Development of Movement

Co-ordination in Children

Co-ordination of movement plays a key role in human development and is an

active area of study in sport and health sciences. This book looks in detail at how
children develop basic skills, such as walking or reaching for objects, and more
complex skills, such as throwing and catching a ball accurately or riding a bicycle.
Development of Movement Co-ordination in Children is informed by five
major theoretical perspectives - neural maturation, information-processing, direct
perception, dynamic systems and constraint theory - and these theories are
explained in an introductory chapter.
The international contributions are then brought together under the headings
of ergonomics, health sciences and sport. Focusing on practical applications,
individual chapters cover many different aspects of movement behaviour and
development, ranging from children's overestimation of their physical abilities
and the links of injury proneness to the co-ordination of kicking techniques. Both
normal and abnormal development is considered.
Development of Movement Co-ordination in Children will be of considerable
interest to students, teachers and professionals in the fields of sports science,
kinesiology, physical education, ergonomics and developmental psychology.

Geert Savelsbergh is at the Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester

Metropolitan University. Keith Davids is Dean, School of Physical Education,
University of Otago, New Zealand. John van der Kamp is at the Faculty of Human
Movement Science, Vrije Universiteit of Amsterdam. Simon J. Bennett is at the
Department of Optometry and Neuroscience, University of Manchester Institute
of Science and Technology.
Development of Movement
Co-ordination in Children
Applications in the fields of ergonomics,
health sciences and sport

Edited by Geert Savelsbergh,

Keith Davids, John van der Kamp
and Simon J. Bennett

I~ ~~o~:~~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2003
by Routledge
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Contents

List of illustrations V11l

List of contributors X
Preface XlI

1 Theoretical perspectives on the development of movement

co-ordination in children 1
GEERT SAVELSBERGH, KEITH DAVIDS, JOHN VAN DER KAMP
AND SIMON J. BENNETT

PART I
Ergonomics 15

2 Motor development and ergonomics: lifting objects

as a window on motor control in children 17
JAAP H. VAN DIEEN AND IDSART KINGMA

3 Children's overestimation of their physical abilities:

links to injury proneness 29
JODIE M. PLUMERT

4 Road-crossing behaviour in young children 41

ARENDA F. TE VELDE, JOHN VAN DER KAMP AND
GEERT SAVELSBERGH

5 Learning to draw and to write: issues of variability

and constraints 56
KARL S. ROSENGREN AND GREGORY S. BRASWELL
vi Contents
6 Constraints in children's learning to use spoons 75
DOMINIQUE VAN ROON, JOHN VAN DER KAMP AND
BERT STEENBERGEN

PART II
Health sciences 95

7 Reflexes reflected: past and present of theory and

practice 97
MOTOHIDE MIYAHARA AND KOOP REYNDERS

8 Children's co-ordination and developmental

movement difficulty 107
HELEN E. PARKER AND DAWNE LARKIN

9 Perceptual-motor behaviour in children with

Down syndrome 133
DOMINIC A. SIMON, DIGBY ELLIOTT AND J. GREG ANSON

10 Discrete bimanual movement co-ordination in

children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy 156
BERT STEENBERGEN, ANDREA UTLEY, DAVID A. SUGDEN
AND PAULINE S. THIEMANN

11 Locomotion in children with cerebral palsy: early

predictive factors for ambulation and gait analysis 177
ANNICK LEDEBT

PART III
Sport 189

12 Catching action development 191

GEERT SAVELSBERGH, KARL ROSENGREN, JOHN VAN DER KAMP
AND MARTINE VERHEUL

13 Degrees of freedom, movement co-ordination and

interceptive action of children with and without
cerebral palsy 213
ANNIECK RICKEN, GEERT SAVELSBERGH AND SIMON J. BENNETT
 Contents vii

14 The development of throwing behaviour 225

ALLEN W. BURTON AND RICHARD W. RODGERSON

15 The co-ordination of kicking techniques in children 241

MARK A. SCOTT, MARK A. WILLIAMS AND ROBERT R. HORN

16 Development of locomotor co-ordination and

control in children 251
JILL WHITALL

Index 271
Illustrations

Figures
3.1 Children and adults' judgements about their ability to
perform the task as a function of level of difficulty 32
6.1 A 13-month-old girl using a transverse palmar radial grip 78
6.2 A 23-month-old girl using a transverse digital radial grip 79
6.3 The spoons used by Steenbergen et al. 80
6.4 An 8-year-old girl using an adult grip 82
6.5 A sixteenth-century wooden fist spoon 84
6.6 A conventional (1) and two ergonomic spoons with a thick
handle (2) and a thick and bent handle (3) 89
7.1 The stepping reflex 99
7.2 Motor development in light of Edelman's Neuronal Group
Selection Theory 101
9.1 Reaction time measures from two switches (elbow and
index finger) 139
9.2 Reaction time measured 139
9.3 Typical acceleration profiles for a single rapid aiming movement 146
10.1 Example of one A4-sized paper 169
10.2 Two examples of the drawing traces made by a participant with
left spastic hemiparesis (left) and right spastic hemiparesis (right) 170
12.1 The timing of the catch in the deflating ball experiment under
monocular and binocular viewing 197
12.2 The telestereoscope 198
12.3 The timing of the catch for balls of different diameters under
monocular and binocular viewing 199
12.4 The timing of the catch for balls of different diameters under
monocular and binocular viewing in children from 4 to 11 years
of age 204
12.5 Stages of learning 206
13.1 Theoretical model of movement co-ordination 213
13.2 Interception of a stationary ball 220
14.1 Mean throwing velocity for boys and girls by grade 230
 Illustrations IX

14.2 Mean throwing distance for boys and girls by age 231
14.3 Levels of five components for the overhand throw for force 234
15.1 A pictorial representation of the skilled adult kicking pattern
based on the work of Wickstrom (1977) 243
15.2 A typical immature kicking pattern as highlighted by a
6-year-old novice player 245

Tables
6.1 Means (and standard deviations between subjects) of the wrist
kinematics 87
6.2 Head movement strategies 88
10.1 Participant information 168
11.1 Early predictive factors for locomotor outcome in children
with CP according to nine studies 181
15.1 A descriptive analysis of the mature kicking pattern 242
Contributors

J. Greg Anson School of Physical Education, University of Otago, New Zealand.

Gregory S. Braswell Department of Psychology, University of California at Santa
Cruz, USA.
Simon J. Bennett Department of Optometry and Neuroscience, UMIST,
Manchester, UK.
Allen W. Burton* formerly of Division of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, USA.
Keith Davids School of Physical Education,University of Otago, New Zealand.
Digby Elliott Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton,
Canada.
Robert R. Horn Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool
John Moores University, UK.
Idsart Kingma Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences,
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Dawne Larkin School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, The University
of Western Australia, Australia.
Annick Ledebt Perceptual-Motor Development and Learning Group, Institute
for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Motohide Miyahara School of Physical Education, University of Otago, New
Zealand.
Helen E. Parker School of Health and Physical Education, The University of
Notre Dame, Australia.
Jodie M. Plumert Department of Psychology, University ofIowa, USA.
Koop Reynders Institute of Human Movement Sciences, University of Groningen,
Netherlands.
*deceased
 Contributors xi
Annieck Rieken, Centre for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human
Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.
Richard W. Rodgerson Division of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, USA.
Karl S. Rosengren Departments of Kinesiology and Psychology, University of
Illinois, Champaign, IL, USA.
Geert Savelsbergh Perceptual-Motor Development and Learning Group, Institute
for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit
Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Centre for Biophysical and Clinical Research
into Human Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.
MarkA. Scott Research institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John
Moores University, UK.
Dominic A. Simon, Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton,
Canada.
Bert Steenbergen Nijmegen Institute for Cognition and Information, University
ofNijmegen, Netherlands.
David A. Sugden School of Education, University of Leeds, UK.
Arenda F. te Velde Perceptual-Motor Development and Learning Group, Institute
for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Pauline S. Thiemann Nijmegen Institute for Cognition and Information, University
ofNijmegen, Netherlands.
Andrea Utley Centre for Physical Education and Sports Science, University of
Leeds, UK.
John van der Kamp Perceptual-Motor Development and Learning Group,
Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije
Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Jaap H. van Dieen Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement
Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Dominique van Roon Nijmegen Institute for Cognition and Information,
University of Nijmegen, Netherlands.
Martine Verheul Centre for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human
Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.
Jill Whit all Department of Physical Therapy, University of Maryland, Baltimore,
USA.
MarkA. Williams Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool
John Moores University, UK.
Preface

The co-ordination of movement at a simple and complex level is one of the key
tasks of human development. In their daily activities children demonstrate many
different patterns of co-ordinated movement and throughout childhood learn and
develop many different skills to perform a variety of tasks. The chapters brought
together in this book discuss some of these skills; both very basic skills such as
walking, hitting, throwing, catching, kicking and reaching for objects, and more
complex skills such as learning to ride a bicycle, crossing the road, using a spoon
to eat, drawing and writing.
One of the best known definitions of movement co-ordination is that of the
Russian physiologist, Nikolai Bernstein. He saw co-ordination as the mastering
of redundant degrees of freedom into a controllable system (Bernstein, 1967,
p.127). 'Degrees of freedom' refers to all the possible movements of all the sub-
components ofthe motor apparatus of the human body; for example, joints. There
are several different perspectives on how we solve the problem of achieving this
mastery and different researchers adopt different perspectives in order to examine
the task at hand. These perspectives are discussed in the introductory chapter to
the book. Five major paradigms are described: the neural-maturation perspective;
information-processing theories; the ecological psychological or direct perception
approach; dynamic systems theory; and constraint-led or co-ordinative structure
theory. The last three are the more recent approaches and therefore the majority of
chapters have been written with these frameworks in mind.
The individual chapters represent the latest research and thinking in the fields
of ergonomics, health science and sport and provide the reader with new insights
into both theory and practical applications. In all these areas there is an increasing
awareness of the importance of understanding the development of movement co-
ordination and how this might affect, for example, the design of equipment, the
enhancement of everyday activities, rehabilitation practices, or training and practice
in sport skills.
For these reasons, we think the book will be of great interest to researchers,
teachers, coaches, therapists and students in various fields, including sportsciences,
kinesiology, physical education, ergonomics, human movement sciences, health
sciences, physical therapy and developmental psychology.
 Preface Xlll

The contributors to the book come from Australia, new Zealand, Canada, Europe
and the United States of America. They include those with established reputations
and young authors who are just beginning to make their mark. Together, they
bring a wide-ranging perspective to bear on this rich and expanding field of study,
and we thank them for their contribution to this project.
Geert J.P. Savelsbergh
Keith Davids
John van der Kamp
Simon 1. Bennett
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 2002

Reference
Bernstein, N. (1967) The Coordination and Regulation o/Movement. New York: Pergamon
Press.
1 Theoretical perspectives on the
development of movement
co-ordination in children
Geert Savelsbergh, Keith Davids,
John van der Kamp and
Simon J Bennett

1. Introduction
In a great diversity of daily activities children demonstrate skilled and well co-
ordinated movement behaviour. To reach such levels of performance and flexibility
takes years oflearning and development. This book deals with the development of
movement co-ordination of daily activities, like throwing, writing, reaching,
walking, catching, kicking and cycling. An important characteristic of skilled
performance is the ability to adjust the movement pattern to the (changing)
circumstances of the environment.
Nikolai Bernstein (1967) formulated one of the central issues in understanding
the development of motor co-ordination: the 'degrees of freedom' problem. The
degrees of freedom problem refers to the possible movements of all the components
(e.g. muscles, tendons, joints etc.) of the motor apparatus of the human body.
Bernstein realised that the non-linear nature of the interactions among these
different components of the human body makes their separate regulation impossible
and inferred that to be able to control all these components, or degrees offreedom,
these movements have to be co-ordinated. Co-ordination, therefore, is the process
of mastering the redundant degrees of freedom into a controllable system (see
Bernstein, 1967, p. 127).
The issue of mastering the degrees of freedom has been approached in different
ways. In this chapter we will discuss five major perspectives, that is, the neural-
maturation perspective; information-processing theories, the ecological psycho-
logical approach, dynamic systems theory and the constraint theory.

2. Neural-maturation perspective
Achievements in motor behaviour, such as grasping, sitting, crawling and walking,
were believed to occur at a predetermined age. This resulted in a perspective of
motor development as a rather rigid and gradual unfolding of postures and
movements that was mainly attributed to the general process of maturation of the
central nervous system. Co-ordinative movement patterns emerge in an orderly
genetic sequence; that is, in cephalo-to-caudal and central-to-distal sequences. By
an increasing cortical control over lower reflexes the movement patterns became
2 Saveisbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
more co-ordinated, For instance Peiper (1963) argued that basic motor skills, like
walking, were not learned by experience but simply a result of cerebral maturation.
In his book he used the example of a 6-month-old girl with a bilateral congenital
hip dislocation. She was put into a plaster cast until 18 months and was unable to
stand. At 18 months the cast was replaced by a half cast, and one day later, she
started to walk (Peiper ,1963, p. 233). This example illustrates nicely the core idea
of this approach.
The major contribution to the understanding of the development of movement
co-ordination was the establishment of the so-called 'milestones' of development
by Gesell (e.g. Gesell and Amatruda, 1945) and McGraw (1943). Gesell and
Amatruda (1945, p. 20) suggested that 'maturation is the net sum of the gene
effects operating in a self-limited time cycle'. In the same time period, McGraw
argued that motor development is possible if 'a certain amount of neural maturation
must take place before any function can be modified by specific stimulation'. This
is not a strict neural-maturation point of view and leaves room for environmental
influence. In the more recent constraint-led approach, the maturation ofthe nervous
system can be considered as one of the constraints

3. Information-processing approach
The basic idea of the information-processing perspective is that it divides the
cognitive system (e.g. the central nervous system) into components and determines
the way in which these components process and transform information. In this
respect the computer is often used as a model for the brain. The concept of memory
is important as the approach emphasises representations for the storage of
information. Differences between novices and experts are attributed to differences
in stored knowledge with respect to the task at hand, and the associated processing
activities. When a skill is learned the suggestion is that the person acquires and
stores increasingly complex knowledge about that skill. The differences between
experts and novices result from the use of different strategies and informational
cues; that is, an expert acquires a variety of problem-solving strategies. From this
perspective, children are initially regarded as novices, who then 'move' to expert
status as they develop. Thus, development involves improving the strategies for
encoding and manipulating information. Two types of model influence and
dominate the development of movement co-ordination: the closed- and open-loop
models.
The closed- and open-loop models (e.g. Adams, 1971; Miller et ai., 1960) had
their heydays in the 1960s and 1970s. In these models, feedback loops for error
corrections or a feed-forward mechanism, respectively, were invoked for explaining
the control and co-ordination of the motor behaviour, but were not often subjected
to developmental questions. However, there are a few noticeable exceptions such
as Bruner (1970) and Connolly (1970), who promoted closed-loop models.
Development was considered as learning to sequence (or programme) the different
parts of an action. For instance, when grasping a toy, the infant has to learn that
(s)he should reach first. However, at that time, most developmental researchers
 Theoretical perspectives 3
were primarily concerned with constructing motor tests and gathering normative
data (e.g. Cratty, 1970; Wickstrom, 1977; Williams, 1983). As a result most studies
were descriptive and a theoretical framework to explain the origin of new motor
behaviours was missing, which of course was not very stimulating for the study of
motor development (Netelenbos and Koops, 1988; Wade, 1977).

4. The coupling of perception and action: a direct

perception perspective
Gibson's (1979) ecological psychology approach to perception is also known as
the direct perception perspective. The word 'direct' refers to the fact that objects,
places and events in the environment can be perceived without the need for cognitive
mediation to make perception meaningful, such as in the information-processing
approach. Information in the environment is not static in time and space, but
specifies events, places and objects. The child has to learn to pick up and select
the appropriate information, not how to interpret or construct meaningful perception
from stimuli. Therefore, whenever an infant or child has learned to (actively) pick
up the information, (s )he perceives events and not some kind of discrete stimulus.
This concept of information is closely related to the concept of affordances.
An affordance expresses the relation between perceiving and acting:

The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it
provides or furnishes, either for good or ill. The verb to afford is found in the
dictionary, but the noun affordance is not. I have made it up. I mean by it
something that refers to both the environment and the animal in a way that no
existing term does. It implies the complementarity of the animal and the
environment.
(Gibson, 1979, p. 127)

Affordances relate to possibilities for action for an organism in a particular

environment. Therefore, they relate to the perceiver's own potential action system.
For example, for an actor who wants to climb stairs, the co-ordination pattern is
specified by the ratio between the tread height (action space) and the actor's leg
length (metric of the actor) (Warren, 1984). In more general terms, perceiving and
acting are guided by body-scaled ratios, which should be similar over individual
differences in body dimensions. Henceforth, developmentalchanges due to physical
growth should not affect the perception of affordances; that is, during development
children should remain tuned to similar body-scaled ratios without the need for
new learning or reorganisation of the action system (Pufall and Dunbar, 1992; Van
der Kamp, Savelsbergh and Davis, 1998).
Within this perspective, Van der Kamp et al. (1998) examined how children
aged 5,7 and 9 years reach, grasp and lift cardboard cubes of different sizes (ranging
from 2.2 to 16.2 cm in diameter). Recordings were analysed and scored qualitatively
for the percentage occurrence of one-handed grasps. The findings showed that the
older the child, the higher the occurrence of one-handed grasps (37 per cent, 46 per
4 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
cent, and 55 per cent for the 5-, 7- and 9-year-olds respectively). Moreover, the
older the child, the larger the cubes that were predominantly taken with one hand.
From a direct perception approach, it is hypothesised that the detected differences
in grasping behaviour between the age groups are due to the increase of hand size
with age. Therefore, the observed differences in prehension should disappear when
hand size is taken into account. When hand size was scaled to cube size, differences
in prehension between the three age groups disappeared and the shift from one-
handed to two-handed grasping occurred at the same body-scale ratio between
cube size and hand span for all three age groups. In sum, the children perceived
the affordances for action.
According to E. Gibson (1988) affordances have to be discovered with the aid
of the perceptual systems and exploratory behaviour. Michaels and Carello (1981)
stress the active nature of the exploratory behaviour:

Exploration (attention) is not an unconscious shifting-through and subsequent

rejection of most inputs: It is directed control of what will be detected.
(Michaels and Carello, 1981, p. 70)

In the eyes of these authors exploration is an active and directed process which
reveals affordances, as illustrated by an experiment carried out by Karen Adolph
and co-workers (Adolph et al., 1993). In their study walkers and crawlers were
encouraged to ascend and descend a sloping walkway of 10,20,30 and 40 degrees.
The findings showed a relation between the exploratory activities and locomotion
ability. For instance, on descending trials walkers switched from walking to sliding.
Also they touched and hesitated most before descending 10- and 20-degree slopes
and explored alternative means for descent by testing different sliding positions
before leaving the platform. Crawlers hesitated most before descending 30- and
40-degree slopes and did not test alternative sliding positions. The experiment
demonstratedthe relation between infant locomotion capability, the perception of
affordances (traversable by walking or not) and the exploratory activity.
The theory of direct perception offers insights into developmental perceptual-
motor processes by studying learning in the context of development. What is learned
is the detection of affordances; that is, what action possibilities the environment
affords for the child. In this respect, learning to move and to co-ordinate one's
actions involves learning to select the appropriate information sources. Moreover,
this learning depends on the present action capabilities of the child. These action
capabilities may improve by the maturation of the central nervous system, the
sensitivity to certain information sources, the growth of body dimensions and the
ability to couple information and movements. It is through the active and directed
exploration of the environment with his/her own action system that the child learns
to detect affordances, pick up the relevant information, and to couple the infor-
mation to movements.
 Theoretical perspectives 5
5. Dynamic systems approach to the development of
co-ordination
Within the last decade, there has been an increase in empirical evidence that
developmental processes are not smooth and monotonic, but can be characterised
by phenomena such as discontinuities, transitions, instabilities, and regressions
(Savelsbergh et al., 1999; Van Geert, 1999; Van der Maas, 1993; Wimmers et al.,
1998). These phenomena are characteristic of non-linear dynamical processes.
The aim of the dynamic systems approach is to characterise spatio-temporal and
functional patterns of motor behaviour in terms of their stability properties by
formalising the time-evolution of relevant variables into dynamical equations of
motion. Stationary, stable states or patterns of activity, as well as abrupt transitions
between different states accompanied by loss of stability (induced by changes in
external conditions), have been successfully modelled in this way (Kelso, 1995).
The perspective portrays co-ordination as a process that constrains the potentially
free variables of a system into a behavioural unit. A collective variable (order
parameter) is the parameter that captures the observed behaviour (co-ordination
pattern), while a control parameter is the parameter that leads the system through
different co-ordination patterns. Within this approach, the behavioural pattern is
regarded as a stable collective state attained by the system under certain constraints
(boundary conditions) and informational settings (Zanone et al., 1993). When the
control parameter passes through a critical point, a co-ordination pattern that was
stable becomes unstable, causing a sudden discrete transition to a qualitatively
different, stable co-ordination pattern. Such a change appears without any prescrip-
tion from outside but is acquired by the system itself, i.e. through self-organisation.
From this perspective the development of co-ordination is also seen as a complex,
evolving dynamic process. Developmental systems are self-organising in that new
behavioural forms emerge in a non-linear fashion at the macroscopic level (e.g.
reaching) as a result of interactions between subsystems at more microscopic levels
of organisation (e.g. between neurons or between muscles and joints). In this
context, self-organisation is defined as the system's ability to acquire a new spatial,
temporal or functional structure by itself (i.e. without any prescription of this
structure from the outside). The ability ofa system to organise itself is most salient
when a qualitative change in order occurs. Such a transition is called a non-
equilibrium phase transition.
Tools provided by a dynamic systems approach make it possible to detect
qualitative changes (i.e. phase transitions) which are induced by quantitative
changes inone or more control parameters. The control parameter is not the cause
of the change, although its manipulation is instrumental in creating the new order
(e.g. walking, reaching and grasping). It controls in the sense ofleading the system
through its respective states of equilibrium (that is, from one phase to the next);
for instance, from reaching to reaching and grasping. A discontinuous phase
transition involves an abrupt shift from one stable configuration of behaviour to
another without stable intermediate states.
Developmental phases such as reaching, grasping, sitting, crawling etc. can be
viewed as stable, preferred configurations of behaviour. When perturbed, the child
6 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
(the 'system') will return to these configurations in due course; they act as 'attrac-
tors' and can be understood and modelled accordingly. During development new
attractors will emerge and others will disappear. It may also be the case that the
attractors are already present and that a shift from one attractor to another occurs.
Thus, co-ordinated actions such as reaching arise from complex processes of
co-operation between subsystems and do not arise from a maturation of prescriptive
devices that have been arbitrarily assigned to the system.
The goals ofthe dynamic systems perspective with respect to motor development
are to identify the changes between milestones and search for the underlying
mechanism. The significance of the approach is that it provides generally applicable
concepts and tools to help gain insights into the trajectories of emerging new
behaviours.

6. The constraints model and co-ordinative structure theory

The co-ordinative structure approach tackles the problem of mastering the large
number of redundant degrees of freedom involved in a particular movement
(Bernstein, 1967; Turvey, 1990). In order to reduce the number of degrees of
freedom, task-specific musculo-skeletal organisations emerge from the underlying
dynamics of the organism-environment system and lead to task-specific musculo-
skeletal organisations or co-ordinative structures. These structures are guided by
movement-produced information that is specific to those underlying dynamics
(e.g. Kugler and Turvey, 1987; Savelsbergh and Van der Kamp, 1993). Kugler et
al. (1982) proposed that the development of co-ordination is brought about by
changes in the constraints imposed upon the organism-environment system.
Newell (1986) proposed three categories of constraints: organismic (e.g. the
central nervous system), task (e.g. reaching with one hand) and environmental
(e.g. the size of an object). These different constraints do not operate in isolation,
but interact with each other, leading to a task-specific organisation of the co-
ordination pattern. Thus co-ordination does not uniquely originate from the central
nervous system, as argued by the traditional neuro-maturational theories, but
emerges from an interaction between the three categories of constraints.
An experimental example is provided by Newell and co-workers (Newell et
al., 1989). In their study, infants of 4 to 8 months old were presented with four
object sizes (1.25, 2.5, 2.54 and 8.5 cm in diameter). It was found that the grasping
behaviour could be classified primarily by five grips, while 1,023 possible combi-
nations of the ten fingers could be used. Probably, the relation between hand size
and object size constrains the grip configuration. Similar observations regarding
the constraining effect of velocity on action possibilities were made in a study by
Von Hofsten (1983). He demonstrated that infants were able to predict the future
location of a moving object. Eight-month-old babies, when presented with objects
travelling in a horizontal arc at 60 cm/s, demonstrated considerable catching
competence. Some of them even caught objects moving at 90 and 120 cm/s in a
variety of positions in front of them. Von Hofsten suggested that the infants used
a strategy consisting of an approach component and a tracking component. Both
 Theoretical perspectives 7
playa role in the control of the movement of the hand in relation to an object.
Infants' perception of whether a catch was possible or not was constrained by the
approach velocity, with no attempts being made when the object approached with
a high velocity.
A necessary requirement in both the Newell et al. (1989) and the Von Hofsten
(1983) studies was for the infants to detect the information specifying the size and
velocity of the object. This information may differ depending on the availability
of various sources. For instance, because young infants have no binocular vision
until about 5 months, they are dependent on monocular information sources in
perceiving object size. The improvement in reaching, grasping and catching during
the first half year might therefore be related to the emergence of binocular vision
that provides binocular information sources (e.g. disparity). As such, informational
constraints (Kugler and Turvey, 1987; Van der Kamp et al., 1996) might prove to
be very important in the development of co-ordination.
More generally, the basic idea of the approach is that action-relevant information
(the kinematic optical flow field) is generated by and used to control and co-
ordinate muscular forces (kinetic force fields). The approach searches for lawful
relations between action-relevant information and the generation offorces. These
laws of control describe how the change in perceptual flow specifies the changes
needed in the (muscular) forces in a way that is consistent with the laws of physics.
However, what has remained unclear is how flow and forces are coupled. To answer
this question, Kugler and Turvey (1987; Kugler 1986) proposed laws of control
which express the lawful relationship between perception and action. Put another
way, the laws of control involve the relationship between kinematic optic flow
fields (perception) and the kinetics of force fields (movement). The following
laws describe the relationships between flow and force:

Law of ecological optics Flow = f (Force)

Laws of control Force = g (Flow)

These general laws identify the parameters of movement in the (kinetic) force
field that are uniquely specified by the information in the (kinematic) flow field
and vice versa.
An example of such a lawful relation is that between the optic flow pattern and
posture. The first experiments that examined the effect of visual information on
posture used the 'moving room' paradigm, a room that can be moved above a
stable floor (Lee and Lishman, 1974; Lishman and Lee, 1973). Subjects experienced
self-motion while they were standing or sitting in the moving room. Lee and co-
workers showed that vision has a proprioceptive function in maintaining postural
stability.
The constraint-led or co-ordinative structure perspective examines the lawful
relationship between information and actions. In a search for these laws, the
manipulation of the different constraints will help to identify the laws. When a
law is discovered, through a systematic manipulation of the different parameters
in the equation the exact effect on the co-ordination pattern can be discovered and
8 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
the control mechanism involved can be identified. A research strategy to discover
such a law is to identify the optical informational constraints, to test the sensitivity
for that particular variable, and to examine how the variable is used in the control
and co-ordination of motor behaviour. Most of the developmental research in the
last fifteen years has taken place within the paradigm of direct perception (e.g.
Eppler and Adolph, 1996) and dynamic systems (Thelen and Smith, 1994), and as
such has mainly been concerned with the concept of affordances and perceptual
learning. With respect to the information used by children and the way this
information is coupled to the motor system, much work needs to be done.

7. Structure of the book and topic of the chapters

The chapters presented in the book reflect the different approaches discussed in
this introductory chapter. Although it is sometimes difficult to pin down which
theoretical approach drives the authors' research, the majority ofthe chapters can
be positioned within a combination of the direct perception and the constraint-led
approaches (e.g. chapters 4, 5, 6, 12, l3 and 14). Other chapters use a different
approach; for instance, chapter 9 uses an information-processing perspective,
chapter 16 a dynamic systems approach, and a combination of dynamic systems
and maturation theory is found in chapter 7. The fifteen chapters are divided into
three major sections; ergonomics, health sciences, and sport. This division is based
on the task at hand in combination with the population studied by the authors.
The ergonomics section starts with an introductory chapter by Jaap van Dieen
and Idsart Kingsma. In the first part, the authors introduce the field of ergonomics
with its basic aims and objectives. In their opinion, ergonomics deals with
optimising the interactions of humans with artefacts in purposeful actions. The
authors emphasise the importance of ergonomics for motor development, e.g. the
design of artefacts that children interact with during play or activities of daily
living. The chapter discusses examples with respect to lifting, which gives some
insight into how the use of visual information in anticipatory control of movement
develops. Such knowledge might in the future be useful for optimising the design
of tools and toys.
In chapter 3 Jodie Plumert discusses the overestimation of children's physical
abilities and the relationship with causes of childhood accidents. Despite concern
over promoting children's safety, the causes of childhood accidents remain poorly
understood. The chapter reviews research showing that children often overestimate
their physical abilities and that overestimation of ability may be related to injury
risk.
In chapter 4 Arenda te Velde and co-authors examine how road-crossing
behaviour in young children develops, and evaluate different training programmes.
To this end, training by means of verbal instructions, scale models, roadside judge-
ments, pretend road crossing, and road crossing in real traffic environments are
compared. Conflicting outcomes in children's road-crossing abilities at different
ages are found, and the beneficial effects oftraining programmes appear less than
one would hope for. The chapter concludes by stressing the need to examine
 Theoretical perspectives 9
children actually walking across the road both when determining children's ability
and when training those abilities.
In chapter 5 Karl Rosengren and Gregory Braswell examine the learning of
children's drawing and writing skills. These complex motor skills emerge in the
second year of life and exhibit significant changes over the next decade. In their
chapter, drawing and writing skills are discussed together because these skills are
constrained by similar influences, involve the relatively sophisticated use of some
sort of implement for leaving marks on a surface, and involve attempts to com-
municate information to other individuals. The chapter explores how both of these
skills change over the course of learning.
From about one year of age toddlers learn to use a spoon for self-feeding at
mealtimes. Newell (1986) argues that learning and development are induced by
the changing interaction between the constraints upon action. Based on Newell's
framework, chapter 6 by Dominique van Roon, John van der Kamp and Bert
Steenbergen discusses the role of constraints on children's learning to use a spoon.
The primary emphasis is on the role oftask (i.e. the goal of the task, the implement,
and non-physical rules) and organismic constraints (i.e. children with cerebral
palsy). The chapter concludes with some guidelines for the ergonomic design of
spoons for toddlers, and for disabled children and adults.
In the next section, health sciences, the movement co-ordination of different
populations, like children with cerebral palsy, developmental movement difficulties
and Down syndrome, is discussed. Thesection starts with the chapter of Motohide
Miyahara and Koop Reynders (chapter 7) in which different theoretical perspectives
(dynamic systems and neuronal group selection theory) are combined in order to
shed new light on reflexes. This chapter also discusses the impact of theoretical
transitions on clinical practice for children with movement disorders and conceptual
issues from a philosophy of science framework.
In chapter 8, Helen Parker and Dawne Larkin provide an extensive overview on
children with co-ordination and developmental movement difficulty. The authors
provide a description of the movement difficulties and consequences in terms of
psychological and social effects on the developing child. The motor abilities of
these children, such as postural control, fitness, reaction speed, timing, and rhythm,
are reviewed, in addition to clinical observations on the performance of the
functional skills of running, jumping and landing, throwing and catching. The
chapter finishes with a section dealing with intervention and the need for intensive
physical education directed at specific learning outcomes.
Chapter 9 discusses the perceptual-motor behaviour of children with Down
syndrome. Dominic Simon, Digby Elliott and Greg Anson highlight similarities
and differences, both in relation to individuals with other developmental disabilities,
and in relation to the wider population. Methodologies, evidence, and implications
for a variety of findings are presented. The topics covered include movement
preparation and perceptual-motor speed, the co-ordination and control of upper
limb movements, and structuring practice to optimise motor learning. The authors
also review a number of studies on sensory-motor integration and cerebral
organisation in children and adults with Down syndrome. At the end of the chapter,
10 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
consideration is given to whether people with Down syndrome should be considered
to be at an earlier developmental stage than their age-matched peers, or to be
developing in a qualitatively different and adaptive fashion.
In chapter 10 Bert Steenbergen and collaborators focus on bimanual co-
ordination in children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy. First, the authors review
research on bimanual upper limb co-ordination in adults and during development,
particularly with respect to the temporal and spatial interactions that exist between
both hands. It is apparent from this review that strong synchronisation tendencies
exist between both hands in the temporal domain, and that they are even stronger
during early childhood. Research on spatial interactions between both hands has
identified the influence of two types of constraints: egocentric constraints that are
defined relative to intrinsic body co-ordinates, and allocentric constraints that are
defined relative to extrinsic space co-ordinates. The influence of both constraints
on bimanual co-ordination is discussed. In the second part of the chapter, the
influence of temporal and spatial constraints on bimanual co-ordination in
individuals with hemiparetic cerebral palsy is reviewed. Features of unimanual
movement co-ordination in these individuals are discussed. In bimanual tasks,
these individuals display a strong tendency for temporal synchronisation. However,
spatial interactions have hardly been a subject of study in this group. Therefore, in
the third part of the chapter, the authors present preliminary results of a short-term
learning experiment in which the role of allocentric and egocentric constraints on
the spatial characteristics of drawing semi-circles is examined. The results suggest
that the intact hemisphere is reorganised such that it is involved in the control of
both the impaired side as well as the unimpaired side. Furthermore, both the
allocentric and egocentric constraints have differential effects of the spatial
characteristics ofthe semi-circles. Finally, Steenbergen and collaborators discuss
the clinical implications of these findings, such as the necessity to train the
unimpaired arm early in rehabilitation.
Whether a young child with cerebral palsy will acquire independent locomotion
is a question that quickly arises after the diagnosis has been made. In chapter 11
Annick Ledebt presents studies that have tried to find, during the period of infancy,
early predictors that may foresee the ability to walk. When children with cerebral
palsy do acquire locomotion it often deviates from normal walking. Gait abnormali-
ties that occur are a combination of primary consequences imposed by the brain
damage, and of secondary deviations which result from adaptations to circumvent
the primary deficits. Gait analysis might help to disentangle primary consequences
and adaptations. This is illustrated by studies on toe walking, one of the most
frequent gait deviations in those children.
The sport section starts with a chapter by Savelsbergh and co-workers on the
development of interceptive action. The purpose of chapter 12 is to elaborate upon
the role of visual information in the co-ordination and control ofthe development
of catching, and focuses on a theoretical perspective based on the work of Gibson
(1979), Bernstein (1967) and Newell (1986); that is, constraints on the learning
and development of complex motor skills. The role of informational constraints
in the control of simple one-handed catching in adults and children is discussed.
 Theoretical perspectives 11
The chapter concludes with a model of the different stages in the learning and
development of information-movement couplings.
Chapter 13 by Annieck Ricken and co-authors expands on the model presented
in chapter 12, to understand and describe the organisation of movement co-
ordination of children without and with spastic hemiplegia cerebral palsy during
interceptive actions. The authors discuss how movement co-ordination emerges
from the multiple degrees offreedom of the biomechanical movement system and
the perceptual system and, more importantly, the interaction between them in the
form of information-movement couplings.
Throwing behaviour is the topic of chapter 14 by Allen Burton and Richard
Rodgerson. The authors take a broad, functionalist approach to the development
of throwing behaviour. It is their opinion that throwing can be viewed as the
extension of motor behaviour beyond the body and, as such, is most often done
with purpose. Such purpose is constrained not only by the task itself but also by
person (organismic) and environmental constraints. The authors examine the
development of throwing behaviour through the combined perspectives of
evolutionary and dynamic systems theory. Burton and Rodgerson begin by asking
'why children throw' and emphasise the links between a wide variety of games
and sports and throwing, between throwing and hunting, and ultimately between
hunting and evolved anatomy. In their review of the developmental research, the
material is organised with an eye toward the functional outcome of accuracy as a
dependent variable and the relationship between accuracy and velocity in the
requirements ofthe task. They examine research on changes in throwing outcomes
across the elementary-school years, followed by a section in which they consider
the research related to changes in throwing form. In addition, further research
along two fronts is suggested. First, the importance of observational research of
throwing behaviour at its earliest inception during infancy and toddlerhood is
emphasised. Second, future experimental research should consider the dynamic
relationships between accuracy, velocity and form in the production offunctional
throwing.
In chapter 15, Mark Scott, Mark Williams and Rob Hom discuss kicking as a
common feature of many sports. The authors argue that it is important to understand
how the mature kicking action is acquired. Therefore, theyprovide an overview of
our current understanding of how various kicking techniques are acquired and co-
ordinated in young performers. In addition, recommendations for future research
are highlighted and practical applications identified.
The aim of the final chapter 16 by Jill Whitall is not simply to describe the
development of locomotor co-ordination and control across the ages of 4 to 12
years, but rather to apply our knowledge of locomotor co-ordination and control
to illustrate current principles of (motor) development. These principles are
described, primarily, through a dynamic systems approach. Specifically, childhood
is viewed as the time to development skilfulness; in this case, locomotor skilfulness.
U sing a dynamic systems approach, skilfulness is composed of pattern (co-
ordination) and adaptation (control), of which, it is argued, only the former has
been studied in detail. The concept of constraints is presented and purported to
12 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
produce sequences of well-documented species-typical co-ordination changes that
are similar between locomotor skills yet are neither universal nor mandatory.
Progression to advanced locomotor co-ordination states involves change in control
(or rate-limiting) parameters, a process that is not well understood but may be
related to gaining postural control and/or bilateral co-ordination. Furthermore, it
is argued that the progression oflocomotor control, itself, has barely been studied
and certainly the interaction with co-ordination is unclear. It is argued that it is
essential to incorporate principles and knowledge from perception-action and
cognitive/information-processing theories to understanding locomotor control and
ultimately locomotor skilfulness.
The chapters of this book form a rich variation on a vibrant and expanding
field of study; that is, the development of movement co-ordination in children.
The authors provide theoretical insights in combination with implications for
practical application.

References
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3, 111-49.
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perception of affordances for locomotion over sloping surfaces. Child Development,
64, 1158-74.
Bernstein, N. (1967) The Coordination and Regulation ofMovement. New York: Pergamon
Press.
Bruner, J. (1970) The growth and structure of skill. In K.J. Connolly (ed.), Mechanisms of
Motor Skill Development. London: Academic Press.
Connolly, K.J. (1970) Skill development: problems and plans. In K.J. Connolly (ed.),
Mechanisms of Motor Skill Development (pp. 3-21). London: Academic Press.
Cratty, B.J. (1970) Perceptual and motor development in infants and children. London:
Macmillan.
Eppler, M.A. and Adolph, K.E. (1996) Towards an ecological approach to perceptual
learning and development: commentary on Michaels and Beek. Ecological Psychology,
8,353-5.
Gesell, A. and Amatruda, C.S. (1945) The Embryology of Behavior. New York: Harper.
Gibson, E.J. (1988) Exploratory behavior in the development of perceiving, acting, and
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of Psychology (pp. 1-41). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Review, Inc.
Gibson, J.J. (1979) The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton-
Mifflin.
Kelso, J.A.S. (1995) Dynamic Patterns. The Self-organization of Brain and Behavior.
Cambridge: MIT Press.
Kugler, P.N. (1986) A morphological perspective on the origin and evolution of movement
patterns. In M.G. Wade and H.T.A. Whiting (eds), Motor Development in Children:
Aspects of Coordination and Control (pp. 459-525). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.
Kugler, P.N. and Turvey, M.T. (1987) Information, Natural Law, and the Self-assembly of
Rhythmic Movements. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
 Theoretical perspectives 13
Kugler, P.N., Kelso, J.A.S. and Turvey, M.T. (1982) On the control and coordination of
naturally developing systems. In J.A.S. Kelso and J.E. Clark (eds), The Development
of Movement Control and Coordination (pp. 5-78). New York: Wiley.
Lee, D.N. and Lishman, J.R. (1974) Visual proprioceptive control of stance. Journal of
Human Movement Studies, 1,87-95.
Lishman, J.R. and Lee, D.N. (1973) The autonomy of visual kinaesthesis. Perception, 2,
287-94.
McGraw, M. (1943) The Neuromuscular Maturation of the Human Infant. New York:
Hafner.
Michaels, C.F. and Carello, C.C. (1981) Direct Perception. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Miller, G.A., Galanter, E. and Pribram, K.H. (1960) Plans and the Structure ofBehavior.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Netelenbos, J.B. and Koops, W. (1988) De ontwikkeling van de motoriek. In W. Koops
and J.J. van der Werff(eds), Overzicht van de Empirische Ontwikkelingspsychologie 2
(pp. 13---41). Groningen: Wolters Noordhoff.
Newell, K.M. (1986) Constraints on the development of coordination. In M. Wade and
H.T.A. Whiting (eds), Motor Development in Children: Aspects of Coordination and
Control (pp. 341-60). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.
Newell, K.M., Scully, D.M., McDonald, P.Y. and Baillargeon, R. (1989) Task constraints
and infant grip configurations. Developmental Psychobiology, 22,817-32.
Peiper, A. (1963) Cerebral Function in Infancy and Childhood. New York: Consultants
Bureau.
Pufall, P.B. and Dunbar, C. (1992) Perceiving whether or not the world affords stepping
onto and over: a developmental study. Ecological Psychology, 4, 17-38.
Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Van der Maas, H. and Van Geert, P.C.L. (1999) Non-linear Analyses
of Developmental Processes. Elsevier: Amsterdam.
Savelsbergh, G.J.P. and Van der Kamp, J. (1993) The development of infants reaching,
grasping, catching and posture: a natural physical approach. In G.J.P. Savelsbergh
(ed.), The Development of Coordination in Infancy (pp. 289-317). Amsterdam: North-
Holland.
Thelen, E. and Smith, L.B. (1994) A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of
Cognition and Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Turvey, M.T. (1990) Coordination. American Psychologist, 45, 938-53.
Van der Kamp, J., Savelsbergh, G.J.P. and Davis, W.E. (1998) Body-scaled ratio as control
parameter for prehension in 5 to 9 year old children. Developmental Psychobiology,
33,351-61.
Van der Kamp, J., Vereijken, B. and Savelsbergh, G.J.P. (1996) Physical and informational
constraints in the cooridnation and control of human movements. Corpus, Psyche et
Societas, 3, 102-18.
Van der Maas, H.L.J. (1993) Catastrophe Analysis of Stepwise Cognitive Development.
Academic thesis, University of Amsterdam.
Van Geert, P.C.L. (1999) Dynamic Systems ofDevelopment. Change Between Complexity
and Chaos. New York: Harvest Wheatsheaf.
Von Hofsten, C. (1983) Catching skills in infancy. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Performance, 9, 75-85.
Wade, M.G. (1977) Developmental motor learning. In L.S. Keogh and R. Hutton (eds),
Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. Santa Barbara: Journal Publishing Affiliates.
14 Savelsbergh, Davids, van der Kamp and Bennett
Warren, W.H. (1984) Perceiving affordances: visual guidance of stair climbing. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, I 0, 683~ 703.
Wickstrom, R.L. (1977) Fundamental Motor Patterns. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
Williams, H.G. (1983) Perceptual and Motor Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Wimmers, R.H., Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Beek, P.J. and Hopkins, B. (1998) Evidence for a
phase transition in the developmental of prehension. Developmental Psychobiology,
16, 45~63.
Zanone, P.G., Kelso, J.A.S. and Jeka, J.J. (1993) Concepts and methods for a dynamical
approach to behavioral coordination and change. In G.J.P Savelsbergh (ed.), The
Development of Coordination in Infancy (pp. 89~136). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
References

1 Theoretical perspectives on the

development of movement co-ordination in
children

Adams, J.A. (1971) A closed-loop theory of motor learning.

Journal of Motor Behavior, 3, 111-49.

Adolph, K.E., Eppler, M.A. and Gibson, E.J. (1993) Crawling

versus walking infants' perception of affordances for
locomotion over sloping surfaces. Child Development, 64,
1158-74.

Bernstein, N. (1967) The Coordination and Regulation of

Movement. New York: Pergamon Press.

Bruner, J. (1970) The growth and structure of skill. In

K.J. Connolly (ed.), Mechanisms of Motor Skill
Development. London: Academic Press.

Connolly, K.J. (1970) Skill development: problems and

plans. In K.J. Connolly (ed.), Mechanisms of Motor Skill
Development (pp. 3-21). London: Academic Press.

Cratty, B.J. (1970) Perceptual and motor development in

infants and children. London: Macmillan.

Eppler, M.A. and Adolph, K.E. (1996) Towards an ecological

approach to perceptual learning and development:
commentary on Michaels and Beek. Ecological Psychology,
8,353-5.

Gesell, A. and Amatruda, C.S. (1945) The Embryology of

Behavior. New York: Harper.

Gibson, E.J. (1988) Exploratory behavior in the development

of perceiving, acting, and the acquiring of knowledge. In
M.R. Rosenzweig and L.W. Porter (eds), Annual Review of
Psychology (pp. 1-41). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Review, Inc.

Gibson, J.J. (1979) The Ecological Approach to Visual

Perception. Boston: HoughtonMifflin.

Kelso, J.A.S. (1995) Dynamic Patterns. The

Self-organization of Brain and Behavior. Cambridge: MIT
Press.

Kugler, P.N. (1986) A morphological perspective on the

origin and evolution of movement patterns. In M.G. Wade
and H.T.A. Whiting (eds), Motor Development in Children:
Aspects of Coordination and Control (pp. 459-525).
Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.

Kugler, P.N. and Turvey, M.T. (1987) Information, Natural

Law, and the Self-assembly of Rhythmic Movements.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kugler, P.N., Kelso, J.A.S. and Turvey, M.T. (1982) On the

control and coordination of naturally developing systems.
In J.A.S. Kelso and J.E. Clark (eds), The Development of
Movement Control and Coordination (pp. 5-78). New York:
Wiley.

Lee, D.N. and Lishman, J.R. (1974) Visual proprioceptive

control of stance. Journal of Human Movement Studies,
1,87-95.

Lishman, J.R. and Lee, D.N. (1973) The autonomy of visual

kinaesthesis. Perception, 2, 287-94.

McGraw, M. (1943) The Neuromuscular Maturation of the

Human Infant. New York: Hafner.

Michaels, C.F. and Carello, C.C. (1981) Direct Perception.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Miller, G.A., Galanter, E. and Pribram, K.H. (1960) Plans

and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.

Netelenbos, J.B. and Koops, W. (1988) De ontwikkeling van

de motoriek. In W. Koops and J.J. van der Werff(eds),
Overzicht van de Empirische Ontwikkelingspsychologie 2
(pp. 13---41). Groningen: Wolters Noordhoff.

Newell, K.M. (1986) Constraints on the development of

coordination. In M. Wade and H.T.A. Whiting (eds), Motor
Development in Children: Aspects of Coordination and
Control (pp. 341-60). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.

Newell, K.M., Scully, D.M., McDonald, P.Y. and

Baillargeon, R. (1989) Task constraints and infant grip
configurations. Developmental Psychobiology, 22,817-32.

Peiper, A. (1963) Cerebral Function in Infancy and

Childhood. New York: Consultants Bureau.

Pufall, P.B. and Dunbar, C. (1992) Perceiving whether or

not the world affords stepping onto and over: a
developmental study. Ecological Psychology, 4, 17-38.

Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Van der Maas, H. and Van Geert,

P.C.L. (1999) Non-linear Analyses of Developmental
Processes. Elsevier: Amsterdam.

Savelsbergh, G.J.P. and Van der Kamp, J. (1993) The

development of infants reaching, grasping, catching and
posture: a natural physical approach. In G.J.P. Savelsbergh
(ed.), The Development of Coordination in Infancy (pp.
289-317). Amsterdam: NorthHolland.

Thelen, E. and Smith, L.B. (1994) A Dynamic Systems

Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Turvey, M.T. (1990) Coordination. American Psychologist,

45, 938-53.

Van der Kamp, J., Savelsbergh, G.J.P. and Davis, W.E.

(1998) Body-scaled ratio as control parameter for
prehension in 5 to 9 year old children. Developmental
Psychobiology, 33,351-61.

Van der Kamp, J., Vereijken, B. and Savelsbergh, G.J.P.

(1996) Physical and informational constraints in the
cooridnation and control of human movements. Corpus,
Psyche et Societas, 3, 102-18.

Van der Maas, H.L.J. (1993) Catastrophe Analysis of

Stepwise Cognitive Development. Academic thesis,
University of Amsterdam.

Van Geert, P.C.L. (1999) Dynamic Systems of Development.

Change Between Complexity and Chaos. New York: Harvest
Wheatsheaf.

Von Hofsten, C. (1983) Catching skills in infancy. Journal

of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, 9, 75-85.

Wade, M.G. (1977) Developmental motor learning. In L.S.

Keogh and R. Hutton (eds), Exercise and Sport Sciences
Reviews. Santa Barbara: Journal Publishing Affiliates.

Warren, W.H. (1984) Perceiving affordances: visual guidance

of stair climbing. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Perception and Performance, I 0, 683~ 703.

Wickstrom, R.L. (1977) Fundamental Motor Patterns.

Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.

Williams, H.G. (1983) Perceptual and Motor Development.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wimmers, R.H., Savelsbergh, G.J.P., Beek, P.J. and

Hopkins, B. (1998) Evidence for a phase transition in the
developmental of prehension. Developmental Psychobiology,
16, 45~63.

Zanone, P.G., Kelso, J.A.S. and Jeka, J.J. (1993) Concepts

and methods for a dynamical approach to behavioral
coordination and change. In G.J.P Savelsbergh (ed.), The
Development of Coordination in Infancy (pp. 89~136).
Amsterdam: North-Holland.
2 Motor development and ergonomics:
lifting objects as a window on motor
control in children

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