History of Health

Education
Egyptian 3100-2686BC
Professionals on maintaining good hygiene
Egyptians had created a sewage system and usedvarious remedies. The code of
Hummarabi was the first written record concerning public health

Greeks 1000-400 BC
Modern health care. Greeks were the first to take precautions ondiseases and
treatment. Physicians started to develop. Scientific approach for medicine.

Romans 500 BC-500 AD

Aqueducts system
Romans built the first hospitals. They also developed an underground sewage, and
proper water supply system.

Renaissance A.D. 1500-1700

Poor health conditions along with spreading of diseases. Human waste was a huge
issue, but there were scientific advancements. Cities created boards to fight off the
plague.

Age of Englithment
The Miasmas theory was to explain how disease was spreading. Health education was
still not a profession.
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1700's in the United States

Protecting the environment became very important due to the pollution of factories that
was causing people to get sick. The life expectancy table was created.

1800's
More crowded cities and more unsanitary streets. Publich health became to be known.
Congress passed many healthy laws.  

1900's-Present
Health promotion became well known and most people were living in healthy conditions.
Science has develop and new technology has helped understand the human body and
how disease can be prevented.

The term ethics may refer to the philosophical study of the concepts of moral right and wrong
and moral good and bad, to any philosophical theory of what is morally right and wrong or
morally good and bad, and to any system or code of moral rules, principles, or values. The last
may be associated with particular religions, cultures, professions, or virtually any other group
that is at least partly characterized by its moral outlook.

What is ethics?

At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make
decisions and lead their lives.

Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as
moral philosophy.
 The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or
disposition.

Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

 how to live a good life

 our rights and responsibilities

 the language of right and wrong

 moral decisions - what is good and bad?

Our concepts of ethics have been derived from religions, philosophies and cultures. They
infuse debates on topics like abortion, human rights and professional conduct.

Nurses effectuate hundreds of critical, health-related tasks every day. In

some cases, these decisions test their professional and personal morality.
Nursing ethics codes help caregivers to maintain a safe recovery setting and
remember to consider patient needs from several viewpoints. Guidelines
remind the caregivers to treat all patrons equally and individually while
protecting their privacy in ways that may not seem overtly obvious. These
recommendations also implore caregivers to seek justice for convalescents
and to take full responsibility for their work.
 Trials Faced in a Noble Profession
Professional nurses are sometimes ethically challenged in the workplace. [1]
In a report drafted by United States Air Force Colonel John Murry, PhD., the
healthcare educator visits the topic of moral courage in the healthcare field.
He relates that morally courageous healthcare professionals make ethical
decisions, even if they are alone in their beliefs. Nurse practitioners
exercising this trait strive to exercise ethical behavior, as outlined in nursing
codes of ethics, regardless of negative personal outcomes, which may
include, but are not limited to:
 A tainted reputation

 Embarrassment

 Angst

 Ostracism by peers

 Employer or peer backlash

 Career endangerment or loss

Murry’s report also stresses how important it is for nurses to practice

professional humility and flexible thinking. Ethics codes encourage healthcare
professionals to incorporate these moral guidelines into their personal lives as
well. [2-4] Nursing association ethics codes contain several common
components:

Moral practitioners create a safe, nonviolent caregiving environment. [2-4]

When unforeseen danger occurs, nurses take action to protect their clients
and themselves. They also express empathy with words and mannerisms,
while at the same time forming real connections with their patients. [4] These
relationships foster a dialogue that helps healthcare professionals find care
solutions efficiently.
Component Two: Healing the Whole Person
Responsible nurses promote physical, mental and spiritual – or whole person
– healing as a primary tenet. They network with other healthcare
professionals to meet this goal as efficiently as possible and to mitigate
threats to this practice, such as public health initiatives that misalign with
community health needs. This philosophy helps nurses produce the best
possible health conditions for clients.

Nursing ethics codes set forth that people have the right to decide how they
want treatment and with as much or as little information as they desire;
however, it is important that they are mentally fit. If they are not, nurses help
them with the decision-making process. Despite any possible outcomes,
ethical nurses support these decisions.
Component Four: Recognizing Individual Value
Caregivers educate themselves about the individuals and communities they
service, taking corrective action if their peers do not follow this same
standard. Additionally, nurses treat everyone with respect and maintain
appropriate professional boundaries at all times.
Component Five: Keeping Patient Information Confidential
The codes also emphasize how important it is to keep case details
confidential. This guideline goes beyond making sure that unauthorized
persons do not gain access to private records. The codes encourage
caregivers to discuss cases only when others will not hear their dialogue. This
especially applies in the care setting where nearby staff or patrons may
overhear others’ personal details.
Component Six: Making Sure Patients Receive Fair
Treatment
Nursing ethics codes promote fair treatment towards all individuals and
denounce discrimination or judgment for any reason. Particularly, this
includes making sure that they distribute limited resources based on need. By
exercising fair treatment, caregivers create trusting relationships with their
clients.
Component Seven: Ethical Accountability
Nursing professionals take responsibility for their actions and their practice.
They are honest and exercise strong moral workplace practices. Code-
honoring nurses never attempt to provide services beyond their proficiency.
Finally, ethical nurses maintain their health so that they can provide the best
possible service.

Patients rely on nurses to make ethical decisions regarding their care.

However, making the right decision is not always easy. To help nurses face
these challenges with integrity, various trade advocates issue ethics codes
that exemplify ideal nursing practice standards. Nurses follow these codes to
help them remember that each client has unique needs and remind them to
remain unbiased while serving clients. These standards serve as a beacon
that caregivers refer to when faced with dilemmas regarding patient care and
help nursing staff members serve individual and community interests by
attaining the best health related outcomes possible.
Nursing ethics is a branch of applied ethics that concerns itself with activities in the field of nursing.
Nursing ethics shares many principles with medical ethics, such as beneficence, non-
maleficence and respect for autonomy. It can be distinguished by its emphasis on relationships,
human dignity and collaborative care.

Ethics is an integral part of the foundation of nursing. Nursing has a distinguished history of concern
for the welfare of the sick, injured, and vulnerable and for social justice. This concern is embodied in
the provision of nursing care to individuals and the community. Nursing encompasses the prevention
of illness, the alleviation of suffering, and the protection, promotion, and restoration of health in the
care of individuals, families, groups, and communities. Individuals who become nurses are expected
not only to adhere to the ideals and moral norms of the profession, but also to embrace them as a
part of what it means to be a nurse. The Code of Ethics for Nurses developed by the American
Nurses Association (ANA) makes explicit the primary goals, values, and obligations of the
profession.
The ANA Code of Ethics for Nurses serves the following purposes:
 It is a succinct statement of the ethical obligations and duties of every individual who enters
the nursing profession.
 It is the profession’s nonnegotiable ethical standard.
 It is an expression of nursing’s own understanding of its commitment to society.

DIVISIONS
The scientific content for the Society's conference and events programme is planned by the
members of the four Divisions.
 The Divisions meet twice each year and each one works independently to plan some
conference sessions, whilst some symposia are developed with a cross-cutting theme in
mind. Each Division is headed by a Chair and Chair-Elect, who sit on the Scientific
Conferences Committee responsible for making decisions on policy and meetings content.
The Scientific Conferences Chair reports to Council.

Committee members serve for three to four years and in February each year there is call for
nominations for new members to serve on the Divisions.

Society members can also make proposals for sessions to the Scientific Conferences
Committee. Outline proposals for consideration by Scientific Conferences Committee
should be emailed to the Head of Conferences and Events.

Find out more about each of the Divisions below:

Eukaryotic Division

The Eukaryotic Division aims to promote eukaryotic microbiology in its widest context in
fundamental, medical, applied and environmental aspects.

Prokaryotic Division

The Prokaryotic Division (ProkD) comprises scientists working in the major areas of
bacterial and archaeal microbiology.

Virology Division

The Virology Division promotes fundamental studies of the natural history, cellular and
molecular biology, immunology and molecular pathogenesis of viruses of all kinds.


Irish Division

The Irish Division seeks to promote all aspects of microbiology in Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland.

What is Microbiology?

Essentially, microbiology is the study of biological organisms that are too small to be
seen with the naked eye (without using such tools as the magnifying glass or
microscope etc). Microbiology is therefore dedicated to studying the lives and
characteristics of a wide variety of organisms ranging
from bacteria and archaea to parasitic worms in their environments.

Here, the discipline is used to learn about all aspects of the organisms in order to not
only determine how they live in their environment, but also how they impact their
respective surroundings and thus other organisms around them (human beings,
animals, etc).

Microbiology has proved to be one of the most important disciplines in biology, making
it possible to identify how some of these organisms cause diseases, discover cures for
such diseases and even use some microbes for industrial purposes etc.

Some of the fields that microbiologists may specialize in include:

 Immunology
 Soil biology
 Industrial Microbiology
 Biotechnology
 Biogeochemistry
 Microbial genetics
  Aquatic Microbiology

* Although microbiology is, for the most part, described as the study of microorganisms
(those that cannot be seen with the naked eye), such groups as algae and fungi contain
organisms that do not necessarily require the use of special tools to observe them.
Therefore, microbiology also encompasses a number of organisms that fall outside the
traditional definition.

Branches of Microbiology

The different branches of microbiology are classified into pure and applied sciences as
well as taxonomy.

Bacteriology

Bacteriology is the branch of microbiology concerned with the study of bacteria. This
branch is further divided into a number of specializations that include marine
bacteriology, sanitary bacteriology, industrial bacteriology, agricultural bacteriology,
and systematic bacteriology among others.

Here, this branch of microbiology gives focus to such aspects as types of bacteria and
their characteristics, diseases, and application among others.

Mycology

Unlike bacteriology which is the study of bacteria, which are prokaryotic organisms,

mycology deals with the study of fungi which are eukaryotic in nature. Found in many
types of environments, the different types of fungi (mold and yeast) can be highly
beneficial or harmful.

Mycology gives focus to the different properties of these organisms (characteristics,

taxonomy, etc) which has it turn made it possible to use them in various industries
ranging from breweries to food and medicine.

Those who specialize in mycology are known as mycologists.

Protozoology
Protozoology is one of the newer branches of microbiology based on taxonomy. It is the
sub-discipline that deals with the study of protozoa. Like fungi, these are eukaryotic
organisms that include such groups as amoeboids, ciliates, sporozans , and flagellates.

Given that a good number of these organisms have been associated with animals and
human diseases, protozoologists not only focus on their taxonomy and morphological
aspects for classification purposes, but also for medical significance.

Some common examples of diseases caused by protozoa include malaria, sleeping

sickness as well as amoebic dysentery.

Phycology

Like mycology, phycology is one of the branches of microbiology that is concerned with
the study of multicellular organisms. Unlike mycology, however, phycology deals with
the study of different types of algae that can be found in different types of
environment.

While they may exist as small microorganisms found floating in the ocean, some algae
grow to form large seaweeds found in the aquatic environments.

Apart from being part of the food chain, algae are also involved in the production of
oxygen which makes them important in microbiology.

Those who study phycology (e.g. Carl Adolph Agardh) are known as phycologists.

Parasitology

Parasitology is a wide field of microbiology that deals with the study of parasites. For
the most part, parasitology is concerned with organisms found in three major groups
including protozoa, helminths (worms) and arthropods.

Given that parasitology is concerned with disease-causing organisms (as well as

vectors) it has been influenced by a number of other disciplines including immunology
and biochemistry among others.

Like mycology and phycology, parasitology entails the study of both unicellular and
multicellular organisms.

Those who study parasitology are known as parasitologists.

Immunology

Immunology is the sub-discipline that deals with the study of the immune system. It
has been one of the most important areas of study since the 18th Century whose
efforts are directed towards enhancing the immune system to protect the body from
diseases.

It is worth noting that while diseases are caused by various organisms and foreign
substances, they can also result from the immune system itself in cases of
autoimmunity.

By studying the relationship between the body, pathogens and the immune system,
researchers have made significant strides and breakthroughs that have made it possible
to eradicate diseases that were once common in society.

These efforts continue to be seen in studies regarding such diseases and Ebola among
others outbreaks identified in different parts of the world.

A person who studies immunology is known as an immunologist.

Virology

Virology is the branch of microbiology that is concerned with the study of viruses.
Unlike most of the other organisms which are either described as being unicellular or
multicellular, viruses are acellular microbes with simple structures and need host cells
to multiply.

Given that viruses need host cells to multiply, they also, end up affecting the cells and
consequently causing disease.

In virology, researchers also focus on such aspects as biochemistry, distribution,

molecular biology as well as the evolution of viruses which makes

it's possible to not only understand them, but also develop cures to some of the most
serious diseases caused by these parasites (AIDs etc).

Nematology

Nematology is the sub-disciplines that deal with the study of multicellular nematodes.

Also known as roundworms, nematodes include a variety of organisms (worms) found
in a variety of environments on earth (they can be found in soil, mud, sands,
mountains, etc).

According to studies, nematodes are some of the most abundant organisms on our
planet. Nematology, as a branch of microbiology, has allowed for the classification of
these worms based on their general morphology, habitats as well as whether or not
they cause diseases, etc.

Those who study nematology are known as nematologists.

 
Apart from taxonomy, microbiology is also classified into pure sciences.

Some of the most common categories include:

· Microbial cytology - deals with the structure and function of the organisms

· Microbial physiology - is the branch of microbiology that deals with the different
parts and normal functions of the organisms (functioning of the different parts of the
organism)

· Microbial ecology - branch that deals with the surroundings/habitat of the organism.
This makes it possible to understand how the organism interacts and affects its
surroundings

· Microbial genetics - is concerned with the genetic makeup of the organism. It is

used to identify the different strains and phenotypes of an organism and classify the
organisms as such

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Applied Microbiology

Whereas taxonomy classification gives focus to the organism and its general
characteristics, applied microbiology is focused on how various organisms can be used
(applied) in given processes or the impact they can have in different industries.

Some of the most important branches of microbiology based on application include:

Food microbiology 

Research studies focus on a variety of microorganisms that contaminate/damage food

and those that can be used for food processing/modification among others. As such,
microbiology gives special attention to such microorganisms as molds, yeasts, and
bacteria among others that either benefit or have negative effects on the quality of food
material with public health concern in mind.

* Food microbiology is connected to several other fields (immunology and molecular

biology etc) and entails such aspects as food processing and preservation, food
ingredients, production and fermentation among others.

Medical Microbiology
This is the branch of microbiology that is concerned with the diagnosis, prevention and
treatment of diseases caused by different types of organisms (infection agents). This
sub-discipline is therefore related to a number of other fields including virology,
bacteriology, immunology, and germicrobiology.

Industrial microbiology

This branch of microbiology is concerned with the use of given microorganisms for
industrial production. Here, research studies are directed towards the use of these
organisms to increase and maximize yields in industries like fuel, pharmaceutical, and
chemicals among others. Here, the use of microorganisms makes it possible to mass
produce for a big market.

Agricultural microbiology

Agricultural microbiology is concerned with microbes associated with plants and animal
diseases and production. As such, it is not only concerned with the medical significance
of these organisms, but also their economic importance for farmers and the industry as
a whole. In the process, agricultural microbiology is aimed to solve issues identified in
agricultural practices while helping increase yields for farmers.

Some of the other branches of microbiology based on application include:

· Soil microbiology - This is the branch of microbiology that deals with the study of
soil microorganisms and how they impact soil properties

· Pharmaceutical microbiology  - Concerned with the use of microorganisms for

inhibiting contamination as well as the development of pharmaceuticals

· Veterinary microbiology - Focus on microbes that cause diseases

· Microbial biotechnology - Area of microbiology and biotechnology aimed at using

microbes for beneficial purposes: It is aimed at enhancing microbial application in the
day to day life.  A good example of this is the research study currently being conducted
(at the time of writing) to use given bacteria to replace the traditional sewage systems
by the Gates Foundation.

Branches of Microbiology
By Taxonomy
 Bacteriology: the study of bacteria.
 Immunology: the study of the immune system. It looks at the
relationships between pathogens such as bacteria and viruses and their
hosts.
  Mycology: the study of fungi, such as yeasts and molds.
 Nematology: the study of nematodes (roundworms).
 Parasitology: the study of parasites. Not all parasites are
microorganisms, but many are. Protozoa and bacteria can be parasitic; the
study of bacterial parasites is usually categorized as part of bacteriology.
 Phycology: the study of algae.
 Protozoology: the study of protozoa, single-celled organisms like
amoebae.
 Virology: the study of viruses.

By Type of Research

Microbiology research, like other fields of scientific research, can be subdivided

into the categories of pure and applied. Pure (or basic) research is exploratory
and conducted in order to better understand a scientific phenomenon, while
applied research is based on information gleaned from pure research and used to
answer specific questions or solve problems.
Pure microbiology research includes:

 Astromicrobiology: the study of the origin of life on Earth, and the

search for extraterrestrial life.
 Evolutionary microbiology: the evolution of microorganisms.
 Cellular microbiology: the study of the structure and function of
microbial cells.
 Microbial ecology
 Microbial genetics
 Microbial physiology
 Systems microbiology: mathematical/computational modeling of the
activities of microbiological systems.
While applied microbiology research includes:

 Agricultural microbiology: the study of microorganisms that interact

with plants and soils.
 Food microbiology: the study of microorganisms that spoil food or cause
foodborne illnesses. Can also study how microorganisms are used in food
production, such as fermentation of beer.
 Medical microbiology: the study of microorganisms responsible for
human disease.
 Microbial biotechnology: using microbes in industrial
or consumer products.
  Pharmaceutical microbiology: the study of microorganisms used in
pharmaceutical products, such as vaccines and antibiotics.

Microbiology Careers

Most jobs in microbiology require at least a bachelor’s degree. An individual who

is interested in microbiology may obtain a bachelor’s degree in biology or
microbiology. The courseload is very similar for each of these majors; while a
microbiology major may be more specific to the interests of someone who wants
to study microbiology, it is also possible to achieve a similar level of specificity in
the biology major by taking upper-level microbiology courses. The biology major
may be preferred if one has interests in other subfields of biology, or if he or she
is double majoring in biology and in another field. In both the microbiology and
biology majors, students must take numerous biology courses and laboratories,
and usually they must also take courses in chemistry (including organic), physics,
mathematics, and statistics.

With a bachelor’s degree, one can become employed as a research technician in

an academic or industry laboratory and provide technical support. One could also
become a quality assurance technician in the food, environmental,
pharmaceutical, or biotechnology industries, or with some additional training,
become a medical technologist. However, many individuals with bachelor’s
degrees in microbiology or biology go on to do further schooling. With a master’s
degree in microbiology, an individual may go on to become a laboratory
manager/coordinator or a biosafety officer. Further schooling leading to a PhD
opens up opportunities in teaching and doing research at a university. Being a
professor requires a PhD. Most heads of research laboratories in industry have
PhDs as well. Other high-level careers involving microbiology include becoming a
consultant/adviser, administrator, or lab director.
The first, largest, and most inclusive group under which organisms are classified is
called a domain and has three subgroups: bacteria, archae, and eukarya. This first
group defines whether an organism is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. The domain was
proposed by the microbiologist and physicist Carl Woese in 1978 and is based on
identifying similarities in ribosomal RNA sequences of microorganisms.

The second largest group is called a kingdom. Five major kingdoms have been
described and include prokaryota (e.g. archae and bacteria), protoctista (e.g. protozoa
and algae), fungi, plantae, and animalia. A kingdom is further split into phylum or
division, class, order, family, genus, and species, which is the smallest group.

The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy and the groups making up the
classification hierarchy are called taxa. Taxonomy consists of classifying new organisms
or reclassifying existing ones. Microorganisms are scientifically recognized using a
binomial nomenclature using two words that refer to the genus and the species. The
names assigned to microorganisms are in Latin. The first letter of the genus name is
always capitalized. Classification of microorganisms has been largely aided by studies of
fossils and recently by DNA sequencing. Methods of classifications are constantly
changing. The most widely employed methods for classifying microbes are
morphological characteristics, differential staining, biochemical testing, DNA
fingerprinting or DNA base composition, polymerase chain reaction, and DNA chips.

Life on Earth is famous for its diversity. Throughout the world we can find many millions
of different forms of life. Biologic classification helps identify each form according to
common properties (similarities) using a set of rules and an estimate as to how closely
related it is to a common ancestor (evolutionary relationship) in a way to create an
order. By learning to recognize certain patterns and classify them into specific groups,
biologists are better able to understand the relationships that exist among a variety of
living forms that inhabit the planet.

Classification of E. coli: Domain: Bacteria, Kingdom: Eubacteria, Phylum: Proteobacteria, Class:

Gammaproteobacteria, Order: Enterobacteriales, Family: Enterobacteriaceae, Genus: Escherichia, Species: E.
coli.

The first, largest, and most inclusive group under which organisms are classified is
called a domain and has three subgroups: bacteria, archae, and eukarya. This first
group defines whether an organism is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. The domain was
proposed by the microbiologist and physicist Carl Woese in 1978 and is based on
identifying similarities in ribosomal RNA sequences of microorganisms.
The second largest group is called a kingdom. Five major kingdoms have been
described and include prokaryota (e.g. archae and bacteria), protoctista (e.g. protozoa
and algae), fungi, plantae, and animalia. A kingdom is further split into phylum or
division, class, order, family, genus, and species, which is the smallest group.

The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy and the groups making up the
classification hierarchy are called taxa. Taxonomy consists of classifying new organisms
or reclassifying existing ones. Microorganisms are scientifically recognized using a
binomial nomenclature using two words that refer to the genus and the species. The
names assigned to microorganisms are in Latin. The first letter of the genus name is
always capitalized. Classification of microorganisms has been largely aided by studies
of fossils and recently by DNA sequencing. Methods of classifications are constantly
changing. The most widely employed methods for classifying microbes are
morphological characteristics, differential staining, biochemical testing, DNA
fingerprinting or DNA base composition, polymerase chain reaction, and DNA chips.

Microorganisms make up a large part of the planet’s living material and play a
major role in maintaining the Earth’s ecosystem.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Define the differences between microbial organisms.

Key Points
 Microorganisms are divided into seven types: bacteria, archaea, protozoa, algae, fungi,
viruses, and multicellular animal parasites ( helminths ).
 Each type has a characteristic cellular composition, morphology, mean of locomotion,
and reproduction.
 Microorganisms are beneficial in producing oxygen, decomposing organic material,
providing nutrients for plants, and maintaining human health, but some can be
pathogenic and cause diseases in plants and humans.

Key Terms
 Gram stain: A method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups (Gram-
positive and Gram-negative).
 peptidoglycan: A polymer of glycan and peptides found in bacterial cell walls.

Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular,

multicellular, or cell clusters. Microorganims are widespread in nature and are beneficial
to life, but some can cause serious harm. They can be divided into six major types:
bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.

Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular organisms. The cells are described as prokaryotic because they
lack a nucleus. They exist in four major shapes: bacillus (rod shape), coccus (spherical
shape), spirilla (spiral shape), and vibrio (curved shape). Most bacteria have a
peptidoglycan cell wall; they divide by binary fission; and they may possess flagella for
motility. The difference in their cell wall structure is a major feature used in classifying
these organisms.

According to the way their cell wall structure stains, bacteria can be classified as either
Gram-positive or Gram-negative when using the Gram staining. Bacteria can be further
divided based on their response to gaseous oxygen into the following groups: aerobic
(living in the presence of oxygen), anaerobic (living without oxygen), and facultative
anaerobes (can live in both environments).

According to the way they obtain energy, bacteria are classified as heterotrophs or
autotrophs. Autotrophs make their own food by using the energy of sunlight or
chemical reactions, in which case they are called chemoautotrophs. Heterotrophs obtain
their energy by consuming other organisms. Bacteria that use decaying life forms as a
source of energy are called saprophytes.

Archaea
Archaea or Archaebacteria differ from true bacteria in their cell wall structure and lack
peptidoglycans. They are prokaryotic cells with avidity to extreme environmental
conditions. Based on their habitat, all Archaeans can be divided into the following
groups: methanogens (methane-producing organisms), halophiles (archaeans that live
in salty environments), thermophiles (archaeans that live at extremely hot
temperatures), and psychrophiles (cold-temperature Archaeans). Archaeans use
different energy sources like hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, and sulphur. Some of them
use sunlight to make energy, but not the same way plants do. They absorb sunlight
using their membrane pigment, bacteriorhodopsin. This reacts with light, leading to the
formation of the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Fungi
Fungi (mushroom, molds, and yeasts) are eukaryotic cells (with a true nucleus). Most
fungi are multicellular and their cell wall is composed of chitin. They obtain nutrients by
absorbing organic material from their environment (decomposers), through symbiotic
relationships with plants (symbionts), or harmful relationships with a host (parasites).
They form characteristic filamentous tubes called hyphae that help absorb material. The
collection of hyphae is called mycelium. Fungi reproduce by releasing spores.

Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular aerobic eukaryotes. They have a nucleus, complex organelles,
and obtain nourishment by absorption or ingestion through specialized structures. They
make up the largest group of organisms in the world in terms of numbers, biomass, and
diversity. Their cell walls are made up of cellulose. Protozoa have been traditionally
divided based on their mode of locomotion: flagellates produce their own food and use
their whip-like structure to propel forward, ciliates have tiny hair that beat to produce
movement, amoeboids have false feet or pseudopodia used for feeding and locomotion,
and sporozoans are non-motile. They also have different means of nutrition, which
groups them as autotrophs or heterotrophs.

Algae
Algae, also called cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, are unicellular or multicellular
eukaryotes that obtain nourishment by photosynthesis. They live in water, damp soil,
and rocks and produce oxygen and carbohydrates used by other organisms. It is
believed that cyanobacteria are the origins of green land plants.

Viruses
Viruses are noncellular entities that consist of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat. Although viruses are classified as microorganisms, they
are not considered living organisms. Viruses cannot reproduce outside a host cell and
cannot metabolize on their own. Viruses often infest prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
causing diseases.

Multicellular Animal Parasites

A group of eukaryotic organisms consisting of the flatworms and roundworms, which
are collectively referred to as the helminths. Although they are not microorganisms by
definition, since they are large enough to be easily seen with the naked eye, they live a
part of their life cycle in microscopic form. Since the parasitic helminths are of clinical
importance, they are often discussed along with the other groups of microbes.

Figure: Gram Stain: This is a microscopic image of a Gram stain of mixed Gram-positive cocci
(Staphylococcus aureus, purple) and Gram-negative bacilli (Escherichia coli, red).

Figure: Types of microorganisms: This tree of

life shows the different types of microorganisms.

I believe the question pertains to the classificatory system proposed by Thomas Cavalier-
Smith, a British Zoologist who introduced a new Kingdom called Chromista. The kingdoms
included in it are: Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria  and
Chromista. It is a modified classification of Whittaker(1969) but doesn't represent true
phylogeny. However, this system has faced many objections.

The satisfactory classification seems to be the Three Domain System of Classification by Carl
Woese (1991, 1992). Grouping of living organisms into three Domains namely Archaea,
Prokariya and Eukariya was a right step.

Domain Archea includes Archaebacteria  having unique phospholipid monolayer with ether
bonds not seen anywhere else.

Domain Prokariya includes organisms lacking compartmentalization in protoplasm -having

plasma membrane but lacking endomembrane system (membrane bound organelles).  It
includes Kindom Monera with Divisions Mycoplasma, Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Eubacteria,
Cyanobacteria and Mycobacteria

Domain Eukariya includes

Kingdom Protista - unicellular eukaryotes (with few mesokaryotes) including

Phycoprotista - algae like protists having cell wall and plastids (Dinoflagellates, Diatoms 
and Euglenoids)

Zooprotists - animal like protists lacking cell wall (Phylum Sarcodina, Ciliata, Zooflagellata
and Sporozoa)

Mycoprotists - fungi like protists (formally known as slime moulds)

Kingdom Fungi - Eukaryotic organisms with cellular level of organization and possessing
apoplastidic cells with chitinous cell wall.

Kingdom Plantae - Multicellular eukaryotic organisms having euplastidic cells with cellulosic
cell wall.

Kingdom Animalia - Multicellular eukaryotic organisms having apoplastidic cells lacking  cell
wall