Vinci • Lorenzo de´ Medici
(p. 398) (p. 400) The word renaissance means “rebirth.” A number of people who
• Milan (p. 399) • Rome (p. 400) lived in Italy between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had wit-
• Venice (p. 399) • Niccolò Machiavelli nessed a rebirth of the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. To them,
• Florence (p. 399) (p. 401)
this rebirth marked a new age. Historians later called this period
• Francesco Sforza the Renaissance, or Italian Renaissance—a period of European
(p. 400)
history that began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. What
are the most important characteristics of the Renaissance?
Reading Strategy First, Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society. As the
Categorizing Information As you
Middle Ages progressed, powerful city-states became the centers
read, use a web diagram like the one below to
identify the major principles of Machiavelli’s work
of Italian political, economic, and social life. Within this growing
The Prince. urban society, a secular, or worldly, viewpoint emerged as increas-
ing wealth created new enjoyment of material things.
Second, the Renaissance was an age of recovery from the disas-
ters of the fourteenth century—the plague, political instability,
The Prince
and a decline of Church power. Recovery went hand in hand with
a rebirth of interest in ancient culture. Italian thinkers became
aware of their own Roman past—the remains of which were to be
seen all around them. They also became intensely interested in the
culture that had dominated the ancient Mediterranean world.
This revival affected both politics and art.
Third, a new view of human beings emerged as people in the
Italian Renaissance emphasized individual ability. As Leon Bat-
tista Alberti, a fifteenth-century Italian, said, “Men can do all
things if they will.” A high regard for human worth and a realiza-
tion of what individuals could achieve created a new social ideal.
The well-rounded, universal person could achieve much in many
areas. Leonardo da Vinci (VIHN•chee), for example, was a
painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, and mathematician.

398
 RENAISSANCE ITALY, 1500
10°E 15°E

Venice was a rich trade empire

ruled by a small group of self-
serving merchant-aristocrats. Ferrara
EU ROPE Milan
Florence
45°N
P o R. Mantua Venice
Genoa
Under the Visconti family and later the Mantua
Sforza dukes, Milan prospered from
Ferrara Milan
trade and an efficient tax system. Genoa Papal States
Urbino

A
Pisa Florence Venice

d
ri
Urbino

a
ic

t
The cultural center of Renaissance
Italy, Florence was governed by the Se
wealthy and powerful Medici family. a

Ti
be
rR
Corsica

.
N
Rome
W E

S Naples

40°N
Sardinia

Medi te rra ne a n Se a Tyrrhenian

Sea

1. Place Which Italian city-states did not have

a seacoast?
0 100 kilometers
2. Movement How could traders from the Sicily
landlocked city-states gain access to the 0 100 miles
sea? Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

See StudentWorks™ Plus

or glencoe.com.

Of course, not all parts of Italian society celebrated religious and secular themes,
were directly affected by these three gen- the human body, and an appreciation of
eral characteristics of the Italian Renais- classical antiquity.
sance. The wealthy upper classes, who
made up a small percentage of the total
population, more actively embraced the The Italian States
new ideas and activities. Indirectly, how- During the Middle Ages, Italy had failed
ever, the Italian Renaissance did have some to develop a centralized monarchical state.
impact on ordinary people. Especially in The lack of a single strong ruler made it
the cities, many of the intellectual and possible for a number of city-states in
artistic achievements of the period were northern and central Italy to remain inde-
highly visible and difficult to ignore. The pendent. Three of them—Milan, Venice,
churches, wealthy homes, and public and Florence—expanded and played cru-
buildings were decorated with art that cial roles in Italian politics.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 399

 The Italian city-states prospered from a of cloth. Increased competition from Eng-
flourishing trade that had expanded in the lish and Flemish cloth makers drove down
Middle Ages. Italian merchants had prof- profits. During this time a Dominican
ited from the Crusades as well and were preacher named Girolamo Savonarola
able to set up new trading centers in east- began condemning the corruption and
ern ports. There, the Italian merchants excesses of the Medici family. Citizens, tired
obtained silks, sugar, and spices, which of Medici rule and frustrated by economic
they carried back to Italy and the West. events, turned to Savonarola. So many peo-
Milan was one of the richest city-states ple followed him that the Medici family
in Italy. It was located in the north, at the turned Florence over to his followers.
crossroads of the main trade routes from Eventually people tired of Savonarola’s
Italian coastal cities to the Alpine passes. strict regulations on gambling, horserac-
In the fourteenth century, members of the ing, swearing, painting, music, and books.
Visconti family established themselves as Savonarola also attacked the corruption of
dukes of Milan. They extended their power the Church, which angered the pope. In
over all of Lombardy. 1498, Savonarola was accused of heresy
The last Visconti ruler of Milan died in and sentenced to death. The Medici family
1447. Francesco Sforza then conquered the returned to power.
city and became its new duke. Sforza led a
band of mercenaries—soldiers who sold The Italian Wars
their services to the highest bidder. Both The growth of powerful monarchical
the Visconti and Sforza rulers worked to states in the rest of Europe eventually led
build a strong centralized state. By creat- to trouble for the Italian states. Attracted
ing an efficient tax system, they generated by the riches of Italy, the French king
enormous revenues for the government. Charles VIII led an army of 30,000 men
Venice was another major northern Ital- into Italy in 1494. He occupied the king-
ian city-state. As a link between Asia and dom of Naples in southern Italy. Northern
Western Europe, the city drew traders from Italian states turned for help to the Span-
all over the world. Officially Venice was a ish, who gladly agreed to send soldiers to
republic with an elected leader called a Italy. For the next 30 years, the French and
doge. In reality, a small group of wealthy the Spanish battled in Italy as they fought
merchant-aristocrats ran the government to dominate the country.
of Venice for their benefit. Venice’s trade A decisive turning point in their war
empire was tremendously profitable and came in 1527. On May 5, thousands of
made Venice an international power. troops belonging to the Spanish king
The republic of Florence dominated the Charles I, along with mercenaries from dif-
region of Tuscany. During the fourteenth ferent countries, arrived at the city of
century, a small but wealthy group of mer- Rome. They had not been paid for months.
chants established control of the Florentine When they yelled, “Money! Money!” their
government. They waged a series of suc- leader responded, “If you have ever
cessful wars against their neighbors and dreamed of pillaging a town and laying
established Florence as a major city-state. hold of its treasures, here now is one, the
In 1434, Cosimo de’ Medici (MEH•duh• richest of them all, queen of the world.”
chee) took control of the city. The wealthy The next day the invading forces smashed
Medici family ran the government from the gates and pushed into the city. The
behind the scenes. Using their wealth and troops went berserk in a frenzy of blood-
personal influence, Cosimo, and later shed and looting. The terrible sack of Rome
Lorenzo de’ Medici, his grandson, domi- in 1527 by the armies of the Spanish king
nated the city when Florence was the cul- Charles I ended the Italian wars and left
tural center of Italy. the Spanish a dominant force in Italy.
During the late 1400s, Florence experi-
enced an economic decline. Most of its ✓Reading Check Explaining What attracted the
economy was based on the manufacturing French king Charles VIII to Italy?

400 SECTION 1 The Renaissance

Machiavelli on Power

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

principles. Machiavelli rejected this popu-
lar approach. He believed that morality
Machiavelli’s The Prince has pro- had little to do with politics.
foundly influenced political leaders. From Machiavelli’s point of view, a
prince’s attitude toward power must be
HISTORY & YOU Do you believe that morality has
a place in politics? Read to learn about Machiavelli’s
based on an understanding of human
views on political power. nature, which he believed was basically
self-centered. Political activity, therefore,
should not be restricted by moral princi-
No one gave better expression to the Ital- ples. A prince acts on behalf of the state.
ians’ love affair with political power than According to Machiavelli, then, for the
Niccolò Machiavelli (ma•kee•uh• state’s sake, a prince must be willing to let
VEH•lee). His book The Prince is one of the his conscience sleep.
most influential works on political power Machiavelli was among the first to aban-
in the Western world. don morality as the basis for analyzing
Machiavelli’s central thesis in The Prince political activity. His views have had a
concerns how to acquire—and keep— profound influence on political leaders
political power. In the Middle Ages, many who followed.
writers on political power had stressed the
moral side of a prince’s activity—how a ✓Reading Check Identifying What was
ruler ought to behave based on Christian Machiavelli’s central thesis in The Prince?

Patronage of the Medici Family

Under the rule of the wealthy Medici family, Florence became the cultural
center of Europe. Their patronage supported many artists, including
Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Michelangelo.
Piero de’ Medici hired Benozzo Gozzoli in 1459 to paint frescoes in the
chapel at the Medici Palace. Frescoes on three walls depict the biblical
stories about the processions of the three Magi to Bethlehem. The wall with
the youngest king (shown here) is the most lavish. The artist included
portraits of Piero and his father, Cosimo, as well as a self-portrait. The young
king is a portrait of Piero’s son Lorenzo, who was then only ten years old, but
would come to be known as Lorenzo the Magnificent.

1. Explaining How did the Medici influence

the Renaissance in Florence?
2. Making Inferences Why do you think
Gozzoli included portraits of several mem-
bers of the Medici family in his fresco
depicting a biblical scene?
 Renaissance Society Nobles, or aristocrats, were expected to
fulfill certain ideals. The characteristics of
Changes in the social classes occurred a perfect Renaissance noble were expressed
during the Renaissance. in The Book of the Courtier, written by Bal-
dassare Castiglione (kahs•teel•YOH•
HISTORY & YOU Should your parents choose your
future spouse? Read to learn about the marriage cus-
nay), an Italian, in 1528. First, a noble was
toms during the Renaissance. born, not made. He must have character,
grace, and talent. Second, the noble had to
be a warrior, but also needed a classical
In the Middle Ages, society was divided education and interest in the arts. Third,
into three estates, or social classes (see the noble had to follow a certain standard
Chapter 9). Although this social order con- of conduct. What was the purpose of these
tinued into the Renaissance, some changes standards?
became evident.
PRIMARY SOURCE
The Nobility “[T]he aim of the perfect Courtier is so to win
Although many European nobles faced . . . the favor and mind of the prince whom he
declining incomes prior to the Renaissance, serves that he may be able to tell him . . . the truth
many had retained their lands and titles. about everything he needs to know . . . and that
when he sees the mind of his prince inclined to a
By 1500, nobles, old and new, again domi-
wrong action, he may dare to oppose him . . . so
nated society. Making up only 2 to 3 per-
as to dissuade him of every evil intent and bring
cent of the population in most countries, him to the path of virtue.”
nobles held important political posts and —Baldassare Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier,
served as advisers to the king. 1528

Gutenberg’s Press
In 1455, Johannes Gutenberg produced the
first printed book, a Bible, in Germany. His print-
ing press brought together several existing tech-
nologies. The press was adapted from a wine
press. Goldsmiths used type to stamp their marks
on finished products. The ink was based on art-
ists’ ink. One innovation was the use of paper
instead of the parchment or vellum typical of
handwritten manuscripts.
The rise in literacy during the Renaissance
created a growing audience for books. To satisfy
the demand, more books were produced in the
first 50 years of printing than in the entire history
of the world up to 1450. The printing press
greatly accelerated the spread of ideas.

1. Finding the Main Idea What technol-

ogies did Gutenberg bring together in
his printing press?
2. Analyzing How did the printing press
contribute to the Renaissance?

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

 The aim of the perfect noble was to serve his prince in
an effective and honest way. Nobles would adhere to Cas-
tiglione’s principles for hundreds of years while they con-
tinued to dominate European social and political life.
Vocabulary
Peasants and Townspeople 1. Explain the significance of: Italian
In the Renaissance, peasants still constituted 85 to 90 Renaissance, urban society, secular,
percent of the total European population. Serfdom contin- instability, decline, Leonardo da Vinci,
ued to decrease with the decline of the manorial system. Milan, Venice, Florence, Francesco Sforza,
By 1500, especially in western Europe, more and more mercenaries, Cosimo de’ Medici, Lorenzo
peasants became legally free. de’ Medici, Rome, Niccolò Machiavelli,
dowry.
Townspeople made up the rest of the third estate. At the
top of urban society were the patricians. With their wealth
from trade, industry, and banking, they dominated their Main Ideas
communities. Below them were the burghers—the shop- 2. Explain why the Italian city-states were so
keepers, artisans, guild masters, and guild members. prosperous.
Below the burghers were the workers, who earned pitiful 3. Summarize Machiavelli’s view of human
wages, and the unemployed. Both groups lived miserable nature.
lives. These people made up perhaps 30 or 40 percent of 4. Contrast the social structure of the Middle
the urban population. Ages and the Renaissance.
During the late 1300s and the 1400s, urban poverty
Middle Ages Renaissance
increased dramatically throughout Europe. One rich mer-
Nobility
chant, who had little sympathy for the poor, wrote:
Peasants

PRIMARY SOURCE Townspeople

“Those that are lazy in a way that does harm to the city, and who Critical Thinking
can offer no just reason for their condition, should either be forced to 5. The BIG Idea Evaluating Why has
work or expelled from the city. The city would thus rid itself of that Leonardo da Vinci been viewed as a model
most harmful part of the poorest class.” Renaissance man?
—fifteenth-century Florence merchant
6. Making Inferences What would families
of Renaissance Italy consider to be a good
marriage for their child?
Family and Marriage 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the image on
The family bond was a source of great security. Parents page 401. What feeling do you get from
carefully arranged marriages to strengthen business or this painting? What details in the painting
family ties. Often they worked out the details when their create this feeling?
children were only two or three years old. The marriage
contract included a dowry, a sum of money that the wife’s Writing About History
family gave to the husband upon marriage. 8. Expository Writing Read a few passages
The father-husband was the center of the Italian family. from The Prince. Write a brief essay
He managed all finances (his wife had no share in his explaining why you agree or do not agree
wealth) and made the decisions that determined his chil- with Machiavelli’s theory of politics.
dren’s lives. The mother’s chief role was to supervise the
household. A father had absolute authority over his chil-
dren until he died or formally freed them. In Renaissance
Italy, children did not become adults at a certain age.
Instead, they became adults when their fathers went before
a judge to free them. Adulthood age varied from the
early teens to the late twenties. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Contrasting How was the Renaissance noble History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
different from the medieval knight?

403
 Renaissance Society
As Europe entered the Renaissance, it was a highly structured society. Its
class system had changed during the Middle Ages. Serfs became peasants in
the countryside. A middle class was developing in the towns and its merchants
began to create wealth from trade. They were a distinct class, separate from
the land-owning nobles. In theory, nobles
personified European ideas
of honor and prestige.

Only nobles were allowed

some luxuries, such as
purple silk.

Titles of nobility were

passed down generation
to generation.

Noble women were responsible

for training girls of high birth,
in courtly manners and
household administration. Fashion became
important to nobles and
well-off townsfolk
during the Renaissance.
Clothing styles changed
faster than before.

NOBLE MEN AND WOMEN

During the Middle Ages, nobles held vital roles in government. As top
advisors and military leaders, they guarded the power of monarchs. In
return, the nobles governed the manors and received wealth from the
control of the land. The nobility was protected as a class through passing
its titles and offices to the next generations. The income of the nobility
was not protected; however, as Renaissance towns came to control the
agricultural countryside.

404
 Urban trade brought new emphasis
on using cash for payment, instead
of barter. Checks became a common
way of transferring money among
merchants. Banks developed to back
and cash them.

Imported fabrics brought vibrant

fashions to successful town-
dwellers as well as nobles.

Over time, some successful

merchants bought their way
into the nobility.

Peasants brought goods

from the countryside to sell
in town markets.

PEASANTS AND THE MIDDLE CLASS ANALYZING VISUALS

Wealthy merchants rivaled the nobles in luxurious clothing. The 1. Describing What do
peasants and the poor laborers and beggars of the towns lived the nobles’ clothes
tell you about their
outside this world of fashion. Material for clothing and other goods station in life?
could be obtained by urban dwellers in the town market. As com-
2. Assessing What role
mercial capitalism started in the Middle Ages, economic power did peasants play in
began to disperse among merchants, financiers, and other middle- the economies of
class figures. towns?

405
 Ideas and Art of the Renaissance
During the Renaissance, humanism revived interest in the
GUIDE TO READING literary works of ancient Greece and Rome and in classical
The BIG Idea Latin. While many scholars used classical Latin, writers such
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values as Dante and Chaucer made literature written in regional
Humanism was an important intellectual movement
languages more popular. Humanism also became an
of the Renaissance and was reflected in the works
of Renaissance artists. educational curriculum, and at the core of humanist schools
were the liberal studies. The art, sculpture, and architecture of
Content Vocabulary the Renaissance reflected a realistic, human-centered world.
• humanism (p. 406) • fresco (p. 409)
• vernacular (p. 407)

Academic Vocabulary
Italian Renaissance Humanism
• attain (p. 408) • style (p. 409)
Humanism, based on study of the classics, revived an interest in
ancient Latin; but many authors wrote great works in the vernacular.
People and Places HISTORY & YOU Do you use a different style of language with your friends than
• Petrarch (p. 406) • Raphael (p. 410)
with adults? Read about languages used in Renaissance literature.
• Dante (p. 407) • Michelangelo (p. 410)
• Chaucer (p. 407) • Flanders (p. 411)
• Canterbury (p. 407) • Jan van Eyck (p. 411)
Secularism and an emphasis on the individual characterized the
• Christine de Pizan • Albrecht Dürer
Renaissance. These characteristics are most noticeable in the intel-
(p. 408) (p. 411)
lectual and artistic accomplishments of the period. A key intellec-
tual movement of the Renaissance was humanism.
Reading Strategy
Summarizing Information As you
read, use a chart like the one below to describe the Development of Humanism
three pieces of literature written by Dante, Chaucer, Humanism was based on the study of the classics, the literary
and de Pizan. What was the primary importance of works of ancient Greece and Rome. Humanists studied grammar,
each of these works?
rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history. Today these sub-
Divine The Canterbury The Book of the jects are called the humanities.
Comedy Tales City of Ladies
Petrarch (PEE•trahrk), who often has been called the father of
Italian Renaissance humanism, did more than any other individ-
ual in the fourteenth century to foster the development of human-
ism. Petrarch looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts and set in
motion a search for similar manuscripts in monastic libraries
throughout Europe. He also began the humanist emphasis on
using pure classical Latin (Latin as used by the ancient Romans,
as opposed to medieval Latin). Humanists used the works of
Cicero as a model for prose and those of Virgil for poetry.
Fourteenth-century humanists like Petrarch had described the
intellectual life as one of solitude. They rejected family and a life of
action in the community. In contrast, humanists in the early 1400s
took a new interest in civic life. They believed that intellectuals
had a duty to live an active civic life and to put their study of the
humanities to the state’s service. It is no accident that they served
as secretaries in the Italian city-states and to princes or popes.

406
 Dante’s Divine Comedy
When Dante Alighieri wrote
the Divine Comedy in the early Heaven
fourteenth century, he chose the
ancient Roman poet Virgil as his Dante holds a copy
“guide” for the soul’s journey to of the Divine Comedy.
Paradise. By doing so, Dante
hoped to lend legitimacy to a Purgatory
work written in the dialect of
Florence. Dante later defended
his use of the vernacular in a
treatise he wrote in Latin, the
language of literature at the
time, because he wanted it to be
taken seriously.
Dante called his masterpiece
Comedy. The adjective Divine
was added later, partly because
of the poem’s religious subject
and partly in recognition of its Hell
greatness. It soon became a
classic, helping to make the
Florentine dialect the literary
The artist depicted the walls
language of the entire Italian and buildings of Florence as
Peninsula. they appeared in 1465, rather
than during Dante’s lifetime.

“The Latin could only have explained them [the poetry of

the Divine Comedy] to scholars; for the rest would have not
understood it. Therefore, as among those who desire to This painting by Domenico di Michelino
understand them there are many more illiterate than shows parts of Dante’s famous poem.
learned, it follows that the Latin would not have fulfilled
1. Explaining Why did Dante choose not to
this behest as well as the vulgar tongue, which is understood write his Divine Comedy in Latin?
both by the learned and the unlearned.”
2. Making Connections Why would the
—Dante Alighieri, De vulgari eloquentia (“Of Literature in the
Vernacular”), 1304–1306 use of Virgil make Dante’s poem seem
more legitimate to Renaissance scholars?

Vernacular Literature of the soul’s journey to salvation. The

lengthy poem has three major sections:
The humanist emphasis on classical Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, or Paradise.
Latin led to its widespread use in the writ- Dante is led on an imaginary journey
ings of scholars, lawyers, and theologians. through these three realms until he reaches
However, some writers wrote in the Paradise, where he beholds God.
vernacular (the language spoken in their Chaucer used the English vernacular in
own regions, such as Italian, French, or his famous work The Canterbury Tales. His
German). In the fourteenth century, the lit- beauty of expression and clear language
erary works of the Italian author Dante were important in making his dialect the
(DAHN•tay) and the English author Geof- chief ancestor of the modern English lan-
frey Chaucer helped make vernacular lit- guage. The Canterbury Tales consists of a
erature more popular. collection of stories told by a group of 29
Dante’s masterpiece in the Italian ver- pilgrims journeying to the tomb of Saint
nacular is the Divine Comedy. It is the story Thomas à Becket at Canterbury, England.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 407

Scala/Art Resource, NY
 This format gave Chaucer the chance to
portray an entire range of English society.
Renaissance Education
Another writer who used the vernacular Education during the Renaissance
was Christine de Pizan, a Frenchwoman focused on the liberal studies.
who is best known for her works written
HISTORY & YOU What is your favorite subject?
in defense of women. In The Book of the City
Read to learn about the subjects of study during the
of Ladies, written in 1404, she denounced Renaissance.
the many male writers who had argued
that women, by their very nature, are
unable to learn. Women, de Pizan argued, The humanist movement had a profound
could learn as well as men if they could effect on education in the 1300s and 1400s.
attend the same schools: Renaissance humanists believed that edu-
cation could dramatically change human
PRIMARY SOURCE
beings. They wrote books on education
“Should I also tell you whether a woman’s and opened schools based on their ideas.
nature is clever and quick enough to learn At the core of humanist schools were the
speculative sciences as well as to discover them, liberal studies. Humanists believed that
and likewise the manual arts. I assure you that liberal studies (or, today, liberal arts)
women are equally well-suited and skilled to
enabled individuals to reach their full
carry them out and to put them to sophisticated
potential. One humanist wrote: “We call
use once they have learned them.”
those studies liberal by which we attain
—Christine de Pizan
and practice virtue and wisdom; which
✓Reading Check Explaining What literary calls forth and develops those highest gifts
format does Chaucer use to portray English society? of body and mind which ennoble men.”

Differences in Renaissance Art Marriage of the Virgin by Raphael (1504)

Central panel of Mérode

Altarpiece by Robert Campin
(c. 1425–28)

Flemish artists typically

placed their subjects
among everyday objects.
The space depicted was
tight and boxlike. FPO
Artists of the Northern Renaissance placed their
works in everyday settings, while Italian Renaissance
artists were influenced by classical styles and
geometric precision. Religious themes were a
common subject matter.
Raphael used the technique
1. Contrasting How did the Renaissance style in of perspective to give the
Northern Europe differ from that of Italy? illusion of scale, distance,
2. Interpreting How might the settings of each and three dimensions on a
painting reveal differences in religious ideals two-dimensional surface.
between Northern Europe and Italy?
(l) Francis G. Mayer/CORBIS, (r) Art Archive/Galleria Brera Milan/Dagli Orti
 What, then, were the liberal studies?
According to the humanists, students
Italian Renaissance Art
should study history, moral philosophy, The Renaissance produced great artists
eloquence (or rhetoric), letters (grammar and sculptors such as Michelangelo, Raphael, and
and logic), poetry, mathematics, astron- Leonardo da Vinci.
omy, and music. In short, the purpose of a HISTORY & YOU Do you recall the features of
liberal education (and thus the reason for Gothic style? Read to learn how Renaissance archi-
studying the liberal arts) was to produce tects diverged from Gothic style.
individuals who follow a path of virtue
and wisdom. These individuals should
also possess rhetorical skills so they can Renaissance artists sought to imitate
persuade others to take this same path of nature. They wanted viewers to see the
virtue and wisdom. reality in their subjects. At the same time,
these artists were developing a new,
PRIMARY SOURCE human-focused worldview. As one artist
proclaimed, human beings were the “cen-
“Not everyone is called to be a physician, a ter and measure of all things.”
lawyer . . . nor has everyone outstanding gifts of
natural capacity, but all of us . . . are responsible for
the personal influence that goes forth from us.” New Techniques in Painting
—Vittorino da Feltre (1373–1446) Frescoes by Masaccio (muh•ZAH•
humanist educator, Mantua, Italy chee•oh) are the first masterpieces of Early
Renaissance (1400–1490) art. A fresco is a
Following the Greek ideal of a sound painting done on fresh, wet plaster with
mind in a sound body, humanist educators water-based paints. Human figures in
also emphasized physical education. Stu- medieval paintings look flat, but Masac-
dents learned the skills of javelin throw- cio’s figures have depth and come alive. By
ing, archery, and dancing. They ran, mastering the laws of perspective, Masac-
wrestled, hunted, and swam. cio could create the illusion of three dimen-
Humanist educators thought that a sions, leading to a new, realistic style.
humanist education was a practical prepa- Other fifteenth-century Florentine paint-
ration for life. Its aim was not to create ers used and modified this new, or Renais-
great scholars but complete citizens. sance, style. Especially important were two
Humanist education was also considered major developments. One development
necessary for preparing the sons of aristo- stressed the technical side of painting—
crats for leadership roles. Humanist schools understanding the laws of perspective and
were the model for the education of the organization of outdoor space and light
Europe’s ruling classes until the twentieth through geometry. The second develop-
century. ment was the investigation of movement
Females were largely absent from these and human anatomy. The realistic por-
schools. The few female students who did trayal of the individual, especially the
attend humanist schools studied the clas- human nude, became one of the chief aims
sics and were encouraged to know some of Italian Renaissance art.
history as well as how to ride, dance, sing,
play the lute (a stringed instrument), and Sculpture and Architecture
appreciate poetry. They were told not to The Renaissance produced equally stun-
learn mathematics or rhetoric. It was ning advances in sculpture and architec-
thought that religion and morals should be ture. The sculptor Donatello studied the
foremost in the education of “Christian statues of the Greeks and Romans. His
ladies” so that they could become good works included a realistic, free-standing
wives and mothers. figure of Saint George.
The work of architect Filippo Brunelles-
✓Reading Check Expaining How did a humanist chi (broo•nuhl•EHS•kee) was inspired
education prepare a student for life? by the buildings of classical Rome.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 409

 His design of the church of San Lorenzo in At age 25, Raphael was already one of
Florence reflects this. The classical columns Italy’s best painters. He was admired for
and rounded arches in the church’s design his numerous madonnas (paintings of the
create an environment that does not over- Virgin Mary). In these, he achieved an ideal
whelm the worshiper, as Gothic cathedrals of beauty far surpassing human standards.
might. The church creates a space to fit Raphael is also well known for his frescoes
human, and not divine, needs. Like paint- in the Vatican Palace. His School of Athens
ers and sculptors, Renaissance architects reveals a world of balance, harmony, and
sought to reflect a human-centered world. order—the underlying principles of classi-
cal Greek and Roman art.
Michelangelo, an accomplished painter,
High Renaissance Masters sculptor, and architect, was another master
The final stage of Italian Renaissance of the High Renaissance. Fiercely driven
painting flourished between 1490 and by his desire to create, he worked with
1520. Called the High Renaissance, the great passion and energy on a remarkable
period is associated with Leonardo da number of projects. Michelangelo’s figures
Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome
Leonardo mastered the art of realistic depict an ideal type of human being with
painting and even dissected human bod- perfect proportions. The beauty of this ide-
ies to better see how nature worked. How- alized human being is meant to be a reflec-
ever, he wanted to advance beyond such tion of divine beauty. The more beautiful
realism to create idealized forms that cap- the body, the more godlike the figure.
tured the perfection of nature and the
individual—perfection that could not be ✓Reading Check Identifying Name three Italian
expressed fully by a realistic style. artists of the High Renaissance.

Leonardo da Vinci Michelangelo

1452–1519 Italian Artist and Scientist 1475–1564 Italian Artist

Leonardo da Vinci was the model “Renaissance Michelangelo Buonarroti was a man of many tal-
man.” He was an artist, scientist, inventor, and ents. A painter, sculptor, poet, architect, and literary
visionary. In 1503, the government of Florence scholar, there was little he could not do once he
sought his genius on a military matter. With set his mind to it. When Pope Julius II asked
the help of Niccolò Machiavelli, Leonardo him to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in
da Vinci devised a plan to help Florence 1508, Michelangelo protested that “painting is
defeat the city of Pisa in a war. The not my art.” Despite his protests, the work that
plan was to divert the Arno River emerged four years later ranks among the
away from Pisa to cut Pisa off from greatest masterpieces of all time.
the sea. However, the engineer For his sculptures, Michelangelo would
hired to dig a diversion canal did sometimes spend months in a marble
not follow Leonardo’s instructions, quarry personally selecting the ideal block
and the canal walls collapsed. from which to carve his works of art. Some
Although the plan failed, the maps of his contemporaries believed that “he
Leonardo drew up were so could see the figure imprisoned in it.”
detailed that they were used long Creative to the end of his long life, he
afterward. He also envisioned an famously lamented that “art and death do
industrial corridor along the river not go well together.” Where do some of
that eventually came to pass Michelangelo’s most famous paint-
after his death. What famous ings appear?
person helped Leonardo with
his plan?

(l) Biblioteca Reale, Turin/Bridgeman Art Library, (r) akg-images

The Northern Artistic Renaissance
Northern European artists, especially those in the Low
Countries, portrayed their world realistically but in a different way than
did the Italian artists.
Vocabulary
HISTORY & YOU Have you ever used a varnish to seal woodwork? 1. Explain the significance of: humanism,
Read to learn about a new medium the Flemish artist Jan van Eyck used. Petrarch, vernacular, Dante, Chaucer,
Canterbury, Christine de Pizan, attain,
fresco, style, Raphael, Michelangelo,
Like the artists of Italy, the artists of northern Europe Flanders, Jan van Eyck, Albrecht Dürer.
became interested in portraying their world realistically.
However, their approach was different from that of the Main Ideas
Italians. This was particularly true of the artists of the Low 2. Describe Petrarch’s contributions to the
Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the development of humanism.
Netherlands). 3. Identify Christine de Pizan’s main
Circumstance played a role in the differences. The large argument in The Book of the City of Ladies.
wall spaces of Italian churches had given rise to the art of 4. Summarize the accomplishments of
fresco painting. Italian artists used these spaces to master Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and
the technical skills that allowed them to portray humans in Michelangelo. Use a chart like the one
realistic settings. In the north, the Gothic cathedrals with below to make your summary.
their stained glass windows did not allow enough space Leonardo Raphael Michelangelo
for frescoes. Thus, northern European artists painted illus- da Vinci
trations for books and wooden panels for altarpieces. Great
care was needed to depict each object on a small scale.
The most important northern school of art in the 1400s
was in Flanders, one of the Low Countries. The Flemish
painter Jan van Eyck (EYEK) was among the first to use
and perfect the technique of oil painting. He used a var- Critical Thinking
nish made of linseed oil and nut oils mixed with resins. 5. The BIG Idea Identifying Central
This medium enabled van Eyck to use a wide variety of Issues How was humanism reflected in
brilliant, translucent colors. With his oil paints, he could the works of Renaissance artists?
create striking realism in fine details as in his painting 6. Contrasting How did the education of
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride. Like other Northern females differ from that of males in
Renaissance artists, however, van Eyck imitated nature humanist schools?
not by using perspective, as the Italians did, but by simply 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the painting
observing reality and portraying details as best he could. on page 407. What can you infer about
By 1500, artists from the north had begun to study in Purgatory based on its location in this
Italy and to be influenced by what artists were doing there. painting?
One German artist who was greatly affected by the Ital-
ians was Albrecht Dürer. He made two trips to Italy and Writing About History
absorbed most of what the Italians could teach on the laws 8. Expository Writing Assume the role of an
of perspective. art docent (a person who guides people
As can be seen in his famous Adoration of the Magi, Dürer through museums). Prepare a lecture to be
did not reject the use of minute details characteristic of given to a group of students on the works
northern artists. He did try, however, to fit those details of Jan van Eyck and how they differ from
Italian Renaissance paintings.
more harmoniously into his works in accordance with Ital-
ian artistic theories. Like the Italian artists of the High
Renaissance, Dürer tried to achieve a standard of ideal
beauty that was based on a careful examination of the
human form.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Examining Why was Jan van Eyck’s use of oil History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
paint significant?

411
 The Protestant Reformation
During the second half of the fifteenth century, Christian
GUIDE TO READING humanist Desiderius Erasmus paved the way for Martin
The BIG Idea Luther’s reform movement. Political instability in the Holy
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values In north- Roman Empire allowed Lutheranism, the first Protestant faith,
ern Europe, Christian humanists sought to reform
to spread. The Peace of Augsburg formally accepted the division
the Catholic Church, and Protestantism emerged.
of Christianity in Germany—Lutheranism and Catholicism.
Content Vocabulary
• Christian humanism • indulgence (p. 414)
(p. 412) • Lutheranism (p. 416) Prelude to Reformation
• salvation (p. 414)
Christian humanism and Desiderius Erasmus paved the way for the
Academic Vocabulary Protestant Reformation.
• precise (p. 413) • ignorant (p. 414) HISTORY & YOU Is there a school policy or rule that you would like to change?
Read how Erasmus pointed out the need for Church reform.
People, Places, and Events
• Martin Luther (p. 412) • Charles V (p. 417)
• Desiderius Erasmus • Bohemia (p. 417) The Protestant Reformation is the name given to the religious
(p. 412) • Hungary (p. 417) reform movement that divided the western Church into Catholic
• Wittenberg (p. 415) • Peace of Augsburg and Protestant groups. Although Martin Luther began the Refor-
• Ninety-five Theses (p. 417)
mation in the early 1500s, earlier developments set the stage for
(p. 415)
religious change.
• Edict of Worms
(p. 415)

Christian Humanism
Reading Strategy
Determining Cause and Effect
One such development grew from widespread changes in intel-
As you read, use a diagram like the one below to lectual thought. During the second half of the fifteenth century,
identify steps that led to the Reformation. the new classical learning that was part of Italian Renaissance
humanism spread to northern Europe. From that came a move-
Steps Leading to ment called Christian humanism, or Northern Renaissance
the Reformation humanism. The major goal of this movement was the reform of
the Catholic Church.
The Christian humanists believed in the ability of human beings
to reason and improve themselves. They thought that if people
read the classics, and especially the basic works of Christianity,
they would become more pious. This inner piety, or inward reli-
gious feeling, would bring about a reform of the Church and soci-
ety. Christian humanists believed that in order to change society,
they would first have to change human beings.
The best-known Christian humanist was Desiderius Erasmus
(ih•RAZ•muhs). He called his view of religion “the philosophy
of Christ.” By this, he meant that Christianity should show people
how to live good lives on a daily basis, not just provide beliefs for
them to be saved. Stressing the inwardness of religious feeling,
Erasmus thought the external forms of medieval religion (pil-
grimages, fasts, relics) were not all that important.

412
 EUROPE AFTER THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG, 1555

North DENMARK- SWEDEN Boundary of the

Holy Roman Empire

ea
Sea NORWAY S
a l tic Hapsburg territories of
50
B Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
°N ENGLAND Elb
eR Major German secular states
N .
Papal States

DS
London N Wittenberg
W LA Ottoman Empire
HER
E NET
S SAXONY POLA N D
S

ei
HOLY ROMAN

ne
Paris Worms
ATLA NT IC R. EMPIRE

R.
Loire
R. BOHEMIA

e
Da
O CEAN

n
nu

Rhi
b e R.
Augsburg
FRANCE Geneva
HUNGARY
n e R.

P o R.
Rho

10°W
R.
ub e
L

40° an
GA

N a
PAPAL Se

D
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STATES
U

Madrid k
T ac

T
RT

Corsica O

Bl
PO

Rome M
SPAIN A
N Constantinople
Sardinia Naples NAPLES

EM
PI
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0° 10°E
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Sicily
e

it
d

e
rr Crete
an
ea 0 400 kilometers
n
1. Regions How did geography contribute Se 0 400 miles
to the difficulties of Charles V in trying to a
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
keep his empire under control?
2. Location How did the location of
Wittenberg benefit Luther’s cause?
AFRICA
20°E 30°E

To reform the Church, Erasmus wanted Erasmus sought reform within the Cath-
to spread the philosophy of Christ, provide olic Church. He did not wish to break away
education in the works of Christianity, and from it. His ideas, however, did prepare
criticize the abuses in the Church. In his the way for the Reformation. As people of
work The Praise of Folly, written in 1509, his day said, “Erasmus laid the egg that
Erasmus humorously criticized aspects of Luther hatched.”
his society that he believed were most in
need of reform. He singled out the monks
for special treatment. Monks, he said, Need for Reform
“insist that everything be done in precise Why the call for reform? Corruption was
detail. . . . Just so many knots must be on one reason. From 1450 to 1520, a series of
each shoe and the shoelace must be of only popes—known as the Renaissance popes—
one color.” failed to meet the Church’s spiritual needs.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 413

(l) Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library, (r) Bettmann/CORBIS

The popes were supposed to be the spiri- relics grew more popular as a means to
tual leaders of the Catholic Church. As salvation.
leaders of the Papal States, however, they According to Church practice at that
were all too often more concerned with time, through veneration of a relic, a per-
Italian politics and worldly interests than son could gain an indulgence—release
with spiritual matters. from all or part of the punishment for sin.
Julius II, the fiery “warrior-pope,” per- Frederick the Wise, Luther’s prince, had
sonally led armies against his enemies. amassed over 5,000 relics. Indulgences
This disgusted Christians who viewed attached to them could reduce time in pur-
the pope as a spiritual, not a military, gatory by 1,443 years. The Church also
leader. sold indulgences.
Many Church officials used their church Other people sought certainty of salva-
offices to advance their careers and their tion in the popular mystical movement
wealth. At the same time, many ordinary known as the Modern Devotion. The Mod-
parish priests seemed ignorant of their ern Devotion downplayed religious dogma
spiritual duties. People wanted to know and stressed the need to follow the teach-
how to save their souls, and many parish ings of Jesus. This deepening of religious
priests were unwilling or unable to offer life was done within the Catholic Church.
them advice or instruction. However, many people soon found that
While the leaders of the Church were the worldly-wise clergy had little interest
failing to meet their responsibilities, ordi- in the spiritual needs of their people. This
nary people desired meaningful religious environment helps to explain the tremen-
expression and assurance of their salvation, dous impact of Luther’s ideas.
or acceptance into Heaven. As a result, for
some, the process of obtaining salvation ✓Reading Check Explaining How did Erasmus
became almost mechanical. Collections of pave the way for the Reformation?

Erasmus Martin Luther

1466–1536 Dutch Intellectual 1483–1546 Church Reform Leader

Desiderius Erasmus was one of the greatest intel- As Martin Luther returned to his village on a
lectuals of his time. Kings, popes, and princes stormy night, a lightning bolt threw him off his
sought his advice. He was also a very contra- horse. “St. Anne, help me, and I will become a
dictory personality. Many of his writings, monk!” Luther’s cry reflected his intense fear of
especially his best-known work, The Praise death and of what lay beyond. Like most people
of Folly, were critical of the Catholic Church, of his time, he believed the medieval view of a
yet he remained an ordained priest until his wrathful God, granting salvation to the righteous
death. Despite his criticisms of the Church few and eternal fire to the rest.
and his early support for the reforms of Mar- Luther feared he could never do enough to
tin Luther, he stayed loyal to the Church, win salvation. Pondering the words of the
seeking to reform it from within. He even apostle Paul about the “righteousness of God,”
received an offer from Pope Paul III to Luther arrived at a new insight. What Paul
make him a cardinal. Yet, despite his meant, he decided, was not that people can
loyalty to the Church, Erasmus earn righteousness by good works, but that
was regarded as the father of God grants the righteousness needed
Christian humanism. Many of for salvation. All people need is faith.
his ideas were adopted by “From that moment, the whole
religious leaders of the Prot- face of Scripture appeared to
estant Reformation. What me in a different light.” What
was Erasmus’s best-known insight did Luther gain from
literary work? Paul’s words?
Martin Luther Thousands of copies of the Ninety-five
Theses were printed and spread to all parts
Believing in his new doctrine of salva- of Germany.
tion, Martin Luther broke from the Catholic Church Pope Leo X did not take the issue seri-
and established Lutheranism. ously, however. He said that Luther was
HISTORY & YOU Did you ever speak up for some- simply “some drunken German who will
thing you strongly believed, despite the disapproval of amend his ways when he sobers up.”
your friends? Read about Martin Luther’s split with
the Catholic Church. A Break With the Church
By 1520, Luther had begun to move
Martin Luther was a monk and a profes- toward a more definite break with the
sor at the University of Wittenberg, in Catholic Church. He called on the German
Germany, where he lectured on the Bible. princes to overthrow the papacy in Ger-
Through his study of the Bible, Luther many and establish a reformed German
arrived at an answer to a problem—the church. Luther also attacked the Church’s
certainty of salvation—that had bothered system of sacraments. In his view, they
him since he had become a monk. were the means by which the pope and the
Catholic teaching had stressed that both Church had destroyed the real meaning of
faith and good works were needed to gain the gospel for a thousand years. He kept
personal salvation. In Luther’s opinion, only two sacraments—baptism and the
human beings were powerless in the sight Eucharist (also known as Communion).
of an almighty God and could never do Luther also called for the clergy to marry.
enough good works to earn salvation. This went against the long-standing Cath-
Through his study of the Bible, Luther olic requirement that the clergy remain
came to believe that humans are not saved celibate, or unmarried.
through their good works but through Through all these calls for change, Luther
their faith in God. This idea, called justifi- continued to emphasize his new doctrine
cation by faith alone, became the chief of salvation. It is faith alone, he said, and
teaching of the Protestant Reformation. not good works, that justifies and brings
Because Luther had arrived at his under- salvation through Christ.
standing of salvation by studying the Bible, Unable to accept Luther’s ideas, the
the Bible became for Luther, as for all other Church excommunicated him in January
Protestants, the only source of religious 1521. He was also summoned to appear
truth. before the imperial diet—or legislative
assembly—of the Holy Roman Empire,
which was called into session at the city of
The Ninety-five Theses Worms by the newly elected emperor
Luther did not see himself as a rebel, but Charles V. The emperor believed he could
he was greatly upset by the widespread convince Luther to change his ideas. How-
selling of indulgences. Especially offensive ever, Luther refused.
in his eyes was the monk Johann Tetzel, The young emperor was outraged. “A
who sold indulgences with the slogan: “As single friar who goes counter to all Christi-
soon as the coin in the coffer [money box] anity for a thousand years,” he declared,
rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” “must be wrong!” By the Edict of Worms,
People, Luther believed, were simply Martin Luther was made an outlaw within
harming their chances for salvation by the empire. His works were to be burned
buying these pieces of paper. and Luther himself captured and delivered
On October 31, 1517, Luther, who was to the emperor. However, Luther’s ruler,
greatly angered by the Church’s practices, Frederick, the elector of Saxony, was
sent a list of Ninety-five Theses to his unwilling to see his famous professor
church superiors, especially the local killed. He sent Luther into hiding and then
bishop. The theses were a stunning attack protected him when Luther returned to
on abuses in the sale of indulgences. Wittenberg at the beginning of 1522.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 415

 The Rise of Lutheranism In June 1524, Luther faced a political cri-
Luther ’s religious movement soon sis. German peasants revolted against their
became a revolution. Many German rulers lords and looked to Luther to support their
who supported Luther took control of the cause. Luther instead supported the lords.
Catholic churches in their territories, form- To him, the state and its rulers were called
ing state churches supervised by the gov- by God to maintain the peace necessary to
ernment. As part of the development of spread the Gospel. It was the duty of
these state-dominated churches, Luther princes to stop all revolt. By the following
also set up new religious services to replace spring, the German princes had crushed
the Catholic mass. These services consisted the peasant revolts. Luther found himself
of Bible readings, preaching of the word of even more dependent on state authorities
God, and song. Luther’s doctrine soon for the growth of his church.
became known as Lutheranism and the
churches as Lutheran churches. Lutheran- ✓Reading Check Contrasting How did Luther
ism was the first Protestant faith. and the Church differ on achieving salvation?

LUTHER’S NINETY-FIVE THESES

Martin Luther’s Introduction to

his Ninety-five Theses, 1517
Out of love for the truth and the desire to
bring it to light, the following propositions will
be discussed at Wittenberg, under the presidency
of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of
Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in
Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he
requests that those who are unable to be present
and debate orally with us, may do so by letter.

Martin Luther’s protest of indulgences began the

Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church had
authorized Johann Tetzel to sell indulgences to raise
money to build St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Tetzel told
the faithful that their purchases would free the souls
of their loved ones from Purgatory. This enraged
Luther, who believed that indulgences only soothed
the conscience. They did not forgive sins. This image shows Martin Luther posting his
Ninety-five Theses on the door of the Castle
When Luther wrote his Ninety-five Theses, his Church in Wittenberg, Germany, in 1517.
intention was to open a dialogue on abuses in the
Catholic Church. Instead, his words sparked a
revolutionary firestorm. Aided by the newly invented
printing press, his words soon spread across Europe.
1.
1. Finding
Finding the
the Main
Main Idea
Idea InIn his
his introduc-
introduc-
Luther’s attempts to reform the Catholic Church led
tion
tion to
to the
the Ninety-five
Ninety-five Theses,
Theses, what
what did
did
to a new form of Christianity—Protestantism—and Luther
Luther invite
invite people
people to
to do?
do?
the birth of a new church. It also ignited decades of
2.
2. Analyzing
Analyzing In In what
what ways
ways did
did the
the Ninety-
Ninety-
bloody religious conflict, ending a thousand years of
five
five Theses
Theses represent
represent aa turning
turning point
point in
in
domination by the Catholic Church. history?
history?

416 SECTION 3 The Protestant Reformation

Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY
Politics in the German Reformation
Political and religious problems forced the emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire to seek peace with the Lutheran princes.
HISTORY & YOU Have you ever met so much opposition from all sides Vocabulary
that you just had to give in? Read to learn why Charles V had to seek 1. Explain the significance of: Martin Luther,
peace with the Lutheran princes of his empire. Christian humanism, Desiderius Erasmus,
precise, ignorant, salvation, indulgence,
Wittenberg, Ninety-five Theses, Edict of
From its very beginning, the fate of Luther’s movement Worms, Lutheranism, Charles V, Bohemia,
was tied closely to political affairs. Charles V, the Holy Hungary, Peace of Augsburg.
Roman emperor (who was also Charles I, the king of
Spain), ruled an immense empire consisting of Spain and Main Ideas
its colonies, the Austrian lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the 2. Sequence the actions of Luther that led to
Low Countries, the duchy of Milan in northern Italy, and the emergence of Protestantism using a
the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. diagram like the one below.
Politically, Charles wanted to keep this enormous empire Luther’s Actions
under the control of his dynasty—the Hapsburgs. Reli-
giously, he hoped to preserve the unity of his empire by Protestantism
keeping it Catholic. However, a number of problems kept
him busy and cost him both his dream and his health.
These same problems helped Lutheranism survive by giv- 3. Discuss the impact of the Edict of Worms.
ing Lutherans time to organize before having to face the 4. Explain why many German princes
Catholic forces. supported Luther.
The chief political concern of Charles V was his rivalry
with the king of France, Francis I. Their conflict over dis- Critical Thinking
puted territories in a number of areas led to a series of 5. The BIG Idea Analyzing How did
wars that lasted more than 20 years. At the same time, Martin Luther’s religious reform lead to
Charles faced opposition from Pope Clement VII. Guided conflict? To what extent were these
by political considerations, the pope had joined the side of conflicts resolved?
the French king. The invasion of Ottoman Turks into the 6. Contrasting How did the views of
eastern part of the empire forced Charles to send forces Erasmus and the Church differ on the topic
there as well. of religious relics?
Finally, the internal political situation in the Holy Roman 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the map on
Empire was not in Charles’s favor. Germany was a land of page 413. Identify three cities where
several hundred territorial states. Although all owed loy- important events occurred in the rise of
alty to the emperor, many individual rulers of the German Lutheranism and explain their significance.
states supported Luther as a way to assert their own local
authority. By the time Charles V brought military forces to Writing About History
Germany, the Lutheran princes were well organized. 8. Persuasive Writing Martin Luther’s father
Unable to defeat them, Charles was forced to seek peace. wanted him to become a lawyer. Write a
An end to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 letter in which Martin Luther tries to
with the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement formally convince his father that the path he chose
accepted the division of Christianity in Germany. The Ger- was better.
man states were now free to choose between Catholicism
and Lutheranism. Lutheran states were to have the same
legal rights as Catholic states. However, the right of each
German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects was
accepted, but not the right of the subjects to choose their
own religion.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Evaluating How did the Peace of Augsburg History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
influence the political and religious development of Germany?

417
 The Spread of Protestantism
As the Reformation spread, different forms of Protestantism
GUIDE TO READING emerged in Europe. Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the
The BIG Idea most important and dynamic form of Protestantism. In
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values Different England, King Henry VIII created a national church, the
forms of Protestantism emerged in Europe as the
Church of England. The Anabaptists believed in a complete
Reformation spread, and the Catholic Church
underwent a religious rebirth. separation of church and state. The Catholic Church underwent
a revitalization under the direction of Pope Paul III.
Content Vocabulary
• predestination (p. 419) • annul (p. 420)
Divisions in Protestantism
Academic Vocabulary
• published (p. 418) • justification (p. 419) By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the
most important and dynamic form of Protestantism.
People and Places HISTORY & YOU Can you imagine life in a society where dancing is a crime?
• Ulrich Zwingli (p. 418) • Ignatius of Loyola Read to learn about the Calvinist teachings.
• Zürich (p. 418) (p. 423)
• John Calvin (p. 418) • Trent (p. 423)
• Geneva (p. 420) The Peace of Augsburg meant that Christian unity was forever
• King Henry VIII lost. Even before the peace, however, division had appeared in
(p. 420) Protestantism. One of these new groups appeared in Switzerland.

Reading Strategy Zwinglian Reformation

Determining Cause and Effect As
you read, use a diagram like the one below to list
Ulrich Zwingli was a priest in Zürich. The city council of
some of the reforms proposed by the Council of Zürich, strongly influenced by Zwingli, began to introduce reli-
Trent. Beside each, give the Protestant viewpoint to gious reforms. Relics and images were abolished. All paintings
which it responded. and decorations were removed from the churches and replaced by
whitewashed walls. A new church service consisting of Scripture
Council of Trent Protestant Viewpoint
reading, prayer, and sermons replaced the Catholic mass.
As his movement began to spread to other cities in Switzerland,
Zwingli sought an alliance with Martin Luther and the German
reformers. Both the German and Swiss reformers realized the
need for unity to defend themselves against Catholic authorities,
but they were unable to agree on certain Christian rites.
In October 1531 war broke out between the Protestant and
Catholic states in Switzerland. Zürich’s army was routed, and
Zwingli was found wounded on the battlefield. His enemies killed
him, cut up his body, and burned the pieces, scattering the ashes.
The leadership of Protestantism in Switzerland now passed to
John Calvin.

Calvin and Calvinism

John Calvin was educated in his native France. After his con-
version to Protestantism, however, he was forced to flee Catholic
France for the safety of Switzerland. In 1536 he published the

418
 EUROPEAN RELIGIONS, 1600
SWEDEN
NORWAY
0° 30°E

SCOTLAND 10°E 20°E

Anabaptist
North Anglican
50
Sea Calvinist

a
°N IRELAND DENMARK

Se
c Eastern Orthodox
lti Christian
10°W
Ba 40°E
ENGLAND NETHERLANDS Jewish
Wittenberg Lutheran
Canterbury
SPANISH GERMAN Muslim
NETHERLANDS STATES Roman Catholic
POLA N D
Paris Worms BOHEMIA
ATLANT IC N RUSSIA
OCEA N Augsburg BAVARIA
F R A N CE Zurich E
W
SWISS AUSTRIA
Geneva CONFEDERATION S
Trent
HUNGARY
Avignon
40°
N
ea
L

ck S
GA

SPA IN Bla
RTU

O
TT
PO

Rome
O
M
AN
EM
PIR
E
M

e
di
te
rr
an 0 400 kilometers
ean
1. Regions Which Protestant faith Sea 0 400 miles
covered more of Europe than any Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
other by 1600?
2. Location Which Protestant faith AFRICA
occurred in only one nation? Which 30°N
nation?

Institutes of the Christian Religion, a summary Calvin’s emphasis on the all-powerful

of Protestant thought. This work, which nature of God led him to other ideas. One of
eventually became known as his master- these ideas was predestination. This “eter-
piece, immediately gave Calvin a reputation nal decree,” as Calvin called it, meant that
as one of the new leaders of Protestantism. God had determined in advance who would
On most important doctrines, Calvin be saved and who would be damned.
stood very close to Luther. He, too, believed The belief in predestination gave later
in the doctrine of justification by faith Calvinists the firm conviction that they
alone to explain how humans achieved were doing God’s work on Earth. This
salvation. However, Calvin also placed conviction, in turn, made them determined
much emphasis on the all-powerful nature to spread their faith to other people. Cal-
of God—what Calvin called the “power, vinism became a dynamic and activist
grace, and glory of God.” faith.

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 419

 Reformation in England
(l) Francis G. Mayer/CORBIS, (r) Art Archive/Musée Granet Aix-en-Provence/Dagli Orti

In 1536 Calvin began working to reform

the city of Geneva. He created a church
government that used both clergy and laity For political, not religious, reasons,
in the service of the church. The Consis- Henry VIII established the Church of England.
tory, a special court for enforcing moral
HISTORY & YOU As a child, how did you react
discipline, oversaw the moral life and doc- when someone told you no? Read about how Henry
trinal purity of Genevans. It could punish VIII reacted after the pope said no.
those who deviated from the church’s
teachings and moral principles. Citizens in
Geneva were punished for such “crimes” The English Reformation was rooted in
as dancing, singing obscene songs, drunk- politics, not religion. King Henry VIII
enness, swearing, and playing cards. wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine
Geneva became a powerful center of of Aragon, with whom he had a daughter,
Protestantism. Missionaries trained in Mary, but no son. Since he needed a male
Geneva were sent to all parts of Europe. heir, Henry wanted to marry Anne Boleyn.
Calvinism became established in France, Impatient with the pope’s unwillingness
the Netherlands, Scotland, and central and to annul (declare invalid) his marriage to
eastern Europe. Catherine, Henry turned to England’s own
By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism church courts.
had replaced Lutheranism as the most
important and dynamic form of Protes-
tantism. Calvin’s Geneva stood as the for- The Break from Rome
tress of the Protestant Reformation. As the archbishop of Canterbury, head
of the highest church court in England,
✓Reading Check Explaining How did the Thomas Cranmer ruled in May 1533 that the
Consistory enforce moral discipline in Geneva? king’s marriage to Catherine was “null and

Henry VIII Sir Thomas More

1491–1547 King of England 1478–1535 British Author and Theologian

Historians have found it ironic that A Man for All Seasons—that was the title of a twentieth-
Henry VIII, who led the break between century movie about Thomas More. He was a trusted
England and the Roman Catholic adviser to Henry VIII and the author of the book Utopia,
Church, was proclaimed “Defender which means a perfectly harmonious society.
of the Faith” by the head of the Published in 1516, the book is a work of
church he left. However, that is how Pope fiction about an ideal state. More
Leo X praised him after Henry’s attack on describes how goods are produced
Martin Luther in 1521. In Assertio Septem and shared equally among the
Sacramentorum (Declaration of the Seven Utopians. Utopia became a model
Sacraments), Henry upheld Church for Utopian Socialists, who in the
doctrines that Luther and his followers 1800s attempted to set up communities
were trying to discredit. To this day, all based on the socialistic principles
British coins carry the initials F.D. described in the book. More was later
after the reigning monarch’s name. beheaded under orders from Henry
They refer to the Latin words VIII for not supporting England’s
Fidei Defensor or “Defender of break with the Church of Rome.
the Faith,” a hereditary title for In 1935, More was made a
all British monarchs since saint. For what group did
Henry VIII. Who was Henry More’s book become
VIII attacking in his book? an inspiration?
absolutely void.” At the beginning of June,
Anne was crowned queen. Three months
Anabaptists
later a child was born. Much to the king’s For believing in the complete separa-
disappointment, the baby was a girl. She tion of church and state, Anabaptists were viewed as
would later become Queen Elizabeth I. dangerous radicals.
In 1534, at Henry’s request, Parliament HISTORY & YOU Would you consider someone
moved to finalize the break of the Catholic who refuses to kill to be a “dangerous radical”? Read
Church in England with the pope in Rome. to learn about the Anabaptists.
The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared
that the king was “the only supreme head
on earth of the [new] Church of England.” Reformers such as Luther had allowed
This position gave the king control over the state to play an important, if not domi-
religious doctrine, clerical appointments, nant, role in church affairs. However, some
and discipline. Thomas More, a Christian people strongly disliked giving such power
humanist and devout Catholic, opposed to the state. These were radicals known as
the king’s action and was beheaded. the Anabaptists.
Henry used his new powers to dissolve To Anabaptists, the true Christian church
the monasteries and sell their land and was a voluntary community of adult
possessions to wealthy landowners and believers who had undergone spiritual
merchants. The king received a great boost rebirth and had then been baptized. This
to his treasury and a group of supporters belief in adult baptism separated Anabap-
who now had a stake in the new order. In tists from Catholics and Protestants, who
matters of doctrine, however, Henry baptized infants.
remained close to Catholic teachings. Anabaptists also believed in following
When Henry died in 1547, he was suc- the practices and the spirit of early Christi-
ceeded by Edward VI, his nine-year-old anity. They considered all believers to be
son by his third wife. During Edward’s equal, a belief they based on the accounts
reign, church officials who favored Protes- of early Christian communities in the New
tant doctrines moved the Church of Eng- Testament. Each Anabaptist church chose
land, or the Anglican Church, in a Protestant its own minister, or spiritual leader. Because
direction. New acts of Parliament gave the all Christians were considered priests, any
clergy the right to marry and created a new member of the community was eligible to
Protestant church service. Before he turned be a minister (though women were often
16, Edward died of tuberculosis. excluded).
Finally, most Anabaptists believed in the
complete separation of church and state.
“Bloody Mary” Not only was government to be kept out of
The rapid changes during Edward’s the realm of religion, it was not even sup-
reign aroused opposition. When Mary, posed to have any political authority over
Henry’s daughter by Catherine of Aragon, real Christians. Anabaptists refused to hold
came to the throne in 1553, England was political office or bear arms, because many
ready for a reaction. Mary was a Catholic took literally the biblical commandment
who wanted to restore England to Roman “Thou shall not kill.”
Catholicism. However, her efforts had the Their political beliefs, as much as their
opposite effect. Among other actions, she religious beliefs, caused the Anabaptists to
had more than 300 Protestants burned as be regarded as dangerous radicals who
heretics, earning her the nickname “Bloody threatened the very fabric of sixteenth-cen-
Mary.” As a result of her policies, England tury society. Indeed, the chief thing other
was even more Protestant by the end of Protestants and Catholics could agree on
Mary’s reign than it had been at the was the need to persecute Anabaptists.
beginning.
✓Reading Check Describing Why were the
✓Reading Check Examining What were the Anabaptists considered to be dangerous political
results of Bloody Mary’s religious policies? radicals?

CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 421

 Reformation and Society Were idea and reality the same, how-
ever? More often, reality reflected the tra-
Although the family became the center ditional roles of husband as the ruler and
of life during the Reformation, the lives of most wife as the obedient servant. Luther stated
women and Jews did not improve. it clearly: “The rule remains with the hus-
HISTORY & YOU Should anyone be an “obedient band, and the wife is compelled to obey
servant” to another person? Read to learn about him by God’s command.”
women’s roles during the Reformation. Obedience was not a woman’s only role.
Her other important duty was to bear chil-
dren, which both Calvin and Luther saw
During the political and religious tur- as part of the divine plan.
moil of the Reformation, the lives of most
women and Jewish people did not improve.
Women were still subservient, and anti- Anti-Semitism
Semitism continued. During the Reformation, anti-Semitism
remained common in northern Europe.
Martin Luther expected Jews to convert to
Women and Family Lutheranism. When they resisted, Luther
The Protestants developed a new view wrote that Jewish synagogues and houses
of the family. Both monasticism and the should be destroyed. In the Papal States,
requirement of celibacy for the clergy had Jews who would not convert to Christian-
been abolished. The family could now be ity were segregated into ghettos.
placed at the center of life, and the “mutual
love between man and wife” could be ✓Reading Check Evaluating What impact did
extolled. the Protestant Reformation have on women?

Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican Beliefs

CATHOLIC LUTHERAN CALVINIST ANGLICAN
Church Pope, bishops, priests Ministers lead Council of elders for Monarch, bishops,
Hierarchy congregations. each church; ministers priests
Salvation Salvation requires faith and Salvation requires faith Salvation requires faith Salvation requires faith
good works. alone. alone. alone.
Importance The Bible and Church The Bible is the only The Bible is the only The Bible is the only
of the Bible traditions are both sources of source of truth. source of truth. source of truth.
truth.
Interpretation Priests interpret the Bible and Believers interpret the Believers interpret the Believers interpret the
of Beliefs Church teachings for Bible themselves. Bible themselves. Bible themselves.
believers.
Worship Services based on rituals and Services based on Services based on Services based on
devotional practices preaching with some preaching preaching and rituals
rituals
Sacraments Seven sacraments: baptism, Baptism, communion Baptism, communion Baptism, communion
confession, communion,
confirmation, marriage,
ordination, anointing the sick

1. Describing In what way were Anglicans more similar

to Catholics than to either Lutherans or Calvinists?
2. Making Inferences Why do you think the Protestant
churches eliminated most of the seven sacraments?
Catholic Reformation
Perceiving a need for a change, Pope Paul III steered the
Catholic Church toward a reformation in the 1500s.
HISTORY & YOU When a task doesn’t turn out as well as you had Vocabulary
hoped, do you look for ways to do it better next time? Read to learn how 1. Explain the significance of: Ulrich Zwingli,
the Catholic Church determined what it needed to change. Zürich, John Calvin, published, justification,
predestination, Geneva, King Henry VIII,
annul, Ignatius of Loyola, Trent.
The Catholic Church also had a revitalization in the six-
teenth century, giving it new strength and enabling it to Main Ideas
regain much that it had lost to the Protestant Reforma- 2. Describe how Calvin reformed the city of
tion. Three chief pillars—the Jesuits, reform of the papacy, Geneva.
and the Council of Trent—supported the Catholic 3. Explain why Henry VIII formed the Church
Reformation. of England.
A Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola, founded the
4. Contrast how the Calvinists and the
Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits. Loyola‘s small group Anabaptists differed in their attitudes toward
of followers was recognized as a religious order by Pope church members participating in
Paul III in 1540. All Jesuits took a special vow of absolute government activities.
obedience to the pope, making them an important instru- Calvinists Anabaptists
ment for papal policy. Jesuits used education to spread
their message. Jesuit missionaries were very successful in Church
restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and eastern Participation in
Europe and in spreading it to other parts of the world. Government
Reform of the papacy was another important factor in
the Catholic Reformation. Participating in dubious finan-
cial transactions and Italian political and military affairs, Critical Thinking
the Renaissance popes had created many sources of cor- 5. The BIG Idea Assessing How
ruption. It took the jolt of the Protestant Reformation to effective was the Catholic Church’s
bring about serious reform. response to the Protestant Reformation?
Pope Paul III perceived the need for change. He took the 6. Determining Cause and Effect How did
bold step of appointing a Reform Commission in 1537 to “Bloody Mary’s” actions affect the religious
determine the Church’s ills. The commission blamed the makeup of England by the end of her
Church’s problems on the popes’ corrupt policies. Paul III reign?
also began the Council of Trent, another pillar of the Cath- 7. Analyzing Visuals Compare the chart on
olic Reformation. Beginning in March 1545, a group of page 422 to the map on page 419. Name
cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians one country in which the dominant
met off and on for 18 years in the city of Trent, on the bor- Christian faith included the seven
der between Germany and Italy. sacraments.
The final decrees of the Council of Trent reaffirmed tra-
ditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant Writing About History
beliefs. Both faith and good works were declared neces- 8. Expository Writing Research the
sary for salvation. The seven sacraments, the Catholic view treatment of the Jewish people during the
of the Eucharist, and clerical celibacy were all upheld. Reformation. Then write a short essay
Belief in purgatory and in the use of indulgences was analyzing why they were segregated to
strengthened, although the selling of indulgences was for- ghettos.
bidden. The Roman Catholic Church now possessed a
clear body of doctrine and was unified under the pope’s
supreme leadership. Catholics were as well prepared as
Calvinists to do battle for their faith.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Describing What was the relationship History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
between the Jesuits and the pope?

423
 Visual Summary
You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes
and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

Detail of Sistine Chapel Ceiling,

By Michelangelo
THE RENAISSANCE in Italy and
Northern Europe
• Milan, Venice, and Florence became centers of
Renaissance learning and culture.
• Machiavelli’s views on gaining and holding
power influenced political leaders.
• Humanist education focused on liberal studies.
• Artists sought to portray the world realistically.

Michelangelo painted people

with perfect proportions as a
Martin Luther Publicly Burns His reflection of divine beauty.
Excommunication Documents

THE REFORMATION Begins

• Erasmus and other Christian humanists paved the
way for the Protestant Reformation.
• Catholic teaching stressed faith and good works,
but Luther believed that faith alone was sufficient
for salvation.
• The Peace of Augsburg ended the religious wars
Luther’s beliefs spread, and allowed German states to choose between
creating Lutheranism, the Catholicism and Lutheranism.
first Protestant faith.

Persecution of an Anabaptist

Anabaptists were viewed

as dangerous radicals.

THE REFORMATION Spreads

• Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the
most important form of Protestantism.
• Henry VIII established the Church of England
for political rather than religious reasons.
• Anabaptists believed in the total
separation of church and state.
• Pope Paul III took steps to
reform the Catholic Church.

424 CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation

(t) Scala/Art Resource, NY, (c b) Bettmann/CORBIS
 Assessment
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
If a question asks you to read a quote, look for clues that reveal its historical context—the title, the date, the quote itself. Determining
the historical context will help you determine the quote’s historical significance. It will also help you determine the correct answer.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
the sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 398–403)
1. Theologians of the Reformation disagreed about how people 5. Which of the following was a characteristic of the
could achieve , or acceptance into Heaven. Renaissance?
A indulgence A Rejection of the classical learning of ancient Greece and
B predestination Rome
C annulment B Renewed emphasis on an all-powerful God
D salvation C Emergence of a more secular worldview
D Reawakening of feudalism
2. The money and goods given by the wife’s family to the hus-
band at the time of marriage is called a .
6. Who helped to make Florence the cultural center of Europe
A settlement during the Renaissance?
B dowry A Francesco Sforza
C tithe B Lorenzo de’ Medici
D taille C Niccolò Machiavelli
D Girolamo Savonarola
3. John Calvin emphasized , the belief that God deter-
mined in advance who would be saved and who would be
damned. Section 2 (pp. 406–411)
A predisposition 7. Who has been called the father of Italian Renaissance
B salvation humanism?

C predestination A Petrarch

D humanism B Leonardo da Vinci

C Dante
4. An image painted on fresh, wet plaster is called a . D Albrecht Dürer
A ceramic
B flying buttress 8. What was the Divine Comedy?
C fresco A A collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on a
journey
D relic
B A defense of women
C An ancient Roman poem by Virgil
D A poem about a soul’s journey to Heaven
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CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 425

 9. Which artist painted figures on the ceilings of the Sistine Critical Thinking
Chapel in Rome?
Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
A Leonardo da Vinci
B Michelangelo Use the following map to answer question 14.
C Raphael
Holy Roman Empire, 1400
D Jan van Eyck
North N DENMARK Boundary of the
Sea Holy Roman Empire
W E
Section 3 (pp. 412–417)
S
10. What was the major goal of Christian humanism? Hamburg
ENGLAND ND
LA BRANDENBURG
OL POLAND
A To create a new form of Christian faith H Berlin
BRABANT GERMAN Elb Od
B To preserve religious unity in the Holy Roman Empire PRINCIPALITIES

e
er SILESIA
Brussels Dresden

Rhi

R.
R.
C To promote external forms of religion, such as pilgrimages Frankfurt

ne
Se
Prague

in
and relics BOHEMIA MORAVIA

R.
. HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

R
D To reform the Catholic Church Loir
e R. e R
nub BAVARIA .
Da AUSTRIA
Zurich Munich Vienna
11. What agreement ended the religious warfare in Germany in SWITZERLAND STYRIA
FRANCE
TYROL HUNGARY
1555? Geneva Venice
Po R.
Milan
Y
BARD
Rhone
A Ninety-five Theses 0 200 kilometers
R. LOM
Genoa T
B Edict of Worms ENCE 0 200 miles
PR OV

US
Lambert Azimuthal

CA
Marseille REP. OF Equal-Area projection
C Peace of Augsburg

Ad
GENOA PAPAL

NY
STATES ia

r
ti
D Great Schism c
Corsica Se
Rome a
Mediterranean Sea
Section 4 (pp. 418–423)
12. Why did King Henry VIII break with Rome and establish the 14. Which of the following is a true statement about the Holy
Church of England? Roman Empire in 1400?
A To marry Anne Boleyn A It had no access to the Mediterranean Sea.
B To promote his religious views B It did not include parts of Italy.
C To force the Catholic Church to reform C Rome was not a part of the Empire.
D To separate church and state D Denmark was part of the Empire.

13. Who founded the Jesuits? 15. How did fifteenth-century humanists differ from those in the
A John Calvin fourteenth century?
B Ignatius of Loyola A They preferred to live in solitude.
C Martin Luther B They believed in service to the state.
D Pope Paul III C Most moved to the country.
D They emphasized classical Latin.

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426 CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation

 Assessment
16. Why were liberal studies at the core of a humanist curriculum? Document-Based Questions
A To create great scholars Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer ques-
B To promote advances in science tions that follow the document. Base your answers on the document
and on your knowledge of world history.
C To enable more people to read Latin
D To provide practical preparation for life Niccolò Machiavelli wrote:

17. In his Ninety-five Theses, Martin Luther wrote: “Christians

are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to “Everyone realizes how praiseworthy it is for a prince to
the needy does a better work than buying pardons.” To honor his word and to be straightforward rather than crafty in
what is Luther objecting in this statement? his dealings; nonetheless experience shows that princes who
have achieved great things have been those who have given
A The doctrine of predestination
their word lightly, who have known how to trick men with their
B The lack of concern for the poor cunning, and who, in the end, have overcome those abiding by
C The sale of indulgences honest principles. . . . A prince, therefore, need not necessarily
have all the good qualities I mentioned above, but he should
D The spread of secular humanism
certainly appear to have them. . . . He should not deviate from
what is good, if that is possible, but he should know how to do
Base your answer to question 18 on the following table. evil, if that is necessary.”
—Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, George Bull, trans., 1981
Top Ten Organized Religions
of the World (2004 estimates)
Number of 19. According to Machiavelli, what kinds of princes have
Religion Percentage achieved great things?
Members
Christianity 2.1 billion 33.0% 20. According to Machiavelli, what role does evil play in
governance?
Islam 1.3 billion 20.1%
Hinduism 851 million 13.3%
Buddhism 375 million 5.9% Extended Response
Sikhism 25 million 0.4% 21. Analyze how the Reformation shaped the political and reli-
Judaism 15 million 0.2% gious life of Europe. Be sure to identify the historical effects
Baha’ism 7.5 million 0.1%
of the Reformation.
Confucianism 6.4 million 0.1%
Jainism 4.5 million 0.1%
Shintoism 2.8 million 0.0%
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica

18. Which of the following is a true statement about the world’s

top 10 organized religions?
A Hindus exceed Buddhists by more than double.
B There are more Muslims than Christians. (ISTORY /.,).%
C Jews far outnumber Buddhists. For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 12 at glencoe.com.
D Christianity is the most organized religion in the world.

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If You Missed Questions . . . 16 17 18 19 20 21
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CHAPTER 12 Renaissance and Reformation 427