Managing Motorcycles:

Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use

from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

!
ii Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

The goal of the International Council on Clean Transportation

(ICCT) is to dramatically improve the environmental performance
and efficiency of personal, public and goods transportation in
order to protect and improve public health, the environment, and
quality of life. The Council is made up of leading regulators and
experts from around the world that participate as individuals
based on their experience with air quality and transportation
issues. The ICCT promotes best practices and comprehensive
solutions to improve vehicle emissions and efficiency, increase
fuel quality and sustainability of alternative fuels, reduce
pollution from the in-use fleet, and curtail emissions from
international goods movement.

www.theicct.org
© October 2009 The International Council on Clean Transportation

Design layout and format by Yulee Kim

Printed on 100% recycled paper with soy-based ink
iii Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

Authors:
Fatumata Kamakaté
Program Director, the International Council on Clean Transportation

Deborah Gordon
Transport Policy Consultant

Primary research was conducted during 2007 and 2008. Advanced in policy
development in 2009 may not be reflected in this report.

The authors would like to thank our many colleagues around the world that have
generously contributed their time and insight in reviewing and commenting on the
draft version of this report. We are especially grateful for Mr. Narayan Iyer’s
thorough review of the report’s initial draft. Any errors are the sole responsibility of
the authors. We would also like to thank the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation
and the ClimateWorks Foundation for their continued support. We are particularly
grateful to the following International Council on Clean Transportation participants
who have closely reviewed this report and support its finding and
recommendations.

ICCT Review Team:

Mr. Michael Walsh
Chairman, Board of Directors
The International Council on Clean Transportation, USA

Dr. Michael Quanlu Wang

Senior Scientist, Argonne National Laboratory, Energy Systems Division

Ms. Anumita Roychowdhury

Associate Director, Policy Research and Advocacy, Centre for Science and
Environment

Mr. Huiming Gong

Transportation Program Officer, Energy Foundation Beijing

This document does not necessarily represent the views of organizations or government agencies
represented by ICCT reviewers and participants. Their endorsement is based on their experience
with air quality and transportation issues.
iv Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

Table of contents

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. INTRODUCTION AND REPORT APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. BACKGROUND ON MOTORCYCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1 Types of Motorcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Motorcycle Population and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Motorcycles and Urban Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Motorcycles and Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3.5 Motorcycles, Fuel Consumption, and Greenhouse Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6 Motorcycle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4. MOTORCYCLE TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1 Conventional Motorcycle Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.1 Control technologies for two-stroke engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.2 Control technologies for four-stroke engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.3 Control technologies for evaporative emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Conventional Fuel Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Alternative Fuels and Next Generation Motorcycle Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.1 Alternative fuel programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.2 Electric and hybrid motorcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5. POLICY FRAMEWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.1 Motorcycle Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.1.1 Exhaust emission standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.1.2 Evolution of motorcycle technologies and emission regulatory programs . . . 31
5.1.3 Cost effectiveness of motor vehicle regulatory programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.4 Compliance and enforcement programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Motorcycle Emissions In-Use Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Motorcycle Fuel Economy Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4 Motorcycle Fuel and Lubricating Oil Quality Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4.1 Sulfur content of fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4.2 Fuel metal and other fuel additives content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.4.3 Lubricating oil quality and usage controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
v Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

6. OPPORTUNITIES TO REDUCE MOTORCYCLE EMISSIONS AND ENERGY

CONSUMPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1 New Vehicle Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.1 Exhaust emission standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.2 Compliance and enforcement of standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.1.3 Fuel economy standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.1.4 Alternative fuels requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.1.5 On board diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.1.6 Fiscal policies for clean, efficient new motorcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2 In Use Vehicle Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2.1 Motorcycle inspection and maintenance programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2.2 Motorcycle retrofit and engine replacement programs . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2.3 Two- and three-wheeler use restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2.4 Financial incentives for in-use motorcycle performance . . . . . . . . . .58
6.3 Next Generation Technology Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

7. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7.1 Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.2.1 Policies for new motorcycles and their fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2.2 Policies for motorcycles in use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

8. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
vi Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

Figures
Figure 3-1. Electric Bicycle in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3-2. Scooter in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3-3. Tuk-tuk in Central Bangkok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 3-4. Motorcycle Ownership Per 1,000 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 3-5. RSP and CO Exposure for Different Commute Modes in Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 3-6. Advertised Fuel Economy for Popular Cars and Motorcycles in India . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 4-1. Share of New Motorcycle Sales by Engine Type in Thailand and Taiwan . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 4-2. Historical Gasoline Sulfur Levels in Taiwan, China, India, the United States and
the European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 4-3. Bicycle and Scooter Style Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 4-4. Cost Comparison of Common Urban Travel Modes in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 4-5. Lifecycle Carbon Emissions of Transportation Modes in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 5-1. Ratio of Benefits of Costs in the Year 2030 for Several Recent Analyses . . . . . . . 38
Figure 6-1. Trajectory of EU Standards for a Four-Stroke 125 cc Two-Wheeler . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Figure 6-2. Trajectory of Taiwan’s Standards for a Four-Stroke 125 cc Two-Wheeler . . . . . . . 43
Figure 6-3. Trajectory of India’s Standards for a Four-Stroke 125 cc Two-Wheeler . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 6-4. Compliance and Enforcement Programs in Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 6-5. Fuel Efficiency Standards in China and Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 6-6. France’s Feebate Schedule for New Automobiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 6-7. Motorcycle I&M Emission Reduction Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
vii Managing Motorcycles: Opportunities to Reduce Pollution and Fuel Use from Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicles

Tables
Table 3-1. Top Twenty Countries/Regions Based on Percentages of Motorcycles in Vehicle
Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Table 3-2. Average Motorcycle Population Growth Rate in Selected Asian Countries . . . . . . . 8
Table 3-3. Passenger Trip by Transportation Mode in Various Asian Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Table 3-4. Percentage of Road Users Killed at Different Locations in India by Travel Mode . . . 10
Table 3-5. Two- and Three-Wheeler Contributions to Urban Transportation Emission
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Table 3-6. PM and CO Air Concentrations Across Transportation Modes in Hanoi, Vietnam . . 12
Table 3-7. India Motorcycle Fuel Economy Estimates by Vehicle and Engine Type . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 3-8. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Vehicles in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 3-9. Two- and Three-Wheelers Production by Major Producing Country . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 3-10. Selected Major Motorcycle Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 4-1. Emission Factors for Three-Wheelers in Delhi and Pune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 5-1. Evolution of Control Technologies in Taiwan and India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 5-2. Details of Evolution of Control Technologies in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 5-3. I&M Program Design Choices and their Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . 36
Table 5-4. Motorcycle Fuel Consumption Standards in Liters per 100 Kilometer by Engine Size
in China and Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 5-5. Current Gasoline Sulfur Content Standards for Selected Countries and
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 5-6. Status of Leaded Fuel Use in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 5-7. Two-Stroke Oil Quality and Dispensing Requirements for Selected Countries and
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Table 6-1. Latest Adopted Two-Wheeler with Two- and Four-Stroke Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Table 6-2. Latest Adopted Three-Wheeler with Two- and Four-Stroke Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 6-3. Description of I&M Programs in India, Taiwan, and Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 6-4. In-Use Emission Standards in India, Taiwan and Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 6-5. Summary of Motorcycle Retrofit Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 6-6. Evaluation of Envirofit Retrofit Project Benefits by Project Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Table 6-7. Selected Current and Proposed Motorcycle Restriction Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Table A-1. China Exhaust Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Table A-2. India Exhaust Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table A-3. Japan Exhaust Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table A-4. Taiwan Exhaust Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table A-5. Thailand Exhaust Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table A-6. European Union Emission Standards: Two-Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table A-7. European Union Emission Standards: Four-Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Table A-8. California, United States Emissions Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table A-9. United States (Federal) Emissions Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1 Executive Summary

As mobility continues to increase with

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
affluence worldwide, eliminating unintended
consequences from transportation will
For millions of people living in large cities
become more urgent. Cleaner, more energy
in the developing world, two- and three-
efficient, and safer motorcycles would not
wheeled motorcycles offer convenient,
only improve public health and the
affordable access to motorized
environment, they could also play a
transportation. Nowhere is this trend
role in a more globally sustainable
more evident than in Asian countries,
passenger transportation sector.
where motorcycles comprise up to 95
percent of motor vehicles on the road.
Much of the regulatory focus on
Two-wheelers generally offer flexible
motorcycles to date in India, Thailand, and
personal mobility while three-wheelers fill
China has centered on strategies to reduce
the gap for larger families and commercial
conventional motorcycle emissions. Some of
transport. Once dominated by bicycles,
these policies, especially those that led to the
pedestrians, and buses, urban areas around
phase-out of two-stroke motorcycles, have
the globe are transforming to accommodate
had additional benefits of improving
growing ranks of motorcycles.
motorcycle fuel economy and reducing
carbon emissions. Regulators, however, are
Increased mobility from two- and three-
quickly realizing that further gains in both
wheeled vehicles carries a hefty societal cost,
emissions and fuel economy will require
however. Air pollution is a major public
more targeted policies.
health concern. The rapid growth of two- and
three-wheelers, especially cheap and easy to
The purpose of this report is to identify how
maintain two-stroke models, has contributed
nations can best manage their growing ranks
to severe deterioration of the urban
of two- and three-wheelers. National and
environment. Motorcycle populations in
local decision makers will need focused and
Asian cities, and increasingly in cities in
well-designed policy tools, including
Africa and Latin America, are significant and
regulations and incentive strategies, to
growing. Energy demands are also growing
improve the environmental performance of
as transportation systems motorize. For those
these popular vehicles. The policy guidance
nations who cannot satisfy increasing
provided in this report stems from the
demands for fossil fuels with local resources,
cumulative experience of regulators and
this sets up a pattern of costly oil imports.
other experts in the field. While the
Energy consumption also translates into
recommendations are primarily aimed at
increasing carbon dioxide emissions and
countries that are just beginning to regulate
mounting concerns about climate change.
motorcycles, this report may also prove
From altered weather patterns to agricultural
helpful to policymakers who are seeking to
impacts to increased transmission of
improve motorcycle policies that have
diseases, these impacts pose the greatest
already been adopted.
challenges for developing countries. And
worsening traffic congestion and accidents
Local conditions vary greatly around the
raise concerns regarding traffic safety.
world. Social, political, and economic
factors, as well as the resource availability,
affect each nation’s capacity to address
2 Executive Summary

transportation, local air quality, climate standards and fiscal policies to reduce
change, and energy issues. These factors motorcycle emissions and fuel consumption.
must undoubtedly be taken into account China, India, Taiwan, Thailand, and the EU
when designing policies to ensure they can have been the leaders in developing elements
be successfully implemented. Still, numerous of a comprehensive approach to managing
overarching principles apply when advancing motorcycles through standards and other
environmental and energy goals for two- and strategies ranging from bans to economic
three-wheeled motorized vehicles. incentives. The following opportunities have
been identified to better manage motorcycles
• Programs and policies should be throughout Asia and elsewhere in the world
designed in a coordinated fashion to where these vehicles are gaining market
provide multiple benefits share.
• In-use performance is the key policy
metric, and special consideration 1. Adopt increasingly stringent
should not be given to specific emission standards for new
technologies motorcycles that force the
development of zero-emission
• Policy opportunities offer solutions
technology
worldwide, but the path to achieve
them does not have to necessarily be 2. Implement a comprehensive
the same everywhere compliance program to enforce new
vehicle emission standards
• Both fiscal and regulatory policies
should be used in complementary 3. Enact standards for fuel and
ways to affect behavioral changes lubricating oil quality and consider
pre-mixing lube oil
• Vehicles and fuels comprise a
system making lifecycle 4. Employ strategies to address in-use
considerations an important part of motorcycle emissions, including in-
sound policymaking use emission standards, retrofit and
replacement programs, and
• Specific attention is needed to
inspection and maintenance
identify and prevent gross emitters
programs
and gas guzzlers
5. Develop strategies to promote the
• Near-term and future zero-emission
use of cleaner and energy efficient
technologies merit consideration,
advanced motorcycles
based on their cost effectiveness and
market potential 6. Develop strategies to improve
motorcycle fuel efficiency,
• It is important to work across
including CO2 emission standards,
jurisdictions to strengthen programs
fuel economy standards, and
and send consistent signals to the
associated incentives
marketplace

In Europe, farther tightening emission

There are moves afoot to address the
standards on motorcycles is a low priority as
environmental and energy issues associated
two-wheelers are a relatively small
with motorcycles. Impacted countries and
contributor to air pollution and three-
regions are at varying stages of adopting
wheelers are essentially non-existent in most
3 Introduction and Report Approach

EU nations. Therefore, an opportunity exists are eroding this sector’s energy and emission
for large motorcycle countries in Asia to performance.
define the next level of motorcycle emission
standards. This effort needs to happen in If Asian cities are to achieve healthy air,
parallel with strategies to reduce motorcycle provide sustainable energy systems, maintain
fuel use. The recently completed World road safety, and reduce greenhouse gas
Harmonized Test Cycle could be a platform emissions, they must deal with two- and
for the next set of norms throughout Asia and three-wheeled motor vehicles. This requires a
beyond. comprehensive strategy, one that can be
adapted and used throughout the world.
As the share of motorcycles in cities and
nations’ fleets grows throughout Asia and the The purpose of this report is to identify
rest of the developing world, policymakers opportunities to better manage emissions and
must rely on an array of strategies to fuel use from two- and three-wheelers. The
minimize the unintended societal focus is Asia. Today, China and India
consequences attributed to these proliferating produce the majority of the two- and three-
motor vehicles. Without appropriate wheelers sold. Although the largest share of
regulations and incentives, business-as-usual these motorcycles is destined to local
trends will continue and problems will markets, exports to neighboring countries
mount. Motorcycles can be better managed and beyond are growing rapidly. Indeed
to create a future where two- and three- motorcycle sales are soaring in many Asian
wheeled motorized vehicles offer more countries and motorcycles are increasingly
sustainable mobility to a growing portion of popular in Latin America, Africa, and
the world’s population. If managed well, elsewhere. Moreover, the ability to better
motorcycles can serve an important role in manage motorcycles extends beyond Asia
the transportation system of many nations. and the developing world. European nations,
including Italy, Spain, Greece, and others,
will all benefit from cleaner motorcycles.
2. INTRODUCTION AND
And while they are not the focus of this
REPORT APPROACH report, noise and safety concerns raised by
motorcycles also merit attention as part of a
Asia has the world’s highest concentration of
comprehensive motorcycle strategy.
motorized two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
From scooterettes in India to tuk-tuks in
The policies discussed in this report are
Thailand to electric bicycles in China, these
based on the experience of regulators in
vehicles dominate the Asian urban landscape.
major motorcycle countries and regions, such
Ownership and use are also increasing in
as China, India, Thailand, and the European
rural areas where distances traveled are
Union, as well as the recommendations of
greater and fuel quality may be less reliable.
other experts in the field. This report reviews
These trends are serving to worsen energy
current trends in motorcycle emissions and
and the environment impacts worldwide. And
fuel efficiency technology and performance,
while motorcycles are currently among the
summarizes policy approaches to improve
most fuel efficient motorized modes of
motorcycle emission and energy
personal transportation, rapid growth in
performance, and discusses what is required
population coupled with the increasing
to implement these policies.
popularity of larger and less efficient models
4 Introduction and Report Approach

The choices China, India, and others make to array of motorcycle strategies. Local
control motorcycle emissions and fuel use conditions, resources, and capacity to address
will have a significant impact within their transportation and air quality issues, vary
borders and throughout the world. China, for greatly around the world. The local
example, has adopted its first set of fuel situation must undoubtedly be taken
economy standards in 2009 while into account when designing
"ELLAGIO-EMORANDUMON-OTOR6EHICLE0OLICY
simultaneously implementing an enhanced policies to ensure they can be 0RINCIPLESFOR6EHICLESAND&UELSIN2ESPONSETO

version of Euro 3, the latest European successfully implemented. The 'LOBAL%NVIRONMENTALAND(EALTH)MPERATIVES

#ONSENSUS$OCUMENT *UNE
emission standards. The Euro program is ICCT has identified a broad set of "ELLAGIO)TALY

emerging as the global norm with countries eight principles that should guide
such as Thailand and Vietnam adoption all transportation and air quality 4H E % N E R G Y & O U N D AT I O N

standards based on the European program. policy making. A further discussion of

India has maintained its unique program with these principles, summarized in Text Box
standards based on the Indian Driving Cycle. 2-1, can be found in ICCT’s Bellagio
Current motorcycle emission standards in Memorandum on Motor Vehicles published
China, India, the EU and elsewhere are not in 2001.
directly comparable in terms of their relative
stringency. On the fuel consumption front, The recommendations in this report are
both China and India are breaking new primarily aimed at countries that are just
ground. China has adopted standards that are beginning to develop new motorcycle control
just coming into force in 2009. India is programs. They are also relevant to those
currently developing a labeling program that seeking to improve or enhance their existing
may lead to standards in the near future. motorcycle programs. The report is designed
to provide sufficient background information
Case studies are used in this report to on all the issues discussed to provide utility
highlight lessons learned during policy to a wide audience. For a more advanced
development and implementation of a wide technical discussion, readers can refer to the

TEXT BOX 2-1. THE ICCT’S EIGHT OVERARCHING PRINCIPLES FROM THE BELLAGIO MEMORANDUM
✤ Design programs and policies that reduce conventional, toxic, and noise pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
in parallel, and ensure that future technologies provide major improvements in each of these areas.
✤ Base policies solely on performance compared to societal objectives, and not give special consideration to
specific fuels, technologies, or vehicle types.
✤ In both industrialized and developing countries, expect and require the best technologies and fuels available
worldwide; it is not necessary or cost-effective for developing nations to follow, step by step, the same path of
incremental improvements that was taken by the industrialized nations.
✤ Use combinations of economic instruments and regulatory requirements; make-related policies complementary.

✤ Treat vehicles and fuels as a system, and move toward standards based on lifecycle emissions (including vehicle
and fuel production, distribution and disposal) in policies.
✤ Prevent high in-use emissions with more realistic and representative test procedures, greater manufacturer
accountability, improved inspection and maintenance programs, on-board monitoring and diagnostics, and
retrofit and scrappage programs.
✤ Consider the relative cost-effectiveness of near-term measures and the market potential of future technologies.

✤ Work across jurisdictions, both nationally and internationally, to strengthen programs and give cohesive signals to
affected industries.
 5 Background on Motorcycles

companion technology review prepared discussed, as are measures for

for the ICCT titled, Air Emissions Issues motorcycles already in use. Section 7
Related to Two- and Three-Wheeled presents findings and provides the ICCT
Motorcycles, available to download on recommendations and policy guidelines
the ICCT’s website at http://theicct.org/. for reducing two- and three-wheelers’
emissions and fuel use.
The sections that follow cover the
different environmentally related aspects Most of the research done in this report
of two- and three-wheeled vehicles. The was conducted in 2007 and 2008. All
next section, Section 3, provides other data cited from sources prior to
background on motorcycles. It describes these years are specified accordingly.
the types of vehicles classified as
FIGURE 3-1. ELECTRIC
motorcycles, tracks their population and
BICYCLE IN CHINA 3. BACKGROUND ON
growth, discusses the role of motorcycles
in urban mobility, their impacts on the MOTORCYCLES
urban environment, fuel consumption,
climate change, and safety, and provides 3.1 TYPES OF
a synopsis of the global motorcycle MOTORCYCLES
industry. Section 4 focuses on
motorcycle technologies, starting with Visit any country in Asia, and elsewhere
conventional vehicles and touching upon around the globe, and you will see a
near- and longer-term vehicle advances. colorful assortment of motorized
Fuel issues are also raised here given vehicles in many different varieties.
their import regarding motorcycle Two- wheelers are described in Text Box
emission control improvements. Section 3-1. These vehicles typically carry up to
5 reviews policy frameworks for dealing two adult passengers for their own
with new vehicles, in-use vehicles, and personal mobility. But they can also be
fuels. Section 6 explores opportunities to used to carry small freight or to convey
reduce motorcycle emissions and energy passengers for commercial purposes.
use. Policies for new vehicles are

TEXT BOX 3-1. TWO-WHEELER TYPES

Although there are no strict definitions for each two-wheeler type, following are some features that help
distinguish among them.

Moped - Bicycle frame equipped with pedals, engine less than 50 cc,
and top speed limited to 50 km/hour

Scooter - Step through frame with full metal or plastic covers; wheels
less than 36 cm; engine typically between 50 to 250 cc

Scooterette - Scooter-like frame with performance similar to a moped,

popular in India

Motorcycle - Two-wheelers that do not fit in previous categories,

typically larger wheels and engine size, including off-road dirt bikes FIGURE 3-2. SCOOTER IN INDONESIA

Electric bicycle - Bicycle frame equipped with pedals, supplemented by electric power from a storage battery

Electric scooter - Slow-speed scooter propelled almost entirely by electricity

Hybrid Two-wheelers - Two-wheelers using an electric motor along with an internal combustion engine; can
travel over 50 km/hour
6 Background on Motorcycles

TEXT BOX 3-2. THREE-WHEELERS IN ASIA

Three-wheelers do not abide by strict definitions, but
are generally used for passenger and good
commercial transportation. Names vary widely by
country and by the type of transportation service
provided. In India and Sri Lanka, three passenger
three-wheelers operating as taxis are known as auto
rickshaws. Baby taxis are commonly known as
three-wheelers in Bangladesh. Diesel three-wheelers
with six-passenger or goods movement capacity are
called tempos in India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.

Three wheelers can be made by well-established

manufacturers, such as Bajaj that dominates the
market for three-passenger three-wheelers in the FIGURE 3-3. TUK-TUK IN CENTRAL BANGKOK
Indian subcontinent. But in some countries, small
local vehicle assemblers make most three-wheelers;
this is the case of tuk-tuks in Thailand or the tricycles in Philippines. The tricycles further distinguish
themselves from the rest of the three-wheelers because they are essentially two-wheelers outfitted with a
sidecar for passenger transportation.

Beyond two-wheelers, motorized three- estimated to support at least two families

wheelers customized with decorative (Iyer 2003).
paintings are a quintessentially Asian mode
of commercial passenger and goods For simplicity, in this report the term
transport. These vehicles trace their origins “motorcycle” refers to all types of motorized
to the 19th century human-powered wheel two-and three-wheeled vehicles. When the
cart. Most carts were eventually replaced by discussion requires a distinction in
cycle-powered and then motor-powered motorcycle types, the specific wheeled
three-wheelers in the 20th century. The vehicle is spelled out.
motorized versions popular in Asia were
originally patterned after Italian models from 3.2 MOTORCYCLE POPULATION
the 1960s.
AND GROWTH
Three- wheelers, also known as auto In 2005, there were about 300 million two-
rickshaws, baby taxis, mishuks, tuk-tuks, and three-wheeled motorcycles in use
tempos, and tricycles, are described in Text worldwide (Meszler 2007). By 2020, the
Box 3-2. Three-wheeled vehicles are used to global motorcycle population is expected to
carry passengers and goods. Most passenger double (Sperling and Gordon 2009). Table
three-wheelers are configured to carry three 3-1 presents the top twenty countries in terms
passengers but some models are outfitted of the percentage of motorcycles in their
with six passenger seats. In practice, actual overall vehicle fleet. This list provides a
passenger loading can be much higher. general indication of where worldwide
Although the majority of three-wheelers are motorcycles provide a significant portion of
gasoline fueled, some cargo three-wheelers personal and commercial transportation. The
are diesel fueled. Three-wheelers provide share of motorcycles in each country or
low cost and flexible transportation for city region’s current vehicle fleet varies widely,
dwellers and businesses. They are important from Vietnam estimated at 95 percent to
contributors to urban economies. For Suriname at 27 percent.
example, each three-wheeler in India is
7 Background on Motorcycles

TABLE 3-1. TOP TWENTY COUNTRIES/REGIONS BASED ON PERCENTAGE OF MOTORCYCLES IN

VEHICLE FLEET (IRF 2007, NSO 2000, BPS 2006, Nguyen 2008, Gong 2008)

COUNTRY/REGION CONTINENT TWO- AND THREE- OTHER VEHICLES PERCENT

WHEELERS MOTORYCLES
Vietnam (2007) Asia 22,000,000 1,157,895 95%
India (2003) Asia 47,525,000 12,834,000 79%
Maldives (2004) Asia 14,448 3,905 79%
Cambodia (2000) Asia 1,609,839 457,396 78%
Indonesia (2005)* Asia 28,556,498 9,599,780 75%
Thailand (1999)* Asia 13,297,951 6,032,217 69%
Taiwan (2002) Asia 11,983,757 5,871,198 67%
Pakistan (2004) Asia 3,947,951 2,066,769 66%
China (2006) Asia 81,310,000 49,860,000 62%
Sri Lanka (2002) Asia 923,467 796,105 54%
China, Macao (2004) Asia 72,528 67,134 52%
Bangladesh (1999) Asia 147,205 141,450 51%
Malaysia (2003) Asia 6,164,958 6,654,290 48%
Mauritius (2004) Africa 129,500 159,909 45%
Myanmar (2003) Asia 172,892 263,114 40%
Bhutan (2002) Asia 8,371 14,052 37%
Philippines (2002) Asia 1,470,383 2,717,290 35%
Uganda (1999) Africa 63,769 120,048 35%
Greece (2004) Europe 2,600,714 5,259,428 33%
Suriname (2004) South America 39,693 106,412 27%

The data in Table 3-1 are mainly drawn from rank of each country/region’s motorcycle
the International Road Federation, World fleet. These data show that the
Road Statistics publication 2006, but the overwhelming majority of motorcycle-
vehicle population estimates reported in dominated countries are in Asia, with a
these documents are for different calendar couple of representatives from Africa
years. As such the ranking should not be (Uganda and Mauritius), one from Europe
seen as a strict indication of the respective

FIGURE 3-4. MOTORCYCLE OWNERSHIP PER 1,000 PEOPLE (MESZLER 2007)

Motorcycles Per Thousand People

37 to 533 (16)
23 to 37 (11)
11 to 23 (8)
7 to 11 (9)
4 to 7 (9)
3 to 4 (3)
0 to 3 (14)
!
8 Background on Motorcycles

TABLE 3-2. AVERAGE MOTORCYCLE POPULATION GROWTH RATE IN SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIES
(1989-2002) (MESZLER 2007)
COUNTRY/REGION ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH RATE AVERAGE ANNUAL GDP GROWTH
(1989-2002) RATE (1989-2002)
China 25% 9%
Nepal 16% 5%
Vietnam 15% 7%
Philippines 14% 3%
Cambodia 13% 6%
Laos 11% 6%
India 10% 5%
Indonesia 9% 5%
Thailand 9% 6%
Bangladesh 7% 5%
Sri Lanka 7% 5%
Pakistan 7% 4%
Hong Kong 5% 4%
Taiwan 5% 6%
Malaysia 5% 7%
Japan 5% 2%
Singapore 3% 7%

(Greece) and one from South America in part, by economic expansion in these
(Suriname). countries. Between 1989 and 2002, most
Asian countries’ GDP growth at a rate that
The importance of motorcycles in Asia is was several times larger than the average 2.5
further illustrated in Figure 3-4, which percent annual GDP growth worldwide,
presents motorcycle ownership per one fueling motorization and motorcycle
thousand people. The number of countries in ownership.
each category is noted in parentheses in the
legend. In terms of their ownership compared 3.3 MOTORCYCLES AND URBAN
to four-wheeled vehicle ownership, only in MOBILITY
Asia do motorcycles dominate the landscape
in what are sometimes referred to as Two-wheelers are mainly used as personal
“motorcycle countries” and “motorcycle vehicles for urban mobility. In some cities,
cities” (GTZ 2004). These nations and such as Bangkok or Hanoi, they are also used
regions include China, India, Indonesia, for commercial passenger transportation.
Thailand, and Taiwan, which each have large Three-wheelers have wider applications. In
motorcycle populations that constitute the Asian and other cities, these vehicles are
majority of in-use vehicles. commonly used for commercial passenger,
family, and goods transport (GTZ 2004).
Motorcycle populations in Asia are growing
rapidly, as shown in Table 3-2. In China, Motorcycles have several advantages over
Vietnam, Philippines, and India, motorcycle other motorized transportation modes, both
ownership has increased by more than 10 real and perceived. They are highly
percent a year. This has been fueled, at least maneuverable in congested conditions, offer
9 Background on Motorcycles

easier parking, and provide door-to-door lowest priced car offering in India was about
connectivity. However, compared to other $5,000 (DWS 2007). Low priced, entry-
forms of motorized transport, motorcycles level, small cars are directly aimed at a
are generally not as safe and may also be market segment dominated by motorcycles.
more polluting. As a family vehicle, cars like the Nano could
replace more than one motorcycle owned by
When it comes to cost, motorcycles and cars a middle-class household, accelerating the
have many inherent trade offs. Their transition from two- to four-wheeled
perceived low cost ownership and operation vehicles. Vehicle exports could lead to
is the result of distorted tax and road pricing similar accelerated transitions in many of the
policies along with other hidden subsidies. If Asian motorcycle countries. While concerns
tax policies that favor personal transport are have been raised about whether these cars
removed, cars and motorcycles are more can comply with safety and environmental
expensive than public transport. For standards and there is little guarantee of
example, in India the total tax burden on emission compliance over their lifetimes,
buses are 2.4 times higher than on personal these concerns are even more pressing for the
vehicles. Moreover, their high rate of motorcycles they seek to replace.
involvement in accidents (see Box on Safety)
imposes costs on all travelers. TABLE 3-3. PASSENGER TRIPS BY TRANSPORTATION
MODE IN VARIOUS ASIAN CITIES (WRI 2007)
MODE DELHI HANOI PUNE XI’IAN
Congestion is another confounding issue. (2001) (2003) (2000) (2000)
When public transportation service is Walk 33% 22% 29% 23%
limited, infrequent, or over-crowded, the Cycle, pedicab 4% 29% 14% 25%
time spent to complete a trip can be 2-wheeler, 14% 42% 29% 5%
significantly longer than the time needed motorcycle
Private car 7% 1% 6% 5%
with a motorcycle. Yet, buses must share
Bus 40% 6% 14% 37%
congested roads with growing ranks of
Rail <1%% -- <1% --
motorcycles and cars, taking transit more
time to travel along its designated route. And Other 2% 0.4% 8% 5%

with far smaller occupancy rates than transit,

motorcycles are responsible for more than With perceived cost and other practical
their fair share of time stuck in traffic. advantages, it is not surprising that
motorcycles account for a large and growing
Whether and what type of motorized vehicle share of trips in the main cities of Asian
people acquire often comes down to motorcycle countries (GTZ 2004). Directly
household economics without much comparable data on motorcycle’s share of
consideration given to social costs. In terms passenger transport in Asia cities is difficult
of affordability, in India, for example, the to obtain. Studies vary widely in their
retail price of a two-wheeler ranges from methodology and types modes surveyed.
$450 for an entry level moped or scooterette Nevertheless, the information compiled in
to $1,325 for a premium class motorcycle Table 3-3 offers some indication of the
(Iyer & Badami, 2007). In comparison the importance of motorcycles in providing
recently announced low-cost car, the Tata personal mobility to urban dwellers in Asia.
Nano, is expected to sell for $2,500 In these cities, the proportion of motorcycles
(Giridharadas 2008). As recently as 2007, the trips is currently several times larger than the
10 Background on Motorcycles

TEXT BOX 3-4. MOTORCYCLE ACCIDENTS AND URBAN SAFETY

In urban areas in most developing countries, pedestrians, cyclists, and two-wheeler users account for
the overwhelming majority of road killed and injured in traffic accidents (WHO 2004). A sampling of these
statistics in india is presented in Table 3-4. Many of these accidents stem from challenges posed by
modes with varying speed and visibility sharing the roads. Motorcycle safety in Asia is especially
problematic. In India, 27 percent of road deaths involve motorcycle users, in Thailand the estimate is 70
percent or more, and in Malaysia motorcycles are implicated in approximately 60 percent of all deaths in
traffic (WHO 2004).

Head injury is the leading cause of death to motorcyclists. An important factor in the severity of the
outcome in road accident for motorcycle users is the low use of protective gear, such as helmets and
safety equipment on the vehicles including headlights. Often three-wheeler vehicle manufactured by low-
volume local producers do not incorporate basic safety features. Finally, the lack of or low funding levels
for agencies dedicated to accident prevention limit public education efforts. Sustainable motorcycle
policies must address the public health burden caused by motorcycle accidents.

TABLE 3-4. PERCENTAGE OF ROAD USERS KILLED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS IN INDIA, BY TRAVEL
MODE (MOHAN 2006)
LOCATION LORRY BUS CAR TSR MTW HAPV BICYCLE PEDESTRIAN TOTAL
Mumbai 2 1 2 4 7 -- 6 78 100
New Dehli 2 5 3 3 21 3 10 53 100
Highwaysa 14 3 15 -- 24 1 11 32 100
TSR: three-wheeled scooter taxi; MTW: motorized two-wheelers; HAPV: human and animal powered vehicles.
a Statistical
summary of 11 locations, not representative for the whole country (tractor fatalities not included).

share of private car trip. Non-motorized trips, pollutants is associated with a host of serious
especially walking trips, are a large fraction health effects including premature death,
of all trips in all three cities. The patterns aggravated respiratory and heart disease, and
seen here are replicated in many other neurological damage. The US Environmental
motorcycle cities. Motorcycles, buses, and Protection Agency and World Health
cars share the roads with large numbers of Organization have additional information on
bicyclist and pedestrians. Unfortunately this the societal impacts of air pollution (US EPA
situation is often dangerous, as is described 2005, US EPA 2006, WHO 2005).
in Text Box 3-4 on urban safety.
In addition to conventional air pollutants,
3.4 MOTORCYCLES AND AIR motorcycles and other motor vehicles emit
toxic compounds that are also of public
POLLUTION
health concern. Exposure to benzene,
Motorcycles, as with all other internal formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, 1,3-
combustion engine-powered vehicles, emit butadiene, and polycyclic aromatic
the products of full and partial fuel hydrocarbons (PAH) present in motorcycle
combustion. Several of these emitted emissions has been associated over the long
products have been identified as direct or term with increased cancer risk, while short-
indirect causes of air pollution. These include term exposure is associated with respiratory
particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide and neurological effects (US EPA 2007a).
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons
(HC), sulfur oxides (SOx), which varies with A limited number of studies have evaluated
the fuel’s sulfur content, and lead compounds the contribution of motorcycles to
if the fuel used is leaded. Exposure to these conventional and toxic urban air pollution
11 Background on Motorcycles

inventories and pollutant exposure in Asia. Three studies provide an assessment of

However, the findings of the few studies exposure to pollution during motorcycle
published to date are compelling. Table 3-5 trips. Exposure levels represent the amount
summarizes the contribution of two- and of pollution in the air a person breathes while
three-wheelers to transportation-related in a given location or while undertaking a
emission inventories in four Asian cities. In specific activity. A study of particulate matter
all of these cities, ambient pollutant exposure in Taiwan found that subjects riding
concentrations are often above the national motorcycles were exposed to some of the
standards and/or World Health Organization highest levels of commute particulate
(WHO) guideline values (Wangwongwatana exposure (Lung et al. 2007). Compared to all
2007, Roychowdhury et al. 2006, Le 2007). the other indoor and outdoor
The contribution from motorcycles varies in microenvironments and activities evaluated
each city by fleet composition (proportion in the study, pollution exposure while riding
and type of two-and three-wheelers in the motorcycles was second only to the level
fleet) and by fleet emission profile and reached when subjects were passing by
performance. In general, motorcycles are factories.

TABLE 3-5. TWO- AND THREE-WHEELER CONTRIBUTIONS TO URBAN TRANSPORTATION EMISSION

INVENTORY (SUKSOD 2001, MESZLER 2007)
LOCATION PM-10 HC CO NOx CO2

Bangkok, Thailand (1997) 14% 70% 32% <1% n/a

Delhi, India (2001) n/a 70% 50% n/a n/a
Dhaka, Bangladesh (2000) 42% 60% 26% 4% n/a
Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam (2000) n/a 90% 70% 12% 40%

significant contributors of HC, PM, and CO

emissions. Motorcycle fleets dominated by A study in Delhi, India found the highest
uncontrolled four-stroke motorcycles, such levels of fine particulate exposure (referred
as in Ho Chi Minh City, can also be a to in the study as respirable suspended
significant source of nitrogen oxides. particles or RSP) and CO occurred during
commute activities on two- and three-
Motorcycles have been identified as the wheelers (Saksena et al. 2007). These results
largest source of particulate emissions at are illustrated for both pollutants in Figure
busy traffic intersections, accounting for 3-2. Mean exposures to RSP and CO were
almost half of the emissions measured among the highest of all indoor and outdoor
(Roychowdhury, et. al., 2006). Moreover, a microenvironments and activities. The
study of toxic air emissions from vehicles in integrated daily average exposure across all
Bangkok, Thailand found a strong correlation subjects was found to be several times the
between motorcycle traffic patterns and air- Indian residential standard. The integrated
borne benzene concentrations. The author CO 8-hour exposure was just under the
concluded that motorcycles, especially two- standard, however the authors found that
stroke motorcycles, had “a high impact on some subsets of the population were exposed
the overall benzene concentration in to levels up to 40 percent higher than the
Bangkok” (Leong et al. 2002). standard.
12 Background on Motorcycles

FIGURE 3-5. RSP AND CO EXPOSURE FOR DIFFERENT COMMUTE MODES IN DELHI (SAKSENA ET AL. 2007)

3.5! 16.00!

14.00!
3.0!

12.00!
2.5!
RSP Exposure (mg.h/m^3)!

10.00!
2.0!

CO Exposure!
(ppm.h)!
8.00!
1.5!
6.00!

1.0!
4.00!

0.5! 2.00!

0.0! 0.00!
Car! Bus! Three-wheeler! Two-wheeler! Car! Bus! Three-wheeler! Two-wheeler!

The same research team measured PM10 and motorcycles, the most popular transportation
CO concentrations using personal monitors mode in the cities studied, are linked to the
while traveling using various transportation highest levels of in-use exposure to harmful
modes (bus, car, motorbike, and walking) on pollutants.
four roads in Hanoi, Vietnam (Saksena et al.
2006). As shown in Table 3-6, the highest And while many studies do not differentiate
mean concentrations for both pollutants were between the pollution impacts of various
measured while traveling on motorcycles. motorcycles, the impact from three-
The researchers also found that mean wheelers’ on urban air quality is considerably
concentrations increased during rush hour. more significant. In India, three-wheelers
The results of this study are not directly were found to contribute between 6 and 24
comparable to the results obtained in Delhi percent of automotive particulate matter in
due to differences in sampling methods. five large cities, significantly more than their

TABLE 3-6. PM AND CO AIR CONCENTRATIONS ACROSS TRANSPORTATION MODES IN HANOI,

VIETNAM (SAKSENA ET AL. 2006)
RESULT TYPE PM10 (µg/m3) CO (ppm)
Bus Car MC Walking All Bus Car MC Walking All
Measurements 16 32 32 16 96 16 32 32 16 96
Mean 262 408 580 495 455 11.5 18.5 18.6 8.5 15.7
CV (%) 45 59 34 38 50 72 66 47 83 66
GM 242 343 547 460 397 9.2 15.7 16.3 5.1 1.88
GSD 1.46 2.07 1.38 1.32 1.56 2.61 1.65 1.46 2.65 1.88
Key – MC: motorcycle; CV: coefficient of variation, GM: geometric mean, SGD: geometric standard deviation

These three studies do not, however, provide share of the vehicle population
estimates of the portion of pollutant exposure (Roychowdhury et al. 2006). Another study
that is directly linked to motorcycle found that passengers of three-wheelers were
emissions. Their results are nonetheless exposed to higher levels of particulate matter
important in understanding the impact of compared to passengers traveling by bus or
motorcycle use on public health. Indeed, car (Saksena et al. 2007).
13 Background on Motorcycles

Air pollution from three-wheelers is meter (km/l) whereas a Honda Hero

primarily due to the high proportion of high- motorcycle is advertised at 70 to 115 km/l.
emitting two-stroke engines, the use of Figure 3-3 provides the advertised fuel
inferior quality and excessive quantities of economy performance for some popular
lubricating oil, and poor maintenance passenger car and motorcycle offered on the
practices. In addition, three-wheelers’ duty Indian market.
cycle consists of long hours of operation in
congested traffic conditions leading to Despite advertised information about the fuel
increased emissions. efficiency benefits of motorcycles over cars,
standardized data on motorcycle fuel
Many countries in the developed and economy is scarce. Emission standards have
developing world regulate both the served as the key driver in modernizing
concentrations of air pollutants and their by- motorcycle pollution controls. This can have
products (such as smog, haze, and reduced the indirect effect of improving motorcycle
visibility) in ambient air as well as the fuel economy. In terms of managing vehicle
amount released from vehicle tailpipes, fuel economy directly, most regulatory
factory stacks, and other sources. The efforts have focused on automobile fuel
standards regulating pollutant emission economy, or CO2 emission standards. Only
levels are a key component of any recently has motorcycle fuel economy even
comprehensive strategy to improve air been considered. Still, motorcycle
quality. Motorcycle emissions standards are performance data has not been systematically
further discussed in Section 5 on policy compiled. This lack of standardized data
frameworks. could be remedied if other motorcycle
countries follow the leadership of China who
3.5 MOTORCYCLES, FUEL is implementing motorcycle fuel economy
regulations or India in enacting motorcycle
CONSUMPTION, AND
fuel economy labeling. These policy
GREENHOUSE GASES
FIGURE 3-6. ADVERTISED FUEL ECONOMY FOR POPULAR CARS AND
One of the main advantages MOTORCYCLES IN INDIA (DWS 2008, CARDEKHO 2008)
of motorcycles is their
generally higher fuel
efficiency, due to their
small engines and
lightweight frames
compared to other personal
motorized vehicles. In most
markets, an entry-level
motorcycle can be several
times more efficient than
the best performing
passenger vehicle model.
For example, in India the
popular Maruti 800
gasoline car is advertised at
19 to 22 kilometer per
!
14 Background on Motorcycles

programs are further discussed in Section Indeed a common control strategy used to
5.2. meet vehicle tailpipe standards is to reduce
exhaust emissions through improvements in
Fuel economy estimates vary by motorcycle engine combustion efficiency. As a
type and size, as well as by in-use duty cycle. result, a model year 2000 four-stoke
There are also significant variations from three-wheeler was estimated on
country to country or region to region. For road to be more than 50 percent
example in India, small two-stroke engines more efficient than pre-1996
tend to be tuned to a lean air-fuel ratio, two-stoke model. Laboratory-
achieving higher fuel efficiency than small measured fuel economy showed a
motorcycles that are tuned to run rich in 38 percent improvement between
order to optimize power (Meszler 2007). The pre-1996 two-stroke and a model year
fuel economy for 100-150 cc Indian 2000 four-stroke.
motorcycle is estimated to range from 45 to
70 km per liter of
gasoline (Iyer &
TABLE 3-7. INDIA MOTORCYCLE FUEL ECONOMY ESTIMATES BY VEHICLE AND ENGINE TYPE
Badami, 2007). In (INDIAN DRIVING CYCLE) (GTZ 2004)
China, the fuel VEHICLE TYPE ENGINE TYPE ENGINE SIZE (cc) MODEL YEAR LABORATORY FUEL ON-ROAD FUEL
ECONOMY (KM/L) ECONOMY(KM/L)
economy of
Scooter Two-stroke 150 Post-1996 55 52
similarly sized two Four-stroke 62 59
wheelers will be set Three Wheeler Two-stroke 150 Pre-1996 24 20
150 Post-1996 28 25-27
at 40 km/liter Four-stroke 175 2000 33 30-31
(Wang 2008). In
contrast, the most
efficient non-hybrid passenger vehicles Motorcycles, as well as all other motorized
available today have a fuel economy vehicles, contribute to the growing amounts
estimated at nearly 30 km/l (Ward’s 2007, of CO2 and other GHG emissions from
ICCT 2007b). transportation sources in the atmosphere.
With less than half the carbon dioxide per
Additional test data on motorcycle fuel passenger-kilometer of a car, fossil fuel-
economy in India by motorcycle powered motorcycles still can have
characteristics are compiled in Table 3-7. As significantly greater emissions than public
is discussed in greater technical detail in the transit and electric vehicles, as shown in
Section 4.1, fuel use varies by motorcycle Table 3-8. Although motorcycle’s
type. Two-stroke motorcycles are in general contributions to the global CO2 inventory are
less fuel-efficient than four-stroke modest (less than 1 percent according to
motorcycles due to scavenging losses. An MES estimates) two- and three-wheelers are
uncontrolled four-stroke engine can be up to the dominant source of transportation CO2 in
35 percent more fuel efficient than a many motorcycle cities. For example, it is
similarly sized two-stroke engine (Meszler estimated that 40 percent of the
2007). An interesting trend highlighted for transportation CO2 emissions in Ho Chi
three-wheelers in this table, is that the Minh City in 2000 were due to motorcycles
emissions standards implemented in India in (GTZ 2004).
1996 and strengthened in 2000 are also
linked to improvements in fuel economy.
15 Background on Motorcycles

TABLE 3-8. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM VEHICLES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (SPERLING
AND SALON 2002)
LOAD FACTOR (AVERAGE CO2 EQUIVALENT EMISSIONS PER PASSENGER-KM
OCCUPANCY) (FULL ENERGY CYCLE)

Car (gasoline) 2.5 130-170

Car (diesel) 2.5 85-120
Car (natural gas) 2.5 100-135
Car (electric)a 2.0 30-100
Scooter (two-stroke) 1.5 60-90
Scooter (four-stroke) 1.5 40-60
Minibus (gasoline) 12.0 50-70
Minibus (diesel) 12.0 40-60
Bus (diesel) 40.0 20-30
Bus (natural gas) 40.0 25-35
Bus (hydrogen fuel cell)b 40.0 15-25
Rail Transitc 75 percent full 20-50
Note: All numbers in this table are estimated and approximations, and are best treated as illustrative. See case study reports
in this transportation series from the Pew Center on Global Climate change for details and differences across cities and
countries.
aRanges are due largely to varying mixes of carbon and non-carbon energy sources (ranging from about 20-80 percent coal),

and also the assumption that the battery electric vehicle will tend to be somewhat smaller than conventional cars.
bHydrogen is assumed to be made from natural gas.
cAssumes heavy urban rail technology (“Metro”) powered by electricity generated from a mix of coal, natural gas, and

hydropower, with high passenger use (75 percent of seats filled on average).

In addition to CO2, other motorcycle 3.6 MOTORCYCLE INDUSTRY

emissions have climate impacts. Black
carbon, the main heat-absorbing fraction of The motorcycle industry is rapidly expanding
due to the popularity of motorcycles, as
particulate matter, is several hundred to a
thousand times more effective at warming shown by the growth rates in Table 3-9.
the atmosphere than carbon dioxide on a Motorcycle manufacturing is a diverse sector
that includes a large number of local
mass basis. Its effects are particularly strong
at the regional level. Over Asia, black carbon manufacturers as well as custom vehicle
emissions have already lead to major melting producers, both in developing and developed
countries. There are, however, clear market
of the Himalayan glacier that feeds the
leaders among this diverse group. Japan-
Ganges and Yellow rivers, it is darkening
skies over India, and it is on track to cause a based multinational companies such as
major monsoon failure in 2020 (Ramanathan Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha
dominate the two-wheeler sector’s world
2007). VOCs, NOx, and CO emissions
contribute to the formation of ground level market. In several Asian countries, these
ozone or smog, which also has positive multinationals have developed joint venture
agreements with local manufacturers. Hero
climate forcing effect. Methane (CH4)
emissions, especially from natural gas fueled Honda Motors, a joint venture between
motorcycles, can also be a cause of concern India’s Hero Group and the Honda Motor
Company, has been the largest two-wheeler
as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.
manufacturer in the world since 2000
(HeroHonda 2007).
16 Background on Motorcycles

TABLE 3-9. TWO- AND THREE-WHEELER PRODUCTION BY MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRY/REGION

(2003 THROUGH 2006) (FEC 2007, SIAM 2007, AISI 2008, TAI 2008, NGUYEN 2008, JAMA 2007, ACEM
2007, MCTEN 2008)
COUNTRY/REGION 2003 2004 2005 2006
China n/a n/a 17,767,200 21,443,500
India 5,978,964 6,904,274 8,043,120 9,000,292
Indonesia 2,814,054 3,897.250 2,466,457a N/A
Thailand 2,378,491 2,867,295 3,548,132 3,547,659
Vietnam 1,412,683 2,134,088 2,187,870 2,553,593
Japan 1,830,905 1,739,584 1,791,585 N/A
European Union 1,273,090 1,368,822 1,351,255 N/A
The Philippines 310,000 475,000 600,000 N/A
a 2005 data through June 2005.

China, the world’s largest two-wheeler represents a doubling in the export

producing country ahead of India, is home to percentage compared to 2005. Table 3-10
eight companies who manufactured over one provides motorcycle production statistics, by
million motorcycles each in 2006 (FEC major manufacturing country/region, from
2007). Chinese manufacturers produced over 2003 to 2006. Note that there may be some
20 million motorcycles in 2007, 30 percent double counting, as production statistics
of which where destined to export. This often include completely “knocked down”

TABLE 3-10. SELECTED MAJOR MOTORCYCLE MANUFACTURERS (ALPHABETIC ORDER) (ICCT 2007a)
MANUFACTURER HEADQUARTER COUNTRY/ TWO-WHEELER THREE-
REGION WHEELER
Bajaj Auto India x x
BMW Germany x
China Jialing Group China x
Chongqing Jianshe Yamaha Motor Co. China x
Ducati Italy x
Grand River Group-Haojue China x
Harley-Davidson United States x
Hero Honda India x
Honda Japan x
Kawasaki Japan x
KTM Austria x
Kymco Taiwan x
Lifan Group China x
Luoyang Northern Ek Chor Motorcycle Co. China x x
Loncin China x
Piaggio Italy x x
Peugeot France x
Qianjiang Motorcycle Group China x
Suzuki Japan x
SYM Taiwan x
Triumph United Kingdom x
TVS Motor Company India x
Yamaha Japan x
Zongshen Industrial Group China x
17 Motorcycle Technologies

units built for export. For example, next section. The second is the transition in
completely disassembled units produced in new motorcycle sales from two-stroke
Thailand exported and assembled in Vietnam engines to four-stroke engines. The third
can be counted as units manufactured in trend is the increasing popularity of
Vietnam. larger, more powerful motorcycles
in markets traditionally dominated
In Europe, North America, and other regions by smaller mopeds and scooters.
where larger, more powerful two-wheelers
are preferred, BMW, Ducati, and Harley-
4.1 CONVENTIONAL
Davidson also account for a significant
portion of the two-wheeler market share. MOTORCYCLE
Peugeot and Piaggio, manufacturer of the TECHNOLOGIES
Vespa, are important manufacturers of small
Up until the last decade, two-stroke engines
motorcycles in Europe. As advanced as
were the dominant engine type for
European motorcycle markets are, two-stroke
motorcycles. However, customer preference
motorcycles are not being phased out in the
for motorcycles equipped with more fuel-
EU there despite their damaging effects on
efficient four-stroke engines, and regulatory
air quality and public health.
programs aimed at curbing emissions from
two-stroke engines, have eroded two-stroke
Indian automaker Bajaj Auto Ltd. is the
motorcycles’ market share in some countries.
leading three-wheeler manufacturer in India
Two- and four-stroke engines, as their names
as well as many South-east Asian, South
American, Latin American, and African indicate, differ from each other in the
number of piston strokes required for the
markets (Bajaj 2007). Table 3-10 identifies
engine to produce power. The fundamental
three manufacturers in India, China, and Italy
distinctions between these conventional
who specialize in three-wheelers.
motorcycle engines types are discussed in
Box 4-1.
The next section offers background on those
conventional motorcycle technologies and
fuels configured and manufactured in Asian Two-stroke engines remain the preferred
countries. It also takes a look into the future engine type for the smallest and lowest cost
at alternative fuels and next generation motorcycle models in Asia. This is due to
motorcycle technologies emerging in Asia. their size, simple technology, ease of
maintenance, and cost advantage over four-
stroke engines.

4. MOTORCYCLE
In Thailand, Taiwan and elsewhere
TECHNOLOGIES throughout Asia, there is a growing trend
toward larger motorcycles. This increasing
Three major trends are currently shaping the market share of motorcycles compared to
horizon of future technologies in the scooters and mopeds is reinforcing the shift
motorcycle sector. The first trend is the towards four-stroke engines. Figure 4-1
progressive harmonization of emission shows the decline of the percentage of new
standards and test procedures towards two-stroke sales in Thailand since 1994 and a
stringent global norms as discussed in the similar pattern in Taiwan.
18 Motorcycle Technologies

TEXT BOX 4-1. TWO-STROKE VERSUS FOUR-STROKE ENGINES

In a two-stroke engine, gas exchange takes place through ports located in the cylinder. A fuel and air mixture,
compressed in the crankcase, enters through the inlet/intake port, while exhaust gases exit through the exhaust
port. The intake and exhaust ports are opened simultaneously during part of the cycle. This creates a scavenging
effect to help expel the exhaust gas and fill the cylinder with a fresh air/fuel mixture. However, part of the fuel-air
mixture escapes through the exhaust port along with the old exhaust gases. Such “scavenging losses” can amount
to 15 to 40 percent of the unburned fuel-air mixture. As a result, the exhaust of two-stroke engines contains a high
level of unburned fuel and lubricant resulting in large hydrocarbon and particulate matter emissions. (GTZ 2004).

In four-stroke engines, gas exchange takes place through valves. The four-stroke sequence begins with an intake/
induction stroke followed by a compression stroke, then a power stroke after ignition, and finally an exhaust stroke.
When similarly sized two- and four-stroke engines operate at the same speed, the two-stroke engine completes
twice as many power strokes as the four-stroke engine. A four-stroke engine requires a valve train and a camshaft to
operate the intake and exhaust valves. The four-stroke engine is consequently larger, heavier, has more moving
parts, and is more expensive to purchase and maintain than a two-stroke engine with the same power rating.

Two- and four-stroke engines also differ in their use of lubricating oil. In two-stroke engines, oil is added to the fuel
or added to the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber and then burned when ignited or exits unburned as part
of the scavenging losses. In a four-stroke engine, oil remains in a sealed system and is recirculated from a reservoir
in the crankcase to the rest of the engine (Roychowdhury et al. 2006). Only a small fraction of the lubricating oil in a
four-stroke engine is burned.

Emissions of unburned fuel are the principal cause of the poor environmental performance of uncontrolled two-
stroke engines. Two-stroke engines have similar CO emissions as four-strokes, but far higher HC and PM emissions
and higher fuel consumption. Two-stroke engines tend to produce NOx at a lower rate than four-stroke engines
because combustion products in two-stroke engines do not fully exit the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. This
internal exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) lowers peak combustion temperatures, which in turn limits NOx formation in
two-stroke engines (Meszler 2007). However, the decrease in NOx emissions is much smaller than the increase in
HC or PM emissions.

Bulkier four-stroke engines are typically “motorcycle” category, as compared to the

better suited for larger motorcycles than for “scooter” and “moped” categories. In 2004,
small scooters and mopeds. With growing more than 4 million motorcycles were sold in
prosperity in countries such as India and India. In comparison less than one million
China, consumers are purchasing larger scooters and one million mopeds were sold,
motorcycles as symbols of economic success. about the same amount as in 1994 (Iyer &
Since 1998, essentially all the growth in the Badami 2007).
two-wheeler sector in India has been in the

FIGURE 4-1. SHARE OF NEW MOTORCYCLE SALES BY ENGINE TYPE IN THAILAND AND TAIWAN
(WANGWONGWATANA 2007, CHEN 2007)

! !
Thailand Taiwan
19 Motorcycle Technologies

In general, a shift to four-stroke engines scavenging losses, direct injection improves

coupled with increasingly stringent emission two-stroke engine fuel economy by about 40
standards is expected to have a positive percent and reduces emissions of HC and CO
impact on the fleet average emission rate. by 80-90 percent, and reduces PM by 50
Enabling these trends are technologies percent (Meszler 2007). As direct injection
developed to improve emissions of both two- engines are typically run lean (with a low
and four-stroke engines. The following fuel to air ratio), nitrogen oxide emissions
sections discuss two- and four-stroke engines are expected to be 50 percent higher than an
and present specific emission reduction uncontrolled two-stroke engine, similar to a
technologies needed to meet current and four-stroke engine (Meszler 2007).
future emissions standards with conventional Motorcycles with direct injection are
gasoline and diesel engines. A more detailed currently on the market in Europe and are
description of the emission impacts of these being developed for sale in the Indian
different motorcycle technologies can be market. Direct injection technology is also
found in the report titled, Air Emissions available as a retrofit and is currently being
Issues Related to Two- and Three-Wheeler marketed for two-stroke three-wheeler
Motorcycles, available on the ICCT’s applications (see Case Study 5 in Section 6).
website.
Two-stroke emissions can be further reduced
through the use of after-treatment
4.1.1 CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
technologies such as oxidation catalysts that
FOR TWO-STROKE ENGINES
help reduce CO, HC, and PM emissions by
For mopeds, the smallest motorcycle oxidizing them with O2. Oxidation catalysts
category, two-stroke engines remain most are used in many commercially available
manufacturers’ preferred option. This is motorcycles in Europe, Asia, and North
mainly due to the cost and power to weight America. It is expected that oxidation
ratio advantage these engines provide to catalysts – a proven cost-effective
small and lightweight vehicles. technology to control CO, HC, and a portion
of PM emissions – will be increasingly used
The primary goal of two-stroke emission to meet future standards. Unleaded fuels are
improvement technologies is to reduce required for durable operation of catalytic
scavenging losses that occur when fuel and after-treatment technologies and fuels low in
oil escape the combustion chamber before sulfur and phosphorus will avoid degradation
they are ignited (See Text Box 4-1). One of of catalyst performance. A more detailed
the most promising strategies is the discussion of fuel quality requirements can
application of electronically controlled direct be found in Section 5.
fuel injection. In a direct injection engine,
only air enters through the intake port. Fuel There had been earlier concerns about the
is separately injected directly into the durability of oxidation catalysts in two-
combustion chamber after the exhaust port stroke motorcycle applications. Recent test
has closed so that only air is present during results show that newer designs can remain
scavenging. In some systems, compressed air effective over 30,000 km, currently the
is used to assist with injection pressure, longest regulatory durability limit (Meszler
eliminating the need for expensive high- 2007). However, the average motorcycle life
pressure fuel injectors. By eliminating is estimated to be several times 30,000 km.
20 Motorcycle Technologies

This highlights the need for greater durability (Iyer & Badami 2007). In port fuel injection
limits along with enforcement throughout a systems, the fuel is injected into the cylinder
motorcycle’s life. Without a comprehensive intake port near the intake valve, producing
inspection and maintenance program, it is better fuel distribution and combustion
almost impossible to ensure that a catalyst is efficiency. The oxidation catalyst, as
operational and is replaced when it fails. described in the previous section, oxidizes
CO and HC in the exhaust stream. Because
While two-stroke engines are characterized most engines are set to run at a rich air/fuel
by their low NOx emissions, additional ratio, a secondary air injection system must
controls may still be required to meet be added ahead of the catalyst. This
increasingly stringent standards. Three-way introduces more oxygen into the exhaust
catalytic converters, another after-treatment stream and further promotes the elimination
technology, are not only effective at of CO and HC from the exhaust (Meszler
oxidizing CO and HC present in the exhaust 2007).
gas, but they also reduce NOx emissions. To
function optimally, three-way catalysts Further emission reductions, beyond those
require precise control of air-fuel ratio to required to meet standards set by the major
achieve stoichiometric conditions that cannot regulatory programs will most likely require
be achieved with carburetor technology. the use of three-way catalytic converters in
Three-way catalysts will most likely not have place of an oxidation catalyst. Ensuring the
significant penetration into the two-stroke effectiveness of the three-way catalyst
engine market without further engine necessitates precise control of the air/fuel
combustion optimization, such as ratio. Better control, through port fuel
electronically controlled fuel injection. injection with a feedback system in the
Moreover, this emission control may not be exhaust, ensures the necessary stoichiometric
cost effective. The technical difficulties and conditions in the catalyst. Emission
economic realities of tightly controlling NOx reductions compared to an uncontrolled
without after-treatment may eventually lead carbureted four-stroke engine are estimated
to a total phase-out of two-stroke engines in at 90 percent for CO, 85 percent for HC, and
markets where stringent standards are in 25 percent for NOx (Meszler 2007). A small
place in the most heavily-polluted cities (Iyer number of commercially available
& Badami 2007). motorcycle models, including some models
from BMW and Harley-Davison, are
currently equipped with three-way catalysts.
4.1.2 CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
FOR FOUR-STROKE ENGINES After-treatment systems used in four-stroke
The main strategy for controlling emissions engines also require fuel that is unleaded and
from four-stroke engines consists of low in sulfur and phosphorus. Durability
improvements in fuel injection to optimize issues highlighted in the previous section
fuel combustion and the addition of exhaust also apply to catalysts on four-stroke
after-treatment. In the near term, a system of engines. Regulatory mechanisms must be put
port fuel injection and an oxidation catalyst in place to ensure that emission control
assisted by secondary air injection are equipment functions optimally over the full
adequate to meet currently adopted standards useful life of each motorcycle. These
21 Motorcycle Technologies

mechanisms can include more realistic 4.2 CONVENTIONAL FUEL

durability limits and inspection and
PRODUCTS
maintenance programs.
The choice of fuel and lubricating oil, as well
as their production quality, affects how
4.1.3 CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
motorcycles perform in terms of emissions
FOR EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS and fuel economy. Poor quality fuel and
The more volatile portions of gasoline that lubricating oil contains contaminants such as
evaporate and escape in gaseous form from heavy metals that are linked to serious health
the fuel system cause evaporative emissions. impacts. Secondly, certain fuel and oil
There are four types of evaporative components, including metals, sulfur, and
hydrocarbon or fuel vapor emissions from a phosphorus, can negatively impact the
vehicle’s tank and fuel systems. Diurnal performance of emission control
evaporative emissions are caused by technologies. Finally, overuse of poor quality
increases in ambient temperature during the lubricating oil can lead to excessive smoke
day. Running loss emissions are fuel vapor and particulate matter emissions. Regulating
emissions that occur due to heating of the fuel, oil, and vehicles as a system can
fuel in the gas tank and fuel lines while the minimize these impacts. The policy
vehicle is operating. Hot soak emissions frameworks regarding fuels are discussed in
occur after a vehicle has been turned off and Section 5.
engine heat continues to heat up the tank and
fuel system. And refueling emissions occur Gasoline is the primary fuel for motorcycles
when the fuel tank is filled up and the liquid and the main focus of this discussion. Diesel
displaces vapors in the tank and forces them is used in some three-wheeler applications,
into the air. particularly in India, but is not a significant
motorcycle fuel in most of the world.
The main strategy to control evaporative
emissions is the application of a system to
Sulfur occurs naturally in the raw crude oil
capture the evaporated hydrocarbons. Carbon
that is used to make gasoline and diesel
canisters are very effective at capturing
fuels. Some of this sulfur is removed during
vapors and are universally used on vehicles
the fuel refining process. But sulfur remains
and motorcycles. The canisters capture
in final fuel products sold. Sulfur in fuel can
evaporative emissions from the tank and fuel
negatively impact the performance and
system when the engine is not running. When
durability of after-treatment devices such as
the engine is running it draws the captured
oxidation and three-way catalysts. The
vapors from the canister and combusts them.
current most stringent motorcycle exhaust
This low cost option has been used in
standards require the use of exhaust after-
motorcycles in California since the late
treatment devices. The effectiveness of these
1970s and in Taiwan since the 1990s
controls can be impaired if very high fuel
(Meszler 2007, Chen 2007). In addition, a
sulfur levels are present in the fuel.
fuel tank cap without holes can further
reduce evaporative emissions. The system
Worldwide, sulfur levels in gasoline and
should be fully sealed to prevent fuel
diesel have been declining. However a wide
leakage. These are two effective ways to
range in sulfur content of fuels remain. The
limit evaporative emissions.
22 Motorcycle Technologies

1,000!
INDIA and CHINA!
900! TAIWAN!
UNITED STATES!
800! EUROPEAN UNION!

700!
GASOLINE SULFUR LIMIT (PPM)!

600!

500!

400!

300!

200!

100!

0!
2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010!

FIGURE 4-2. HISTORICAL GASOLINE SULFUR LEVELS IN TAIWAN, INDIA, THE UNITED STATES AND
THE EUROPEAN UNION, 1994-2010 (ICCT 2007a, PCFV 2007)

sulfur levels of fuel sold in many developing neurotoxin that is associated with health
countries is 10 to 100 times higher than impacts ranging from permanent brain and
sulfur levels found in Europe, the United nervous system damage to learning
States and Japan. Figure 4-2 illustrates the disabilities and behavioral problems in
progressive desulfurization of gasoline in children. In adults it can produce
India, China, the European Union, and the reproductive, nerve, and memory problems
United States. In large cities in India and (US EPA 2007b).
China gasoline at 50-ppm sulfur levels, lower
than the national standards, is available. Other metal additives of concern include
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese
Fuel additives enhance or suppress fuel tricarbonyl (MMT), a manganese-based
properties mainly during combustion. These compound, and ferrocene, an iron-containing
include chemicals, metals, minerals or other compound. Both are used as an octane
compounds. Metal-based additives enhancer and have been marketed as lead
containing lead, manganese and ferrocene alkyl replacements. Similar to lead alkyl, the
have been a source of public health concern use of MMT and ferrocene additives in
for decades. gasoline results in the emission of
manganese and iron oxide particles in
Lead alkyl was used as an octane enhancer vehicle exhaust (ICCT 2004). Chronic
for nearly seventy years before it was phased exposure to manganese has been associated
out of most of the world’s gasoline supply with neurological impacts indicated by
beginning in the 1970s. Fuel containing this symptoms similar to Parkinson’s disease
additive emitted lead particles as a byproduct (ICCT 2008). Although there are very few
of fuel combustion. Lead is a potent studies on the health effects of exposure to
23 Motorcycle Technologies

ferrocene combustion products, animal the engine may produce an excessive amount
studies have shown cellular damage after of smoke and higher than usual particulate
exposure (Walsh 2006). The use of MMT and matter emissions. The use of excessive
ferrocene in gasoline damages important amounts of inappropriate lubricants like
vehicle engine components including spark mineral oil or recycled automotive oil can
plugs, sensors, valves and catalytic also lead to degradation of engine
converters by depositing metallic compounds components.
on their surfaces (ACEA 2001). As with lead,
these additives prevent emission control In three-wheelers, visible smoke emission is
equipment from functioning at their full due to excessive lube oil consumption
potential. because of abnormal wear of piston rings/
cylinder liner. The purpose of piston rings is
Evidence of the significant public health to maintain a pressure tight seal between the
impacts associated with the use of metal piston and cylinder wall, to aid in controlling
additives in fuel has prompted scientists and oil, to permit proper lubrication of the
physicians to take a firm position to end their cylinder and to assist in the cooling of the
use. In the June 2006 Declaration of Brescia piston. The quality of the piston ring is
on Prevention of Neurotoxicity of Metals, a important factor. With poor quality piston
group of scientist and physicians rings, it is possible that lubricating oil from
representing 27 nations called for the oil sump leaks into the combustion chamber,
cessation of the use of lead and manganese causing smoke.
from all gasoline (Landrigan et al. 2006). In
general, the precautionary principle is 4.3 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND
advised when considering any additives that
NEXT GENERATION
may be associated with public health
impacts. Under the precautionary principle, MOTORCYCLE TECHNOLOGIES
an action can only be taken once those In addition to ensuring that new conventional
proposing the action provide proof that no motorcycles have increasingly better
irreversible damage would result. emissions controls, most successful
comprehensive programs also encourage the
It is important to note that not all fuel development and use of alternative fuels and
additives are problematic. Some types of advanced propulsion technologies, including
additives can have beneficial effects on zero and near-zero emission motorcycles.
vehicle emissions. In particular, detergents, This section discusses experiences with the
which reduce deposits on engine and fuel use of alternative fuels, such as compressed
system components, have a positive impact natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum
on engine performance and durability. gas (LPG), and it discusses efforts to
Detergent additives are composed of organic improve and promote electric and hybrid-
chemicals that can dissolve existing deposits electric technologies.
and prevent additional deposit formation.

In two-stroke engines, lubricating oil is 4.3.1 ALTERNATIVE FUEL

introduced in the air-fuel mixture stream at PROGRAMS
the time of intake. When poor quality oil is Alternatives to conventional gasoline and
used and/or too much oil is added to the fuel, diesel transportation fuels are sought for a
24 Motorcycle Technologies

wide range of reasons. Alternative fuels hold incremental cost of the alternative fuel, if
out the potential to develop local resources any. If benefits exceed costs, then a transition
with a lower cost to the national economy is warranted and policies may be required to
than imported fuels. Clean alternative fuels facilitate changes in current practices.
can produce fewer emissions of harmful For motorcycles, the primary alternative
pollutants and life-cycle greenhouse gas fuels are compressed natural gas (CNG),
emissions. The actual benefits of shifting to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethanol, and
alternative fuels, however, vary widely. Fuel electricity. CNG has been used principally in
availability, clean infrastructure investment, three-wheeler applications. These vehicles
vehicle performance, local practices and can accommodate the larger and heavier
habits, economic costs, other impacts play a pressurized tank needed for the compressed
role in determining whether social benefits gas. The history of the CNG three-wheelers
result from alternative fuel use. These must program in Delhi, India, is reviewed in Case
be weighed against private costs, including Study 1 below. This case study highlights the
the incremental vehicle cost or retrofit cost, policy design and institutional structures
incremental maintenance costs, and the

CASE STUDY 1. CNG THREE-WHEELER PROGRAMME IN DELHI, INDIA

BY ANUMITA ROYCHOWDHURY, CENTER FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT (DELHI, INDIA)
In 1998, the Supreme Court of India mandated one of the world’s first natural gas vehicle programs as part of
an air pollution control strategy. The program, which took effect in 2000, has helped to stabilize pollution
levels in the city. In the first stage all passenger three-wheelers were targeted for this program. In 2006, the
Delhi government expanded the scope of the program and mandated registration of all new three-wheeled
freight vehicles to run on CNG. And there may be considerable opportunity to expand the program’s scope if
it is determined that CNG vehicles’ benefits exceed their costs.

CNG three-wheeler industry in India is largely a domestic. Domestically-built four-stroke engine models
dominate the Delhi fleet with three-seat capacity. Out of 55,000 CNG three wheelers, two-thirds are new,
domestic OEM (original equipment manufacture) powered by four-stroke engines. The remainder is retrofitted
two-stroke vehicles running on CNG.

CNG systems consist of a high-pressure fuel tank, a pressure regulator, and a gaseous carburetor. In two-
stroke applications, a lubricating oil pump and separate oil tank are included. CNG installations involve high
pressure fuel tanks (200 bar pressure) that require more space and are heavier than gasoline tanks with the
same vehicle range. The vehicles currently operating in Delhi are not fitted with catalytic converters. Emission
controls may be needed to control tailpipe exhaust of noxious pollutants. The cost of the transition to CNG
can be a potent barrier to implementation. The upfront capital cost of an OEM-built CNG three-wheeler is
about 25 percent higher than its gasoline counterpart. The cost of retrofitting three-wheelers is nearly $700
(US Dollars). However, cheaper CNG fuel prices – nearly 60 percent lower than the price of gasoline – help to
recover the initial investment within a short time. And the Delhi government provides subsidized loans to
reduce the cost of transition to CNG.

Design failures and poor maintenance can undermine the effectiveness of the program. Quality concerns
surfaced in Delhi in 2004 when some 168 three-wheelers were found emitting excessive amounts of white
smoke. Surveys by the Department of Transport found one-half of the offenders were four-stroke OEM
vehicles while the other half were two-stroke retrofitted models. Further investigation uncovered lubricating oil
leakages, leading to incomplete combustion, causing excessive white smoke emissions due to rapid
deterioration of piston rings. Vehicles had to be redesigned and good maintenance practices were
reemphasized. Limited remote sensing data in Delhi and Pune, summarized in Table 4-1, show emission
trade-offs in the in-use emissions profile of the two fleets. The Delhi fleet runs almost entirely on CNG and has
higher CO and NOx emissions but lower HC and visible smoke emissions compared to the Pune fleet, which
is predominantly gasoline fueled. These comparisons are not perfect, however, as the cities’ fleets are not
otherwise the same. Delhi’s motorcycles are mainly 4-stroke while Pune’s mostly 2-stroke.
25 Motorcycle Technologies

required for implementing a transition to 4.3.2 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID

alternative fuels. MOTORCYCLES
Zero tailpipe emission technologies have
LPG has also been used in
long been held up as the ultimate solution to
three-wheeler
transportation-related pollution problems.
applications, although
Electric motorcycles have been available for
smaller tank
several decades, but they have only recently
requirements make it
begun to enjoy commercial success,
an option for two-
primarily in China.
wheelers as well. LPG
can be stored at
With lighter removable battery packs and
relatively low pressure
with extended operation ranges, newer
(below 15 bar pressure) for
battery-electric two-wheelers available in
automotive applications. LPG is widely used
China are now competing with smaller
in thee-wheelers in Bengaluru, Chennai,
combustion engine motorcycles and
Hyderabad, and Pune (India), which unlike
conventional bicycles. Case Study 2
Delhi and Mumbai are not located near a
describes potential environmental benefits,
natural gas supply pipeline. Thailand also has
associated costs, and the factors that have
significant experience with LPG use given
lead to the commercial success of this next
that most three-wheelers in Bangkok are
generation motorcycle technology.
LPG fueled (PCD 2007).

Electric motorcycles, with their zero tailpipe

Cities currently embarking on natural gas
emissions, can significantly improve urban
and any other alternative fuel programs will
air quality. However, their overall emission
have to overcome technical, institutional, and
benefits will depend on the environmental
market barriers for successful
impact of power generation. Concerns have
implementation and maximum emissions
also been raised regarding land use impacts
gains. Just because a vehicle runs on
from lead used in battery
packs. Lead contamination
TABLE 4-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR THREE-WHEELERS IN DELHI AND
PUNE (ESP 2004) from battery production,
POLLUTANT EMISSION RATE (g/Kg) during use, and after disposal
DELHI CNG FLEET PUNE GASOLINE FLEET can be significant and produce
4-STROKE 2-STROKE important health impacts.
CO 244 226
Policies required to improve
HC 150 252
the environmental performance
NOx 7.4 0.5
of electric motorcycles are
Smoke 6.9 32.2 explored further in Section 6.

alternative fuels does not necessarily mean it

is cleaner. Alternative fuels must abide by the
policy frameworks detailed in the next
section in order to address motorcycle
emission and energy issues.
26 Motorcycle Technologies

CASE STUDY 2. THE GROWING RANKS OF E-BIKES IN CHINA

JONATHAN WEINERT, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA (DAVIS, USA)

Today’s electric bikes, or e-bikes, come in two varieties: those propelled by human pedalling supplemented by
electrical power from a storage battery (bicycle-style) and low-speed scooters propelled almost solely by electricity
(usually with perfunctory pedals to satisfy
legal “scooter” status). Typical bicycle-style
and scooter-style e-bikes are pictured.

Technologically, e-bikes consist of a hub

motor, controller, and valve-regulated lead-
acid (VRLA) battery. Bicycle-style e-bikes
typically have 36-volt batteries and
180-250 Watt motors. Scooter-style e-
bikes typically have larger 48-volt batteries
and higher-powered, 350-500 Watt, !
motors. Electric bikes are regulated not to FIGURE 4-3. BICYCLE AND SCOOTER STYLE ELECTRIC
exceed 20 kilometers per hour (km/hr), but
many scooters are capable of traveling at speeds in excess of that limit, and some are advertised to reach 40km/hr.

In general, e-bikes consume 1.2-1.5 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per 100 kilometer (km). On a single charge
(typically 6-8 hours), they can travel 25-50 km. Electric bike batteries are removable and rechargeable using a
standard electrical outlet, so they require no new re-charging infrastructure.

E-bikes are gaining an increasing share of two-wheeled transportation throughout China, They provide an
inexpensive and convenient form of personal mobility. In many cities like Chengdu and Suzhou, they have even
surpassed the share of bicycles in use. Annual e-bike sales in China reached 17 million in, up from only 40,000 in
1998 (Weinert et al. 2006). Today, there are an estimated 20+ million e-bikes in China, the majority of which were
purchased over the past five years.

The cost of owning and operating an e-bike is the lowest of all personal motorized transportation in China. Figure
4-4 compares the life-cycle cost of an e-bike compared to other modes including cycling, transit, and gasoline or
LPG scooters.

!
FIGURE 4-4. COST COMPARISON OF COMMON URBAN TRAVEL MODES IN CHINA
(WEINERT ET AL. 2006)
27 Motorcycle Technologies

E-bikes are an extremely energy efficient passenger kilometer are several orders of
mode of personal transportation with zero magnitude higher for electric bikes than for
vehicle emissions. In cities battling poor air buses (Cherry 2006). Unregulated (or under
quality, they are having positive effects by regulated) production and recycling practices
displacing noxious emissions from gasoline- within the lead and battery industries result
powered scooters. They also have a positive in the loss of an estimated that 30-70 percent
impact on climate change since in-use carbon of the lead into the environment.
emissions per km travelled are roughly four
times lower than scooters and 14 times lower Research efforts are underway to develop
than cars, as seen in Figure 4-5. commercial hybrid technology for
motorcycles. Taiwan has identified hybrid
These climate change benefits can be technology as a key component of their Stage
maximized when fuel cycle emissions are 5 emission regulation program. Hybrid
kept to a minimum using renewable energy motorcycles would allow significant
to generate electricity. So while e-bikes downsizing of the internal combustion
provide zero tail-pipe emissions, they do engine and would improve fuel economy and
emit pollution from power plants, which are emissions. For example, a 50 cc engine
75 percent coal fired in China (Cherry 2006). coupled with an electric motor could power a
This results in increased emissions of certain 100 cc motorcycle. Research and
pollutants, particularly SO2, which is development activities are ongoing not only
particularly problematic in Chinese cities. in government laboratories like those in
Other pollutants are low, compared to Taiwan, but also in the research facilities of
alternative modes (Cherry 2006). most major manufacturers. Honda and AVL
presented concept vehicles as early as 1997
Lead emissions from battery production and and 1999, respectively (Wang et al. 2000)
recycling are the most serious environmental and R &D activities continue among major
problem with e-bikes. Lead emissions per manufacturers and potentially new market
entrants.

Fuel cell technology is also currently being

explored for motorcycle applications in India
and in Taiwan (Tso and Chang 2003). Fuel
cell motorcycle proponents expect that fuel
cell technology will be able to achieve zero
tailpipe emissions without some of the
performance and range issues encountered
with battery electric motorcycles (Tso and
Chang 2003). Commercial availability of
these vehicles is still uncertain as research
and development is still in its early stages.
As with CNG and LPG fuel, fuel cell
motorcycles will require the availability of
!
FIGURE 4-5. LIFECYCLE CARBON EMISSIONS OF TRANSPORTATION hydrogen through a new network of fueling
MODES IN CHINA (CHERRY 2006) stations.
28 Policy Frameworks

represented by an accumulated distanced

5. POLICY FRAMEWORKS
traveled (or durability distance). Motorcycle
policies are discussed below.
5.1 MOTORCYCLE EMISSION
STANDARDS
5.1.1 EXHAUST EMISSION
This section covers the regulatory practices STANDARDS
that lead to the adoption of best available
Even though standards for new motorcycle
emission control technologies in new
emission levels took decades to phase in after
motorcycles. The discussion focuses on
they were first adopted in the US in the late
existing regulatory programs, in particular
1970s and in Europe in the late 1980s, the
the programs developed in nations and
standards adopted in Taiwan and India
regions where motorcycles significantly
became more stringent over a shorter time
contribute to air pollution. Taiwan, India,
period. Pollution from motorcycles is a much
Thailand, and China have been leaders in
larger concern in Taiwan, India and many
developing elements of a comprehensive
other Asian cities, regions and countries
strategy to control emissions from
compared to the US or even in Europe.
motorcycles, including the adoption of
Historical and current emission standards and
increasingly stringent emission standards.
their basis are detailed in the Appendix.

It is important to review the air quality

Motorcycle emission standards typically
management framework in which these
prescribe an emission limit for carbon
policies fit. Regulations and fiscal policies
monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and
aimed at reducing emissions can improve
nitrogen oxides (NOx). In some programs the
vehicle performance or change usage
HC and NOx emission limit is combined
patterns. Both of these outcomes can reduce
because these pollutants react together to
pollution exposure and associated health
form ozone, or smog, and their relative
impacts. Considerations such as cost and cost
concentrations in the air affect the chemical
effectiveness (cost per amount of emission
reactions that form pollution. Particulate
reduced) are often used to prioritize among
matter emissions have recently been
various control measures. Fuel use policies
subjected to limits in the EU, Taiwan, and
fit in similar energy conservation and
India for diesel three-wheelers but are not
greenhouse gas management frameworks.
typically included in gasoline motorcycle
standards. A further discussion of PM
A new motorcycle emission control program
emissions and standards is found in Text Box
includes standards and a compliance process
5-1. Other pollutants emitted by motorcycles
to ensure that manufacturers comply with
such as sulfur oxides (SOx) and lead
adopted standards. Emission standards are
controlled by regulating fuel quality.
typically expressed as the mass of a specific
pollutant to be emitted over a distance
Definitions related to exhaust emission
traveled by the vehicle (i.e., grams/
standards, including for driving cycles,
kilometer). During the type-approval
durability, and cold start testing, are detailed
process, manufacturers must demonstrate
below.
that their pre-production models meet the
emission standards over their useful lifetime,
29 Policy Frameworks

TEXT BOX 5-1. REGULATING PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM MOTORCYCLES

Controlling PM emissions from non-diesel two- and three-wheelers has long focused on regulating
hydrocarbon and oil combustion emissions. Most of the particulate matter emitted by motorcycles is
composed of semi-volatile hydrocarbon from incomplete fuel combustion and, for two-stroke
motorcycles, additional PM from lubricating oil combustion. For all motorcycles, the primary reduction in
HC is achieved by eliminating scavenging losses in 2-stroke engines, either by shifting to 4-stroke
engines or by adding direct injection. Further reductions are available by improving the engine
combustion efficiency and perhaps using exhaust after-treatment technologies. For two-stroke
motorcycles, using improved lubricating oil, such as the low smoke (or “2T”) oil required in many
countries, is expected to reduce particulate emissions. Inspection also helps. Thailand, for example,
conducts opacity tests as a way to monitor visible smoke emissions.

The shift in sales away from high PM emitting two-strokes to lower emitting four-strokes (see Section 4)
along with increasingly stringent HC emissions standards requiring after-treatment should be sufficient to
reduce gasoline PM emissions to low levels.

A driving cycle is a timed sequence of speeds the WMTC. Many nations are expected to
and loads developed to represent real-world adopt WMTC standard procedures in the
driving patterns. Compliance with emission coming years.
standards is established and verified on the
basis of performance over a driving cycle. Durability requirements are designed to
The EU and Taiwan as well as many other ensure that vehicles meet emissions limits
regions and countries’ emission limits are over the vehicle’s useful life, defined by
currently based on the ECE R47 drive cycle distance traveled in kilometers. Although the
for mopeds or ECE R40 for all other EU does not require durability testing, the
motorcycles. These drive cycles were latest updates of regulatory programs in
developed by the United Nations Economic China, India, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and
Commission for Europe (UNECE). The the US include durability requirements that
UNECE, through the World Forum for range from 6,000 to 30,000 km depending on
Harmonization of Vehicle Regulation (also motorcycle size. With average annual
referred to as WP29), has recently developed mileage in Asia estimated at 8,000 to 10,000
the harmonized World Motorcycle Test Cycle km for two-wheelers and 40,000 km for
(WMTC). This new test cycle is designed to three-wheelers, these durability requirements
represent a global average driving pattern. only guarantee emission performance for one
Completed in 2005, the WMTC will to three years (Meszler 2007). Clearly,
facilitate harmonization of regulatory current durability requirements do not yet
programs in the future. Amendments to the reflect real world useful life and the
test cycle – those that better represent opportunity exists to extend them in future
conditions in regions with smaller updates of these regulatory programs.
displacement engines and low traffic speeds Extended motorcycles lifetimes are expected
– were submitted by India and adopted in to be very long especially throughout Asia as
2007. Contracting parties to the WP 29 mobility grows and these vehicles are sold
process are expected to eventually and resold.
incorporate the test cycle and other adopted
technical regulations within their standards.2 Specifying deterioration factors is another
Those who are not contracting parties are way to build durable emission performance
considering adopting this cycle as well. Euro into a regulatory program. Manufacturers
3 standards include optional limits based on have to demonstrate compliance with
30 Policy Frameworks

emission levels at some percentage below the Evaporative emissions are non-exhaust
stated standards. The percentage chosen is hydrocarbon emissions that escape from the
meant to represent the expected deterioration fuel system during vehicle use and while at
of emissions performance over the rest. These evaporative emissions
motorcycle’s useful life. Deterioration can provide a significant
factors, while based on extensive laboratory contribution to a
testing, is best used to complement in-use motorcycle fleet’s overall
emission system durability testing. The hydrocarbon emission
proposed Indian standards include inventory. The regulatory
deterioration factors of 1.2 for two-wheelers limit on evaporative
and 1.1 to 1.2 for three-wheelers. emissions is typically 2
Manufacturers can either test at pre- grams emitted during the sealed
deterioration levels (10 to 20 percent below housing for evaporative determination
depending on the vehicle or pollutant type) (SHED) test. During the SHED test, the
or demonstrate compliance from a motorcycle is placed in a temperature
motorcycle with 30,000 accumulated controlled and sealed enclosure, and HC
kilometers. evaporative emissions are measured while
the temperature is changed to match
Cold start emission testing simulates variation in ambient temperatures over a day.
emission performance when a vehicle is Currently only China, Thailand, Taiwan and
started up after being parked for some time. the US have adopted evaporative emission
Until recently, all motorcycle emission standards (Meszler 2007, Wangwongwatana
testing were performed after the engine had 2007). The US has also set tank and fueling
been running and was no longer cold. This is system hose permeation limits at 1.5 g/m2/
referred to as warm or hot start testing. Cold day and 15 g/m2/day, respectively, for
start testing is especially important when motorcycles produced starting in 2008
testing motorcycles equipped with catalytic (Meszler 2007).
converters. Catalysts attain their maximal
effectiveness once exhaust temperatures Adopting emission standards is a necessary
reach a certain level and cold start testing first step in controlling pollutant exhaust
captures the higher pollutant exhaust levels from new motorcycles. However, emissions
before they are operational. Test procedures limits are only meaningful if they result in
in China, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, the EU, the adoption of best available control
and the US require cold start testing. India’s technologies that are accompanied by
proposed standards for 2008-2010 call for a validated test procedures and compliance
cold start, but test procedure details describe process. The sections that follow discuss the
testing after the engine has run for a short evolution of technologies used to meet
period. Although a step in the right direction, standards, the cost effectiveness of these
this variation on cold start testing will not technologies, and compliance and
include a critical portion of the cold start enforcement features for motorcycles. The
exhaust flow. primary focus is how best to supplement
performance and testing requirements in
In addition to exhaust emission standards, order to enhance the effectiveness of
new motorcycle emission control programs emission standards.
can include limits on evaporative emissions.
31 Policy Frameworks

5.1.2 EVOLUTION OF MOTORCYCLE models in the long term in India (Iyer &
Badami 2007).
TECHNOLOGIES AND EMISSION
REGULATORY PROGRAMS
5.1.3 COST EFFECTIVENESS OF
To better understand how technologies are
used to meet the goals of regulatory MOTOR VEHICLE REGULATORY
programs, it is useful to see how PROGRAMS
technologies have been introduced to meet Cost effectiveness analysis considers
emission standard limits over time. Table 5-1 emission reduction potential and incremental
summarizes the evolution of control cost when comparing different technology
technologies for new motorcycles in Taiwan options. Cost effectiveness can be calculated
since 1988 and in India since 2000. It is clear by dividing the annualized incremental cost
from the progression shown in the figure that by the difference in emissions between a
the introduction of tighter standards has baseline and an improved technology,
fostered the development and amortized over the vehicle’s life. The result
implementation of improved control is a cost per amount of pollutant reduced.
technologies. The table also projects the Calculations can cover both individual
introduction of future technologies to meet technologies as well as technology
forthcoming standards, such as the Stage 5 combinations. The technology combinations
standard in Taiwan and the Bharat III reflect the type of enhancements discussed in
standard (and later) in India. Further the previous section for control programs
tightening of standards would reduce and that require dual emission reductions (e.g.,
eventually close the existing gap between HC + NOx). Cost effectiveness can be
motorcycle and passenger car emissions. calculated with and without the fuel savings.
A negative cost effectiveness means that the
Details of both the estimated emissions technology pays for itself over a designated
profile and cost of motorcycles according to timeframe.
past, current and future emission standards in
India are presented in Table 5-2. Each step The baseline for cost effectiveness
forward on the path to cleaner motorcycles calculations is typically an uncontrolled
results in a modest increase in motorcycle conventional motorcycle engine.
price, between five and 16 percent compared Calculations are based on global average
to the previous standard (Iyer & Badami prices and are intended to represent the
2007). In many cases the increase in incremental retail price of motorcycles
motorcycle price is partially offset by gains equipped with emission control equipment.
in fuel efficiency and a reduction in oil The assumptions about vehicle life, fuel
consumption. price, and discount rate must be specified.
Regional variations in those factors, as well
Alternative technologies play a role in as in the incremental technology costs, can
regulatory emission reduction goals. In be expected. It is important for policymakers
Taiwan, electric motorcycles and hybrid to assess cost effectiveness on a regional or
motorcycles (more recently) are an integral local level when comparing potentially
part of the strategy to improve motorcycle beneficial technology pathways.
emission performance. It is expected that
electric motorcycles will replace two-stroke
 32 Policy Frameworks

Studies show that technology options to effectiveness set points depending on

control motorcycle emissions are very cost economic, social, and political factors. In
effective, even without accounting for fuel California, for example, mobile source
savings (Meszler 2007). The cost control measures below $14,000 per ton of
effectiveness estimates range from NOx, reactive organic gases (ROG or VOC),
approximately -$500 to $300 per ton for HC, and PM combined are considered cost
CO, NOx, and PM combined. Several effective (ARB 2005).
emission control options pay for themselves
in less than half of the expected vehicle life.
Different jurisdictions select different cost

TABLE 5-1. EVOLUTION OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN TAIWAN AND INDIA (TEPA 2006, IYER 2006, IYER AND BADAMI 2007)
COUNTRY/
REGION 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
TAIWAN Stage 1  Stage 2  Stage 3  Stage 4 a  Stage 5 
Two and Four- Carburetor Carburetor Carburetor (most models) Carburetor (most Closed-loop fuel injection
stroke engines Recycle Recycle blow-by gas Open-loop fuel injection (few models) Recycle blow-by gas
blow-by gas Carbon canister models) Open-loop fuel Carbon canister
Oxidation catalyst Recycle blow-by gas injection (some Oxidation catalyst + Secondary
Secondary air injection Carbon canister models) air injection
Alternative: Electric Motorcycle Oxidation catalyst Closed-loop fuel or Three-way catalyst
Secondary air injection injection (few Alternative: Hybrid motorcycle
Alternative: Electric Motorcycle models)
Recycle blow-by
gas
Carbon canister
Oxidation catalyst
+ Secondary air
injection (most
models)
Three-way catalyst
(few models)

INDIA Bharat Stage I  Bharat Stg. II Bharat Stage III 

Two-stroke Carburetor Improved Carburetor Air assisted
engines Oxidation catalyst Improved oxidation direct injection
Secondary air injection catalyst Electronic engine
Secondary air injection management
Oxidation
catalyst
Four-stroke Carburetor Improved Carburetor Port fuel
engines Oxidation catalyst Improved oxidation injection
Secondary air injection catalyst Oxidation
Secondary air injection catalyst +
Secondary air
injection
Three-way
catalyst (some
models)
aStarting with Stage 4 no new two-stroke were sold in Taiwan, the Stage 4 & 5 technologies only apply to four-stroke engines
33 Policy Frameworks

TABLE 5-2. DETAILS ON EVOLUTION OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN INDIA (IYER & BADAMI 2007)
ENGINE TYPE CHARACTERISTICS BHARAT STAGE I BHARAT STAGE II (2005) BHARAT STAGE III FUTURE STANDARD-2015 FUTURE STANDARD -2025
(2000) (2010)
Two-stroke Technology Improved engine Improved engine and Air-assisted direct Air-assisted direct fuel Battery electric
engines and oxidation improved oxidation fuel injection and injection and improved
catalyst catalyst oxidation catalyst oxidation catalyst
Vehicle price (USD) 754 797 905 948 1034
PM (g/km) 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 No tailpipe emissions
NOx (g/km) 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08
HC (g/km) 2.13 1.32 0.7 0.55
CO (g/km) 2.2 1.4 1 0.8
Fuel economy gasoline eq. 45 45 59 59 150
(km/l)
Four-stroke Technology Improve engine Improved engine with Port fuel injection Port fuel injection with Direct fuel injection with
engines with or without improved oxidation with oxidation three-way catalyst three-way catalyst
oxidation catalyst catalyst catalyst
Vehicle price (USD) 905 970 1121 1207 1293
PM (g/km) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03
NOx (g/km) 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.08
HC (g/km) 0.7 0.7 0.56 0.45 0.36
CO (g/km) 2.2 1.4 0.42 0.33 0.25
Fuel economy gasoline eq. 72 72 73 73 77
(km/l)

5.1.4 COMPLIANCE AND The purpose of the type-approval is to

show that the design is capable of
ENFORCEMENT PROGRAMS
meeting the standard.
Compliance and enforcement programs The type-approval process is usually
include all the government led programs overseen by a government agency with
put in place to ensure vehicle models are relevant technical expertise, most often
in compliance with new vehicle within the national environmental
regarding emission certification and in- ministry or administration.
use emission standard limits to ensure Manufacturers are responsible for all
compliance over time. The main testing performed during the type-
programs are the type-approval process, approval process. Some manufacturers
the conformity of production and choose to invest in their own testing
selective enforcement audit process and equipment; others contract the services
the vehicle recall program. of independent testing facilities.

The type-approval process, or The engine family is the basis for type-
certification process as it is called in the approval or certification. An engine
US and Taiwan occurs prior to mass family is defined by regulation and is
production and sale to the public. composed of engines with the same
Conformity of production and new engine and emission control
vehicle selective enforcement audit characteristics. These characteristics
occur in the first few months of the include cylinder number and
vehicle model’s availability on the configuration, cooling system, and
market. A vehicle model recall can occur number of injectors within a
anytime within its official useful life. displacement category. Type approval
must be obtained for each engine family
and each model year.
34 Policy Frameworks

Test procedures require manufacturers Periodic correlation tests are performed

perform exhaust emission testing and, if between manufacturers’ test facilities,
required, evaporative testing. The tests are oversight agencies, and independent testing
performed on a representative pre-production facilities to identify any systematic problems
vehicle for each engine family. The and ensure the reliability of results from
manufacturer selects the representative pre- different sources. There have been issues
production vehicle that would represent the with fake certificates being issued for
worst-case scenario for emission within the vehicles imported to the United States and
engine family using their best engineering routine inspection can minimize the risk of
judgment. This is, for example, the vehicle fraud. The oversight agency may choose to
with the largest displacement engine or with conduct factory inspections during
the lowest precious metal loading on the motorcycle production to ensure that the
catalyst. In the US, this vehicle is referred to manufacturer is building vehicles to the
as an “Emission Data Vehicle”. It is also best specifications approved in the type-approval
if this vehicle’s features are as close to the process. This step is especially important
expected production model as possible. This during the production of the first generation
will reduce costly recalls later when vehicles of models subject to a new set of emission
are already in use. standards.

Testing requirements vary by jurisdiction. In Conformity of Production and Selective

the US there are different requirements for Enforcement Audit is required to ensure that
on-highway and off-highway motorcycles. mass production implements the approved
On-highway motorcycles above 50 cc must design Shortly after vehicles are made
be tested at four specific points of available to the public, manufacturers must
accumulated distance. The first point is demonstrate that the vehicles produced meet
specified by regulation as the minimum test the requirements established under the type-
distance after emission stabilization. The last approval process. In this mainly
point is at half the official useful life. The administrative step, the manufacturer must
second and third test points are at distances document production and quality
in between before and after specified management practices, including the testing
periodic maintenance. Tests can use a they performed throughout production. If the
dynamometer or a test track according to a oversight agency judges the documented
procedure specified in the regulation. The practices are satisfactory, vehicle sales can
emissions at the end of useful life must be continue. If not, the manufacturer must
estimated using statistical methods. perform production upgrades and resubmit
documentation for approval.
The test results are submitted to the oversight
agency. If the emissions at the end of the The oversight agency can choose to require
motorcycle’s useful life are below the the manufacturer to further test new engine
standard limit values, requirements are met. or vehicle model emissions and to submit
The manufacturer then receives a certificate these results through the Selective
of conformity. If the requirements are not Enforcement Audit (SEA) program. Engines
met, the manufacturer can upgrade engine and vehicles can either be pulled from the
and vehicle design for re-testing. end of the factory assembly line or taken
from the dealership for these selected
35 Policy Frameworks

enforcement audits. The testing can be done In Taiwan, for example, properly maintained
by the oversight agency or by the motorcycles must meet standards; otherwise
manufacturer following the agency’s manufacturers must recall and repair them. A
requirements. If the engines or vehicles fail preliminary investigation tests emissions
to meet the standards, sales of that particular conformity among a selection of five
engine or vehicle model will be restricted motorcycles from each engine family. If these
until the manufacturer can demonstrate do not meet emission standards (or more than
conformity with the standards. SEA allows two tests from each engine family fail), a
the agency to identify, as early as possible, conformity test will ensue. Taiwan institutes
high emitting vehicle models so that vehicles a motorcycle recall when average emissions
sold are repaired and improvements are made do not meet standards from ten samples in
at the production level. the same engine family.

Vehicle recall ensures the durability of the 5.2 MOTORCYCLE EMISSIONS

manufactured motorcycles. As with selective
IN-USE REQUIREMENTS
enforcement audits, the vehicle recall
program allows for the identification and Motorcycle inspection and maintenance
repair of systemic emission problems. This (I&M) are an important part of the
encourages manufacturers to be proactive in framework to check that control systems are
testing and quality assurance to avoid in working order. I&M is typically part of a
financial losses later during a specified larger emissions testing program covering
warranty period. The oversight agency may cars and light trucks. Under inspection and
select in-use vehicles for further emission maintenance programs, vehicles’ emissions
testing anytime during the warranty, which is (and safety) are required to be inspected and
usually specified in terms of vehicle age and tested at regular intervals, usually annually or
miles driven (e.g., 10 years/100,000 miles). bi-annually. The vehicles that fail to meet in-
These tests provide both the agency and the use standards must be repaired and retested.
manufacturers with information on how the I&M programs thus create an incentive for
vehicles are performing in the real world. vehicle owners to perform preventative
Typically this testing is triggered by data maintenance to ensure their vehicles will pass
from an inspection and maintenance inspection. This discussion focuses solely on
program. Data on warranty claims may also the motorcycle components of I&M
reveal that a specific engine family or vehicle programs.
model may be systematically failing to meet
the standards. If the testing proves systematic I&M programs can be centralized or
failure, the oversight agency may issue a decentralized. In a centralized system, only a
recall order to the manufacturer. The few large facilities provide testing.
manufacturer must contact vehicle owners Centralized stations are typically test-only
and must repair all the vehicles covered by stations that are operated by the government.
the recall at its own expense. Manufacturers In a decentralized system there are many
may also voluntarily issue recalls once a smaller, often private facilities that provide
problem is identified. In general, recall both testing and repair services. Each
programs have a broader scope than emission structure has its advantages and
related issues and extend to safety and disadvantages. Experiences with different
overall vehicle performance. testing designs are summarized in Table 5-3.
36 Policy Frameworks

TABLE 5-3. I&M PROGRAM DESIGN CHOICES AND THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES (WALSH 2005)
DESIGN TYPE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DRAWBACKS
Centralized Limited number of test only - Easier facility oversight for - Limited access to facilities
facilities government for vehicle owners
- Potentially lower cost per test if - Longer wait times, lost
large number of vehicles are productivity, and vehicle idle
tested in each facility emissions

Decentralized Larger number of test and - Convenient access to facilities - More challenging facility
repair facilities and to repair services for vehicle oversight for government
owners (corruption, poor quality
- Incentive for testing facilities to control)
provide preventative -Potentially higher cost per
maintenance to potential testing test if low number of vehicles
customers are tested in each facility

Vehicle emission testing facilities can be Fuel economy standards are typical
public, private, or a hybrid arrangement. expressed in miles per gallon (km/liters)
Hybrid testing can entail a mix of public and while the related measures of fuel
licensed private facilities in a decentralized consumption is measured in liters/100
structure or a private company contracted to kilometers. No matter what measure is
operate test-only facilities in a centralized selected it is important that fuel usage
structure. If testing is provided by the private standards avoid the pitfalls cars have faced
sector, it is important that contractor where vehicles are made more fuel-efficient
selection and facility licensing follow a as their fuel economy remains stagnant. This
rigorous and transparent process (Walsh has been the case in the US where vehicle
2005). Outsourcing of the testing or even the performance, engine size, and weight
management of an I&M program requires increased as vehicles were made increasingly
continued government oversight to ensure more energy efficient without any
the quality of the work performed. meaningful reduction in fuel consumption.
Transparency is key to public acceptance of
I&M programs. Fuel economy certification is similar to that
for air pollution emissions. Typically
manufacturers are required to test
5.3 MOTORCYCLE FUEL
representative pre-production models during
ECONOMY STANDARDS the type approval process according to
Fuel economy is an emerging regulatory established test procedures that detail driving
issue in the motorcycle fleet, especially in cycles. Oversight agencies may conduct
the context of growing concerns about independent testing to verify the data
climate change and energy security. Although provided by manufacturers.
motorcycles tend to travel farther on a gallon
(liter) of gasoline than passenger vehicles, There are currently no in-use compliance
further fuel economy gains can be achieved programs for motorcycles (or cars). In
by optimizing engines and motorcycles. general, the fuel economy of well-maintained
Reducing conventional pollutant emissions vehicles is not anticipated to deteriorate and
can reduce fuel consumption through may even improve as wear reduces engine
improved combustion efficiency or the friction and tire rolling resistance. On the
transition from two- to four-stroke engines. road, variable traffic conditions and road
conditions, as well as driver behavior can
37 Policy Frameworks

TABLE 5-4. MOTORCYCLE FUEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS IN LITER PER 100 KILOMETER, BY
ENGINE SIZE (GB16486-2008, GB15744-2008, LIN 2009)
ENGINE SIZE (cc) CHINA CHINA TAIWAN TWO-WHEELER
TWO-WHEELER THREE-WHEELER (L/100km)
(L/100km) (L/100km)
≤50 (mopeds) 2.0 2.3 2.3
>50-100 2.3 3.3 2.7
≥100-125 2.5 3.8 2.8
≥125-150 2.5 3.8 2.8
≥150-250 2.9 4.3 4.0
≥250-400 3.4 5.1 4.0
≥400-650 5.2 7.8 5.5
≥650-1000 6.3 9.0 6.3
≥1000-1250 7.2 9.0 6.9
≥1250 8.0 9.0 6.9

contribute to high variability in fuel comparison is the difference in the testing

consumption in use. Poor maintenance can methodology. There is also some indication
contribute to deterioration of fuel economy. that manufacturers may follow different
Inspection and maintenance programs, strategies in accordance with customer
discussed in Section 6.2, can help identify preferences. In India, small two-stroke
and repair malfunctioning motorcycles. engines tend to be tuned to a lean air-fuel
ratio to maximum efficiency, whereas small
Taiwan has had fuel economy standards in motorcycles in other countries tend to run
place since 1987 and mainland China rich to optimize power (Meszler 2007).
adopted standards in 2008. Table 5-4
summarizes the adopted fuel consumption
5.4 MOTORCYCLE FUEL AND
limits for two- and three-wheelers in China
and details the standards in force in Taiwan LUBRICATING OIL QUALITY
starting in 2009. STANDARDS
The systems approach to vehicle emission
In India, manufacturers will begin
control requires carefully matching emission
voluntarily reporting fuel economy for
limits with the corresponding fuel
motorcycles starting in spring of 2009. The
specifications. As discussed in previous
fuel economy will be measured as per the
sections, fuel quality affects the performance
emissions standards test procedure specified
of many exhaust control after-treatment
in rule 115 of the Central Motor Vehicle
systems. Lubricating oil quality and usage
Rules (CMVR). It is expected that fuel
rates mainly affect the emission performance
economy standards will be proposed in late
of two-stroke engines. The following
2009 to take effect starting model year 2013.
sections summarize current policies
addressing fuel sulfur, metal and other
Even with more publicly available
additive contents as well as regulations of
standardized fuel economy information it
lubricating oil quality and use.
will remain difficult to compare fuel
consumption estimates in the major markets
such as China and India. The main barrier to
38 Policy Frameworks

TABLE 5-5. CURRENT GASOLINE SULFUR CONTENT STANDARDS FOR SELECTED COUNTRIES AND
REGIONS, 2007 (ICCT 2007a, PCFV 2007)
GASOLINE SULFUR CONTENT COUNTRIES & REGIONS
≤ 10-15 ppm Japan
> 10-15 and ≤ 50 ppm European Union, South Korea, Taiwan, United States
> 50 and ≤ 150 ppm China, India: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru,
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Kapur, Pune, Surat, Agra; Singapore,
Thailand
> 150 and ≤ 500 ppm India (excluding 11 large cities), Vietnam
> 500 ppm Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, The Philippines, Sri
Lanka

5.4.1 SULFUR CONTENT OF FUEL of lower sulfur fuels can only be attained if
they are implemented at the same time as
Many countries and regions regulate the
emission standards for vehicles. Countries
sulfur content in the gasoline and diesel fuels
must couple emissions standards with fuel
available for sale. Sulfur limits, however,
quality standards to fully enable cleaner
vary widely. Some of the world’s lowest
vehicle technologies.
sulfur fuel is available in Japan, E.U.,
Taiwan, South Korea, and the U.S. But not
Figure 5-1 displays the estimated cost-benefit
all countries or regions with large motorcycle
ratios from several analyses of proposed
populations control high sulfur levels,
sulfur content reductions in diesel and
leading to high motorcycle emissions. Table
gasoline coupled with tighter emission
5-5 includes current levels of sulfur in
standard in the United States (light-duty,
gasoline in selected countries.
heavy-duty, and non-road vehicles), China
(light and heavy-duty), and Mexico (light
As more countries move to lower sulfur
and heavy-duty). The analysis for China
fuels, there is strong evidence that the costs
includes the costs and benefits of improving
of this transition are outweighed by the
fuel quality and emission standards for
public health and environmental benefit of
motorcycles.
cleaner fuels and vehicles. The full benefits

FIGURE 5-1. RATIO OF BENEFITS TO COSTS IN THE YEAR 2030 FOR SEVERAL
RECENT ANALYSES (US EPA 1999, 2000, AND 2004; ICCT 2006; INE 2006
39 Policy Frameworks

When transitioning to lower sulfur fuels, it is The continued use of lead will not only result
standard practice to make the fuel available in significant health impacts among the most
ahead of the sale of vehicles designed to use vulnerable individuals, especially children
the cleaner fuel to meet new emission under six years old, but also permanently
standards. This allows potential fuel damaging catalysts, precluding the use of
distribution issues to be resolved before the advanced emission controls.
vehicles requiring the fuel are on the road.
This also limits misfueling that may damage Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese
the vehicles’ emission control systems. tricarbonyl (MMT) – often used as an
alternative to lead for fuel octane
Some countries, such as China and India, enhancement – is subject to strict limits or is
have elected to have cleaner fuels available banned in some countries. In Europe, the
in large metropolitan areas before they limits that will come into force in 2014 (2
become available nationwide. The rationale milligrams/liter) are effective bans since
behind this two-tiered implementation these levels would not provide any
schedule benefits those areas where the significant increase in octane levels (ICCT
burden of air pollution is the highest, while 2008). In 2008, Beijing, China adopted a
allowing fuel providers to ramp up their maximum limit of 6 mg/l MMT, while fuel
production or import cleaner fuels to meet providers in India and Indonesia volunteered
nationwide demand. Unfortunately, in this not to use MMT as an octane booster (ICCT
approach, the risk of misfueling and 2008).
damaging the emission control system is
most probable for vehicles that frequently 5.4.3 LUBRICATING OIL QUALITY
travel where lower sulfur fuel is unavailable. AND USAGE CONTROLS
In many countries the use of low smoke oil,
5.4.2 FUEL METAL AND OTHER FUEL also referred to as 2T oil, is required to be
ADDITIVES CONTENT dispensed at service stations pre-mixed with
gasoline to prevent the use of excessive
Studies have shown a dramatic reduction in
amounts of poor quality lubricants. 2T oil
lead levels in blood since lead was phased-
specifications are provided by the Japanese
out of gasoline (ICCT 2001). However there
Automotive Standards Organization as JASO
are still countries, listed in Table 5-6, where
FB and JASO FC, and by the American
lead continues to be used in all or part of the
Petroleum Institute as API TC.
gasoline sold. In some cases, complete
phase-out plans have yet to be agreed upon.

TABLE 5-6. STATUS OF LEADED FUEL USE IN THE WORLD (PCFV 2008)
STATUS COUNTRIES
Leaded Asia: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Myanmar
Middle East: Yemen
Dual System Africa: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Asia: Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
Europe: Bosnia Herzegovinaa, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbiab
Middle East: Iraq
a Ban in 2010; b Ban planned for 2015-2020
40 Policy Frameworks

Table 5-7 summarizes the regulations adequate oversight and coordination, it will
adopted in selected countries to control the be difficult, if not impossible, to realize the
use of lubricating oil for two-stroke engines. opportunities to improve
The experience with implementing motorcycles’ emissions and
lubricating oil regulations in India is fuel economy. A
provided in Case Study 3 below. discussion of these
opportunities follows
Policy frameworks matter when it comes to in the next section.
setting and enforcing environmental and
energy standards. Without adequate
verifiable test procedures, inspection,
durability requirements, routine inspection,

TABLE 5-7. TWO-STROKE OIL QUALITY AND DISPENSING REQUIREMENTS FOR SELECTED
COUNTRIES / REGIONS (ESMAP 2002, CAI ASIA 2004, BOAZ 2007)
COUNTRY/REGION OIL DISPENSING REQUIREMENTS IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
Bangladesh 2T oils meeting JASO FB or None, 2T oil available in 60 Availability of 2T oil
API TC specification ml packets
Ban on mineral oil sales
India 2T oils meeting JASO FC Dispense only pre-mixed oil No countrywide regulation
specification in 15 major and gasoline in large cities. on dispensing pre-mixed
cities Loose oil sale banned in oil and gasoline
some cities

Pakistan Ban on recycled oil sales Allow oil sale only at gasoline Adulteration of 2T oil
dispensing facilities and not
at other roadside locations

CASE STUDY 3. 2T OIL EXPERIENCE IN INDIA

ANUMITA ROYCHOWDHURY (CENTER FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT, DELHI, INDIA)

Indian policy with regards to lubricating oil has evolved in the last decade. In July 1998, the Supreme Court
intervened in Delhi to mandate that meters be installed in the refueling stations to dispense pre-mixed
lubricants and gasoline by December 1998. Supply and sale of loose 2T oil (not contained in sealed
containers) were banned in refueling stations and service garages. Following this directive, the Union
Ministry of Environment and Forests issued a notification titled, “2T oil Regulation and Supply and
Distribution Order,” in August 1998 that mandated the sale of 2T oils that conform to the American
Petroleum Institute (API TC) and JASO FC grades in the national capital territory of India (Delhi, New Delhi
and Delhi Cantonment). Thereafter, a few state governments enacted legislation regarding distribution,
purchase and sale of 2T oil.

In November 2006, the Government of India extended the original 1998 Supreme Court order for Delhi to
fifteen large cities including Agra, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Faridabad, Hyderabad, Jharia,
Jodhpur, Kanpur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, Patna, Pune, and Varanasi. A large part of the country still
remains outside the scope of this order.

One of the barriers to further implementation has been the high cost of installation of pre-mix dispensers
across the country. The pre-mix dispensers are either fully electronic or manual. The manual system can
still be influenced at the operator and user’s discretion. In Delhi, nearly 40 percent of the dispensers are
estimated to be manual.
41 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

and three-wheeled vehicles with a smaller

6. OPPORTUNITIES TO
energy and environmental footprint. The
REDUCE MOTORCYCLE following sections will identify policies for
each of these steps.
EMISSIONS AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
6.1 NEW VEHICLE POLICIES
Successful policy reform must be geared 6.1.1 EXHAUST EMISSION
toward both conventional and next STANDARDS
generation two- and three-wheeled vehicle
Several developing nations and regions are
technologies. Improving the performance and
implementing motorcycle emission
monitoring the use of conventional vehicles
standards. With motorcycle ownership on the
is key. Pushing cleaner and more fuel-
rise, their adoption worldwide is necessary.
efficient next generation technologies is also
Given that a limited number of motorcycle
necessary.
manufacturers export their production
worldwide, there are large benefits to
The first policy priority is establishing
harmonizing regulatory standards, including
emission standards and certifying new
reduced compliance costs for exporters and
motorcycles equipped with both conventional
the opportunity for countries to leapfrog to
and next generation technologies. This
the most stringent current standards.
entails overseeing the activities of a handful
of manufacturers, verifying that their
In Asia, Taiwan was the first to adopt
products meet the most up-to-date national
emissions standards and has remained a
and local standards. Incentives can be
leader in implementing increasingly stringent
employed to shift consumer preferences to
norms. Thailand and China have adopted
cleaner models. The next crucial step is
enhanced versions of the European air
controlling in-use emissions. Controlling
emissions from
vehicles once they are TABLE 6-1. LATEST ADOPTED TWO-WHEELER WITH TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE ENGINE (MESZLER
on the road is often the 2007)
COUNTRY/REGION INDIA EUROPEAN UNIONg TAIWAN
most challenging part
Engine Size or Type All < 50 cc 50 – 150 cc ≥150 cc <150 cc
of a comprehensive ≥150 cc
emission control Effective Date 2010 2002 2006 2007
CO (g/km) 1a 1 2 2 2 2
program. This requires HC + NOx (g/km) 1a 1.2 - - - -
dealing with the use HC (g/km) - - 0.8 0.3 0.8 0.3

and maintenance NOx (g/km) - - 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

Driving Cycle Indian Driving ECE R47c ECE R40 d R40 + ECE R40
practices of each Cycle EUDCe
motorcycle owner, a Cold Start Yes b No Yes Yes Yes
necessary endeavor Durability (km) 30,000 None None 15,000
Evaporative Emission None None None 2 g/ testf
fraught with
Limit
difficulties. The final Notes: a Deterioration factor = 1.2; b Procedure does not require measurement at T=0; c United Nation Economic
Commission for Europe Regulation 47 – mopeds; d United Nation Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 40 –
step is advancing motorcycles; e United Nation Economic Commission for Europe Regulation Extra-Urban Driving Cycle; f Determined by
technological Sealed Housing for Evaporative Determination (SHED) test; g According to the European Commission Directive 2006/72/EC,
manufacturers can also comply using the World Motorcycle Test Cycle. In that case the limit values are as follows: For
innovations to produce maximum speed below 130 km/h, CO: 2.62 g/km, HC: 0.75 g/km, NOx: 0.17 g/km. For maximum speed above or equal 130
km/h, CO: 2.62 g/km, HC: 0.33 g/km, NOx: 0.22 g/km
next generation two-
42 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

TABLE 6-2. LATEST ADOPTED THREE-WHEELER WITH TWO- AND FOUR-STROKE ENGINE (MESZLER 2007)
Notes: a Deterioration factor = 1.2; b Deterioration factor = 1.1; c D
COUNTRY/REGION INDIA EUROPEAN UNIONg TAIWAN

Engine Size or Type Spark Ignited Compression <50 cc >50 cc SI >50 cc CI <150 cc ≥150 cc
(SI) Ignited (CI)

Effective Date 2010 2002 2003 2007

CO (g/km) 1.25 a 0.5 b 3.5 7 2 2 2
HC + NOx (g/km) 1.25 a 0.5 c 1.2
HC (g/km) 1.5 1 0.8 0.3
NOx (g/km) 0.4 0.65 0.15 0.15
PM (g/km) 0.05 a
Driving Cycle Indian Driving Cycle ECE R47e ECE R40f ECE R40 f

Cold Start Yes d No No Yes

Durability (km) 30,000 None None 15,000
Evaporative None None None 2 g/testg
Emissions Limit
eterioration factor = 1; d Procedure does not require measurement at T = 0; e United Nation Economic Commission for Europe
Regulation 47 – mopeds; f United Nation Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 40 – motorcycles; g Determined by Sealed
Housing for Evaporative Determination (SHED) test

quality standards program. India has motorcycle emissions throughout Asia and
developed its own unique set of norms. elsewhere. Refer to the Appendix for detailed
Tables 6-1 (two-wheeler standard) and 6-2 history of the motorcycle air quality
(three-wheeler standard) present the latest standards in each of these countries.
proposed or adopted standards in India, the
EU and Taiwan. Mainland China and The European Union first adopted
Thailand have either proposed to adopt or motorcycle standards in 1987. A trajectory of
have recently adopted standards similar to EU standards for four-stroke two-wheelers is
Taiwan’s standards. presented in Figure 6-1. Since its inception,
the EU’s standards have been differentiated
Since each country/region follows different by motorcycle type, by engine size and, until
test procedures and driving cycles, standard 1999, by engine type. The latest three-
emission levels are not directly comparable. wheelers European standards, also include
The 2006 version of Euro standards, referred separate spark-ignited and compression-
to as Euro 3, were one of the first attempts to ignited standards for three-wheelers, with
narrow the gap between automobile and more stringent limits for CO and HC but less
motorcycle standards. Taiwan’s standards, in stringent for NOx and no PM emission limits.
place since 2007, have similar emission It is important to note that, to date, European
limits as the Euro 3 program, but also include standards have not included durability limits,
very important durability requirements. cold start requirements or evaporative limits.
India’s current and proposed standards are These important enhancements were
based on a unique Indian Driving Cycle. discussed in greater detail in the previous
section.
As leaders in motorcycle emission control,
the technology neutral performance
standards in the EU, India, and Taiwan are
discussed below. Technology-neutral
standards offer the best opportunity to reduce
43 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

30! 0.35!
The global influence of European
CO!
standards is significant. China, the HC!
NOx! 0.3!
largest motorcycle producer in the 25!
HC+NOx!
world, recently adopted standards
0.25!
similar to those in Europe. As

CO, HC or HC +NOx (g/kW-hr)!

20!

motorcycles are a relatively small

NOx (g/kW-hr)!
0.2!
contributor to air pollution in much 15!
of Europe, enhancing the current 0.15!
program is a low priority. However,
10!
issues related to durability, defining 0.1!

the useful life of a vehicle, in-use

5!
compliance, and on-board 0.05!

diagnostics (OBD) are under

0! 0!
consideration for future standards. Pre-1993! 1993! 1999! 2003! 2006!
The fact that European standards
have the potential to determine the FIGURE 6-1. TRAJECTORY OF EU STANDARDS FOR A FOUR-STROKE
technology trajectory in regions
where motorcycles are significant polluters adopted for HC+ NOx emissions from two-
makes incorporating these program stroke motorcycle under 700 cc (see
improvements a necessary step in toward Appendix A, Table A-4). This change
realizing opportunities to improve virtually eliminated new two-stroke
motorcycles worldwide. motorcycles in Taiwan for model year 2004
and beyond. Starting with model year 2007
Taiwan has long been the leader on the limit values have been harmonized with
motorcycle emission control regulations in Euro 3. But the standards are considered
Asia. With the highest motorcycle population more stringent as they include a 15,000-km
density per square kilometer, their first durability requirement. China, along with its
regulation was adopted in 1988 and
has been progressively tightened
over the past two decades. Figure
6-2 details the trajectory of
Taiwan’s emission standards for
four-stroke, two-wheeler
motorcycles. The emission limits,
based on the European ECE R40
cycle, have included durability
requirements since 1991 and cold
start requirements since 2002. The
evaporative limit of 2 g/test was
introduced in 1991.

The program in Taiwan did not

distinguish between two and four-
stroke engines until 2004, when !
FIGURE 6-2. TRAJECTORY OF TAIWAN’S STANDARDS FOR A FOUR-STROKE
more stringent limit values were 125 CC TWO-WHEELER (MESZLER 2007)
44 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

Euro 3 emission limits, has adopted a population. The growing importance of

30,000-km durability requirement and is diesel three-wheelers used for goods
using the sealed housing for evaporative transport has led to specific compression-
determination (SHED) test to assess ignited (CI) engine standards for these
evaporative emissions. vehicles in India. The CI engine standard is
more stringent than the spark-ignition (SI)
In India, motorcycle regulations distinguish engine standard because it was set to be on
themselves by a unique test cycle, the Indian par with Euro 3 standards for small
Driving Cycle, developed in the mid-1980s passenger vehicles (Roychowdhury 2007). It
to represent Indian traffic and driving also includes limit values for PM emissions.
conditions. The Indian program applies the In contrast, the SI engine standards were set
same limit values to two- and four-strokes to be incrementally lower than the standard
and, unlike the latest standards around the previous in force but are not set to be on par
globe, does not have separate limit values for with small gasoline passenger vehicles
HC and NOx. Here, there is no differentiation (Roychowdhury 2007).
by engine size. Since 2005, the Indian
standards have a 30,000-km durability 6.1.2 COMPLIANCE AND
requirement and deterioration factors can be ENFORCEMENT OF STANDARDS
used to show that the motorcycles will
Compliance and enforcement programs are
maintain their emission performance over
essential in ensuring that vehicles are built to
their useful life. The downward trend for
meet the standards in force and continue to
Indian motorcycle emission standards is
comply with the regulated exhaust limits
presented in Figure 6-3.
throughout their useful life. Unfortunately,
compliance and enforcement is often the
The Indian program includes standards for
weak link in many programs, with
three-wheelers as they represent a significant
understaffed and underfunded oversight
s h a r e o f t h i s c o u n t r y ’s m o t o r c y c l e
agencies. In Taiwan, for example,
regulators attribute the success of
their regulatory program to their
“life cycle emission control”
program (TEPA 2006). Figure 6-4
identifies the compliance and
enforcement programs in place in
Taiwan. This figure also
documents at what point in the
motorcycle life these programs
take effect. The environmental
protection administration, TEPA,
oversees the certification,
conformity of production, new
vehicle selective enforcement
audit and recall programs. The
inspection and maintenance
!
FIGURE 6-3. TRAJECTORY OF INDIA’S STANDARDS FOR A FOUR-STROKE 125 program, further described is
CC TWO-WHEELER (MESZLER 2007)
45 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

FIGURE 6-4. COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT PROGRAMS IN TAIWAN (TEPA 2006)

Section 6.2.1, is implemented in cooperation Given their growing prevalence throughout

with local environmental agencies and law Asia and in developing nations and regions,
enforcement. motorcycle fuel economy deserves greater
attention. Other than Taiwan and Mainland
Each year, TEPA tests a number of engine China’s regulations, no other Asian nation or
family as part of their recall program. In region has adopted fuel economy standards
2008, ten engine families representing about (or greenhouse gas emission standards) for
50 motorcycle models sold on the island motorcycles. It is expected, that India, which
were tested and all passed (Lin 2009). has adopted a fuel economy-labeling
Regulators in Taiwan measure the program for motorcycle, will consider
effectiveness of their program by tracking standards in the near future.
the average emission of the vehicles tested in
the various phases of the program. Over the Taiwan has a fuel economy standard (km/
years, the agency has seen a decrease in non- liter) and Mainland China has a fuel
compliant vehicle model and in overall consumption standard (liters/100 km). Both
failure rates (TEPA 2006). standards are tiered with limit values
depending on engine size in cubic
centimeters. Mainland China also has
6.1.3 FUEL ECONOMY STANDARDS
adopted standards for three-wheelers, which
There are few policy examples for advancing are less stringent than the two-wheeler fuel
fuel economy standards on two- and three- consumption limits, reflecting these vehicles
wheeler fuel. The US, EU, and Japan do not larger load per engine size. Figure 6-5
currently regulate motorcycle fuel economy presents the recently adopted standards in
either. In these nations, cars and light trucks Mainland China, and the latest version of the
consume far more energy than motorcycles, standards in Taiwan converted to liters/
so policymakers pay little attention to two- 100km that will be enforced in late 2009.
wheelers. Despite the lack of regulations,
however, motorcycles are fully considered in The fuel consumption test procedures used to
fuel use inventories and included in climate demonstrate compliance with the standards
change models. in China are based on the fuel consumption
46 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

10!
CHINA-TWO-WHEELERS!
9!
CHINA-THREE-WHEELERS!
TAIWAN- TWO-WHEELERS!
8!
Fuel Economy (liters/100 kilometers)!

7!

6!

5!

4!

3!

2!

1!

0!
"50 (mopeds)!>50-100! #100-125! 125-150! #125-250! #250-400! #400-650!#650-1000!
#1000-1250! #1250!
Engine Size Bins!

FIGURE 6-5. FUEL EFFICIENCY STANDARDS IN CHINA AND TAIWAN (EFFECTIVE 2009)
Note: two-wheeler standards in Taiwan and those in Mainland china are measured according to different test procedures and
are not directly comparable

measurement methods described in the motorcycle fuel economy standards should

International Standards Organization (ISO) be set, what the best measurement
standards 7860 for motorcycles and 7859 for procedures are, whether standards and test
mopeds. Each model’s fuel consumption is procedures should differ from nation to
the weighted average of the results of a nation or be harmonized, and how to enact
running mode test (ECE-4 and ECE-R40) enforcement requirements. Complementary
and a constant speed test (speed varies by fuel pricing policies should be considered to
engine size category). According to testing hasten the adoption of motorcycle fuel
performed at the Tianjin Motorcycle Center economy standards. Higher fuel prices (or
many of the motorcycles currently on the taxes) create the conditions for public
market may not comply with the proposed support of stringent, enforceable fuel
standards in some displacement categories economy standards.
(Wang 2006). It is therefore expected that the
standards will improve the new vehicle 6.1.4 ALTERNATIVE FUELS
fleet’s overall performance. REQUIREMENTS
Different cities in various countries have
In Taiwan, the fuel economy test is the
experimented with alternative fuels in two-
weighted average of results on an urban
and three-wheelers as a means of reducing
driving cycle (ECE-15) and a constant speed
local pollution or moving to domestic energy
test (50 km/hr for motorcycle and 40 km/h
resources. The success of alternative fuels in
for mopeds).
vehicle applications depends on local
Further research and policy development is
conditions and effective policymaking. The
expressly warranted to determine how best
47 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

nature of regional pollution problems, for electric three-wheelers is to transport

consideration of fuel cycle emissions of visitors at the Taj Mahal in Agra, where the
domestic energy supplies, economic factors, use of internal combustion vehicles is banned
adequate vehicle maintenance, full to avoid damaging World Heritage site (GTZ
consideration of emission tradeoffs, and 2004).
consistent policymaking efforts over the long
term each play an important role. In Katmandu, Nepal, alternative fuel policies
have fluctuated in their support for electric
Asian experiences with alternative fuel motorcycles and LPG three wheelers. Still,
motorcycle programs have had mixed results. pollution levels have continued to grow In
Some nations have been successful in the Katmandu valley. While new
ramping up ownership and use, but clearer technologies have been introduced and
goals and emission standard enforcement – operations improved, registration
akin to those applied to conventionally restrictions, variable fuel prices, high
fueled motorcycles – are needed for electricity rates, and import duties factor into
alternative fuel motorcycles. Other nations Katmandu's alternative fuel motorcycle
have switched their support from one fuel to requirements, discussed in section 6.1.5
another, without making consistent progress. below.
Merely requiring the use of alternative fuels
while necessary is not sufficient to reduce Hybrid applications could extend to two and
emissions and fuel use. three-wheelers because these often operate in
crowded urban areas in stop-and-go
India, for example, has substituted operation. Honda has developed a 50 cc
compressed natural gas (CNG) for hybrid scooter prototype that offers about a
conventional fuels for public transportation one-third reduction in fuel use and GHG
by court order. A 1998 Supreme Court of emissions compared to similar 50 cc scooters
India directive ruled, as part of the ongoing (Honda, 2004). However, sales of two and
public interest litigation on air pollution in three-wheeled vehicles in most markets are
Delhi, that the entire public transport bus extremely price sensitive, so the extent of
fleet, along with the passenger three-wheeled any potential market for hybrid technology
vehicles and taxis, be converted to run on may be quite limited.
CNG by 2001. The objective was to reduce
the alarming levels of particulate pollution in Alternative fuels in motorcycle applications
one of the most polluted cities of the world. are very sensitive to local conditions. Cities
The CNG program in Delhi is now fully currently embarking on programs to shift
established and there are more than 100,000 motorcycle fleets to alternative fuels will
vehicles plying in the city, just over one-half have to overcome technical, institutional, and
are three-wheelers. market barriers for successful
implementation and maximum emissions
Electric three-wheelers tend to serve niche gains. Before governments get head long into
markets in India rather than reaching a mass selecting an alternative fuel, the better option
market. Although they are commercially is to adopt performance standards. This
available from several major manufacturers, enables competition between viable
they have not attained large market alternatives and a greater likelihood that the
acceptance. One specific niche application outcome will deliver social benefits.
48 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

in the field. Moreover, OBD can be further

6.1.5 ON BOARD DIAGNOSTICS weakened if each manufacturer is left to
define emission performance regarding how
On-board diagnostic (OBD) systems alert the
“bad” emissions have to be before they
vehicle driver about potential problems that
trigger a sensor and illuminate the “check
can affect the emission performance of the
engine” light. And when manufacturers are
vehicle. OBD requirements were first
allowed to extinguish the MIL at their
introduced in California for 1988 model year
discretion, further emission control benefits
light-duty vehicles. This consisted of limited
are lost. OBD II has corrected many of these
functional and circuit continuity checks of
early failings of OBD I, but they come with
some vehicle engine components. Today,
extra cost in equipment and enforcement.
more thorough, although not comprehensive,
OBD II requirements apply to light-duty
Driver education must accompany OBD
vehicles and heavy-duty engines (but not yet
system integration on motorcycles. The MIL
motorcycles) throughout the US and Europe.
is far too easy to ignore and to tamper with.
These newer diagnostic systems monitor
Once new motorcycle owners realize that
virtually every component and system that
these indicator lights are useful to maintain
can affect emissions during normal driving,
overall vehicle operation and life, OBD
alerting the driver through a dashboard
usefulness increases. Sooner or later, faulty
malfunction indicator light (MIL) and storing
components adversely affect vehicle
fault code information for repair technicians
emissions and overall performance.
to access.

Like cars, motorcycles can also be equipped 6.1.6 FISCAL POLICIES FOR CLEAN,
with OBD to help owners maintain clean EFFICIENT NEW MOTORCYCLES
vehicle operations and regulators enforce In order to transition from conventional to
inspection and maintenance programs. OBD, cleaner technologies, governments often get
an opportunity for improvement applicable to involved to provide incentives for the
all motorcycles with electronic engine manufacture, purchase, and use of clean,
management, does not work with simplified efficient new motorcycles. Such fiscal
carburetor fuel systems. A less-complex policies are complements to standards
OBD I system (as opposed to the newer, discussed previously. Financial policies
more complex OBD II) is under support strategies to improve new vehicle
consideration for motorcycles as a cost and engine technologies, low-carbon
effective emission control technology in alternative fuels development, and clean
Europe (ACEM 2007). OBD requires motorcycle retrofit programs. These can
equipment to decode recorded data, adding include favorable loans, financial incentives,
complexity in developing countries. and grants. Other tax mechanisms can be
used to penalize or reward low-emission
While technologically this provides a more vehicle purchase and use. Examples of these
advanced way to monitor motorcycle fiscal strategies in Asian cities and countries
emissions, problems can arise with lack of are discussed below. Similar types of fiscal
standardization in terms of connectors, scan policies can apply to vehicles once they are
tools, and fault codes. This can result in in use.
many different manufacturer-specific designs
49 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

Fiscal policies are more sustainable when Taiwan provides incentives for the purchase
developed to fit local conditions. Several of low-emission motorcycles. To encourage
specific examples follow. In the Philippines’ the purchase of electric scooters, about $600
San Fernando City, economic incentives (US dollars) in incentive was provided
drove the transition from two-stroke to four- during the 1990’s and early 2000’s. This
stroke (less polluting) tricycles. Interest free project was subsequently discontinued and
loans have been made available for the the sales of electric scooters plummeted.
purchase of four-stroke three-wheelers
(Roychowdhury et al. 2006). In 2001, three- In China, India, Taiwan, Thailand, and other
quarters of the city’s 1,600 registered Asian regions and nations, targeted policies
tricycles ran on two-stroke engines. But after to reduce the two-stroke motorcycle
a city council mandate to totally phase out population are responsible for the decrease in
the vehicles by 2004, and offers of interest- production and sales of new two-stroke
free loans for down-payments on four-stroke motorcycles. In Taiwan, for example, tighter
models, more than 400 four-stroke tricycles emissions standards for two-strokes
had replaced the older two-stroke models. combined with financial incentives for the
purchase of four-stroke motorcycles were
In 1999, the government of Katmandu in adopted for model year 2004. Almost no new
Nepal banned diesel ten-passenger three- two-stroke motorcycles have been sold since
wheelers (known locally as tempos). This model year 2004 (Chen & Lin 2007).
ban followed a prior ban on new tempo Thailand uses taxation to accomplish similar
registration in 1991 (IGES 2003). The diesel goals. By charging a higher tax on two-stroke
tempo ban led to a dramatic increase in motorcycles than four-stroke models,
electric or safa (clean) tempos operating in consumers realize a tax reduction when they
the city, which had replaced almost half of purchase of 4-stroke motorcycles (Kuson
the diesel tempo fleet by 2002 (GTZ 2004). 2006).
Starting in 1995, incentives such as reduced
import duties were put in place to promote Feebates are another incentive policy that
the purchase and use of electric tempos (GRI can lead to continuous improvement in
1998). Electric three-wheelers operators are vehicle fuel economy. Unlike fuel economy
severely challenged by competition from standards, feebates do not run the risk of
gasoline and LPG three-wheelers. Safa being set to high (increasing incremental
tempos are more costly to operate than costs and risking market rejection) or too low
gasoline and LPG vehicles due to high (where cost-effective technology goes
electricity prices and high battery unused). Feebates provide certain cost
replacement costs (GTZ 2004). In addition, effective fuel economy improvements
gasoline and LPG vehicles enjoy the same (Greene 2008). France has implemented a
duty rates as electric vehicles (Kojima et al. feebate program for automobiles that invokes
2000). As a result, many electric three- significant fee and rebate amounts as shown
wheeler operators scrap their vehicle at the in Figure 6-6.
end of their batteries’ useful life. Several
programs are currently in place to build a
more sustainable electric vehicle industry in
Nepal (Boaz 2007).
50 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

FIGURE 6-6. FRANCE’S FEEBATE SCHEDULE FOR NEW AUTOMOBILES (ICCT, FORTHCOMING 2009)

$4,000!
Feebate for standard vehicles!
Approximate linear feebate for standard vehicles!
Feebate for alternative fuel vehicles!
Feebate for all vehicles!
$2,000!
Fee(rebate as negative) in US$!

$0!

-$2,000!

-$4,000!

-$6,000!

-$8,000!
0! 50! 100! 150! 200! 250! 300!

g CO2/km (NEDC cycle)!

6.2 IN USE VEHICLE POLICIES I&M program designs vary regionally.

Usually state or national governments require
Effective in-use programs can yield these programs and local government
significant benefits because real world agencies implement them. Program design
vehicle performance and use is what directly includes specifying in-use emission levels
impacts the air people breathe, the fuel they and test procedures, data collection and
burn, and greenhouse gases released into the management requirements, and enforcement
atmosphere. Opportunities for improved mechanisms.
motorcycle in-use control programs –
inspection and maintenance, retrofit and In terms of program cost, it is recommended
engine replacement programs, usage that vehicle owners pay the full cost of the
restrictions, fuel standards, circulation fees, program, including oversight and
and road pricing – are discussed below. enforcement activities. This creates stable,
These in-use policies are not mutually long-term program operation (Walsh 2005).
exclusive. Together they are an important However, some countries subsidize their
part of controlling two- and three-wheeler I&M programs. In Taiwan, for example, the
emissions and energy use in the future. government pays the entire test cost.

6.2.1 MOTORCYCLE INSPECTION Annual testing is the most effective method

AND MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS to ensure that all the vehicles covered by an
I&M program. Linking testing requirements
Inspection and maintenance programs help
to annual registration requirements is
ensure regulatory compliance during each
preferable (Walsh 2005). Given that many
vehicle’s lifetime. They typically apply to air
countries currently do not require annual
pollutant emissions and, sometimes, safety
registration or circulation (only registration
and noise.
when a vehicle is sold), systems using
51 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

TABLE 6-3. DESCRIPTION OF I&M PROGRAMS IN INDIA, TAIWAN, CHINA AND THAILAND (IYER 2007,
CHEN & LIN 2007, WANGWONGWATANA 2007)
COUNTRY/REGION STRUCTURE REQUIREMENTS FREQUENCY

India Decentralized with mostly private test All two- and three- Every 6 months
and repair facilities and some public wheelers
test only facilities
Taiwan Decentralized with mostly private test Motorcycles 3 years Annually
and repair facility and some public and older
test only facilities
Thailand Decentralized with private test and Motorcycles 5 years Annually
repair facilities and older

license plate stickers or I&M certificates can notifications. Table 6-3 summarizes
be useful in identifying vehicles that are in motorcycle I&M program characteristics in
annual compliance with the in-use those Asian countries with programs
requirements. currently in place.
Data management is a critical component of Emission standards must be established for
an I&M program. The large volume of data vehicles based on their age. Current in-use
they generate must be readily available for I&M standards set emissions limits for CO
enforcement and audits in order to evaluate (as a percentage of total exhaust) and HC (in
actual program effectiveness. This requires a parts per million, ppm). The amounts of CO
centralized computer database accessible to and HC in the exhaust are basic indicators of
test providers, oversight agencies, and engine and emission control performance.
program enforcement agencies. The I&M Table 6-4 details benchmarks for in-use
database can be linked to vehicle registration standards in Taiwan, Thailand, and India.
data, where available, to generate test These limits or cut points were established

TABLE 6-4. IN-USE EMISSION STANDARDS IN INDIA, TAIWAN, CHINA, AND THAILAND (IYER 2007,
CHEN & LIN 2007, WANGWONGWATANA 2007)
COUNTRY/REGION REGISTRATION OR MODEL YEAR TEST METHOD
MOTORCYCLE TYPE
India – 2-stroke Prior 2000 model year 2000 and later model year
CO (%) ≤4.5% ≤3.5% Idle
HC (ppm) ≤ 9,000 ppm ≤ 6,000 ppm Idle
India – 4-stroke Prior 2000 model year 2000 and later model year
CO (%) ≤4.5% ≤3.5%
HC (ppm) ≤9,000 ppm ≤ 4,500 ppm

Taiwan Prior January 2004 Jan 2004 and after

Certification level Best Marginal Best Marginal
CO (%) ≤3.5% 3.5%-4.5% ≤2.5% 2.5%-3.5% Idle
HC (ppm) ≤ 7,000 7,000-9,000 ≤1,500 ppm 1,500-2,000 ppmIdle
ppm ppm

Thailand – 2-wheeler Prior July 2006 July 2006 and after

CO (%) ≤4.5% ≤3.5% Idle
HC (ppm) ≤ 10,000 ppm ≤ 2,000 ppm Idle
White smoke opacity (%) 30% 30% Max HP RPM
Thailand – 3-wheeler All years
CO (%) ≤4.5% Idle
HC (ppm) ≤ 10,000 ppm Idle
White smoke opacity (%) 30% Max HP RPM
52 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

taking into account the expected performance motorcycle. Proper function of brakes, lights,
of engine and control technology over time, and tires is checked. Some programs also
maintenance practices, and air quality goals. verify that motorcycles meet mandated noise
Limits tend to vary by registration date or limits.
model year, increasing in stringency for I&M is typically enforced along the roadside.
newer motorcycles. Traffic police or other government agents
verify possession of required documentation
In-use testing procedures generally require showing the motorcycle has passed its latest
measurements taken during engine idle. This I&M test. Fines can be applied for non-
is far simpler than dynamic testing and uses compliance. Motorcycles can also be pulled
low cost testing equipment and testing over to perform testing on the curbside. Such
procedures. Unfortunately, however, testing roadside testing usually targets motorcycles
at idle may not provide a reliable indication with excessive visible smoke and is
of actual emission performance. The performed using mobile testing equipment.
correlation between idle emissions and actual
mass emission rates have been shown to be Remote sensing using “hidden” measurement
directionally correct but not statistically devices may be able to enhance enforcement,
significant (Iyer 2007). In contrast, new helping to identify motorcycles in violation
vehicles are typically certified at a range of of in-use standards. Remote sensing
engine speeds and loads, including idle. programs in Delhi and Pune, India indicate
Special care must be used when idle testing that data collection is more difficult for two-
to avoid sampling errors. Due to the and three-wheelers than for four-wheel
variability in size and configuration of vehicles. Small exhaust volumes at variable
exhaust pipe, the sampling probe may not be heights are among the many technical issues
fully inserted without the use of a leak-proof that make sampling by remote sensing for
extension (Iyer 2007). It is also important motorcycles difficult.
that instruments be routinely calibrated and
adjusted to ensure consistency. The case study 4 focuses on the emission
reductions, costs and cost effectiveness of
Research is currently ongoing to improve Taiwan I&M program. This program is often
I&M test procedures. Efforts are underway to described as a model for all motorcycle
implement test procedures that test under a countries in Asia. It is however difficult to
range of operating conditions using low-cost replicate, especially in larger regions, as this
loaded mode test equipment. Such equipment program is currently entirely subsidized by
consists of a single or pair of rollers to drive the government.
the motorcycle through a combination of
speeds, accelerations, decelerations, and
6.2.2 MOTORCYCLE RETROFIT AND
idles, while remaining stationary. The
Automotive Research Association of India ENGINE REPLACEMENT PROGRAMS
(ARAI) has been working on a loaded mode Motorcycle retrofits cover all in-use
test over a prescribed driving cycle for CO, modifications made to a vehicle to upgrade
HC, NOx, and CO2 (Iyer 2007). one or several of its components. This
section focuses on retrofits aimed at reducing
Most I&M programs may also test the motorcycle emissions and fuel consumption
overall roadworthiness and safety of the by improving combustion and exhaust
53 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

CASE STUDY 4. I&M PROGRAM COST EFFECTIVENESS IN TAIWAN

DATA PROVIDED BY YUNG HSUN CHEN, INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ITRI)
(RETIRED)
The motorcycle I&M program in Taiwan was first implemented in 1996 in eight cities and was later
expanded to cover all cities and counties by 1998. The number of testing facilities has grown from 187
stations, 67 of them publicly operated in 1996, to 2,252 in 2006. Today, only 16 of all stations are public,
most of which are mobile, serving remote locations.

Originally, the Environmental Protection Agency (TEPA) managed the program throughout Taiwan.
Oversight responsibilities were eventually transferred to local environmental protection bureaus. The
oversight agencies certify testing equipment and test providers, check equipment calibration annually, and
conduct all audit activities. All testing stations are connected through a networked computer system to a
centralized database managed by TEPA. This data is also available to agents in the field using a handheld
computer who can verify vehicle status by entering a license number. Roadside emission testing carried out
by local environmental agencies target vehicle owners that evade annual I&M testing. It is estimated that
about 66 percent of vehicle owners notified in 2006 complied with the testing requirement. Participation in
1996 at the program inception was about 45 percent and peaked in 2003 at 72 percent.

Figure 6-7 presents the Industrial Technology Research Institute’s (ITRI) estimates of emissions reduced
through the implementation of Taiwan’s I&M program since its inception.

The government subsidizes the cost of

the test. Motorcycle owners, therefore,
do not pay to test their vehicles, but
they must cover the cost of repairs if
their vehicles do not pass. In 2006,
about 2 percent of vehicles tested did
not pass and their repair costs
averaged US $7/motorcycle. Test
stations receive US $2.50 per test
performed from the government as well
as revenue from repair service. The
investment in I&M equipment and
training is estimated at US $10,000 per
facility and annual expenditures
including labor costs and facility rent is
estimated at US $7,000. On average, a !
station that performs 316 tests each FIGURE 6-7. MOTORCYCLE I&M EMISSION REDUCTION
month should break even on its ESTIMATES (CHEN & LIN 2007)
investment. This break-even analysis
does not include potential revenue from repair services.

Government I&M expenditures include subsidies paid to station owners for test costs and funding of
oversight activities by local environmental protection bureaus. In 2006, about US $14 million were
disbursed in I&M station subsidies and US $6 million for government activities. Government expenditures
averaged US $4 per tested motorcycle. The cost effectiveness of this government investment in 2006 was
estimated at about US $2,600/ton CO and US $1,800/ton HC.

treatment or enabling the use of cleaner

fuels. In theory, the emission control Other than the experience with alternative
technologies that are standard in newer fuel retrofit on three-wheelers in India, there
models can be applied to older motorcycles have been no wide-scale retrofit programs
to improve their environmental performance. for motorcycles to date. The main barrier has
In practice, however, only those low-cost been the lack of appropriate and cost
retrofits that are easily applicable to a broad effective retrofit technologies for older
range of motorcycle makes and models are uncontrolled engines. This conclusion was
made commercially available. reached in India in the late 1990s when two-
54 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

and three-wheeler retrofits were first The results of a recent pilot project in
considered. India considered retrofitting Thailand show that engine replacement can
older motorcycles by replacing the be a viable option for the control of
uncontrolled engine with a newer engine in-use emissions. The project
meeting at least the 1996 standards and involved replacing two-
adding an oxidation catalyst (Roychowdhury stroke engines in five
2007). three-wheelers with new
and used four-stroke
Exhaust after-treatment technologies are engines and installing
most effective and durable when the better performing
pollutant levels in the engine exhaust are silencers (PCD 2007).
below a set level. After the engine swap, tests Modifications were made to
of retrofit oxidation catalysts achieved an the four-stroke engines so that they
estimated durability of 20,000 km and would fit in the space allotted. Stress tests
emissions reductions for HC of 40 percent were performed to ensure that the heavier
and CO by 45 percent. Without the engine four-stroke engines did not compromise the
swap and tuning to the lowest emission structural safety of the three-wheelers. The
setting possible, the retrofit oxidation upgraded three-wheeler had 12 percent better
catalyst would last 10,000 kilometers and fuel economy in road testing (PCD 2007).
reduce HC by 20 percent and CO by 25 However, because the installed four-stroke
percent (Roychowdhury 2007). At these engines were much larger than the original
durability levels, the retrofit catalyst would two-stroke engines, laboratory testing
have to be replaced on an annual or biennial yielded only slight improvements during
basis. Other concerns about retrofit catalytic driving cycle tests and decreased in fuel
converters in the late 1990s included high economy at steady speeds.
catalyst and exhaust tube temperatures
burning drivers, the risk of catalyst poisoning Table 6-5 summarizes motorcycle retrofit
from residual lead in older motorcycles that programs in India and the Philippines.
had used leaded fuel, and lower engine fuel Projects in both countries have targeted
efficiency from higher exhaust backpressure. commercial motorcycles. This is because
While discussed in India, this program was high levels of use in commercial application
never implemented due to uncertainties. not only provide significant emission
reductions in city centers, but also allow for
more rapid payback through savings in fuel

TABLE 6-5. SUMMARY OF MOTORCYCLE RETROFIT PROGRAMS (IYER 2004, IYER 2008,
ROYCHOWDHURY ET AL. 2006, WILSON 2006)
LOCATION MOTORCYCLE TYPE RETROFIT ESTIMATED REDUCTIONESTIMATED ESTIMATED
TECHNOLOGY COST (US $) PAYBACK

Delhi, Mumbai, Three-wheelers CNG and LPG CNG: CO: -17%, CNG: $450 Not applicable
Pune, India NOx:+34% LPG: $400
LPG: CO:-22%,
NOx:+25%
Manila, Vigan, Three-wheeler with Direct injection HC: - 89% $300 Under 1 year
Puerto Princesa, 2-stroke engines CO: - 76% based on fuel
Philippines (Kawasaki, Oil use: - 50% savings
Yamaha) Fuel use: - 35%
55 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

The experience implementing two-stroke implementation. Retrofit installers should be

direct injection retrofit in the Philippines is certified as well to ensure that all
discussed in more detail from the perspective installations are done according to the
of the retrofit manufacturer and marketer in manufacturer and certification specifications.
Case Study 5. Retrofitting motorcycles is
more involved that it may seem. In order to Involving all the stakeholders in a retrofit
ensure that retrofit technologies provide real project at the outset is also important. It
emission benefits, it is necessary for the allows not only early buy-in but also
retrofit kits be certified in a process similar provides opportunities to discuss
to those applied to new vehicles. Certified implementation issues before they can
retrofit components or kits should also meet impede the project’s success. The
durability standards, and their performance stakeholders in a retrofit project include at a
in-use should be verified periodically. An minimum the vehicle owners and operators,
institutional framework for oversight of the retrofit manufacturers, distributors and
retrofit programs is needed to ensure installers, the funding and oversight
standardized procedures. This is necessary to organization from both local and national
verify potential emission reductions and government agencies.
address technical issues as they arise during

CASE STUDY 5. IMPLEMENTING THE TWO-STROKE MOTORCYCLE RETROFIT PROJECT IN

THE PHILIPPINES
BY TIM BAUER AND JAIME WHITLOCK, ENVIROFIT INTERNATIONAL, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO
Carbureted two-stroke engines use an air/fuel mixture to force exhaust products from the engine, a
process referred to as scavenging. During this process over 35 percent of the fuel escapes into the exhaust
unburned, leading to high HC and CO emissions. Retrofitting motorcycles with direct-in cylinder (DI) fuel
injection results in a more complete combustion of fuel, resulting in better fuel efficiency, more complete fuel
combustion, and lower HC emissions. A DI fuel injection retrofit kit for two-stroke motorcycle engines has
been developed. In tests, this two-stroke DI retrofit kit reduces carbon monoxide emissions by 76 percent,
carbon dioxide emissions by 35 percent, and hydrocarbon emissions by 89 percent, compared to
uncontrolled carbureted two-stroke engines. Carbon dioxide emission reductions translate into comparable
35 percent fuel use reductions. Oil use is also reduced by 50 percent. In comparison, replacing two-stroke
engines with carbureted four-stroke engines have been found to increase carbon monoxide by 2 percent
and only have a 20 percent reduction in fuel consumption compared to a carbureted two-stroke
motorcycle.

At a cost of US$350, the DI retrofit kit payback is estimated at one year given annual fuel and oil savings of
nearly $600. Given the simplicity of their construction, two-stroke engines can be cheaply repaired.
Controlling their emissions with cost-effective retrofits can combine long engine life with reduced
environmental impacts over motorcycles’ lifetimes.

Pilot projects in the Philippines – home to 1.8 million two-stroke motorcycles – have focused on the cities of
Vigan (population 150,000/tricycle population 3,000), Puerto Princesa (population 129,500/ tricycle
population 4,000) and Boracay (population 12,000/ tricycle population 200). DI retrofit has been tested over
200,000 kilometers (~12,000 hours) of driving in the Philippines on over 100+ pre-production vehicles. A
self-financing social venture includes key partners: Local Government Units, Office of the Mayor, Tricycle
Owners and Drivers Associations, commercial partnerships (Orbital Engine, Synerject, RT Technologies,
and Ropali), and organizational partnerships (US EPA, Colorado State University, and CAI-Asia). A National
micro-finance package through CAI-ASIA plays a key role in widespread awareness-raising activities.

Key components of the retrofit are brought in from outside the country while core components are
manufactured regionally. The goal is ‘tipping point’ that involves retrofitting 1,200 – 1,500 units/month with
an annual removal of unburned HC (90 percent per kit) and CO (76 percent per kit), as detailed in Table
6-7. Other retrofit projects are being explored in Asian countries such as India, Sri Lanka, China and
Thailand.
56 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

TABLE 6-6. EVALUATION OF ENVIROFIT PROJECT BENEFITS BY PROJECT SCALE (ENVIROFIT, CASE
STUDY 5)

PILOT PROJECT TIPPING POINT WIDESPREAD

METRIC COMPLETION ENVIROFIT IMPLEMENTATION
Q2 2009 SUSTAINABLE NATIONAL EXPANSION

Cumulative number of retrofits 3000 taxis 15000 taxis 500,000 taxis

Tons of Carbon Dioxide Eliminated 3000 tons 11,700 tons 720,000 tons
Liters of fuel saved 1,440,000 liters 5,600,000 liters 346,000,000 liters
Automobile equivalents of pollution
150,000 750,000 20,000,000
eliminated
Dollars infused into local economy $1,410,000 $2,500,000 $188,000,000
Local jobs created 15 – 20 jobs 90-100 jobs 500+ jobs

6.2.3 TWO- AND THREE-WHEELER similar bans on motorcycle operation in the

central business district, limiting motorcycle
USE RESTRICTIONS
use to suburbs and rural areas
Motorcycle usage restrictions prohibit all, or
(Roychowdhury et al. 2006). Chinese cities’
some types of, motorcycles (e.g. two-stroke
motorcycle bans came on the heels of
motorcycles, motorcycles older than 10
limiting new motorcycle registrations in the
years) from operating on certain roads or
late 1990s. By 2000, 37 cities were no longer
within certain parts of a city. Use restrictions
issuing new registrations and 21 additional
are most common in the congested city
cities had limited the number of new
center. Decisions on road usage and
registrations allowed (Roychowdhury et al.
restrictions are usually under the purview of
2006). Lahore in Pakistan is implementing a
city regulators.
ban on two-stroke three-wheelers in the
city’s major arteries. Table 6-8 provides
Use restrictions are intended not only to
additional details on several current and
reduce emissions in densely populated areas,
proposed motorcycle bans throughout Asia.
but also to reduce traffic congestion,
accidents, noise, and other societal problems.
A number of usage restrictions have focused
In Guangzhou, China, motorcycle gangs
on commercial three wheelers powered with
created public safety problems leading to a
two-stroke engines. Usage restriction
ban on all motorcycles from the city center
proposals are often met with significant
(Yardley 2007). Several large cities,
opposition from owners and operators.
including Jakarta and Lahore, have issued
Equity concerns often arise when such

TABLE 6-7. SELECTED CURRENT AND PROPOSED MOTORCYCLE RESTRICTION PROGRAMS

(ROYCHOWDHURY ET AL. 2006, YARDLEY 2007)
LOCATION MOTORCYCLE TYPE PROGRAM DETAILS
Dhaka, Bangladesh Two-stroke three wheelers Progressive ban from city: pre-1994 phased-out by
January 2002, all remaining phased-out by January 2003
Guangzhou, China All motorcycles and electric Ban from entire city and suburban areas since January
bicycles 2007
Jakarta, Indonesia Two-wheelers Restricted lane use proposed to be extended to peak hour
ban
Katmandu, Nepal Diesel three-wheelers Ban from city since 1999
Lahore, Pakistan Two-stroke three-wheelers Ban from majors road to be progressively extended to
entire city by December 2007
San Fernando, Two-stroke three-wheelers 1970’s models ban since 2003, 1980’s since 2004
Philippines
Taipei, Taiwan Motorcycles above 550cc Ban from urban districts
57 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

programs are announced, as most private car trips. It is also unclear that
commercial motorcycle operators’ limited removing two- and three-wheelers will, over
incomes depend heavily on operating in city the long-term, alleviate congestion in city
centers. In Dhaka, for example, workshops centers, especially if they are replaced with
were held with affected stakeholders, cars that occupy more road space. Broad
including drivers, owners, and service motorcycle bans also limit the use of fuel-
providers to develop rehabilitation plans. efficient and zero emission electric
motorcycles. This results in a missed
Complementary measures, such as enhanced opportunity for controlling emission and fuel
transportation services, can make bans easier use from transportation sources in urban
to bear. Dhaka’s 50,000 phased-out three centers.
wheelers were eventually replaced by:
10,000 CNG and gasoline three wheelers, Vehicle bans can have unintended
1,000 minibuses, 370 buses, 6,000 taxicabs consequences. They can lead to the export of
(up from 3,000), and 670 human powered a large number of low cost two-stroke
vehicles (Roychowdhury et al. 2006). Many motorcycles. In the poorest countries, in Sub-
three-wheeler phase-out programs are Saharan Africa for example, used vehicles
adopted with complementary incentive imports of all types are growing rapidly.
policies to assist operators in purchasing new Those with the lowest income strive to
and cleaner vehicles. purchase an imported motorcycle, regardless
of its environmental or safety drawbacks.
Banning some or all motorcycles is
perceived as a lower-cost option to adopting It might be more useful to adopt a
and enforcing emissions standards, retrofit, performance standards to give vehicle
and other programs. However, the long-term owners compliance options, including
costs and benefits of bans are unclear. The vehicle phase out, replacement with a
key to assessing them requires understanding conventional or an alternative fuel vehicle, or
how and at what cost motorcycle trips are vehicle retrofit. Performance standards could
replaced. Costs and benefits would be be tightened over time to ensure continued
different if motorcycle trips were replaced by reductions in motorcycle fuel-cycle
walking, biking, public transportation or by

TEXT BOX 6-2. SHOULD TWO-STROKES BE BANNED?

Cities throughout Asia struggling to control air pollution from motorcycles, older vehicles have not been
allowed to operate unless then switch to clean fuels. As a result, many two-stroke engine motorcycles
have been effectively banned. These decisions have often been very controversial. On the one hand, the
environmental benefits are evident. Reduced two-stoke motorcycle operation provides a significant and
immediate reduction in air pollution and exposure. In Dhaka, PM10 levels were reduced by 31 percent
and PM2.5 by 41 percent the week after the phase-out (Roychowdhury et al. 2006). On the other hand,
the overall costs of outright bans are often not accurately calculated. Phasing-out owned vehicles has
many negative socio-economic impacts ranging from loss of revenue for owners and operators to
reduced mobility for low-income customers to social unrest. Enforcement of bans requires significant
manpower and societal impacts. And deciding what to do with the banned vehicles bears costs in terms
of local disposal or transferring impacts to others who import banned motorcycles.

Bans are only successful if they ultimately lead to the adoption of alternatives that provide real and
permanent emission reductions. It is important to evaluate whether similar emission benefits at equal or
lower cost could be obtained through financial incentives, performance standards, or other technology
fixes, such direct injection retrofits, engine upgrades, and/or the addition of after-treatment technology.
58 Opportunities to Reduce Motorcycle Emissions and Energy Consumption

emissions. Driver and maintenance staff scrapped vehicles are destroyed and are
retraining programs could be provided if new replaced by lower emission models.
skills are needed to handle and maintain an
improved motorcycle fleet. Finally, enhanced 6.3 NEXT GENERATION
public transportation options are necessary to
TECHNOLOGY POLICIES
ensure adequate levels of service to meet all
mobility needs when motorcycle use is There have been policies that target
restricted. increasing the market share of next
generation technologies for transportation.
6.2.5 FINANCIAL INCENTIVES FOR For example, the California Zero Emission
Vehicles (ZEV) required the seven largest
IN-USE MOTORCYCLE
automotive companies in California to “make
PERFORMANCE
available for sale” an increasing number of
Different nations use different financial tools vehicles with zero tailpipe emissions.
to advance motorcycle performance and California’s latest revision in 2008 requires
moderate use. Low interest or interest-free automakers to produce a total of 7,500 fuel
loans, incentives, and grants for the purchase cell vehicles or 12,500 battery electric
of the lower-emitting motorcycle retrofit kits vehicles (or some combination thereof)
and electronic road pricing are two examples. between 2012 and 2014, along with 58,000
plug-in hybrids, placing more emphasis on
In Singapore, one of the first nations to adopt plug-in hybrid electric technologies than
an electronic road pricing system in 1975 other innovations. However California’s
after Hong Kong, motorcycles are subject to ZEV mandates do not apply to motorcycles.
tolls along with cars and trucks. The As is the case with emission standards in
concession made is that motorcycles count as general (discussed earlier), motorcycles do
one-half of a vehicle unit and are subject to not comprise a large or growing share of
lower charges than cars. Road pricing, which vehicles in the US and most developed
is now in force in London and elsewhere countries. For this reason, two-wheelers are
worldwide, is a policy that has found to be not the focus of increasingly stringent
effective at changing vehicle use patterns. regulations on vehicle emissions.
Drivers consider charges when deciding
when and how best to travel in areas with In China, however, this is not the case. The
road pricing in effect. Transport for London prevalence of e-bikes has resulted from a
estimates that the city’s congestion pricing confluence of circumstances that could spur
program has reduced carbon dioxide the use of these advanced motorcycle
emissions by 20 percent. technologies in other Asian countries. E-bike
technology – specifically motors and
In Taiwan, a payment of about $60 (US batteries – improved significantly during the
Dollars) was offered for giving up a late 1990’s. Simple technology, a vast
motorcycle that is over a decade old (Chuang supplier base, and weak intellectual property
2001). Such incentives for owners to trade in protection made it easier for e-bike makers to
their older, deteriorated vehicles are gaining enter the industry, increasing competition
popularity. They are also known as “vehicle and driving prices down. Improved economic
scrappage” programs. Scrappage programs conditions in developing countries meant that
may have some environmental benefits if household incomes rose considerably. This
59 Findings and Recommendations

translated into a greater share of disposable enforcement mechanisms is key, so too are
incomes devoted to transportation. As e-bike fiscal measures that complement and
prices decreased, gasoline prices rose and reinforce standards. Whether policymakers
electricity prices in rural areas dropped, are focused on controlling conventional
making e-bikes more economically motorcycle technologies, have an eye toward
competitive with alternatives like gasoline- next generation technologies, or are trying to
powered scooters and bus. manage their motorcycle fleets in use, there
are opportunities to reduce emissions and
National and local government policy in fuel use in the growing number of two- and
China, has motivated by energy and air three-wheeled vehicles and there are places
quality issues, created favorable conditions to turn to for guidance and support.
for e-bike growth. Banning gasoline-powered
motorcycles in large city centers eliminated
7. FINDINGS AND
the prime competitor to e-bikes. Changes in
urban form and suburbanization increased RECOMMENDATIONS
trip length and congestion, making bicycles
and buses less attractive travel options. 7.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Recently, there have been efforts to close the
Emissions from two- and three-wheelers are
loopholes in the national e-bike standards. A
a very large and growing problem in many
proposal has been made to define an electric
countries in Asia, and increasingly in Latin
motorcycle as a two-wheeler with speed
America and Africa. Two-stroke engines are
higher than 50km/h or a three-wheelers
in great part responsible for motorcycles’
weighing less than 400kg. An electric moped
disproportionate air quality impact. And
would be defined as a two-wheeler with
these engines are also highly ineficient when
speed between 20 and 50km/hr or a three-
it comes to fuel use – with up to 40 percent
wheeler with speed less than 50km/hr.
of the fuel and much of the oil escaping from
Electric bicycle are vehicles with speed
the exhaust unburned. Motorcycle exhaust is
below 20 km/hr. These standards that limit
packed with oxides of nitrogen, oxides of
the size and speed of larger e-bikes are
sulfur, hydrocarbons and fine particles – all
expected to address some of the road sharing
toxic contributors to air pollution and
conflicts with bicycles, motorcycles, and
detrimental to public health. Poor fuel
four-wheelers.
quality is a confounding issue that factors
into high pollutant emissions from
The advent of zero emission motorcycles
motorcycles in Asia and elsewhere.
could extend beyond China. Much of Asia
could eventually benefit from these cleaner
Asian countries and regions have begun to
technologies. The last section summarizes
implement a combination of policies to
findings and presents recommendations for
reduce motorcycle emissions and increase
reducing motorcycle emissions and fuel use.
customer preference for more fuel-efficient
Asian nations, regions, and cities have
four-stroke motorcycles. These policies have
several opportunities to better control
lead to a rapid decline of new two-stroke
motorcycle emissions and energy
motorcycle sales. This trend is apparent in
consumption. These apply to both new
China, India, Taiwan, and Thailand.
motorcycles and vehicles once they are in
use. Both performance standards and their
60 Findings and Recommendations

Despite progress, an average two- or four- In particular, the rise of diesel three-wheelers
stroke motorcycle can emit more pollution for freight transport and passenger transport
than a car with the most up-to-date emission is problematic. Opportunities to improve new
control technology. These and other issues three-wheeler emission controls include
such as noise and public safety have led to emission standards aligned with passenger
increasing restrictions even bans of vehicles and differentiated by fuel type, as in
motorcycle use in some cities. the Euro 3 program. For the in-use mainly
two-stroke fleet, retrofits, replacements and
There are however significant opportunities alternative fuel have all shown promise.
to improve motorcycles. The technologies These in-use programs must rely on clear
developed to clean up passenger cars, performance standards and transparent
including fuel injection and catalytic certification procedures. Financial incentives
converters, are being adapted to more and such as low to no cost loans and grants are
more motorcycle applications. All the major important complementary policies.
motorcycle countries such as China, India,
and the EU have developed unique 7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
regulatory systems with requirements that are
not directly comparable. The In countries where motorcycles are a major
recommendations below highlight contributor to air pollution problems, a
comprehensive plan is needed to effectively
opportunities for further reduction in
and efficiently control these vehicles. This
motorcycle emissions and fuel use in these
various programs. plan should include:

Although motorcycles are among the most  A platform for world harmonization
fuel-efficient road transportation modes, of motorcycle emission standards
gains in fuel economy are still possible. that accelerates the use of proven,
cost-effective, advanced
Following the leadership of in China, fuel
efficiency requirements should be adopted technologies
and further developed for two- and three-  A parallel policy effort, with
wheeled vehicles. When consumers move to coordinated strategies, to reduce
larger and often less efficient motorcycles, as motorcycle fuel use and carbon
is being witnessed in many motorcycle emissions
countries, fuel economy standards can ensure  Emission standards for new
that this trend does not result in significant motorcycles with durability
erosion of fleet fuel efficiency. Fuel economy requirements that reflect real world
would also benefit if separate emission useful life, cold start testing, and
standards for NOx and HC were adopted. limits on evaporative emissions
This is currently prevented by concerns over  A thorough compliance program to
tradeoffs between NOx and fuel use. enforce adopted emission standards
 Routine enforcement activities, such
Three-wheelers mainly used in commercial as vehicle recall systems that
applications warrant specific targeted minimize the risk of fraud and
strategies. Emissions standards for three- ensure that manufacturers are
wheelers are lagging behind both two- building motorcycles to required
wheelers and their direct competitors, cars. specification is important, especially
61 Findings and Recommendations

during the production of first- Recommended enhancements include setting

generation of models subject to durability standards and/or deterioration
revised emissions standards factors, requiring cold start emission testing,
 Emissions standards coupled with and including evaporative emission limits
fuel quality standards to fully enable and test procedures. The recommended
cleaner vehicle technologies emission standard design features include
 Standards for lubricating oil quality HC and NOx emission limits (both
for two-stroke motorcycles and individually and combined) to adequately
premix dispensing facilities to control large motorcycle emissions. Some of
prevent inappropriate dosage these features are included in the programs in
 Strategies to address in-use place in China, India, Taiwan, and Thailand.
motorcycle emissions, including in-
use emission standards, retrofit and With major motorcycle manufacturing
vehicle programs, usage restrictions, countries meeting stringent standards, other
and inspection and maintenance countries, especially nations that are
programs primarily motorcycle importers, should
 Analysis that takes local factors into consider leapfrogging to the most stringent
account and directs appropriate standards. A larger market would only reduce
strategies to promote the use of the incremental cost of technologies required
alternative fuels to meet enhanced emission levels. Questions
regarding the design of these next-generation
motorcycle emission standards merit further
7.2.1 POLICIES FOR NEW
research. India, China, Thailand, countries
MOTORCYCLES AND THEIR FUELS with substantial motorcycle populations, will
Emission standards should lead to the have to think about the next five-year
adoption of the best available control horizon. So while Europe may not have the
technologies in new motorcycles. The latest compulsion to move on a fast track to the
EU standards for motorcycles, Euro 3, are next stage of emission controls, Asian
the first attempt to set motorcycle emission nations will likely have to tackle this on their
levels that require advanced technology own.
similar to technology used in passenger cars.
This sets a good example for other regions. Harmonization of test procedures can further
Still, the Euro program is currently lacking facilitate the dissemination of regulatory
some essential features including durability enhancements. The World Motorcycle Test
requirements. Cycle developed by the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Emission standards can be designed and was designed to represent a global average of
enhanced with additional requirements that driving patterns and will be the test cycle for
help ensure emission limits will be met the European type approval starting in 2008.
throughout the motorcycle’s useful life. Amendments to the test cycle to better
Nations and regions, including China, represent conditions in regions with smaller
Taiwan and Thailand that have adopted or are displacement engines and low traffic speeds
planning to adopt standards with emission were submitted by India and were adopted by
levels similar to Euro 3 have for example UNECE in 2008. Countries and regions can
enhanced them with durability requirements. adopt this cycle with or without the approved
62 Findings and Recommendations

amendments as part of their regulatory Fuel quality is an important piece of the

programs. India may adopt this cycle after puzzle in solving air quality problems
2010. In the meantime India can further attributed to motorcycles, as well as other
improve its current test procedures by motor vehicles. Using poor quality fuel and
improving its durability limits and including overuse of two-stroke lubricating oil
cold start emissions. significantly reduces motorcycle emission
performance. All gasoline should be
Compliance programs are a critical piece of unleaded and low in sulfur and phosphorus,
regulatory efforts for motorcycles. To ensure especially if motorcycles are equipped with
that new motorcycles are able to meet after treatment technologies. Low-smoke or
prescribed emissions levels over their full 2T lubricating oil dispensed pre-mixed with
useful life, manufacturer-directed programs gasoline at service stations is the preferred
should contain the following elements: option for two-stroke engines to avoid the
 Type-approval (certification) overuse of poor quality oil and excessive
process for each motorcycle and smoke emissions (HC and PM).
engine model before mass
production In the future, on-board diagnostic (OBD)
systems and remote sensing technology may
 Conformity of production
facilitate the control of in-use emissions. But
demonstration shortly after
these automated systems can be expensive
production has begun;
and they also require sophisticated
 Manufacturer-backed warranty equipment and training in order to diagnose
against individual failures valid the particular emission failure. Vehicle
throughout the vehicle useful
owners and operators, moreover, must be
life educated so that they repair problems once
 Selective enforcement audits they are alerted.
shortly after production has
begun Advanced technologies such as hybrid and
 Recall investigation during the electric motorcycles and alternative fuels,
warranty period and recall order including natural gas and LPG, may be able
if a substantial number of to provide cost effective emission reductions
failures are found if local conditions are conducive. Incentives
and other in-use control measures should be
Durability requirements are gradually being used to encourage the adoption of these fuels
extended in regulatory programs but they are and technologies when they can provide
still significantly shorter than actual useful environmental and societal benefits. Special
life. It is recommended that durability safeguards should be included to assure that
requirements be revised to reflect real world electric vehicles do not result in increased
motorcycle useful life. Moreover, the need lead emissions from batteries throughout
exists to strengthen technical capacity for their lifecycle, during manufacture, use, and
vehicle certification in motorcycle disposal.
manufacturing countries. If the certification
agency has the capacity to test emission In order to improve the environmental
control durability, then these requirement can performance of e-bikes, policies should focus
be enforced. on reducing lead emissions associated with
63 Findings and Recommendations

e-bike use. Stricter standards are needed to vehicle owners cover all program costs,
guide domestic lead production and recycling including enforcement costs, to ensure
industry and limit lead contamination in the financial sustainability. A transparent
local environment. Further consolidation of process, consistent government
the lead production and clean battery oversight, and effective roadside
manufacturing is necessary to facilitate the enforcement are important
adoption of enforceable environmental features of successful I&M
standards. programs. The program in
Taiwan identifies opportunities
Incentives offer a way to help implement for improved management of
advanced technologies and create demand for motorcycles. However, it is a
next generation motorcycles and fuels. decentralized program that is highly
Without financial policies, the status quo subsidized by the government.
usually continues unabated until regulations
change the economic equation. The benefit Retrofits or replacements should be
of an incentive program can more directly performed with certified retrofit kits or
affect behavioral change by encouraging replacement engines meeting adopted in-use
early adoption of new technologies. emission and durability standards.
Replacement vehicles should meet new
7.2.2 POLICIES FOR MOTORCYCLES vehicle emission standards. Complementary
IN USE policies such as low to no interest loans,
incentives and grants for the purchase of the
In-use control measures focus on reducing
cleanest retrofit kit or replacement engine/
emissions from vehicles on the road. These
vehicle can significantly improve a
measures can consist of three major
program’s success. Most programs to date
strategies. Inspection and maintenance
have targeted three-wheelers because their
programs under which vehicles are required
high usage rate allows quicker payback of
to be tested and inspected at regular intervals
capital cost through fuel cost savings.
and repaired to meet adopted in-use emission
standards. Second, retrofit and replacement
Vehicle restrictions may not always lead to
programs focus on upgrading motorcycles
the adoption of alternatives that will provide
with improved emission control equipment,
real and permanent emission reductions in all
newer engines, or by replacing old vehicles
the important pollutant categories. It is
with newer and cleaner motorcycles. Lastly,
worthwhile to evaluate whether similar
vehicle use restriction measures ban or limit
emission benefits at equal or lower cost
motorcycle activities in all or part of a city.
could be obtained through other programs,
including vehicle replacements, retrofits,
Inspection and maintenance (I&M) programs
engine upgrades, and/or the addition of after-
for motorcycles can be a useful in-use
treatment technology.
control measure in countries and cities where
two- and three-wheelers are the main sources
Fiscal policies, taxes, and user fees are
of transportation-related air pollution. In
necessary to affect beneficial changes in
most cases, a centralized structure is
motorcycle use. These tools are often used to
preferred as it offers fewer opportunities for
complement standards when the market does
fraud and corruption. It is also preferable that
not immediately react to regulations. At
64 Findings and Recommendations

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68 Appendix A

APPENDIX A

MOTORCYCLE EMISSION STANDARDS AND PROGRAMS IN

DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
The tables that follow detail emission standards in China (Table A-1), India (Table A-2), Japan
(Table A-3), Taiwan (Table A-4), Thailand (Table A-5), EU Two-Stroke (Table A-6), EU Four-
Stroke (Table A-7), California (Table A-8), and the US Federal Standards (Table A-9).

SELECTED REGULATORY PROGRAMS EXHAUST EMISSIONS STANDARDS IN

DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

TABLE A-1. CHINA EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two-Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
2003 <50 cc (moped) 6 3 ECE R47 No 6,000 1
≥50 cc 8 4 0.1 ECE R40 No 6,000 1
2004 ≥50 cc 5.5 1.2 0.3 ECE R40 No 10,000 1
2005 <50 cc (moped) 1 1.2 ECE R47 No 10,000 1
Two-Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
2003 <50 cc (moped) 6 3 ECE R47 No 6,000 1
≥50 cc 13 3 0.3 ECE R40 No 6,000 1
2004 ≥50 cc 5.5 1.2 0.3 ECE R40 No 10,000 1
2005 <50 cc (moped) 1 1.2 ECE R47 No 10,000 1
2008 < 50 cc 1 1.2 ECE R47 Yes 10,000
50-150 cc 2 0.8 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 18,000 2
30,000 3
≥ 150 cc 2 0.3 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 18,000 2
+EUDC 30,000 3
Three-Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
2003 < 50 cc (moped) 12 6 ECE R47 No 6,000 1
2003 ≥50cc 12 6 0.15 ECE R40 No 6,000 1
2004 ≥50cc 7 1.5 0.4 ECE R40 No 10,000 1
2005 < 50 cc (moped) 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 No 10,000 1
2008 < 50 cc (moped 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 Yes 10,000
≥ 50cc 4 1 0.25 ECE R40 Yes 12,000 4
18,000 2
30,000 3
Three-Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
2003 < 50 cc (moped) 12 6 ECE R47 No 6,000 1
2003 ≥50cc 19.5 4.5 0.45 ECE R40 No 6,000 1
2005 < 50 cc (moped) 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 No 10,000 1
2005 ≥50cc 7 1.5 0.4 ECE R40 No 10,000 1
2008 < 50 cc (moped) 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 Yes
≥50cc 4 1 0.25 ECE R40 Yes 12,000 4
18,000 2
30,000 3
Notes: 1 If installed with emission control device; 2 Maximum speed under 130 km/h and displacement above 150cc; 3 Maximum speed equal to or above 130 km/h
and displacement above 150cc;
4 Displacement between 50 and 150 cc; Moped: Maximum speed under or equal to 50 km/h and displacement under or equal to 50 cc
69 Appendix A

TABLE A-2. INDIA EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two-Wheeler with Two- and Four-Stroke Engine
1991 All 12-30 8-12 IDC No None
1996 4.5 3.6 IDC No None
1998 4.5 3.6 IDC No None
2000 2 2 IDC No None
2005 1.5* 1.5* IDC Yes 30,000
2010 1* 1* IDC Yes 30,000
Three-Wheeler with Two- and Four-Stroke Engine
1991 All 14.3 20 IDC No None
1996 All 6.75 5.4 IDC No None
1998 All 6.75 5.4 IDC No None
2000 All 4 2 IDC No None
2005 Spark 2.25* 2* IDC Yes 30,000
Comp. 1** 0.85*** 0.1* IDC Yes 30,000
2010 Spark 1.25* 1.25* IDC Yes 30,000
Comp. 0.5** 0.5*** 0.05* IDC Yes 30,000
Notes: * Deterioration factor of 1.2 applies to this standard; ** Deterioration factor of 1.1 applies to this standard; *** Deterioration factor of 1 applies
to this standard

TABLE A-3. JAPAN EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two- and Three- Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
1998 to 50 cc 8 3 0.1 n/a n/a ISO 6460 No 6,000
126-250 cc 8 3 0.1 12,000
1999 51-125 cc 8 3 0.1 8,000
251 cc+ 8 3 0.1 12,000
2006 to 50 cc 2 0.5 0.15 Yes 6,000
126-250 cc 2 0.5 0.15 24,000
2007 51-125 cc 2 0.5 0.15 8,000
251 cc+ 2 0.3 0.15 24,000
Two- and Three- Wheeler with Four-stroke Engine
1998 to 50 cc 13 2 0.3 n/a n/a ISO 6460 No 6,000
126-250 cc 13 2 0.3 12,000
1999 51-125 cc 13 2 0.3 8,000
251 cc+ 13 2 0.3 12,000
2006 to 50 cc 2 0.5 0.15 Yes 6,000
126-250 cc 2 0.5 0.15 24,000
2007 51-125 cc 2 0.5 0.15 8,000
251 cc+ 2 0.3 0.15 24,000
70 Appendix A

TABLE A-4. TAIWAN EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two- and Three- Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
1988 All 8.8 5.5 ECE R40 No None
1991 All 4.5 3.0 ECE R40 No 6,000
1998 All 3.5 2 ECE R40 No 15,000
2002 <700 cc 3.5 2 ECE R40 No 15,000
≥700 cc 10 2.5 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
2004 <700 cc 7 1 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
2007 <150 cc 2 0.8 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
≥150 cc 2 0.3 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
Two- and Three-Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
1988 All 8.8 5.5 ECE R40 No None
1991 All 4.5 3.0 ECE R40 No 6,000
1998 All 3.5 2 ECE R40 No 15,000
2002 <700 cc 3.5 2 ECE R40 No 15,000
≥700 cc 10 2.5 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
2004 <700 cc 7 2 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
2007 <150 cc 2 0.8 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 15,000
≥150 cc 2 0.3 0.15 ECE R40 Yes 15,000

TABLE A-5. THAILAND EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (Km)
Two- and Three-Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
1993 All 16-40 10-15 ECE R40 No None
1995 All 12.8-32 8-12 ECE R40 No None
Two-Wheeler and Three-Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
1993 25-50 7-10 ECE R40 No None
1995 17.5-35 4.2-6 ECE R40 No None
Two- and Three-Wheeler with Two- and Four-Stroke Engine
1997 All 13 5 ECE R40 No None
1999-2001 All* 4.5 3 ECE R40 No 12,000
2003-2004 All 3.5 2 ECE R40 No 12,000
Evap.≤ 2g/test
All 3.5 1.8 ECE R40 No 12,000
Evap. > 2 and ≤
6 g/test
2008-2009 <150 cc 2 0.8 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes
Evap.≤ 2g/test
<150 cc 2 0.6 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes
Evap. > 2 and ≤
6 g/test
>150 cc 2 0.3 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes
Evap.≤ 2g/test
>150 cc 2 0.1 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes
Evap. > 2 and ≤
6 g/test
Note: * Evaporative emissions ≤ 2 g/test for engine 150 cc and greater
71 Appendix A

TABLE A-6. EUROPEAN UNION EMISSION STANDARDS: TWO-STROKE

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two- Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
Pre-1999 < 50 cc 8 5 ECE R47 No None
1999 6 3 ECE R47 No None
2002 1 1.2 ECE R47 No None
Pre-1993 >50 cc 16-40 10-15 ECE R40 No None
1993 12.8-32 8-12 ECE R40 No None
1999 8 4 0.1 ECE R40 No None
2003 50-150 cc 5.5 1.2 0.3 ECE R40 No None
2006 2 0.8 0.15 ECE R40 Yes None
2003 150 + cc 5.5 1 0.3 ECE R40 No None
2006 2 0.3 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes None
Three-Wheeler with Two-Stroke Engine
Pre-1999 < 50 cc 15 10 ECE R47 No None
1999 12 6 ECE R47 No None
2002 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 No None
Pre-1993 >50 cc 16-40 10-15 ECE R40 No None
1993 12.8-32 8-12 ECE R40 No None
1999 12 6 0.15 ECE R40 No None
2003 > 50cc Spark 7 1.5 0.4 ECE R40 No None
> 50cc Comp. 2 1 0.65 ECE R40 No None

TABLE A-7. EUROPEAN UNION EMISSION STANDARDS: FOUR-STROKE

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two- Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
Pre-1999 < 50 cc 8 5 ECE R47 No None
1999 6 3 ECE R47 No None
2002 1 1.2 ECE R47 No None
Pre-1993 >50 cc 25-50 7-10 ECE R40 No None
1993 17.5-35 4.2-6 ECE R40 No None
1999 13 3 0.3 ECE R40 No None
2003 50-150 cc 5.5 1.2 0.3 ECE R40 No None
2006 2 0.8 0.15 ECE R40 Yes None
2003 150 + cc 5.5 1 0.3 ECE R40 No None
2006 2 0.3 0.15 R40 + EUDC Yes None
Three-Wheeler with Four-Stroke Engine
Pre-1999 < 50 cc 15 10 ECE R47 No None
1999 12 6 ECE R47 No None
2002 3.5 1.2 ECE R47 No None
Pre-1993 >50 cc 16-40 10-15 ECE R40 No None
1993 12.8-32 8-12 ECE R40 No None
1999 19.5 4.5 0.45 ECE R40 No None
2003 > 50 cc Spark 7 1.5 0.4 ECE R40 No None
> 50 cc 2 1 0.65 ECE R40 No None
Comp.
72 Appendix A

TABLE A-8. CALIFORNIA, UNITED STATES EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
Two- and Three-Wheeler with Two-and Four-Stroke Engine
1978 50-169 17 5 Modified Yes 12,000
FTP-75
170-279 17 5-6.7 FTP-75 Yes 18,000
280-749 17 6.7-14 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
≥750 17 14 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
1980 50-169 17 5 Modified Yes 12,000
FTP-75
170-279 17 5 FTP-75 Yes 18,000
≥ 280 17 5 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
1982 50-169 12 1 Modified Yes 12,000
FTP-75
170-279 12 1 FTP-75 Yes 18,000
≥ 280 12 2.5 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
1985 ≥ 280 12 1.4 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
1988 280-699 12 1 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
≥700 12 1.4 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
2004 ≥ 280 12 1.4 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
2008 ≥ 280 12 0.8 FTP-75 Yes 30,000

TABLE A-9. UNITED STATES EMISSION STANDARDS

Year Began Engine Size (cc) CO (g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km) PM (g/km) Driving Cycle Cold Start Durability (km)
1980 50-169 12 5 Modified Yes 12,000
FTP-75
170-279 12 5 FTP-75 Yes 18,000
≥ 280 12 5 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
2006 <50 12 1 Modified Yes 6,000
FTP-75
50-169 12 1 Modified Yes 12,000
FTP-75
170-279 12 1 FTP-75 Yes 18,000
≥ 280 12 1.4 FTP-75 Yes 30,000
2010 ≥ 280 12 0.8 FTP-75 Yes 30,000