12-04-2020

Contents
Research Ethics, IPR and Scholarly Publishing
by • Ethics: Ethical issues, Ethical committees (Human & Animal)
Dr Urmil V Dave
• IPR: Intellectual property rights and Patent law,
Professor & Head
Commercialization, Copy right, Royalty, Trade related aspects
Department of Civil Engineering,
of intellectual property rights (TRIPS)
School of Engineering,

• Scholarly publishing: IMRAD concept and design of research

paper, Citation and Acknowledgement, Plagiarism,
Reproducibility

Introduction
• Most universities encourages research activities.
• Now-a-days appraisal in academia depends on the quality of
research work.
• Good quality of research work also ensures publication in reputed
Ethics journal.
• In India alone, there are more than 700 predatory publication houses
where you will be able to publish a book/research paper within three
days.
• Publish and Perish!! (if you break ethical standards of research)
• Research ethics do not have a national variants – there is a single
ethical standard for science.

Why Study Research Ethics ?

Research Ethics
• Knowing what constitutes ethical research is important for all people
who conduct research projects or use and apply the results from
Definition research findings.
“Research Ethics” refers to a • All researchers should be familiar with the basic ethical principles
diverse set of values, norms and have up-to-date knowledge about policies and procedures
and institutional regulations designed to ensure the safety of research subjects and to prevent
that help constitute and sloppy or irresponsible research.
regulate scientific activity.
• Because ignorance of policies designed to protect research subjects
is not considered a viable excuse for ethically questionable projects.

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Why Study Research Ethics ? Principles of Research Ethics

• Therefore, the duty lies with the researcher to seek out and fully  Honesty (valid interpretations and justifiable claims)
understand the policies and theories designed to guarantee
upstanding research practices.  Reliability (in performing and reporting research)

• Research is a public trust that must be ethically conducted,  Objectivity (transparency and verifiability)
trustworthy, and socially responsible if the results are to be valuable.  Impartiality and independence (from pressures and interests)
• All parts of a research project – from the project design to
 Open communication (ensuring availability and accessibility)
submission of the results for peer review – have to be upstanding in
order to be considered ethical.  Duty of care (for research subjects – e.g. human subjects,
• When even one part of a research project is questionable or experimental animals with colleagues)
conducted unethically, the integrity of the entire project is called
 Responsibility for future science generations (mentorship)
into question.

Objectives of Research Ethics Research Ethics - Issues

• to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of Issues related to Ethical constraints in Research:
individuals, groups and/or society as a whole.
1. Authorship
• to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical 2. Plagiarism
soundness, protection of confidentiality and the process of informed 3. Peer review
consent.
4. Conflicts of interest
• to protect human and animal participants 5. Data management
6. Research misconduct
7. Research with animals
8. Research with human subjects

Research Ethics Issues: Authorship Research Ethics Guidelines: Authorship

• Authorship is the process of deciding whose names belong on a • Each person listed as an author on an article should have
research paper. significantly contributed to both the research and writing. In
addition, all listed authors must be prepared to accept full
• In many cases, research evolves from collaboration and assistance responsibility for the content of the research article.
between experts and colleagues. Some of this assistance will require
acknowledgement and some will require joint authorship. • Authorship credit should be based only on:
• Responsible authorship practices are an important part of research. 1) substantial contributions to conception and design, or
Reporting and analysing results is the key to applying research acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data;
findings to the real world. 2) drafting the article or revising it critically for important
intellectual content; and
• Many scientists frequently run into difficulty when deciding which
colleagues should be listed as authors or co-authors, and which 3) final approval of the version to be published.
colleagues should instead receive acknowledgement. • Acquisition of funding, the collection of data, or general supervision
of the research group, by themselves, do not justify authorship.

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Research Ethics Guidelines: Authorship Research Ethics Issues: Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is the act of passing off somebody else’s ideas, thoughts,
pictures, theories, words, or stories as your own.
• If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others, they are bringing into
question the integrity, ethics, and trustworthiness of the sum total of
his or her research.
• In addition, plagiarism is both an illegal act and punishable,
considered to be on the same level as stealing from the author that
which he or she originally created.

Research Ethics Guidelines: Plagiarism Research Ethics Issues: Peer Review

A researcher preparing a written manuscript should cite the original • Peer review is the process in which an author (or authors) submits a
source if he or she: written manuscript or article to a journal for publication and the
journal editor distributes the article to experts working in the same,
1)Quotes another person’s actual words, either oral or written;
or similar, scientific discipline.
2)Paraphrases another person’s words, either oral or written;
3)Uses another person’s idea, opinion, or theory; or • The experts, otherwise called the reviewers, and the editor then enter
the peer review process. The process involves the following:
4)Borrows facts, statistics, or other illustrative material, unless the
information is common knowledge. 1) Reviewers and editors read and evaluate the article
• Most researchers certainly try not to plagiarize. However, it isn’t always 2) Reviewers submit their reviews back to the journal editor
easy because people often consult a variety of sources of
information for their research and end up mixing it in with their own 3) The journal editor takes all comments, including their own, &
background knowledge. communicates this feedback to the original author (or authors).

Research Ethics Issues: Peer Review Research Ethics Issues: Peer Review
According to an article on quality peer reviews in the Journal of the
5) Sound ethics – Was the study conducted ethically ensuring proper
American Medical Association, A high quality peer review should
protection for human subjects? Were results reported accurately and
evaluate a publication on the following merits:
honestly?
1) Importance – Does the research have any impact on society?
6) Completeness – Is all information relevant to the study included in
2) Usefulness – Does the study provide useful scientific information? the article?
3) Relevance – Does the research apply to the journal’s readers & 7) Accuracy – Is the written product a true reflection of the conduct
content area of interest? and results of the research?
4) Sound methods – Was the research conducted with sound scientific
methods that allowed the researchers to answer their research
question?
Contd……..

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Research Ethics Guidelines: Peer Review Research Ethics Guidelines: Peer Review
• Peer reviewers, in addition to maintaining confidentiality, can be
• The two most important ethical concepts in the peer review process
neither conflicted nor political in their review.
are confidentiality and protection of intellectual property.
• Conflicts may take the form of financial conflicts with the results,
• Reviewers should not know the authors they are reviewing, & the conflicts if the research is too similar to their own research
authors should not be told the names of the reviewers. endeavours, and conflicts due to personal relationships with the
• Only by maintaining strict confidentiality guidelines can the peer author.
review process be truly open and beneficial. • Political motivations that might interfere with the peer review
process include competition to publish with other scientists and
• Likewise, no person involved in the peer review process – either the inaccurate reviews designed to “punish” a competing colleague or
editor, reviewers, or other journal staff – can publicly disclose the journal
information in the article or use the information in a submitted
• Likewise, Peer reviewers should disclose all conflicts of interest that
article for personal gain.
may unduly influence their review to the journal editor and
disqualify themselves when appropriate.

Research Ethics Issues: Data Management Research Ethics Issues: Data Management
• Data management, in respect to research ethics, references three Responsibilities in Data management include the following important
issues: issues:
1) the ethical and truthful collection of reliable data; 1) Oversight of the design of the method of data collection
2) the ownership and responsibility of collected data; and, 2) Protecting research subjects from harm
3) retaining data and sharing access to collected data with colleagues 3) Securing and storing data safely to preserve the integrity and
and the public. privacy of data
• Each issue contributes to the integrity of research and can be easily 4) Delegating work with ‘data’ to others and responsibility over the
overlooked by researchers. work of others
• Truthful data collection refers to data that, once collected, are not 5) Responsible use of data and truthful portrayal of results
manipulated or altered in any way that might impact or falsely
influence results.

Research Ethics Issues: Data Management Research Ethics Guidelines: Data Management
Researchers must accurately identify answers to the following questions
Data sharing achieves many important goals for the scientific
to resolve & address all data management issues in a timely manner:
community, such as:
1) reinforcing open scientific inquiry, 1) Who is in charge of the data? (the PI of the research project is
2) encouraging diversity of analysis and opinion, responsible for data collection design and physical data collection.)
3) promoting new research, 2) How will data be collected? (Will data be collected via phone, mail,
4) testing of new or alternative hypotheses and methods of analysis, personal interview, existing records, secondary sources, etc.?)
5) supporting studies on data collection methods and measurement, 3) How will data be stored and what privacy and protection issues will
6) facilitating teaching of new researchers, result from the method of storage? (Will it be stored electronically, on
7) enabling the exploration of topics not envisioned by the initial paper, as raw tissue samples, etc.?)
investigators, and
4) How long after the project is over will data be kept? (This will depend on
8) permitting the creation of new data sets by combining data from the source of funding and organizational policies.)
multiple sources

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Research Ethics Guidelines: Data Management Research Ethics Guidelines: Intellectual Property
• ‘Intellectual Property’ means: any invention, discovery,
• Protecting intellectual property while at the same time encouraging
improvement, copyrightable work, integrated circuit mask work,
data sharing is highly important in order to ensure valid and reliable
trademark, trade secret, and licensable know-how and related rights.
research.
• Intellectual property includes, but is not limited to, individual or
• In order to identify what is and is not protected as “intellectual
multimedia works of art or music, records of confidential
property,” the concept must be clearly defined.
information generated or maintained by the University, data, texts,
instructional materials, tests, bibliographies, research findings,
organisms, cells, viruses, DNA sequences, other biological materials,
probes, crystallographic coordinates, plant lines, chemical
compounds, and theses.

Research Ethics Guidelines: Intellectual Property Research Ethics Issues: Research With Animals
• Intellectual property may exist in a written or electronic form, may • Animals play a significant role in research.
be raw or derived, and may be in the form of text, multimedia, • They are used in a variety of ways by researchers, such as:
computer programs, spreadsheets, formatted fields in records or 1) for testing new pharmaceuticals,
forms within files, databases, graphics, digital images, video and 2) as teaching tools for medical students, and
audio recordings, live video or audio broadcasts, performances, two 3) as experimental subjects for new surgical procedures.
or three-dimensional works of art, musical compositions, executions • Research with animals is necessary and vital to biomedical research
of processes, film, film strips, slides, charts, transparencies, other because animal research is frequently a necessary first step towards
visual/aural aids or CD-ROMS.
research involving new medical treatments and pharmaceuticals
intended for human use.
• Many dedicated organizations and individuals are interested in
protecting and safeguarding animal subjects as regards their use in
research.

Research Ethics Issues: Research With Animals Research Ethics Issues: Research With Animals
• Some organizations are interested in eliminating the use of animals
• Debates also centre on judging how much pain is too much, whether
in research.
or not animals experience pain in the same way that humans do, and
• Others consider research with animals a necessary evil to the whether or not these ideas should even factor into the debate at all.
advancement of medicine, but still aim to eliminate unnecessary
suffering, pain, and poor facility conditions for animal subjects.
• To protect animals, research projects that use animals have to be
reviewed. These review processes assess the risks & benefits of
using animals in research.
• This can prove difficult for project reviewers & often makes for
intense debates & arguments about the appropriate use of animal
subjects, particularly because the animal subjects usually bear all the
risks while human beings realize all the benefits.

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Research Ethics Guidelines: Research With Animals Research Ethics Issues: Research With Human Subjects
In order to prevent the mistreatment of animals “The Animal Welfare • The research with human subjects involves topics ranging from
Act” of the United States of America is summarized: voluntary participation in research to fair selection and justice.
1) “to insure that animals intended for use in research facilities or for i) Respect for Persons – Informed Consent.
exhibition purposes or for use as pets are provided humane care and
• Informed consent exists to ensure that all research involving human
treatment;
subjects allows for voluntary participation by subjects who
2) to assure the humane treatment of animals during transportation in understand what participation entails.
commerce; and
• Informed consent means that people approached and asked to
3) to protect the owners of animals from the theft of their animals by participate in a research study must:
preventing the sale or use of animals which have been stolen.”
1. know what they are getting involved with before they commit;
2. not be coerced or manipulated in any way to participate; and,
3. must consent to participate in the project as a subject.

Research Ethics Issues: Research With Human Subjects Research Ethics Issues: Research With Human Subjects
The “Belmont Report” of 1979 outlines the three requirements for ii) Respect for Persons – Privacy and confidentiality.
“informed consent”. • Privacy and confidentiality are very important components for
1. Information: info disclosed to research participants must include, research involving human subjects.
research procedure, their purposes, risks and anticipated benefits, • People have a right to protect themselves, and information gathered
and a statement offering the subject the opportunity to ask during research participation could harm a person by violating their
questions and to withdraw at any time from the research. right to keep information about themselves private.
2. Comprehension: the concept of comprehension requires researchers • The information gathered from people in biomedical studies has a
to adapt information to be understandable to every participant. This unique potential to be particularly embarrassing, harmful, or
requires taking into consideration different abilities, intelligence damaging.
levels, maturity, and language needs.
3. Voluntariness: Informed consent can be neither coerced nor
improperly pressured from any participant.

Research Ethics Guidelines: Research With Human Subjects Research Ethics Guidelines: Research With Human Subjects
Research with human subjects consider the following issues to be of 4) Researchers must avoid harm, injury, and death of research subjects
great concern: and discontinue research that might cause harm, injury, or death.
1) Human subjects must voluntarily consent to research and be 5) Research must be conducted by responsible and qualified
allowed to discontinue participation at any time. researchers.
2) Research involving human subjects must be valuable to society and 6) No population of people can be excluded from research or unfairly
provide a reasonably expected benefit proportionate to the burden burdened unless there is an overwhelming reason to do so.
requested of the research participant.
3) Research participants must be protected and safe. No research is
more valuable than human well being and human life.

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Code of Ethics for Research

• To honour the trust placed in researchers by research
participants, funding organisations and society, the researchers
should at all times act correctly and in ways that respect the
rights and dignity of the participants, organisations and
Nirma University Policy on Code of industry.
Ethics for Research • To provide the ethical framework within which the ethical
review process will operate across campus
• To promote exemplary ethical standards in research and
scholarship

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Ethical Principles Covered in Code Ethical Principles Covered in Code

Academic Honesty Carefulness
• Be honest in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
• Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
examine your work and the work of peers. Keep good records
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues,
of research activities, such as data collection, research
granting agencies, or the public.
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Integrity Confidentiality
• Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
• Protect confidential communications, such as papers or
consistency of thought and action.
grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or
military secrets, and patient records.
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Ethical Principles Covered in Code Ethical Principles Covered in Code

Respect for Intellectual Property Social Responsibility

• Honour patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual • Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give Competence
proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to
research. Never plagiarize. • Maintain and improve professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.

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Ethical Principles Covered in Code Ethical Principles Covered in Code

Legality
Human Subjects Protection
• Know and obey governmental policies, relevant laws and
institutional rules and regulations. • When conducting research on human subjects, minimize
harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
Animal Care dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
• Show proper respect and care for animals when using them vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits
in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed and burdens of research fairly.
animal experiments.

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Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

• When someone possess an ‘intellect’, which can be used to invent
something for the benefit of masses, then the invention becomes his
property, for which he can possess all the rights to use it the way he
likes.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) • Intellectual Property (IP) is a property that arises from the human
intellect. It is a product of human creation. It includes:
– inventions,
– literary and artistic works,
– symbols, names, images, and
– designs used in commerce and industry (industrial property)

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Intellectual Property - Basics Intellectual Property

Why IPR? Literary & Artistic Works
• IPR’s are creation of mind
• They are books, paintings, musical compositions, plays, movies,
• They are reward from government
radio/TV programs, performances, & other artistic works.
• It provides monopoly for a fixed period of time
• It also includes scientific papers and research articles.
• IPRs are the intangible properties and are the assets of the owners.
• How are they Protected?
• It forms identification of the goodwill of the owner – Protected by COPYRIGHT
• Commercial benefits and growth.

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Intellectual Property Intellectual Property - Types

Industrial Property
• Industrial Property describes physical matter that is the product of an
idea or concept for commercial purposes.
• How are they Protected?
– inventions are protected under Patents
– symbols, names, images are protected as Trademarks
– designs are protected under Designs
– name or sign used on products which corresponds to a specific
geographical location or origin are protected under Geographical
Indication (GI)

Intellectual Property Characteristics of IPR

Simple formula
• Idea + Innovation + Invention = PATENT

• Idea + Expression = COPYRIGHT

• Idea + Quality + Identity = TRADEMARK

• Idea + Appearance = DESIGN

Intellectual Property - Patent Intellectual Property - Patent

• Patents are exclusive rights granted by government of India to the • It is given in return of full scientific disclosure.
inventor to encourage technical and economic development.
• The patents are granted to those who are First to file.
• To exclude others from making, using or selling or importing an
invention. • Patents do not prevent others from learning from the invention.

• The monopoly for a patent is given to the applicant as a reward • The term of patent is 20 years and is calculated from the date of
from the government, encouraging the inventors for their fruitful patent application.
efforts.
• Protection is territorial in nature
• The patent ensures commercial returns to the inventor for the time
• For seeking protection in other countries, patents are filed in each
and money spend in generating a new product.
respective country.

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Intellectual Property - Patent Forms of Invention for A Patent

• It is covered under the Act called the Patents Act, 1970 [Amended • For filing a patent, an invention can be a Product or a Process. It
by Patents Act, 2005] includes:

• It extends to the whole of India. • Process or Method

• It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government – Including Biotechnical processes
may publish, by notification in the Official Gazette.
• Machine or Apparatus
– medical devices

• Article of Manufacture
– toys, medicine etc.

Forms of Invention for A Patent Intellectual Property - Patent

• Composition of Matter Is patent granted in one country enforceable in other countries:

– Chemical Compounds • No, there is nothing like a global patent or a world patent.
• Patent rights are essentially territorial in nature
– Physical Mixtures
• Granting a patent in one country of the Union does not force other
– Pharmaceutical countries to grant the patent for the same invention.
• Improvements of Any of the Above • The refusal of the patent in one country does not mean that it will be
terminated in all the countries

Filing for a Patent What is Prior Art?

Find Prior Art • Prior Art constitutes all information that has been made available to
the public in any form before a given date that might be relevant to
your invention.
Distinguish the prior art technically with your invention • Does not need to exist physically or be commercially available.
• It is enough that someone, somewhere, sometime previously has
described or shown or made something that contains a use of
Prepare a patent application technology that is very similar to your invention.

File before the patent office

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Prior Art - Sources Rights of a Patentee

1. Search for related publications
• Right to exploit the patent.
2. Non Patent Literature
– to prevent 3rd parties, from exploiting the patented invention.
3. Scientific Papers
• Right to grant license.
4. Articles /News
– power to assign rights or grant license.
5. Products
• Right to surrender.
6. Web links
• Right to sue for infringement.
7. Search for related Patents
8. Granted Patents
9. Expired Patents
10. Published Patent Applications

Who can apply for A Patent Expiry of Patent

1. Individual Inventor • It has lived its full term – 20 years.
2. Joint Inventors • Patentee has failed to pay renewal fees.
3. Assignee of the inventor • Validity of patent has been successfully challenged by opponent in
4. Licensee patent office or courts.
5. Inventor Company • On expiry, invention becomes a part of public domain.
6. Employer of a inventor under such contract

Trademark Trademark

• It is covered under the Act called the Trade Marks Act, 1999. Trademark:
• The Act came into effect on September 15, 2003. It replaced the • A symbol, logo, word, sound, color, design, or other device that is
Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958. used to identify a business or a product in commerce.
• It extends to the whole of India. Different Symbols area :
• It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government • ™ Intent to use application filed for product
may publish, by notification in the Official Gazette
• SM Intent to use application filed for services
• ® Registered trademark

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Trademark – Registration Procedure Trademark - Duration

Application for search.
• Trademark is valid for 10 years from the date of application which
Application for registration. may be renewed for further period of 10 years on payment of
prescribed fees.
Examination of trademark.
• Service mark Rights are reserved exclusively for owners for 17
years & it can also be renewed.
Advertisement of trademark.

Filing of opposition.

Certificate issued.

Trademark Copyright
• The Indian Copyright Act, 1957 governs the system of copyrights
in India. [Amended in 1982, 1984, 1992, 1994 & 1999]
• Meaning: It is a right which Grants protection to the unique
expression of Ideas.
• The term original in the copyright law means that the
work originated with the author.
• There is no requirement for novelty or uniqueness as there
is in patent law.
• Copyright law protects the expression of an idea. Not the
idea itself.

What is not covered by Copyright Duration of Copyright

• Ideas 1. Author’s lifetime + 50 years from the end of the calendar year in
which the author dies,
• Facts
• Recipes 2. 50 years for films and sound recordings,

• Works lacking originality 3. 25 years for typographical arrangements of a published edition,

• Names, titles or short phrases • Copyright protection always expires on December 31st of the last
calendar year of protection.

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Fair use of Copyright material Copyright / Patent Infringement

• Gives permission to use copyrighted materials if certain • Any reproduction, use , distribution, performance, etc. of the work
criteria are met (up to 10% form one author) without the permission of the owner.
• Protects freedom of speech • An identical or substantial similar reproduction is also covered
• Promotes public benefits like education. • Infringement Damages Injunction
• Never assume that your use falls under the fair-use exception!
• Laziness can be a trap!

Remedies for Copyright / Patent Infringement Geographical indications

• A suit can lie in the District or • A geographical indication (GI) is a

High court sign used on products that have a
specific geographical origin
• It may issue an injunction
• Place names are sometimes used to
either to prevent the infringer
identify a product
from any further use & award
damages to the patent owner Examples are:
or will pay the patent owner • 'Basmati' rice
royalties for further use. • 'Darjeeling' Tea

Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Issues Covered under TRIPS Agreement
(TRIPS)
• The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property • Application of basic principles of the trading system and other
Rights (TRIPS) is an international agreement administered by the international intellectual property agreements.
World Trade Organization (WTO). • Methods used for the adequate protection of intellectual property
rights.
• It came into effect on 1st January, 1995.
• Enforcement of those rights sufficiently and adequately in their
• The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the own territories.
international trading system for the first time • Settling of disputes on intellectual property rights between
• It provides standards for the full range of intellectual property members of the WTO.
rights and also the enforcement of those standards both internally • Special transitional arrangements during the period when the new
and through legal and administrative actions. system is being introduced.

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Areas covered under TRIPS

TRIPS Objectives

The protection and enforcement of IPRs should contribute to: a) Copyright

• promotion of technological innovation b) Trade marks
c) Geographical indications
• transfer and dissemination of technology
d) Industrial designs
• the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological e) Patents including protection of new varieties of plants;
knowledge and
f) Integrated circuits;
• in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a g) Trade secrets.
balance of rights and obligations.

Scholarly Publishing – IMRAD Format

• “IMRaD” format refers to a paper that is structured by four main
sections:
– Introduction
– Methods
Scholarly Publishing – Results
– [And]
– Discussion
• Theses structured using the IMRAD format are usually short and
concise.
• The language will be as plain and as unambiguous as possible.
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Scholarly Publishing – IMRAD Format Why IMRAD Format

Source: Heseltine E. Why authors have to use a rigid format for their journal articles. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2015;97(4):249–251.

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IMRAD Format - (I): Introduction IMRAD Format - (I): Introduction

• The introduction explains why this research is important or  Inverted pyramid: general opening, sharp rationale,
necessary or important. objectives.
• Begin by describing the problem or situation that motivates the  Explain what we know, and what we are uncertain about.
research.
 Selective literature review
• Move to discussing the current state of research in the field; then  Short
reveal a “gap” or problem in the field.
 End with sharp focus
• Finally, explain how the present research is a solution to that
problem or gap.

IMRAD Format - (M): Methods IMRAD Format - (R): Results

• The methods section tells readers how you conducted your study • In this section, you present your findings. Use numbers. Be specific.
by describing every step you performed from coming up with your • You would start this section by answering whether you supported or
experiment to performing your experiment to tabulating your refuted the hypothesis. Next, give raw data & percentages (or, in
experiment data. some cases, ratios) of your data.
• It includes information about your population, sample, methods, • Typically, the Results section contains only the findings, not any
and equipment. explanation of or commentary on the findings.
• The “gold standard” of the methods section is that it should enable • Results sections are usually written in the past tense.
readers to duplicate your study. • Pie charts, graphs & tables can be very useful & effective, but you
• Methods sections typically use subheadings; they are written in have to have text that describes the tables & graphs.
past tense, and they use a lot of passive voice. This is typically the • Make sure all tables and figures are labelled and numbered
least read section of an IMRAD report. separately. Captions go above tables and beneath figures.

IMRAD Format - (D): Discussion IMRAD Format - (D): Discussion

• In this section, you summarize your main findings, comment on • In the discussion section, you answer the “so what?” question.
those findings and connect them to other research. – What do these results tell?
• You also discuss limitations of your study, and use these limitations – What use is the information?
as reasons to suggest additional, future research. – Did anything happen you didn't expect? How did that influence the
results?
• Make comparisons with other studies – Did you forget to allow for all variables?
• Give supporting and confuting evidence for the validity of the – Do you have suggestions for future researchers?
answer. – Maybe a question you asked provided a new avenue of research?
• Alternative explanations • Remember: you can revise the report, but you can not redo the
research. If it's a disaster, say so, and say why. “Discussion” is the
• Implication for practice, policy, research etc. place for you to speculate why you found what you found. It's also
the place to say anything else that doesn't belong in other sections of
the report.

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IMRAD Format – Checklists for Introduction

IMRAD Format – Merits and Demerits

Merits Demerits

• Distinction of facts • Some critics say it is too rigid

• Modular reading, especially in and simplistic
the digital format • Case reports, reviews,
• Elimination of unnecessary editorials and meta-analyses
detail do not used IMRAD format

IMRAD Format – Checklists for Methods IMRAD Format – Checklists for Methods contd..

IMRAD Format – Checklists for Results IMRAD Format – Checklists for Results

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IMRAD Format – Checklists for Discussion and Conclusions IMRAD Format – Checklists for Discussion & Conclusions

IMRAD Format – Checklists for Title IMRAD Format – Checklists for Title

IMRAD Format – Checklists for Abstract IMRAD Format – Checklists for Abstract

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IMRAD Format – Summary Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is the act of presenting the work of others as your own.
If you use the work of someone else and either knowingly or
inadvertently claim it as your own creation, you are committing an
act of plagiarism.
• It is a short-cut to long term consequences.
• It is considered to be a serious offence by your institute, journal
editors, reviewers and by the scientific community at large.
• It may also result in academic charges but will certainly cause the
rejection of your paper.
• It will hurt your reputation in the scientific community.

Forms of Plagiarism Forms of Plagiarism

• Word-for-word copying of another’s work without properly • Taking passages from their own previous work without adding
acknowledging the source of information. citations.
• Paraphrasing the work of others without acknowledgement. • Using quotations, but not citing the source.
• Failing to properly cite your source, even if that failure is • Interweaving various sources together in the work without citing.
unintentional.
• Providing proper citations but fails to change the structure and
• Attributing information to a source from which it did not come. wording of the borrowed ideas enough.
• Submitting someone's work as their own. • Relying too heavily on other people's work. Fails to bring original
• Submitting material created by yourself and others but claiming thought into the text.
the work entirely as your own.

Plagiarism
Common Forms of Plagiarism Self Plagiarism

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Plagiarism Plagiarism

Plagiarism in India Plagiarism

• According to Hindustan Times, in 2016 Vice-chancellor Chandra
Krishnamurthy of Pondicherry University had to quit job after a Why Students/Faculty members/Researchers Plagiarize?
prolonged stand-off with the HRD ministry, following allegations • Not enough time to complete assignment/paper (procrastination,
that she plagiarized large parts of one of her books. poor time management skills, or a busy schedule)
• Seven Stanford University professors wrote to President APJ Abdul • Laziness
Kalam about Kumaon University Vice-Chancellor BS Rajput on this
issue. • Lack of fundamental research skills (be aware that some
plagiarism is inadvertent)
• University of Hyderabad Vice-Chancellor Appa Rao Podile was
accused of plagiarizing his thesis from not one, but three scientific • Careless research methods (e.g. failing to document sources used
papers. during the research process)
• There are many other examples cited by Society for Scientific Values • A fear that one’s own academic abilities are not adequate
(SSV), New Delhi in its Newsletters.

Plagiarism Plagiarism
Why Students/Faculty members/Researchers Plagiarize? Why Plagiarizing is Wrong ?
• Perceived pressure from external forces (Ex: peers/colleagues/ • Plagiarism is a form of theft.
promotions etc.) for excellence.
• According to United States copyright law, the legal copyright
• Cultural differences. In many Asian/African countries, the idea of owner has the exclusive right to reproduce, distribute, display,
“owning” text or material is baffling. perform, and make derivative copies of the work.
• Because cheating is perceived as acceptable in today’s society, as a • Using the copyrighted material of another person without first
way to ‘get ahead’. obtaining permission to do so or without properly identifying your
source is essentially stealing someone else's property.
• A perceived lack of punishment by the institution.
• Because it’s easy to do.

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Example 1
SOURCE USED:
The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940. During years of normal precipitation, the excessive root system of the
wheat plants held the soil and offered excellent protection against wind erosion. In the
droughty Thirties, however, the inadequate moisture supply prevented a suitable growth of
Examples of Plagiarism ground cover in the early Spring “blow season” of February, March, and April. The drought
then began a chain of events, the first of which was crop failure.
STUDENT PAPER:
“The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940” (Hurt, 1981, p. 29-30).
APA reference:
Hurt, R. D. (1981). The dust bowl: An agricultural and social history. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

Example 2
Answer 1
SOURCE USED:
The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
No, it is not. too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940. During years of normal precipitation, the excessive root system of the
wheat plants held the soil and offered excellent protection against wind erosion. In the
Since the quoted material is enclosed in quotation marks and because droughty Thirties, however, the inadequate moisture supply prevented a suitable growth of
the source is cited correctly and completely, this is not an incident of ground cover in the early Spring “blow season” of February, March, and April. The drought
then began a chain of events, the first of which was crop failure.
plagiarism.
STUDENT PAPER:
The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940 (Hurt, 1981, p. 29-30).
APA reference:
Hurt, R. D. (1981). The dust bowl: An agricultural and social history. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

Example 3
Answer 2 SOURCE USED:
The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
Yes, it is. too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940. During years of normal precipitation, the excessive root system of the
wheat plants held the soil and offered excellent protection against wind erosion. In the
droughty Thirties, however, the inadequate moisture supply prevented a suitable growth of
The text from the source is quoted verbatim but it is not enclosed in ground cover in the early Spring “blow season” of February, March, and April. The drought
quotation marks. A direct quotation of an author's words must be then began a chain of events, the first of which was crop failure.
enclosed in quotation marks. STUDENT PAPER:
The wind erosion problem of the Great Plains occurred because the drought prevented
farmers from growing hardly any wheat from 1932 to 1940. Normally, the excessive root
system of the wheat plants held the soil and offered excellent protection against wind erosion,
but in the Thirties, the inadequate moisture supply prevented a suitable growth of ground
cover.
APA reference:
None

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Example 4
Answer 3 SOURCE USED:
The wind erosion problem of the southern Great Plains did not occur because farmers grew
Yes, this is plagiarism. too much wheat, but because the drought prevented them from growing hardly any wheat at
all from 1932 to 1940. During years of normal precipitation, the excessive root system of the
wheat plants held the soil and offered excellent protection against wind erosion. In the
droughty Thirties, however, the inadequate moisture supply prevented a suitable growth of
The student has paraphrased the author’s words, but has not cited the ground cover in the early Spring “blow season” of February, March, and April. The drought
author as the source of the information. then began a chain of events, the first of which was crop failure.
STUDENT PAPER:
During years of normal precipitation, the excessive root system of the wheat plant helps to
hold the soil in place and lessens wind erosion. During the 1930s, however, drought prevented
farmers from growing almost any wheat at all, and this prevented the growth of necessary
ground cover. This crop failure was the first in a chain of events that resulted in the Dust
Bowl (Hurt, 1981, p. 29-30).
APA reference:
Hurt, R. D. (1981). The dust bowl: An agricultural and social history. Chicago: Nelson- Hall.

Answer 4 Example 5

No, this is not plagiarism. • In her paper, a student mentions that George Washington was the
first President of the United States. Does this source of this fact
The author’s words and ideas have been paraphrased, but credit has
been correctly given to the author. need to be cited?

Answer 5 Example 6

No. • In your paper, you mention the fact that one of Washington’s first
concerns as President was paying off foreign and domestic debt as a
Since this fact is common knowledge to all, citation is not necessary.
way to reestablish the nation’s credit. Do you need to cite your
source if you use this fact?

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Answer 6 Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism

Yes, you do. • Familiarize yourself with the basics of the research writing process,
including the citing of sources
This fact is very specific and cannot be considered common • Make note of all the sources you consult during the research process
knowledge, so it must be cited. As such, it should be stated here that
this information was paraphrased from the following source: • Remember that paraphrasing the ideas of others still requires proper
citation

APA reference: Washington, George. In Family encyclopedia of • Properly cite the sources you use in your paper
American history (pp. 1206- 1209). (1975). Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s • Proof-read the final version of your paper to ensure that all the
Digest Association. sources you used are cited correctly

Techniques to Avoid Plagiarism Techniques to Avoid Plagiarism

 Understanding the core meaning  Citing the sources
• Instead of copy-pasting a text, one should try to understand the • Another way to avoid plagiarism is to cite all the sources
core meaning of it. This way, you can write a unique piece of accurately. This helps in giving proper credit to the original author
writing without changing the meaning. as well as avoiding plagiarism.

• It is also necessary to comprehend the context of the original text. • It is necessary to know the correct usage of the different types of
Once the writer gets a good understanding of the core meaning, referencing styles. This way, the writer can create accurate
he/she won’t need to copy-paste from anywhere. citations.
• One can also look for effective citation generators, if he/she is
confused about any specific referencing style.

Techniques to Avoid Plagiarism Techniques to Avoid Plagiarism

 Quoting lines  Using tools
• A writer can also quote lines from a source. One should quote a Another method for avoiding plagiarism is to use some effective
line as it appears in the text. tools. One can use the following tools:
• It is necessary to avoid misquoting any section of a text. Paraphrasing tools
– The paraphrasing tools generate authentic texts, keeping the
• Also, any writer should avoid mass quoting or adding too many meaning of the original lines intact.
quotes in a paper. This lowers the quality of the copy largely.
– One can easily generate original text using these tools quickly.
Thus, students will save time and avoid plagiarism at the same
time with the help of paraphrasing tools. (Ex. Grammarly and
other web based services)

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Techniques to Avoid Plagiarism Plagiarism

 Using tools
 Plagiarism checkers
– There are also other tools that can check a copy for plagiarism.
– The plagiarism checkers examine a paper against other online
copies to see if it contains any unoriginal line or not.
– Thus, by using this tool, one can be sure if his/her copy
contains any plagiarised content or not.
– Example: Turnitin.

July 28, 2018 | www.thehindu.com/news/national/turnitin-software-for-all-varsities- to-check-plagiarism-in-

research/article24536291.ece

Plagiarism Plagiarism
What is Turnitin How Reliable is Turnitin?
• Turnitin is a software that is meant to prevent the menace of • Turnitin says that this software does not detect plagiarism.
plagiarism and ensure originality in the content.
• Instead, it provides you with the 'amount of similarity' in a work
• The official website of Turnitin says that this software is a tool with the original work, and leaves it to the evaluator to determine
that helps "educators (and their students) make informed plagiarism.
evaluations.” Turnitin software checks papers against over 20
• Hence, the “Similarity Index” is not exactly a “plagiarism index”,
billion web pages, over 220 million student papers and over
and also there will be an automated score that can be “good” or
90,000 publications.
“bad”.

Plagiarism Snapshot of plagiarism report by Turnitin software

How Reliable is Turnitin?

• To be precise, the percentage of the “Similarity Index” of the
work detected by Turnitin doesn’t mean it is certainly plagiarised.
• The company says that even “0% does not necessarily mean that
everything is OK with the student’s paper and 75% does not
necessarily mean that the student should fail.
• You have to look at the report and decide: what is going on here?”

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Plagiarism Plagiarism
Global Examples of Turnitin Usage Other Software for Similarity Check
• In September 2017, the Jakarta State University was hit by a doctoral • Grammarly.com
degree scam. The rector of the university promoted more candidates
than the stipulated limit over a period of five years (2012-2016). It was • Urkund.com
later found that 74% of dissertations had similarities with other
writings, and that was detected by Turnitin software.
• US President Donald Trump's wife, Melania Trump, found herself in
an online plagiarism row when her speech at the Republican National
Convention 2016 sounded similar to a speech by Michelle Obama in
2008. Trump's speech contained both examples of "cloning" (copying
passages word for word) and "find-and-replace" plagiarism (copying
a passage but changing a few keywords), Turnitin found.

Plagiarism Preventing Idea-Plagiarism

A Policy Statement on "Dissemination and Evaluation of Research
How does Grammarly work? Output in India" by the Indian National Science Academy says:
• Grammarly automatically detects grammar, spelling, punctuation, • “Preprint archiving enables immediate self-dissemination and helps
word choice, and style mistakes in your writing. It’s easy to use:
establishing priority and counters idea-plagiarism.”
• Copy and paste any English text into Grammarly’s Editor, or install
Grammarly’s free browser extension for Chrome, Safari, Firefox, and • “Establishing priority is essential for countering idea-plagiarism. This is an
Edge. Grammarly will help you write correctly on nearly every site on unethical practice in which established and other researchers, who can assess
the web. the value of out-of-the-box ideas, especially from emerging bylines, paraphrase
and publish them as their own and get regular citations.”
• Grammarly’s algorithms flag potential issues in the text and suggest
context-specific corrections for grammar, spelling, wordiness, style, • Disseminating New Ideas through Conference Proceedings: “Not only the new
punctuation, and even plagiarism. Grammarly explains the reasoning knowledge fails to be properly disseminated but remains susceptible to
behind each correction, so you can make an informed decision about possible plagiarism. Such journals and conferences need to be positively
whether, and how, to correct an issue.
discouraged.”
Source: https://www.grammarly.com/faq#toc1
• “Dissemination must also ensure ownership of the output, and prevent its
being plagiarized before this ownership is accepted and registered.”

Helpful Resources for Plagiarism

• CMU Writing Center:

http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/writing_center/
• The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University: Nirma University Policy for Promotion of
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/ Academic Integrity and Prevention of
• Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism (from The Duke Plagiarism
University Libraries):
http://library.duke.edu/research/plagiarism/

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Policy for Promotion of Academic Integrity and Policy for Promotion of Academic Integrity and
Prevention of Plagiarism Prevention of Plagiarism
• Plagiarism assumes importance as it undermines basic objective • Rules are helpful in implementing academic integrity and
of higher education and harms the reputation of the University. honesty in academic and research practices at the University.
• Important to sensitize faculty, students and research staff • This document outlines both necessary and desirable
regarding plagiarism, performed either willfully or ignorantly. academic practices and at the same time it emphasizes on
practices that are not acceptable and unethical.
• The University to strive to have ‘Zero Tolerance’ against
plagiarism. • It prescribes the procedures to investigate reported cases of
plagiarism and to take appropriate actions by the authorities.

Definition Objectives
• To create awareness about responsible conduct of research, thesis,
dissertation, promotion of academic integrity and prevention of
• The word, ‘plagiarism’ is a noun of ‘plagiarize’, which means misconduct including plagiarism in academic writing among student,
1. take and use the thoughts, inventions, etc. of another person faculty, researcher and staff members.
as one’s own, • To establish institutional mechanism through education and training to
2. pass off the thoughts etc. of another person as one’s own. facilitate responsible conduct of research, thesis, dissertation,
promotion of academic integrity and deterrence from plagiarism.
• To develop systems to detect plagiarism and to set up mechanisms to
prevent plagiarism and punish a student, faculty, researcher or staff of
the University committing the act of plagiarism.

Scope Scope
This policy shall apply to the students, faculty, researchers and 4. Copying figures/charts/graphs/images without acknowledging or
staff members of Nirma University. claiming it/them as one’s own

Broadly, any of the following actions (on next slide) by any of the 5. Quoting from a source word for word without giving reference
individual shall be considered as plagiarism: 6. Putting someone else’s ideas without proper citation
1. Reproduction of someone else’s work, in part or whole, without 7. Paraphrasing
permission and presenting it as one’s own work
8. Self-Plagiarism: reproducing/publishing one’s own published work,
2. Buying/stealing/copying assignments, experimental results,
etc. in part or whole, without referring to earlier published work

3. Reproducing by copying a section of a book or an Notwithstanding anything containing clause (1)-(8), any other activity
article/report/dissertation without proper citation. falling under the ambit of academic dishonesty, may also be covered
under these rules.

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Precautions to Prevent Plagiarism Levels of Plagiarism

• Educate all stakeholders Plagiarism would be quantified into following levels in
• Provide information in rulebooks, handbooks etc. ascending order of severity for the purpose of its definition:
• Help developing thinking and writing skills through i) Level 0: Similarities up to 10% - Minor similarities, no
seminar / workshop / training sessions penalty
• Use plagiarism detection software
ii) Level 1: Similarities above 10% to 40%
• Promote original work and motivate to create own piece of
documentation iii) Level 2: Similarities above 40% to 60%
• Explain moral and ethics values and professional issues iv) Level 3: Similarities above 60%

Detection/Reporting/Handling of Plagiarism Penalties in case of Plagiarism in Submission

of Thesis and Dissertations
• If any member of the academic community suspects with appropriate
The University Academic Integrity Panel (UAIP) shall impose penalty
proof that a case of plagiarism has happened in any document, he or
considering the severity of the Plagiarism.
she shall report it to the Institutional Academic Integrity Panel (IAIP).
i) Level 0: Similarities up to 10% - Minor Similarities, no penalty.
• Upon receipt of such a complaint or allegation the IAIP shall
ii) Level 1: Similarities above 10% to 40% - Such student shall be asked
investigate the matter and submit its recommendations to the to submit a revised script within a stipulated time period not exceeding
University Academic Integrity Panel (UAIP) of the University. 6 months.
• The authorities of the University can also take suomotu notice of an iii) Level 2: Similarities above 40% to 60% - Such student shall be
act of plagiarism and initiate proceedings under this Policy. debarred from submitting a revised script for a period of one year.
• Similarly, proceedings can also be initiated by the University on the iv) Level 3: Similarities above 60% -Such student registration for that
programme shall be cancelled.
basis of findings of an examiner. All such cases will be investigated by
the UAIP.

Penalties in Case of Plagiarism in Academic Penalties in Case of Plagiarism in Academic

and Research Publications and Research Publications
i. Level 0: Similarities up to 10% - Minor similarities, no penalty.
iv) Level 3: Similarities above 60%
ii. Level 1: Similarities above 10% to 40%
• Shall be asked to withdraw manuscript.
– Shall be asked to withdraw manuscript.
• Shall be denied a right to two successive annual increments.
iii. Level 2: Similarities above 40% to 60%
• Shall not be allowed to be a supervisor to any new Master’s,
– Shall be asked to withdraw manuscript. M.Phil., Ph.D. Student/scholar for a period of three years.
– Shall be denied a right to one annual increment.
– Shall not be allowed to be a supervisor to any new Master’s, M.Phil.,
Ph.D. Student/scholar for a period of two years.

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Citation
• The importance of Citation is covered to some extent in the previous
topic of Plagiarism
• Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source
Citation (not always the original source).
• More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression,
embedded in the body of an intellectual work, that denotes an entry in
the bibliographic references section of the work, for the purpose of
acknowledging the relevance of the works of others, to the topic of
discussion at the spot where the citation appears.
• Generally the combination of both the in-body citation and the
bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation
(whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not).

Citation - Objectives What should you Cite?

• to uphold intellectual honesty (or avoiding plagiarism) • Print sources: books, journal articles, newspaper – any material published
on paper.
• to attribute prior or unoriginal work and ideas to the correct sources,
• Electronic sources:
• to allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced – Articles retrieved from databases such as Lexis-Nexis and ProQuest
material supports the author's argument in the claimed way, and – Personal and organizational websites
• to help the reader gauge the strength and validity of the material the – Government and institutional websites
author has used. – Blogs
– Email messages
• To show your readers that you have done your research
– Social media, such as Tweets and Facebook pages
– Computer source code
In short, any material published or made available on the Internet.

What should you Cite? Common Knowledge

• Data: geospatial (GIS) data, Census, economic and other types of data
published by governments, data from surveys, economic indicators, • You may have heard people say
bioinformatics data. that you do not have to cite your source
when the information you include is
• Images: charts, graphs, tables, illustrations, architectural plans, “common knowledge.” But what is
photographs. common knowledge?
• Recorded material: television broadcasts, podcasts or public speeches. • Broadly speaking, common knowledge
• Spoken material: personal conversations, interviews, information refers to information that the average,
obtained in lectures, poster sessions, or scholarly presentations of any educated reader would accept as
kind. reliable without having to look it up.

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Common Knowledge - Types Common Knowledge

• Information that most people know, such as that water freezes at 00 How do I determine if the information I am using is common
Celsius
knowledge?
• Information shared by a cultural or national group, such as the names • To help you decide whether information can be considered common
of famous heroes or events in the nation’s history that are knowledge, ask yourself:
remembered and celebrated.
– Who is my audience?
• Knowledge shared by members of a certain field, such as the fact that
the necessary condition for diffraction of radiation of wavelength – What can I assume they already know?
from a crystalline solid is given by Bragg’s law. – Will I be asked where I obtained my information?
• However, what may be common knowledge in one culture, nation, The best advice is: When in doubt, cite your source.
academic discipline or peer group may not be common knowledge in
another.

Citation Citing Basics

• In a research paper, some of the material must be either paraphrased • In a research paper – you must give credit to the original author for
or presented as a direct quote. any information that you learn through your research process and then
share with your reader.
• However if you are a subject matter expert, you will need to introduce
yourself as such in the beginning of the paper – and then you can • You can do this in two different ways.
provide some of your own ideas – but you still need to have the
• You can either use a sentence that introduces the author, (signal
appropriate number of sources.
phrase) or you can add the author’s name at the end of your sentence.
• You should strive to have a balance of quoted and paraphrased
• Regardless if you quote or paraphrase, you need to provide the last
material.
name of the author, the year of publication, and if you quote material
– the page or paragraph number.

Citing Examples Citing Examples

• Paraphrased Signal Phrase  If there is no name of an author you need to provide the name of the
– According to Smith (2004), the cost of treating alcoholism is article, organization or website.
increasing dramatically.  If there is no date – you need to use the letters n.d. to represent no
• Direct Quote date.
– “The cost of treating alcoholism is exceeded only by the cost of  You need to provide appropriate information within the text that lets
treating illnesses from tobacco use, and is increasing the reader identify your source on the Reference Page in case the
exponentially” (Smith, 2004, p. 9). reader wants to learn more, and check out your source.
 In the paraphrased example, the page number is not required.
 In the quoted example it is required.
 If there is no page number you need to use the paragraph number.

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Reproducibility Reproducibility
• Reproducibility of scientific studies is a hallmark of scientific Reproducibility requires multiple, progressive components such as:
methodology.
1. all data, models, code, directions, and other digital artifacts used in
• It enables researchers to build with confidence on the methods and the research are available for others to reuse
findings of others, reuse and extend scientific pipelines, and thereby
2. the artefacts can be used to exactly reproduce published results
drive scientific progress.
(reproducibility, sometimes called bit or computational
• Since many experimental studies rely on assumptions and analyses, reproducibility; and
scientists need guidance on how to set up and document reproducible
3. existing and new datasets can be processed using the artefacts to
data analyses or simulations.
reproduce published conclusions (replicability).

Reproducibility Reproducibility
• Reproducible and replicable scientific work is currently uncommon • Several efforts are underway to encourage more reproducible science.
because of misaligned incentives & poor coordination among authors,
journals, institutions, and funding agencies that conduct, publish, and • Authors can share research materials in a growing number of online
support scientific research. repositories such as Github, Figshare, Harvard Dataverse, Dryad, or
HydroShare.
• For example, making artefacts available requires authors to document
additional materials and learn new skills and technologies. • Institutional libraries are transitioning to offer online repositories to
house digital research artefacts.
• Authors may worry that shared materials will never be used or that other
scientists will scoop them on follow-up studies.
• Further, universities typically reward peer-reviewed journal publications,
rather than data repositories or documentation, while current scientific
culture rewards novelty rather than reproducing prior efforts.

Reproducibility – Virtual Witnessing

Scientific publications goals:
• (i) announce a result
• (ii) convince readers its correct.
• Papers in experimental science should describe the results and provide Reproducibility
a clear enough protocol to allow successful repetition and extension.
• Papers in computational science should describe the results and
provide the complete software development environment, data and set
of instructions which

173 174

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References
1. S. N. Goodman, D. Fanelli, J. P. A. Ioannidis, What does research reproducibility mean? Sci. Transl.
Med. 8, 341ps12 (2016).
2. Sandve G. K, Nekrutenko A, Taylor J, Hovig E (2013) Ten Simple Rules for Reproducible Computational
Research. PLoS Comput Biol 9(10): e1003285.
3. Academic Integrity at MIT – A handook for students: http://integrity.mit.edu/
4. Guidelines from the ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors) website
http://www.icmje.org
Reproducibility 5. University of Minnesota Code of Conduct for researchers (Section 2, Subdivisions 4 and 5) available
online at: http://www1.umn.edu/regents/policies/academic/Conduct.html
6. University of Minnesota Publication of Investigation Results:
http://www1.umn.edu/regents/policies/administrative/PublicationofResults.html
7. On-line curriculum on authorship issues by Mark Dworkin available at: www.research.umn.edu/ethics.
Click on “curriculum,” then “authorship”.
8. United States Office of Human Subject Research website. http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/mpa/belmont.php3.
9. Bhopal RS, Rankin JM, McColl E, et. al. Authorship. Team approach to assigning authorship order is
recommended. BMJ. 314(7086):1046-7, 1997 Apr 5.
10. Smith JP. References, Copyright and Plagiarism (editorial). Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1997; 26(1):1.
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Rinehart and Winston, 1969.
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13. Northwestern University website. http://www.writing.nwu.edu/tips/plag.html.
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