FITOTE-02125; No of Pages 7

Fitoterapia xxx (2010) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fitoterapia
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f i t o t e

1 Review

2 Eryngium foetidum L.: A review

3 J.H.A. Paul a,⁎, C.E. Seaforth a, T. Tikasingh b
4 a
The Herbal Medicine Research Institute, The University of Trinidad and Tobago, Orange Grove Road, Tacarigua, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies
5 b
Thames Valley University, Paragon House, Brentford TW8 9GA, England
6

9
8 a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

10
14 Article history: Eryngium foetidum L. is a biennial herb which is used extensively as a medicinal plant in most
11
15 Received 10 September 2010 tropical regions. It is of increasing importance as a spice plant cultivated in India, Vietnam,
12
16 Accepted in revised form 20 October 2010 Australia and elsewhere with well documented procedures for maximum yield. It also possesses a
13 Available online xxxx
17 wide range of ethnomedicinal uses including treatment for burns, earache, fevers, hypertension,
18 constipation, fits, asthma, stomach ache, worms, infertility complications, snake bites, diarrhea
31
19 Keywords: and malaria. Chemical evaluation of the leaves indicated the presence of flavonoids, tannins, a
32
20 Eryngium foetidum saponin and several triterpenoids; but no alkaloids were reported. A significant constituent of the
33 Traditional uses
21 essential oil of the plant is E-2-dodecenal ("eryngial"), with isomers of trimethylbenzaldehyde
34 Essential oil
22 being present in lesser proportions. Variability in the composition of essential oil was clearly
35 Anthelmintic
23
36 Anti-inflammatory dependent on the geographic location of the growing plant. Pharmacological studies of the aerial
24
37 Eryngial plant parts have demonstrated anthelmintic activity due to eryngial, anti-inflammatory action due
25 to the phytosterol fractions, anti-convulsant activity in the respective models, and selective
26 antibacterial activity against Salmonella species and the Erwinia genus of bacteria. A fraction of the
27 essential oil rich in eryngial is the subject of a US patent application for its effectiveness against
28 parasitic trypanosomes, nematodes, fungi and bacteria in humans and other mammals. These
29 findings suggest the need for further research of this herb and its products.
30
39
38 © 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.

40
42
41 Contents

43 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
44 2. Traditional uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
45 3. Cultivation, propagation, harvesting and storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
46 4. Phytochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
47 5. Bioactivity and pharmacological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
48 5.1. Anthelmintic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
49 5.2. Anti-convulsant activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
50 5.3. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
51 5.4. Antibacterial activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
52 5.5. Antimalarial activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
53 5.6. Anti-diabetes activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
54 5.7. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
55 6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
56 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

57
⁎ Corresponding author. Caribbean Herbal Medicine Research Institute, The University of Trinidad and Tobago, Waterloo Research Centre, Waterloo Road,
Q1 Central Trinidad WI, Trinidad and Tobago. Tel.: +1868 673 2654, +1868 673 0029, + 1868 642 8888x32100, +1868 640 0641x232, +1868 640 5803+; fax: 1868
673 0373, +1868 640 5203.
E-mail addresses: jennifer.paul@utt.edu.tt (J.H.A. Paul), compton.seaforth@utt.edu.tt (C.E. Seaforth), tikkimaria@yahoo.com (T. Tikasingh).

0367-326X/$ – see front matter © 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.11.010

Please cite this article as: Paul JHA, et al, Eryngium foetidum L.: A review, Fitoterapia (2010), doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.11.010
 2 J.H.A. Paul et al. / Fitoterapia xxx (2010) xxx–xxx

58 1. Introduction Ancient tribes such as those of Mexico, the Caribs of the 115
Caribbean, the Rama midwives of Nicaragua and the Apantani 116
59 Eryngium foetidum L. (Umbelliferae–Apiaceae) is known Indians of India used various preparations of the plant mainly 117
60 by several local, common names, such as Mexican cori- for pains such as stomach aches [1,20–24]. However, it is noted 118
61 ander, spirit weed, fit weed, cilantro, bhandhania and that a possible side effect resulting from consumption of the 119
62 shado beni [1]. crushed plant material is constipation [25]. 120
63 The plant is indigenous to Tropical America and the West Six communities register the plant as being useful for 121
64 Indies where it is used as medicine and food [1]. It has female reproductive problems such as infertility, childbirth 122
65 become naturalized and often is cultivated across South complications, menstrual pains, ease of delivery, postpartum 123
66 Asia, the Pacific islands, Tropical Africa and the warmer abdominal pains, vaginal infections and as an emmenagogue 124
67 southern parts of Europe [1–6]. The indigenous people of [1,23,26–29]. In Brazil a decoction of the whole plant is used 125
68 Northeast India use the plant for food [7] some having to ease delivery, but is contraindicated for pregnancy because 126
69 domesticated the plant in their kitchen gardens and or- it is reported to provoke uterine contraction [28]. Costa Ricans 127
70 chards [8,9]. regard the plant as an aphrodisiac but no mention is made of 128
71 E. foetidum is a biennial, pungently smelling, tropical the affected sex [1]. 129
72 herb which grows best in wet or moist conditions on open Other notable ailments for which this plant has been used 130
73 banks or in pastures. The roots are fleshy, the stems solitary includes hypertension [1,30], rheumatism [22], asthma [21], 131
74 and frequently branched. The whole plant is glabrous and eye disease [31], poisoning [32], venereal disease (VD)[33], 132
75 strongly scented. The oblanceolate leaves have toothed diabetes [34], as a vermifuge [1,26,27,34,35], fits [1,35], pain 133
76 margins, a yellowish spine, are 8–20 cm long, and grow in a [36], malaria [37] and snake bites [38,39] although Uawong- 134
77 basal rosette pattern. Whitish inflorescences are borne on gul et al. [40] found that the plant extracts were hardly 135
78 long shoots (30–50 cm) as a conspicuous apical turf. The effective when tested for activity against fibroblast cell lysis 136
79 fruit is globose to ovoid and is covered with rounded after treatment with Heterometrus laoticus scorpion venom. 137
80 protrusions of 1–2 mm long [1,10,11]. These claims of medicinal properties are yet to be sub- 138
81 The herb was introduced around the 1880s into South- stantiated by clinical trials in humans. For a summary of the 139
82 East Asia by the Chinese, as a substitute condiment for the ethnomedicinal uses reported for E. foetidum see Table 1. 140
83 coriander (Coriandum sativum L.), no doubt because of its
84 similar pungent smell [12–14]. It is sometimes substituted 3. Cultivation, propagation, harvesting and storage 141
85 and adulterated in the spice trade by other species of the
86 genus Eryngium, as such "culantro" has been recommended E. foetidum has been used for a long time as food and is 142
87 as the standardized common name for E. foetidum [1]. Beside cultivated in many Tropical regions as an economic crop. 143
88 its use for culinary purposes, it is an important item in the Documentation containing a full description of the optimal 144
89 perfumery and cosmetic industries [15]. The essential oil is conditions for cultivating, harvesting and postharvesting 145
90 of high economical value in international trade markets [16]. treatment of the crop has been recorded [54–61]. Addition- 146
91 Despite the widespread use of this herb for food and as an ally, the results of exploration studies on the propagation 147
92 ethnomedicinal agent, only recently has there been a from various plant parts, postharvest handling and storage 148
93 proliferation of phytochemical investigations on the plant. are available [15,16,62–75]. Reports by Morales and O Campo 149
94 Most of these investigations were on the volatile essential et al. [54,55] suggest that the plant is easy to cultivate and 150
95 oils where close to forty compounds have been identified. hardly affected by diseases and pests. 151
96 There remains a lack of information on the more polar The technology for mass production of this plant is already 152
97 constituents which are likely to be extracted in the tradition- available. What is needed are the scientific studies to validate 153
98 al teas used as medicine. Similarly only a few of the pur- the traditional claims of medicinal value. If it is determined 154
99 ported pharmacological properties of the plant extract that conditions which favour production of the herb in high 155
100 have been investigated and these were either in vitro or in yield for food purposes also preserve the reported "medicinal 156
101 animal models. properties" of the plant, this could lead to an opportunity for 157
adding value to an existing product and an economic boost 158
for those regions that cultivate it for export. 159
102 2. Traditional uses
4. Phytochemistry 160
103 The traditional uses recorded for this herb, are numerous
104 and mainly medicinal [1]. In Tropical America and the West The aerial parts of the herb are a rich source of calcium, 161
105 Indies where the plant is indigenous, the prevailing use of iron, riboflavin, carotene, vitamins A, B, and C and essential 162
106 the plant is to treat fevers, colds, the flu and as food [1]. In oils [14,76]. The fresh leaves contain over 85% moisture, 163
107 Surinam a treatment for colds is even prescribed for babies. 3.3% protein, 0.6% fat, 6.5% carbohydrate, 1.7% ash, 0.06% 164
108 Here a decoction of the leaves is used to bathe the child and a phosphorus and 0.02% iron [14]. The nutritional value of 165
109 small amount of the mixture is given to drink. For fever the the plants growing in Assam, India and South China has 166
110 leaves and roots are mixed with coconut oil (Cocos nucifera) been documented [77,78]. 167
111 and the child is rubbed [1,17]. As a food, the leaves of E. The essential oil of E. foetidum can vary in content from 0.1 to 168
112 foetidum are added to curries, chutneys, stews and soups as a 0.95% of dry weight of the leaves [14]. A major constituent of the 169
113 flavouring agent [7,9,18]. It is cultivated in the urban gardens oil is E-2-dodecenal ("eryngial") [79], which was first reported 170
114 of Belém, Brazil for food [19]. in 1932 by Koolhaas [3]. This alkenal has been found in varying 171

Please cite this article as: Paul JHA, et al, Eryngium foetidum L.: A review, Fitoterapia (2010), doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.11.010
 J.H.A. Paul et al. / Fitoterapia xxx (2010) xxx–xxx 3

t1:1 Table 1
Ethnomedicinal uses for E. foetidum.
t1:2
t1:3 Plant part Method of preparation Use References

t1:4 Leaf Infusion Fever, flu, diabetes, [34,35]

hypertension, constipation
diuretic, anti-convulsant
t1:5 Bath Colds, heat, muscular pain [34–36]
t1:6 Decoction or tincture Diarrhea, stomach ache, cold, [1,37,41]
sometimes with lemon Fever, flu, gas, nausea, malaria,
leishmaniasis
t1:7 Decoctions or infusions Snake bite, aire, abdominal pain, [23,38,42,43]
postpartum abdominal pain
fever, digestive ailments,
vaginal infections
t1:8 Decoction Hypertension, colds, fevers [1,28]
t1:9 Concoction mixed with milk Stomach ache, asthma [20,21]
t1:10 Tincture rub Rheumatism, emmenagogue [22,44]
t1:11 Leaves, roots and fruits are Indigestion [25]
crushed and taken
t1:12 Juice Anti-convulsant [45]
t1:13 Plaster Abscess, boils [46]
t1:14 Unspecified Geniturinary disturbances [47]
t1:15 Whole plant Unspecified Colds, flu, diarrhea, childbirth [1,26,27,32,39]
complications, infertility,
menstrual pain, unspecified
female complications,
poisoning, gastritis, fever,
snakebites
t1:16 Boiled or toasted Eye disease [31]
and massaged
t1:17 Boiled with castor oil Biliousness, constipation, fits [1]
yellow fever
t1:18 Decoctions Fever, flu, chills, gout, [17,33,44,46]
condiment, ease delivery, VD
t1:19 Juice Remove parasites, infection, [48]
itching
t1:20 Aerial parts Decoction Earache, chest pains, fevers [22,49]
hypertension, fits, convulsions
gastrointestinal problems
t1:21 Topical application of paste Headache [50]
t1:22 Unspecified Abortion induction, sexual [51]
dysfunction, diarrhea, fever,
headaches
t1:23 Roots Infusion Vermifuge [34,35]
t1:24 Infusion in rum or wine tincture Worm infections [1,26,27]
t1:25 Topical application of paste Headache [52,53]
t1:26 Seeds Topical application of paste Headaches, cure madness [24,53]
t1:27 Unspecified Unspecified Aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, [1]
abortifacient, convulsions,
fits
t1:28 Drink or massage Febrifuge, sudorific [1]

172 levels in the leaf oils from E. foetidum plants growing in India 2,4,5-trimethylbenzaldehyde (27.7%), carotol (8.8%), 3-dode- 187
173 (45.9%) [8], in Vietnam (45.5%) [3], in Malaysia (59.7%) [3], in cenal (5.2%) and γ-terpinene (3.8%) [80]. Some of the non- 188
174 Bangladesh (37.4%) [3], in the Venezuelan Andes (27.5%) [80], aldehydic constituents found in the essential oils are dodec- 189
175 in South Vietnam (58–67%) [81], Western Nepal (58.1%) [82] anoic acid (10.69%), trans-2-dodecenoic acid (9.73%), durylic 190
176 and in Sao Tome e Principe (15.9–37.5%) [83]. It is a minor acid (2.27%), limonene (2.00%), α-pinene (2.4%), γ-terpinene 191
177 constituent in the oil of plants growing in Cuba [84] and Taiwan (3.8%) and hexadecanoic acid (12.05%) [3,80,84]. 192
178 (b1.32%) [85]. Eryngial is known to produce significant In all cases, the aldehydes are very significant constitu- 193
179 inhibition of human cytochrome P450 2E1 [86]. This observa- ents of the volatile oil of E. foetidum, and they include 194
180 tion suggests that, if eryngial is present in sufficient dosages in a mesitaldehyde and dodecenal (in Indian plants), 2,4,5- 195
181 traditional plant extract, consuming this extract might have the trimethylbenzaldehyde and dodecenal (in Venezuelian 196
182 potential to inhibit drug metabolism, thereby increasing the plants), and E-2-tetradecenal and 2,3,6-trimethylbenzalde- 197
183 potency of drugs taken concomitantly with it, and consequently hyde (in Sao Tome e Principe plants) [3]. 198
184 raising concerns for possible adverse herb–drug interactions. When a comparison was made between the essential oil 199
185 The GC and GC/MS analysis of the essential oil of the plant of the leaves of E. foetidum and coriander (C. sativum) 200
186 from Venezuela also identified the following constituents: grown in Fiji as well on samples of the plants taken from 201

Please cite this article as: Paul JHA, et al, Eryngium foetidum L.: A review, Fitoterapia (2010), doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.11.010
 4 J.H.A. Paul et al. / Fitoterapia xxx (2010) xxx–xxx

202 markets in the USA, the main "character-impact" odorants Table 2 t2:1
203 were identified as E-2-dodecenal (52.9%) and eugenol Compounds identified from E. foetidum.
t2:2
204 (22.8%) from the former plant, as opposed to Z-2-dodecenal Compound Name References t2:3
205 (18.3%) and E-2-dodecenal (b14%) in coriander [87,88].
Leaves t2:4
206 Phytochemical screening of the leaves indicated the
Triterpenoids t2:5
207 presence of unbound triterpenoids, α-cholesterol, brassi- 1. α-Cholesterol [89] t2:6
208 casterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol being the main 2. Campesterol [89] t2:7
209 components totaling 95%, and clerosterol, β-sitosterol, δ-5- 3. Stigmasterol [89] t2:8
4. δ-5-24-Stigmastadienol [89] t2:9
210 avenasterol, δ-(5)-24-stigmastadienol and δ-7-avenasterol
5. β-Sitosterol [89] t2:10
211 as the remainder [89]. Flavonoids, tannins and a saponin 6. Brassicasterol [89] t2:11
212 have also been isolated from the aerial parts, however no 7. Clerosterol [89] t2:12
213 alkaloids have been reported [90–92]. The latter is signifi- 8. δ-5-Avenasterol [89] t2:13
214 cant as alkaloids are known to exhibit marked biological 9. δ-7-Avenasterol [89] t2:14
Carbonyls t2:15
215 activity.
10. 2,4,5-Trimethylbenzaldehyde [3,80,84,85,93,94] t2:16
216 A summary of the compounds isolated from E. foetidum is 11. 2,3,4-Trimethylbenzaldehyde [85] t2:17
217 carried in Table 2. 12. 2,3,6-Trimethylbenzaldehyde [82,83] t2:18
13. (E)-2-Dodecenal [3,80,82,85,93,94] t2:19
14. 3-Dodecenal [3,80,84,85,93,94] t2:20
218 5. Bioactivity and pharmacological properties
15. (E)-2-Decenal [86] t2:21
16. (E)-4-Decenal [82] t2:22
219 Extracts of E. foetidum have been evaluated for anthel- 17. (E)-2-Undecenal [86] t2:23
220 mintic, anti-convulsant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti- 18. Dodecenal [82,86] t2:24
221 malarial and antibacterial properties that were reported from 19. 7-Octadecanal [80] t2:25
20. (E)-2-Tetradecenal [83] t2:26
222 traditional use. One major limitation of these tests is that they
21. (E)-2-Tridecenal [80,82] t2:27
223 were done in vitro or on animal models and therefore lack the 22. 4-Hydroxy-3,5- [83] t2:28
224 clinical data which determine their suitability for human use. dimethylacetophenone
23. Duraldehyde [82] t2:29
24. 5-Undecanone [83] t2:30
225 5.1. Anthelmintic activity
Alcohols t2:31
25. Carotol [3,80,84,85,93,94] t2:32
226 In Jamaica, the refined plant extracts rich in eryngial (E-2- Acids t2:33
227 dodecenal) appeared to be remarkably anthelmintic during 26. Hexadecanoic acid [84] t2:34
228 in vitro screening using Strongyloides stercoralis (infective 27. (E)-2-Dodecenoic acid [80,93] t2:35
28. Dodecanoic acid [3] t2:36
229 larvae) as the test organism [96]. This is an important
Terpenes t2:37
230 observation, because Strongyloides stercoralis (threadworm) 29. α-Pinene [80] t2:38
231 infection is clinically the most severe parasitic disease of 30. γ-Terpinene [83] t2:39
232 humans in the Caribbean region, and this skin-penetrating 31. Limonene [3] t2:40
233 parasite is the cause of long-enduring, low-grade internal
Aerial parts t2:41
234 infections. The research findings of Forbes et al. in 2002 [96] Saponins t2:42
235 were elaborated into a US patent application on new methods 32. O-(3)-{β-D-glucopyranosyl- [91] t2:43
236 for treating infectious diseases in humans and other mam- (1 → 2 rham)-β-D-fucopyranosyl-
237 mals, which were caused by parasitic trypanosomes, bacteria (1 → 3 rham)-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1 → 4 glu)-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-
238 and fungi and by parasitic nematodes [97]. These discoveries
olean-12-en-23,28-diol.
239 suggest a possible role in veterinary medicine.
Roots t2:44
240 5.2. Anti-convulsant activity Alcohols t2:45
33. 2-Formyl-1,1,5-trimethyl [94] t2:46
cyclohexa-2,4-dien-6-ol
241 This plant has been used extensively in traditional Carbonyl t2:47
242 medicine to treat fits in Jamaica [37]. A pharmacological 34. 2,3,6-Trimethylbenzaldehyde [94] t2:48
243 evaluation using 3 mL of an aqueous extract prepared at a
244 concentration of 110 g/250 mL demonstrated anti-convulsant Seeds t2:49
Alcohols t2:50
245 activity in rats with picrotoxin-induced (4.5 mg/kg i.p.)
35. Carotol [95] t2:51
246 convulsions [37]. In a review entitled "Phytotherapy in Terpenes t2:52
247 Epilepsy", Nsour et al. [98] indicated that aqueous extracts, 36. (E)-β-Farnesene [95] t2:53
248 boiled or that obtained by steam distillation of the leaves 37. (E)-Anethole [95] t2:54
249 and stems, when administered intraperitoneally to rats, were 38. α-Pinene [95] t2:55

250 shown to be as effective in treating epilepsy as the

251 phenobarbitone control [37,98]. Epilepsy is a disorder of
252 the nervous system which depending on severity can lead to 5.3. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity 257
253 death of the patient. The results which present evidence of
254 anti-convulsant activity in the plant extracts have been An organic extract from the leaves rich in stigmasterol 258
255 available since 1986 [37] yet, to date the component(s) (95%), was shown by Garcia et al. [89] to display topical 259
256 responsible for this activity have not been explored. anti-inflammatory activity on chronic and acute 260

Please cite this article as: Paul JHA, et al, Eryngium foetidum L.: A review, Fitoterapia (2010), doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.11.010
 J.H.A. Paul et al. / Fitoterapia xxx (2010) xxx–xxx 5

261 inflammation in animal models. Although stigmasterol effects. For a number of tropical plants these properties are 316
262 exhibits significant topical anti-inflammatory activity, by displayed by polyphenolic compounds. Preliminary evalua- 317
263 itself it could not account for the overall effects observed tion of the blood glucose lowering effects of the plant (at 318
264 for the total phytosterols [89]. 351 mg/kg and 176 mg/kg) on three animal models (normo- 319
265 The decoction when given orally to rodents in doses of glycaemic rats, streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and 320
266 250 and 500 mg/kg, was also found to inhibit carrageenan- normal rats) subjected to the oral glucose-tolerance test, 321
267 induced oedema in the paws and 12-O-tetradecanoylphor- revealed that a single (acute) oral dose of the leaf extract does 322
268 bol acetate-induced oedema in the ears [99]. In this study not cause significant reduction in the level of glucose of the 323
269 both topical and oral administration exhibited dose- models tested [105]. Also the polyphenolic content of the 324
270 dependent activity however oral administration was more plant was not significant [106,107]. These results suggest that 325
271 effective suggesting the influence of a more polar constit- the plant is not likely to be a candidate in the management of 326
272 uent. Additionally the extract potently inhibited the num- blood sugar of diabetic patients. 327
273 ber of writhings provoked by acetic acid in mice [99].
274 These results indicate anti-inflammatory and analgesic 5.7. Other 328
275 activity only in animal models. The implications for humans
276 need to be determined, especially since there is a claim in the Yagi et al. [108] has obtained a Japanese patent for having 329
277 traditional folklore of use in the treatment of asthma and developed a skin-whitening agent in which E. foetidum is 330
278 rheumatism [21,22]. one of four plants used. The preparation is to be used for 331
sunburns, freckles, liver spot and related instances where 332
279 5.4. Antibacterial activity skin-whitening is required. The exact role of the plant extract 333
in this preparation is uncertain. 334
280 In a study by Guevara et al. [100] which evaluated the in
281 vitro bactericidal effects of several plant extracts against plant 6. Conclusions 335
282 pathogenic bacteria from mango (Mangifera indica), sunflow-
283 er (Helianthus annuus), papaya (Carica papaya) and banana In vivo studies using animal models have confirmed the 336
284 (Musa sp.), the greatest effects were found with coriander anthelmintic, anti-convulsant and anti-inflammatory prop- 337
285 (E. foetidum) against the Erwinia genus of Enterobacteriaceae. erties of the leaf extract of E. foetidum [35,89,96–99]. An 338
286 However when subjected to in vitro tests against Helicobacter extract rich in eryngial has already been patented for the 339
287 species isolated from gastric biopsy samples, methanol treatment of parasites in humans and other mammals [96,97]. 340
288 extracts of E. foetidum showed only weak activity when The phytosterol fraction of the plant shows anti-convulsant 341
289 applied at a concentration of 1 mg/mL [32]. properties. However, the constituents responsible for the 342
290 In yet another study by Kubo et al. [101], pure E-2- demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects are still unknown 343
291 dodecenal ("eryngial") showed potent activity (minimum and their mechanisms of action still remain to be determined. 344
292 bactericidal concentration, MBC of 6.25 μg/mL) (34 μM), Other reports have mentioned the selective activity of 345
293 against Salmonella choleraesuis at all growth stages. Since plant extracts against certain plant pathogenic bacteria 346
294 the extracts from the aerial part of the plant were negative (Erwinia genus) [100], thereby revealing a possible role as a 347
295 when screened broadly for antimicrobial activity, and pest control agent in the agriculture industry. The reported 348
296 displayed limited toxicity against brine shrimp (6.7% com- activity against Salmonella is probably related to its ethno 349
297 pared to the lapachol control which showed 100% toxicity) medicinal use for stomach ache. Further investigations are 350
298 [50], the observed antibacterial activity maybe highly spe- needed to fully explore this property. 351
299 cific, targeting only a limited number of organisms. Preliminary studies of the anti-diabetic, antimalarial 352
and anti-venom activities of the plant showed that it is not 353
300 5.5. Antimalarial activity significant, however, the extensive use of the extract by 354
ancient tribes for various pains such as headaches, stomach 355
301 In a study by Roumy et al. [37], extracts from the plant ache, earache and menstrual pain [see Table 1], is notable. 356
302 were tested for in vitro antiplasmodial activity against In preliminary studies an extract of the plant was signifi- 357
303 Plasmodium falciparum. The results (IC50 N 25 μg/mL) suggest cantly effective against writhings in mice induced by acetic 358
304 that the potential of this plant as an antimalarial drug for acid [99]. Pain is a response to malfunction in the body and 359
305 humans is low despite the claims of traditional use [37]. occurs in association with every ailment. Because millions 360
306 Interestingly in the screening of the aqueous extract of the of people suffer pains of one type or another and because 361
307 entire plant against various species of Plasmodium, activity research into the understanding and treatment of pain has 362
308 was only reported against P. gallinaceum which infects been attracting more funding from NCCAM recently [109], 363
309 chickens [102] thereby suggesting another possible veteri- this could provide an incentive for further investigation of 364
310 nary use. the analgesic property of the plant. 365
The primary use of E. foetidum is as food. Its ethnome- 366
311 5.6. Anti-diabetes activity dicinal uses are numerous however only a few properties 367
have been studied and data for clinical trials in human is 368
312 Folklore reports make moderate mention of the plant in severely lacking. The technology needed to produce the 369
313 the treatment of diabetes [4,103]. According to Mai et al. plant in mass is already in use in regions where it is 370
314 [104], an ideal anti-diabetic compound should possess both grown for exportation. Analyses of the chemical constitu- 371
315 hypoglycemic and antioxidant properties, with no adverse ents have focused mainly on the essential oils. These facts 372

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