Yadong

(b Dêgê county, Kham, eastern Tibet, 1963). Tibetan rock singer. His father
was a businessman who died when Yadong was 12 years old. Yadong
grew up close to his mother, who was known for her beautiful voice. He
worked as a physical education instructor in the army for several years,
after which he became unemployed and started teaching himself how to
play the guitar. He found work as a truck driver and sang occasionally at
weddings and festivals. He was asked to join an official performing arts
troupe, but he declined this offer and instead found a job with a
construction company in Chengdu, where he saved enough money to
produce his first cassette; 'khyam-pa-kyi sems (‘A vagabond's soul’) was
released in 1991. He performed in bars at night, and in 1995 he produced
a new album with a Chinese title, xiang wang shen ying (‘Desire for the
eagle god’), which comprises traditional songs mostly from Kham, such as
the King Gesar epic, remixed in rock and rap style. In 1996 Yadong's third
album, kham-pa'i bu-gsar (‘The young khampa man’), was released; it
features Tibetan music and Chinese lyrics. By the mid-1990s he had
gained widespread popularity in Tibet, especially among young people.
LAETITIA LUZI

Yakar, Rachel
(b Lyons, 3 March 1938). French soprano. She studied at the Paris
Conservatoire and with Germaine Lubin, making her début in 1963 at
Strasbourg. In 1964 she joined the Deutsche Oper am Rhein, Düsseldorf,
which remained her base for over 20 years. She sang Freia and Gerhilde
at Bayreuth (1976), Donna Elvira at Glyndebourne (1977), First Lady
(Zauberflöte) at Salzburg and Monteverdi’s Poppaea in Edinburgh (1978),
and made her Covent Garden début as Freia. Her wide repertory included
Rameau’s Aricia, Handel’s Cleopatra, Celia (Lucio Silla), Ilia, Fiordiligi,
Tatyana, Mimì, Málinka/Etherea/Kunka (Excursions of Mr Brouček), and
the Marschallin, which she sang at Glyndebourne in 1980. An extremely
musical as well as dramatic singer, capable of subtle tone colouring, Yakar
was particularly fine in roles such as Mélisande, which she recorded, and
Jenůfa. Her other operatic recordings include several Mozart roles,
Climène in Lully’s Phaëton (which she sang in Lyons in 1993), Madame
Lidoine in Dialogues des Carmélites and Diane in Honegger’s Les
aventures du roi Pausole. Yakar also had a notable career as a recitalist
and concert singer, and has recorded works ranging from Bach’s B minor
Mass to mélodies by Hahn.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Yakimenko, Fyodor Stepanovich

See Akimenko, Fedir Stepanovych.
Yakovlev, Leonid Georgiyevich
(b Kherson govt., 31 March/12 April 1858; d Petrograd, 21 May/2 June
1919). Russian baritone. Some authorities give his birthplace as St
Petersburg. The son of a landowner, he attended the Nikolayevsky Cadet
School and became adjutant to the governor-general of Kiev. Because of
financial difficulties he resigned his commission, took singing lessons with
Ryadnov in Kiev, and decided to make a career on the operatic stage. After
further study in Italy he joined an opera company in Tbilisi. There
Tchaikovsky heard him sing and recommended him to Kondrat'yev at the
Mariinsky Theatre. Yakovlev was invited to St Petersburg as a guest artist,
appearing in Gounod’s Faust in April 1887. He was offered a permanent
contract, and soon became very popular with St Petersburg audiences,
singing with great success Wolfram in Tannhäuser, Nevers in Les
Huguenots and Escamillo in Carmen. He was famous as Onegin and in the
title role in Rubinstein’s Demon, and created the part of Yeletsky in The
Queen of Spades and Gryaznoy in Rimsky-Korsakov's The Tsar's Bride.
His voice had a beautiful quality, full and resonant throughout the range.
His high notes were unforced, he was excellent in bel canto, and had
outstanding dramatic talents and great stage presence. He failed to recover
his voice after a severe attack of catarrh in 1905, and in the following year
retired from the stage. For a time he supervised provincial opera
companies and also taught singing in St Petersburg. In 1918 he became a
producer at the Mariinsky Theatre, but he died soon afterwards.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biryuch petrogradskikh gosudarstvennïkh teatrov [Herald of the Petrograd
State Theatres] (1918), no.5
E. Stark: Peterburgskaya opera i yeyo mastera, 1890–1910 [The St
Petersburg Opera and its stars] (Leningrad, 1940)
D.I. Pokhitonov: Iz proshlogo russkoy operï [From the past of Russian
opera] (Leningrad,1949), 135–42
JENNIFER SPENCER/EDWARD GARDEN

Yakovlev, Mikhail Luk'yanovich

(b Moscow, 1798; d St Petersburg, 1868). Russian poet, singer and
composer of songs. He was a contemporary and close friend of Pushkin
and Kuchelbecker, both of whom he first met at the Tsarskoye Selo
Lyceum, the school for young noblemen established in 1811 by Aleksandr
I. At the Lyceum Yakovlev took part in theatrical productions and was a
member of the poetical and literary circle. After leaving to take up a post at
the Department of Justice in Moscow, he continued to write poems; an
anthology of Russian verse which he prepared was published in 1828.
Yakovlev’s musical works, of which few survive, display a certain
dilettantism and unimaginative harmonic vocabulary in comparison with
music by other Russian composers of the period. He possessed a good
baritone voice and composed a number of songs to perform himself in the
fashionable salons of St Petersburg; he was one of the earliest composers
to set the poems of Pushkin and Delvig to music. Perhaps his best work is
the setting of Del'vig’s Elegiya (‘Elegy’), which was later arranged for two
voices by Glinka. Yakovlev chose his texts chiefly from the works of
Lyceum colleagues, though there is one short song, Pesn' lenosti (‘Song of
Laziness’), with a text probably written by the composer himself. He set two
of Pushkin’s poems to music: Zimniy vecher (‘Winter Evening’) and Sleza
(‘The Tear’). The latter was published in a collection of songs called
Mnemozina, produced in 1825 by Kuchelbecker and the Decembrist
composer Vladimir Odoyevsky.
GEOFFREY NORRIS

Yakubov, Manashir Abramovich

(b Groznïy, 4 May 1936). Russian musicologist and music critic. In 1960 he
graduated from the Moscow Conservatory having studied theory with
Mazel' and became a theory teacher at the music college in Makhachkala,
Daghestan. He was chief editor of the theory department at the journal
Sovetskaya muzïka (1963–6). He was a senior academic officer at the
Daghestan Institute for the History of Language and Literature (1973–98),
a branch of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, and in 1976 was appointed
curator of Shostakovich's family archives. He gained the Kandidat degree
in 1986, and was awarded the title Honoured Representative of the Arts of
Daghestan. He became chief editor of the publishing house DSCH in 1993.
Yakubov has published more than 1000 writings, many of which have been
translated. His main interests are Russian contemporary music, musical
ethnography, the problems of musical performance and the works of
Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Schnittke, Boris Chaykovsky and composers from
Daghestan. As a result of his research in the Shostakovich archives, he
has restored a number of the composer's ballet scores and prepared a
scholarly edition of the cantata Antiformalisticheskiy rayok (‘The
Antiformalist Rayok’, Moscow, 1995) and piano scores of the ballets
Zolotoy vek (‘The Golden Age’, 1995), Bolt (‘The Bolt’, 1996) and Svetlïy
ruchey (‘The Limpid Stream’, 1997).
WRITINGS
‘Pis'ma iz Dagestana’ [Letters from Daghestan], Muzïkal'naya zhizn'
(1958), no.10, p.3 only
‘Kompozitorï Dagestana (kriticheskiye zametki)’ [The composers of
Daghestan (critical notes)], SovM (1963), no.12, pp.17–21
‘Opernïy debyut Ėyno Tamberga’ [Eyno Tamberg’s operatic début], SovM
(1966), no.1, pp.20–25
Sergey Agababov: 1926–1959: ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva [Agababov:
1926–1959: an outline of his life and work] (Moscow, 1966)
‘Velichayshiy melodist XX veka (k izucheniyu naslediya S.S. Prokof'yeva)’
[The greatest melodist of the 20th century (studying Prokofiev’s
legacy)], SovM (1966), no.4, pp.39–50
‘Polifonicheskiye chertï melodiki Prokof'yeva’ [Polyphonic features in
Prokofiev’s melodics], Ot Lyulli do nashikh dney, ed. I. Slepnyov
(Moscow, 1967), 193–229
‘Severokavkazskiye ėskizï (ocherki nashego vremeni)’ [North Caucasian
sketches (essays of our times)], SovM (1968), no.5, pp.23–35
‘Bolgariya – Dagestan’, Bolgariya – SSSR: dialog o muzïke: Moscow 1969,
ed. I.A. Slepneva and V.I. Zaka (Moscow, 1972), 83–132
‘Kvartet imeni Borodina’ [The Borodin Quartet], Moskovskaya
gosudarstvennaya filarmoniya, ed. L. Grigor'ev and I.M. Platek
(Moscow, 1973), 212–18
‘Boris Chaykovskiy (tvorcheskiy portret)’ [Chaykovsky (A creative portrait)],
Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1974), no.21, pp.15–17
‘Simfoniya Al'freda Shnitke’, SovM (1974), no.10, pp.19–22
‘Ansamblï iz Iraka i Shri-Lanki’ [Ensembles from Iraq and Sri Lanka], SovM
(1975), no.10, pp.70–74
‘Ot pesni k opere i simfonii (Shirvani Chalayev)’ [From the song to the
opera and symphony (Chalayev)], Kompozitorï soyuznïkh respublik, i,
ed. M.I. Nest'yeva (Moscow, 1976), 158–213
Otets dagestanskoy muzïki: ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva G.A. Gasanova
[The father of Daghestan music: an outline of the life and work of
Gasanov] (Makhachkala, 1980)
‘Sekventsii Prokof'yeva (k izucheniyu naslediya S.S. Prokof'yeva)’
[Prokofiev’s sequences (studying Prokofiev’s legacy)], SovM (1988),
no.5, pp.81–93
‘O “Soldatakh” B.A. Tsimmermana’, Izvestiya (2 Oct 1989)
‘Sluzhitel' muzïki: shtrikhi k portretu G.I. Litinskogo’ [A servant of music:
brushstrokes for a portrait of Litinsky], SovM (1990), no.5, pp.58–65
‘Galina Vishnevskaya i Mstislav Rostropovich: istoriya lisheniya sovetskogo
grazhdanstva: slovo obvinyayemïkh’ [Vishnevskaya and Rostropovich:
the story of how they were deprived of Soviet citizenship: the word of
the accused], Muzïkal'noye obozreniye (1994), nos.7–8, pp.22–5
‘Opït rekonstruktsii avtorskoy redaktsii baleta “Zolotoy vek”’ [An attempt at
reconstructing the original version of the ballet The Golden Age],
‘“Rayok” Musorgskogo i “Antiformalisticheskiy rayok” Shostakovicha:
traditsii russkoy muzïkal'noy satirï ot Aleksandra II do Stalina i
Brezhneva’ [Musorgsky’s The Gallery and Shostakovich’s The
Antiformalist Rayok: the traditions of Russian musical satire from the
time of Alexander II to Stalin and Brezhnev], MAk (1997), no.4, pp.47–
51, pp.149–54
with I. Shostakovich: ‘Zhivaya klassika’ [A living classic], ibid., pp.4–15
[interview with the editorial board]
IOSIF GENRIKHOVICH RAYSKIN

Yale School of Music.

One of two administrative units for the study of music within Yale University
in New Haven, Connecticut (the other being the Department of Music). A
musical society was established at the university by 1812. In 1890 music
was added to the formal curriculum, and Gustave J. Stoeckel was
appointed professor of music. By 1894 a music school was created and
degrees in music were awarded. Horatio Parker served as the first dean of
the school from 1904 to 1919. The School of Music awarded its first MM in
1932. In 1958 it became exclusively a graduate professional school, and in
1968 it began a DMA programme, in which performers and composers
must prove themselves as professionals before receiving the degree. The
Institute of Sacred Music was established in 1973 in affiliation with both the
School of Music and the School of Divinity. In the late 1990s the School of
Music enrolled 185 students and had 60 faculty members. Performing
ensembles include the Yale Philharmonia Orchestra, one of the best
student orchestras in the USA. Concerts are given in Woolsey Hall (cap.
2695), Morse Recital Hall (720) and Sudler Hall (200). Chamber music is
stressed in the regular programmes and at the Yale Summer School for
Music and Art in Norfolk, Connecticut, first sponsored by Yale in 1941.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.E. Samuel: ‘ Yale's DMA: a Progress Report’, College Music
Symposium, xviii (1978), 97–104
L. Noss: A History of the Yale School of Music, 1848–1970 (New Haven,
CT, 1984)
L. Noss: ‘Music Comes to Yale’, American Music, iii (1985), 337–46
PEGGY DAUB (with VICTOR T. CARDELL)/ R

Yamada, Kazuo
(b Tokyo, 19 Oct 1912; d Kanagawa, 13 Aug 1991). Japanese conductor
and composer. He studied the piano at the Tokyo School of Music (now the
Tōkyō Geijutsu Daigaku), and in 1937 won first prize in an NHK
competition with his Prelude on Japanese Popular Songs for orchestra; he
later won several more prizes for his compositions. After studying
conducting under Joseph Rosenstock he made his conducting début in
1940, becoming assistant conductor of the New SO (now the NHK SO) in
1941 and principal conductor in 1942. Yamada was subsequently music
director of several Japanese orchestras, and toured in Europe, the USA
and South Africa. His conducting was renowned for its flair and passionate
energy, and his enterprising programmes included the first Japanese
performances of such works as Mahler’s Symphony no.8, The Rite of
Spring and Webern’s orchestral music. From 1965 to 1972 he taught at the
Tōkyō Geijutsu Daigaku, where Hiroshi Wakasugi and Ken'ichiro
Kobayashi were among his students.
MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Yamada Kengyō
(b ?Edo [Now Tokyo], 28 April 1757; d Edo, 10 April 1817). Japanese blind
musician. By the time he was promoted to the rank of kengyō, the highest
title in the guild of professional blind musicians, he had created his own
particular style of koto music. Eventually known as the Yamada ryū
sōkyoku, it became popular among various social classes in Edo. His own
popularity was described in several contemporary novels and essays. A
collection of his song texts was published in 1800 and another in 1809 as
well as eight compositions notated in koto tablature in 1809. All his works
still performed today seem to have been written by 1809. Yamada's
compositions are characterized by: the adoption of shamisen (syamisen)
music, such as ittyū-busi and katō-busi, into his koto music; the
appearance of the koto part playing melodic patterns in these shamisen
styles, with the vocal part performing the corresponding narrative styles;
the predominance of the koto over the shamisen in the ensemble; the
incorporation of musical elements of heikyoku (narrative style accompanied
by biwa) and nō theatre; and the use of literary elements of Japanese
classics and nō. In order to increase the volume of sound of the koto, he
supposedly transformed the koto tsume (plectrum) from the rectangular
Ikuta ryū type into the round Yamada ryū type. The artistic name ‘Yamada
Kengyō’ was not adopted by Yamada's disciples, but his music has been
steadily transmitted over the years. His compositions include: Hatune no
kyoku (a koto kumiuta); 35 sakuuta mono (vocal works of the school
founder), including Kogō no kyoku, Yuya, Tyōgonka no kyoku and Aoi no
ue; Enosima no kyoku; Sumiyosi; and Sakuragari.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Kikkawa: disc notes, Sōkyoku to jiuta no rekishi [History of sōkyoku and
jiuta], Victor SLR510–SLR513 (1961; Eng. trans., enlarged, 1997, as A
History of Japanese Koto Music)
M. and S. Kishibe and Y. Kondō: ‘Yamada Kengyō no shōgai to jiseki’
[Life and works of Yamada kengyō], Tōy ō ongaku kenkyō , xxvi-xxvii
(1969), 1–64
S. Kishibe and K. Hirano, eds.: Yamada-ryū sōkyoku si (Tokyo, 1973,
enlarged, 3/1978)
K. Hirano and K. Tanigaito: ‘Ziuta sōkyokuka no kengyō tōkannen’
[Genealogy of blind musicians in the Edo period], Tōyō ongaku
kenkyū, xlv (1980), 23–71 [with Eng. summary]
G. Tsuge: Anthology of Sōkyoku and Jiuta Song Texts (Tokyo, 1983)
P. Ackermann: Studien zur Koto-Musik von Edo (Kassel, Basle and
London, 1986)
K. Hirano: ‘Yamada kengyō’, Nihon ongaku daijiten [Encyclopedia of
Japanese music], ed. K. Hirano, Y. Kamisangō and S. Gamō (Tokyo,
1989), 760
YOSIHIKO TOKUMARU

Yamada, Kōsaku [Kósçak]

(b Tokyo, 9 June 1886; d Tokyo, 29 Dec 1965). Japanese composer,
conductor and educationist. He studied at the Tokyo Music School (1904–
8) with Tamaki Shibata (or Miura) for vocal music and Heinrich
Werkmeister for the cello and theory. In 1910 he went to the Berlin
Hochschule für Musik, where he studied composition with Leopold Carl
Wolff. While still a student he distinguished himself as a composer of
symphonic and chamber music, and in 1912 completed his first opera,
Ochitaru tennyo (‘The Depraved Heavenly Maiden’). In order to prepare for
the performance of this work he returned to Tokyo in January 1914; the
outbreak of World War I prevented him from going back to Germany,
however, and the opera’s première was delayed for more than 15 years. In
Japan he formed the Tokyo Philharmonic Society Orchestra (not identical
to the later organization) under the patronage of Baron Koyata Iwasaki,
and conducted its first concert, the first ever by a Japanese professional
orchestra, in May 1915. By this time he was composing prolifically. The
Gotaiten hōshuku zensōkyoku (‘Prelude on the Japanese National
Anthem’) for chorus and orchestra (1915) was written for the coronation of
Emperor Taishō, and in 1916 Yamada collaborated with the dancer Bac
Ishii in three ‘choreographic tone poems’. In December 1917 he went to the
USA for the first time, and on 16 October 1918 he conducted an American
orchestra at Carnegie Hall in a programme of his compositions; American
publishers, including Fischer and G. Schirmer, began to publish his songs
and piano pieces. He remained active as a guest conductor in the USA
until May 1919 and, despite current anti-German sentiments, did not
hesitate to include music by Wagner in his programmes.
Immediately on his return to Japan Yamada began to promote
performances of dramatic music; he organized the Nihon Gakugeki Kyōkai
(Japanese Association for Music Drama) in September 1920 and three
months later gave the third act of Tannhäuser and Debussy’s L’enfant
prodigue in Tokyo and Osaka. He was now well recognized for his
orchestral works such as the symphonic poem Meiji shōka (‘Ode to the
Meiji’, 1921), which demonstrates his mastery of orchestral technique in a
style drawing on Wagner and Strauss. At the same time he began to
compose numerous vocal pieces with piano, trying to combine the
traditions of the lied from Schubert to Wolf with subtle Japanese melodic
features. Indeed, throughout his career he was concerned to find a musical
style which would relate closely to the melodic and rhythmic elements in
Japanese speech intonation. In September 1922 he and his poet friend
Hakushū Kitahara started a journal, Shi to ongaku (‘Verse and music’), with
the aim of finding an ideal union between the two arts. Of his more than
100 songs (the exact number is uncertain), the greater part date from the
1920s, when he was also writing many choral pieces and children’s songs.
In 1921 Yamada went back to Europe and the USA to acquaint himself with
the postwar musical situation. After his return he tried to found an orchestra
in Japan, and in 1925 he formed the Japanese Philharmonic Society,
invited 35 Russian musicians from Manchuria, and gave a festival of
Russian and Japanese orchestral music in Tokyo and other major cities in
Japan. He had succeeded in organizing an orchestra, but on the formation
of the New SO (later the NHK SO) by Hidemaro Konoe he dissolved his
group and devoted himself to composition. In 1929 The Depraved
Heavenly Maiden finally reached the stage at the Tokyo Kabuki Theatre,
and two years later Yamada was invited to Paris to write a new opera for
the Théâtre Pigalle. He promptly fulfilled the commission with Ayamé (‘The
Sweet Flag’), but the opera was not performed. He returned through
Russia, where he gave several successful concerts, conducting his own
works. He went to the USSR again as a composer-conductor in 1933,
appearing in various cities, and in 1937 toured Europe under the auspices
of the Japanese government, once more giving performances of his
compositions. In 1936 he was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur
and an honorary member of the Saint-Saëns and Debussy societies. His
most successful opera, Kurofune (‘Black Ships’), was completed in 1939. In
1941 he received the Asahi Cultural Prize and in 1942 was made a
member of the Japan Academy of Arts. He became less active during and
after World War II, though continuing to write songs. His last opera,
Hsìang-Fei, was left in sketch form and was performed in 1981 after being
orchestrated by Ikuma Dan. The honours he received in later life included
an NHK Broadcasting Cultural Prize (1950), the Medal of Honour with Blue
Ribbons (1954) and the Japanese government Cultural Order (1956). Until
 his death he served as president of the Nihon Gakugeki Kyōkai and the
Nihon Shikisha Kyōkai (Association of Japanese Conductors).
Yamada was an extremely prolific composer: it has been estimated that he
wrote 1600 works. Many of his manuscripts were destroyed in the Tokyo
air raid of 25 May 1945; the rest are in the Yamada Collection of the
Nippon Kindai Ongaku-kan (Documentation Centre of Modern Japanese
Music), Tokyo. Three attempts have been made to publish his complete
works: the 15-volume Yamada Kōsaku zenshū (‘The complete works of
Yamada’, Tokyo, 1931) was left incomplete after the publication of nine
volumes; a more comprehensive edition was abandoned after the
publication of volumes i–vii, x, xiii and xxvii (Tokyo, 1963–6); and the third
attempt, edited by Nobuko Gotō, was begun in 1989. Yamada’s works
show, in their thematic materials and orchestration, the clear influence of
Wagner and, still more strongly, Strauss, with occasional characteristic
features of Skryabin and French Impressionism; yet he never lost his
identity as a Japanese composer. Although Straussian elements are
particularly dominant in the large-scale works, his solo vocal pieces are in a
much lighter style, imbued with emotional sentiments and a lyricism that
brought them to popularity. He was the foremost Japanese advocate of
German Romanticism and as such laid the foundations for modern
Japanese music in the European tradition.
WORKS
(selective list)

operas
Ochitaru tennyo [The Depraved Heavenly Maiden], 1912, Tokyo, 3 Dec 1929
Shichinin no Ōjo (Die sieben Prinzessinnen), 1913
Ayamé [The Sweet Flag], 1931
Kurofune (Yoake) [Black Ships/The Dawn], 1939, Tokyo, 28 Nov 1940
Hsìang-Fei, sketch, 1947; orchd Ikuma Dan, 1981, Tokyo, 2 Dec 1981
orchestral
Choreographic tone poems: Maria Magdalena, 1916; Mei an [Light and Dark], 1916;
Yajin sōzō [The Creation of the Rustics], 1922; Aoi honoo [Blue Flame], 1926 [arr.
of pf work]
Other works: Aki no utage [The Autumn Festival], chorus, orch, 1912; Sym.
‘Kachidoki to heiwa’ [Triumph and Peace], 1912; Kurai to [The Dark Gate], sym.
poem, 1913; Madara no hana [Flower of Mandala], sym. poem, 1913; Nihon
kumikyoku [Jap. Suite], 1915; Gotaiten hōshuku zensōkyoku [Prelude on the Jap.
National Anthem], chorus, orch, 1915; Meiji shōka [Ode to the Meiji], 1921; Tsuru
kame [Crane and Turtle], 1934; Shōwa sanshō [Homage to Shōwa], 1938;
Kamikaze, 1940; film scores
choral
Cants.: Chikai no hoshi [The Star of Promise], 1908; Bukkokuji ni sasaguru kyoku
[Music Dedicated to the Bukkokuji Temple] (Bonno-koru), 1930; Tairiku no reimei
[The Dawn of the Orient], 1941; Tenrikyō sanshōfu [Hymn for the Tenrikyō], 1956
With pf acc.: Tōtenkō, 3 female vv, pf, 1909; Nairu-gawa no uta [Song of the Nile], 3
female vv, pf, 1909; Yūyake no uta [Song of Evening Glow], 4vv, pf, 1923; Wagaya
no uta [Song of my House], 4vv, pf, 1926; Ai no megami [Goddess of Love], 3
female vv, pf, 1928; Funaji [Sea Route], 3 female vv, pf, 1931
Other works: Meeres stille, 4vv, 1911; Tsuki no tabi [A Journey of the Moon], vv, vn,
pf, 1914; Banka [Elegy], 4vv, vn, pf, 1927; many other pieces, incl. folksong arrs.,
see also orchestral (Aki no utage, 1912)
chamber and solo instrumental
Pf: 3 kleine japanische Tanzweisen, 1913; 7 Poems ‘Sie under’, 1914; Petit-
poèmes, 1915–17; Aoi hanoo [Blue Flame], 1916, orchd 1926; Kodomo to ottan,
1916; Reimei no kankyō, 1916; Genji gakujō, 1917; 2 Poems for Skryabin, 1917;
Sonata for Children, 1917
Other works: Romanze, vc, pf, 1909; Kon’in no hibiki [Music for Marriage], pf qnt,
1913; Aishū no Nihon [Melancholy Japan], vn, pf, 1921; Ireikyoku [Requiem], str qt,
org, 1925; Variations on Kono Michi, fl, pf, 1930; many other pieces
songs
for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated

Mittsu no shin Nihon kayō [3 Original Jap. Songs], 1910; Rofū no maki [Songs of
Rofū Miki], 1910–13; An die Geliebte, 1915; Uta [A Song], 1916; Chōgetsu shū,
1917; Namida [Tears], 1917; Nobara [Wild Rose], 1917; Futatsu no kodai nihon no
densetsuteki tanshi [2 Ballads on Ancient Jap. Legends], 1918; Waga omoi [My
Thoughts], 1919; Yoimachi-gusa, 1919; Yū-in, 1919-22; Aoi uwagi [Blue Jacket],
1920; Funa-uta [Barcarolle], 1920; Kazaguruma no uta [Song of a Paper Windmill],
1920; Kaze ni yosete utaeru haru no uta [Song of Spring Sung with Wind], 1920;
Aiyan no uta [Song of Aiyan], 1922; Ganemiso, 1922; Kaya no kiyama no [On the
Hill of the Kaya Trees], 1922; Ki no uro [A Hole in a Tree], 1922; Rokkyū [6 Riders],
1922
Asu no hana [Flowers of Tomorrow], 1923; Haru no yoi [Spring Evening], 1v, vn,
1923; Kane ga narimasu [The Bell Tolls], 1923; Machibōke [Waiting in Vain], 1923;
Pechika, 1923; Uma-uri [Horse Seller], 1923; Posutomanī, 1923–4; Akai yūhi ni [To
Red Evening Sun], 1924; Jōgashima no ame [Rain on Jōgashima], 1924; Tobira
[The Door], 1924; Wakare [Farewell], 1924; Yume no ie [A Dream House], 1924;
Anoko no ouchi [The House of that Child], 1925; Karatachi no hana [Trifoliate
Orange Flowers], 1925; Shinnyūsei [New Student], 1925
Oranda-bune [A Dutch Boat], 1926; Sunayama [Hill of Sands], 1926; Min'yō goshō
[5 Folksongs], 1926–7; Aka tonbo [Red Dragonfly], 1927; Awate tokoya [The
Confused Barber], 1927; Kono michi [This Road], 1927; Chūgoku-chihō no
komoriuta [Lullaby from the Chūgoku District], 1928; Matsushima ondo, 1928; Sado
no kanayama [Goldmine at Sado], 1928; Hokekyō juryōbon, 1929; Kanashikumo
sayakani [Sad and Clear], 1929; Roshia ningyō no uta [Songs of Russian Dolls],
1931; Akikaze no uta [Song of Autumn Wind], 1938
Haha o hōmuru no uta [Dirge for the Mother], 1938; Koto no ne [Sound of the Koto],
1938; Renpō no kumo [Clouds on Mountain Ridges], 1942; Tanka sanshu [3 Jap.
Poems], 1946; Aki no uta [Song for Autumn], 1948; Nanten no hana [Nandin
Flower], 1949; Heiwa o tataeru mittsu no uta [3 Songs Praising Peace], 1950–51;
Haru o matsu [Waiting for Spring], 1952; Misa no kane [Mass Bells], 1952; Furusato
no yama [Mountains of Homeland], 1953; Koi no tori [Love-Birds], 1954; A Happy
New Year!, 1954; many others

MSS in Nippon Kindai Ongaku-kan (Documentation Centre of Modern Japanese Music), Tokyo
Principal publishers: Daiichi Hōki Shuppan, Kawai-Gakufu, Shunjū-sha

WRITINGS
Kan’i sakkyoku-hō [Composition manual] (Tokyo, 1918)
Kinsei buyō no noroshibi [Signal for modern dance] (Tokyo, 1922)
Kinsei waseigaku kōwa [Lectures on modern harmony] (Tokyo, 1924)
Ongaku no hōetsu-kyō [Paradise of music] (Tokyo, 1924)
Kakyoku sakkyoku-hō [How to compose songs] (Tokyo, 1932)
Kōsaku gakuwa [Musical anecdotes of Kōsaku] (Tokyo, 1935)
Waseigaku oyobi sakkyoku-hō [Harmony and composition] (Tokyo, 1937)
Ongaku jūni kō [12 lectures on music] (Tokyo, 1951)
Jiden: wakaki hi no kyōshikyoku [Autobiography: a rhapsody of young
days] (Tokyo, 1951)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Toyama Music Library: Kósçak Yamada: a Descriptive Catalogue of the
Musical Manuscripts, Printed Music and Sound Recordings (Tokyo,
1984)
MASAKATA KANAZAWA/YO AKIOKA

Yamaguti [Yamaguchi], Osamu

(b Pusan, South Korea, 21 Sept 1939). Japanese musicologist. He studied
musicology and aesthetics at the University of Tokyo (BA 1963) and
ethnomusicology at the University of Hawaii (MA 1967), and took the
doctorate at Osaka University (1991) with a dissertation on Palau (Belau)
music culture in Oceania. He has taught musicology at Osaka University
from 1976, and became professor in 1991. He has pursued a wide range of
research interests in Asian and Oceanic music, both theoretical and
practical in nature. His projects include long- and short-term fieldwork, the
training of native musicologists from these regions, and the organization of
international symposia in Japan. He has supervised the long-term project
Asian Traditional Performing Arts, and organized the Tokyo ICTM (1985)
and Osaka IMS (1990) conferences; thus he has contributed to
internationalizing musicology and forming networks among musicological
divisions around the world. His concern with ‘applied musicology’ (the
forming of dialogues between musicologists and societies) led him to start
a new project on Vietnamese ethnic minorities in 1998.
WRITINGS
‘The Taxonomy of Music in Palau’, EthM, xii (1968), 345–51
ed., with F. Koizumi and Y. Tokumaru: Asian Musics in an Asian
Perspective: Tokyo 1976 [incl. ‘Toward a Better Documentation of
Music Making’, 12–20]
‘Documenting Vocal Music’, Musical Voices of Asia: Tokyo 1978, 195–202
ed., with others: Dance and Music in South Asian Drama: Tokyo 1981
(Tokyo, 1983) [incl. ‘The Centric and Peripheral Aspects of Expressive
Performance: a Review Essay on Previous ATPA Events’, 239–44]
‘An Anthology of Song Texts of Belau, Micronesia: Ethnomusicological
Documentation from the Fieldwork in 1965–1966’, Memoirs of the
Faculty of Letters, Osaka University, xxv (1985), 87–308 [in Eng., Jap.,
Palau language]
ed., with Y. Tokumaru: The Oral and the Literate in Music: Tokyo 1985
[incl. ‘Music and its Transformations in Direct and Indirect Contexts’,
29–37]
‘Documentation of Various Forms of Sonic Communication among the Mali,
Bisis, and Chambri in East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea’,
Philocalia [Osaka], iv (1987), 110–15
ed., with others: Iwanami kōza: Nihon no ongaku, Azia no ongaku [Iwanami
series: musics of Japan, Asia and Oceania] (Tokyo, 1988–9)
Mizu no yodomi kara: Berau bunka no ongakugakuteki kenkyū [From
muddy water: a musicological study of Palau culture] (diss., U. of
Osaka, 1991)
‘Performance as a Historical Source in Music Research’, Tradition and its
Future in Music: Osaka 1990, 153–7
Ōyō ongakugaku [Applied musicology] (Tokyo, forthcoming)
YOSIHIKO TOKUMARU

Yamaha.
The brand name of musical instruments (and other products) manufactured
by Yamaha Kabushiki Kaisha (Yamaha KK, i.e. Yamaha Corporation),
Hamamatsu, Japan. The firm was founded in 1887 by Torakusu Yamaha (b
Wakayama Prefecture, April 1851; d Hamamatsu, 8 Aug 1916), who built
the first Japanese harmonium in that year. In 1888 the firm employed fewer
than ten craftsmen; a year later there were 100. In 1897 the company was
named Nippon Gakki Seizo KK (Japan Instrument Manufacturing Co.). It
expanded steadily through the prosperous period following World War I.
The factory base was moved from Tokyo and Yokohama to Hamamatsu in
1922. During World War II production was diverted to the military.
After World War II the company began collaboration with the Nippon
Kangakki (Japan Band Instrument) company, founded as Egawa in 1892
and renamed in 1920, whose brand name is Nikkan. The companies jointly
set up an experimental department for wind instruments in 1965, and
merged in 1970. In 1953 the company's fourth president, Gen'ichi
Kawakami (b 1912), spent 90 days observing living standards and
production methods in Europe and the USA. On his return he introduced
technical advances, mass-production methods and new products and
began to emphasize the popularization of music; the firm also branched out
into the recreation industry. In 1966 Renold Schilke became a consultant.
The present factory in Hamamatsu opened in 1970; by the mid-1970s it
was making 30% of the world production of both wind instruments and
pianos. The Yamaha brand name was applied to all the firm's products
from its centenary in 1987. The company, which now produces pianos,
wind instruments, electronic instruments, concert and marching percussion,
guitars, drums and audio equipment, has developed into a huge complex
of diversified interests, with 36 related companies in Japan and 35 in as
many countries overseas.
The firm made its first upright piano in 1900 (in the early stages a
consultant from Bechstein gave advice) and its first grand piano in 1950; by
the late 20th century Yamaha was the largest producer of pianos in the
world. Annual production slowed from about 200,000 in the late 1970s to
about 140,000 in the mid-1990s. The output is of high quality; the firm uses
heavily automated production practices, applying what it has learnt in other
ventures (e.g. metal-frame casting and electronics) to piano design and
using digital recording and playback technology in an impressive
computerized reproducing piano, the Disklavier. Piano models range from
console uprights to a well-regarded concert grand.
Since 1958 Yamaha has produced many models of electronic instruments,
beginning with electronic organs (under the name Electone), followed by
electric and electronic pianos (including digital models in the Clavinova
series), electric guitars, monophonic and polyphonic synthesizers (from
1975), synthesizer modules, string synthesizers, home keyboards
(PortaSound and Portatone ranges), remote keyboard controllers, wind
controllers (WX series, developed with Sal Gallina), guitar synthesizers,
samplers, sequencers and electronic percussion systems.
Yamaha's greatest success was the DX7 synthesizer (1983), of which
possibly 250,000 were sold. Coinciding with the beginnings of MIDI,
Yamaha's DX/TX range of ‘algorithmic’ Frequency Modulation (FM)
synthesizers were based on John Chowning's researches at Stanford
University (1967–71). The company has continued to develop this
significant innovation, but – like other manufacturers – has also adopted
sampled timbres and has often combined both, as in the SY series (1990)
and the Physical Modeling method (also licensed from Stanford University)
used in its Virtual Acoustic synthesizers from 1994. In 1984 Yamaha
introduced the first specialized music computer (CX-5M), in which FM
synthesis was combined with the shortlived MSX computer standard; the
company has subsequently produced home computer music systems
featuring a synthesizer module and licensed software. Some of Yamaha's
more sophisticated synthesizers have had an optional breath controller.
The scale on which the company manufactures electronic instruments
enabled it in 1976 to be the first musical instrument manufacturer to
develop its own LSI (large-scale integration) chips, each equivalent to
millions of transistors and other components.
Three ranges of acoustic pianos with MIDI have been produced, including
the Disklavier (1986), which contains fibre-optic sensors to register the
movement of keys and hammers and solenoids to control their operation,
MIDI grand pianos and the recent Silent Piano that can be heard over
headphones (part of a series that also includes violin, two models of cello,
trumpet, horn, trombone and electronic drumkit).
Yamaha maintains its own departments of wood processing (for pianos and
guitars), metal processing (for pianos and brass instruments), machine
making, electronics and chemicals. There is a research and development
division for keyboard, brass and woodwind instruments, and special
instruments are made for individual players.
The first Yamaha Music School was founded in Tokyo in 1954; by 1993
there were 14,000 Yamaha music school sites in Japan and 2000 in 38
other countries. The Yamaha piano instruction method does for beginners
on the piano what the Suzuki method does for the violin. The Yamaha
Foundation for Music Education, established in 1966, sponsors concert
series and music competitions.

For illustration of instruments by Yamaha, see Electronic instruments, fig.9.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.H. Crowhurst: Electronic Organs (Indianapolis, 1960, 3/1975), 123–32
J. Chowning and D. Bristow: FM Theory & Applications by Musicians for
Musicians (Tokyo, 1986)
S. Trask: ‘Made in Japan: Eastern Intrigue’, Music Technology, ii/3 (1988),
50–53
M. Vail: ‘Yamaha's CS-80: Heavyweight Champion of the Early
Polyphonics’, Keyboard, xvii/3 (1991), 116–17; rev. in Vintage
Synthesizers: Groundbreaking Instruments and Pioneering Designers
of Electronic Music Synthesizers (San Francisco, 1993), 162–7
J. Colbeck: Keyfax Omnibus Edition (Emeryville, CA, 1996), 128–41, 180–
88
P. Forrest: The A–Z of Analogue Synthesisers, ii (Crediton, 1996), 214–39
HUGH DAVIES, EDWIN M. GOOD, EDWARD H. TARR

Yamashita, Kazuhito
(b Nagasaki City, 25 March 1961). Japanese guitarist. He began studying
the guitar at the age of eight with his father, Toru Yamashita, at the
Nagasaki Guitar Academy, and continued with Kojiro Kobune. He captured
international attention while still in his mid-teens, winning the All-Japan
Guitar Competition in 1976; in 1977 he won the Ramirez competition in
Spain and the Alessandria competition in Italy, and was the youngest
person ever to win the Concours International de Guitare in Paris. There
quickly followed concert appearances in Tokyo (1978), Amsterdam (1979)
and the Toronto Guitar Festival (1984), at which he performed his guitar
transcription of Musorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition to tumultuous
acclaim. He later transcribed, performed and recorded other works,
including Stravinsky’s Firebird suite, and Dvořák’s ‘New World’ Symphony
for solo guitar. He has also performed and published Beethoven’s Violin
Concerto arranged for guitar and orchestra. His own work for solo guitar,
Imaginary Forest, was published in 1982. Never reluctant to undertake
large-scale projects, Yamashita recorded the complete works of Fernando
Sor on 16 CDs and transcriptions of Bach’s sonatas, partitas and suites for
unaccompanied flute, violin, cello and lute. He performs with phenomenal
concentration, a technique which is as secure as it is virtuosic and a range
of sound (in particular a dynamic range) which is arguably without equal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Rockwell: ‘Reductios: Absurd or Valuable?’, New York Times (12 March
1989, final edn)
H. Reich: ‘One-Man Band: a Japanese Guitarist Tackles Works fit for
Orchestras’, Chicago Tribune (26 March 1989, final edn)
B. Verdery and J. Gore: ‘Kazuhito Yamashita: the World’s most
Controversial Classical Guitarist?’, Guitar Player, xxviii/3 (1994), 21
THOMAS F. HECK

Yamash’ta [Yamashita], Stomu

[Tsutomu]
(b Kyoto, 15 March 1947). Japanese percussionist and composer. He
entered the Kyoto Academy of Music in 1960 and in the following year
joined both the Kyoto PO and the Osaka PO as a percussionist; at that
time he also worked for Tokyo film studios. He made his solo début in
Milhaud’s Concerto with the Osaka PO in 1963. In 1964 he went to the
Interlochen Arts Academy, Michigan, and then to the Berklee School of
Jazz, Boston. He took freelance engagements with various orchestras,
played jazz and appeared as a soloist, notably in the première of Heuwell
Tircuit’s Concerto with the Chicago SO at Ravinia Park, Chicago, in 1969.
By this time his own work, Fox, for solo dancer, percussionist and tape,
had received a television broadcast in San Francisco (November 1968).
Yamash’ta’s European reputation dates from his fiery, athletic participation
in Henze’s El Cimarrón, first performed at the 1970 Aldeburgh Festival.
Henze subsequently wrote a solo piece, Prison Song, for Yamash’ta; other
composers who have been stimulated by his energies include Takemitsu
(Blue Aurora, The Seasons and Cassiopeia), Brouwer (Exaedros II) and
Maxwell Davies (Turris campanarum sonantium). In December 1970 he
formed the ensemble Come to the Edge, which became the centre of his
compositional activities; the group’s performances of ‘floating music’
featured Yamash’ta’s Keep in Lane, One Way and Hiroshima, pieces
drawing on various Eastern, South American, pop and avant-garde musics.
Come to the Edge were involved in Yamash’ta’s Red Buddha Theatre,
which gave highly successful performances in London and Paris in 1973 of
The Man from the East, a loud, vigorous collision between kabuki and rock.
His other compositions include Prisms (for percussion, 1970), Hito (for any
three instruments, 1970), Red Buddha (for chamber ensemble, 1971) and
many film scores, including those for Ken Russell’s The Devils (1971, with
Maxwell Davies) and Robert Altman’s Images (1972, with John Williams).
PAUL GRIFFITHS/R

Yampol'sky, Abram Il'ich

(b Yekaterinoslav [now Dnepropetrovsk], 11 Oct 1890; d Moscow, 17 Aug
1956). Ukrainian violinist and teacher. He studied the violin with Sergey
Korguyev at the St Petersburg Conservatory, and also studied composition
with Nikolay Sokolov, Jāzeps Vītols and Maximilian Steinberg. In 1920 he
moved to Moscow and was assistant leader of the Bol'shoy Theatre
orchestra. In 1922 he was appointed director of the orchestral and violin
classes of the Moscow Conservatory, in 1926 he became a professor, and
in 1936 head of the violin department. Later he also taught at the Gnesin
Institute, and from 1922 until it disbanded in 1936 was one of the directors
and a member of the council of Persimfans. Yampol'sky was one of the
founders of the modern Russian violin school, which developed from the
teaching of Auer. Yampol'sky's teaching was based on a subtle
combination of the performer's musical feeling and the all-round
development of his mastery of the instrument. A distinctive feature of his
method was to take the pupil from the elementary stages up to the
completion of his artistic education. Yampol'sky described his methods and
aims in his writings. Leonid Kogan, Yulian Sitkovsetsky, Igor' Bezrodnïy,
Mikhail Fikhtengol'ts and Mark Lubotsky were among Yampol'sky's pupils.
He wrote numerous transcriptions for violin and piano, cadenzas for the
concertos of Beethoven, Brahms and Paganini, and edited the studies of
Kreutzer, Dont, Paganini and others. He was named Honoured Art Worker
of the RSFSR in 1937, and Doctor of Arts in 1940.
WRITINGS
‘O metode rabotï s uchenikom’ [On the method of working with a pupil],
Trudï gosudarstvennogo Muzïkal'no-pedagogicheskogo instituta im.
Gnesinïkh [Writings from the Gnesin Institute of Music Education]
(Moscow, 1959)
‘K voprosu o vospitanii kul'turï zvuka u skripacha’ [On the question of
training the cultivation of sound in a violinist], Voprosï skripichnogo
ispol'nitel'stva i pedagogiki [Questions of violin performance and
teaching] (ed. S.R. Sapozhnikov, Moscow, 1968)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Lubotsky: ‘A.I. Yampol'skiy: muzïkant, pedagog, vospitatel’ [A.I.
Yampol'sky: musician, teacher and educationist], SovM (1960), no.11,
pp.117–23
I.M. YAMPOL'SKY/R

Yampol'sky, Izrail' (Markovich)

(b Kiev, 8/21 Nov 1905; d Moscow, 20 Sept 1976). Russian musicologist,
violinist and teacher. Son of the cellist Mark Il'ich Yampol'sky (1879–1951),
he studied at the Moscow Conservatory and in 1930 graduated from the
violin class of his uncle, Abram Il'ich Yampol'sky. He took the kandidat
degree in 1940 with a dissertation on violin fingering. He taught the violin at
the Music Academy (1931–58), the Central Secondary Music School
(1931–46), and at the Moscow Conservatory (1934–49), where from 1939
he also lectured on the history and theory of the violin. He was appointed a
senior lecturer at the conservatory in 1940. He held several important
editorial posts and in 1953 became a music critic for the Soviet Information
Bureau. Yampol'sky contributed more than 1000 articles to Russian and
foreign journals. He was known particularly for his book on the history of
violin playing in Russia, Russkoye skripichnoye iskusstvo (1951), and for a
book on the history of music in Yugoslavia (1958). He was responsible for
compiling and editing a number of basic reference works, including the
Ėntsiklopedicheskiy muzïkal'nïy slovar' (1959) and the biographical
dictionary of Russian and Soviet musicologists, Kto pisal o muzïke (with
G.B. Bernandt, 1971–9).
WRITINGS
Osnovï skripichnoy applikaturï [The principles of violin fingering] (diss.,
Moscow Conservatory, 1940; Moscow, 1933, enlarged 3/1955; Eng.
trans., 1967)
‘Neopublikovannïye rukopisi Variatsii na temu rokoko Chaykovskogo’ [The
unpublished manuscripts of Tchaikovsky’s Variations on a Rococo
Theme], SovM (1945), no.3, pp.32–44
‘Neopublikovannïy skripichnïy kontsert Lyapunova’ [Lyapunov’s
unpublished Violin Concerto], SovM (1946), no.6, pp.55–61
‘Skripichnoye tvorchestvo I.Ye Khandoshkina’ [The violin works of
Khandoshkin], SovM (1947), no.3, pp.89–98
‘Smïchkovaya muzïka’ [String music], Ocherki sovetskogo muzïkal'nogo
tvorchestva, ed. B.V. Asaf'yev and others (Moscow and Leningrad,
1947), 198–215
Russkoye skripichnoye iskusstvo: ocherki i materialï [Russian violin
playing: essays and materials] (Moscow, 1951)
with K.A. Kuznetsov: Arkandzhelo Korelli (Moscow, 1953)
Genrik Vienianski (Moscow, 1955)
Dzhordzhe Ėnesku (Moscow, 1956)
‘B.V. Asaf'yev o muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve’ [Asaf'yev on the performance
of music], Voprosï muzïkal'no-ispolnitel'skogo iskusstva, ii (1958),
508–27
‘Ėzhen Izai’ [Ysaÿe], SovM (1958), no.8, pp.103–6
Muzïka Yugoslavii (Moscow, 1958)
with B.S. Shteynpress: Ėntsiklopedicheskiy muzïkal'nïy slovar'
[Encyclopedia of music] (Moscow, 1959, enlarged 2/1966)
‘Ule Bull’ [Ole Bull], SovM (1960), no.5, pp.117–21
Nikkolo Paganini: zhizn' i tvorchestvo [Life and works] (Moscow, 1961,
enlarged 2/1968)
‘Pervïy skripichnïy kontsert Bela Bartoka’ [Bartók’s first violin concerto],
SovM (1961), no.3, pp.174–9
‘Karol' Lipin'sky i yego russkiye svyazi’ [Karol Lipiński and his Russian
contacts], SovM (1962), no.7, pp.104–7
Sonatï i partitï dlya skripki solo I.S. Bakha [Bach’s sonatas and partitas for
solo violin] (Moscow, 1963)
David Oystrakh (Moscow, 1964, enlarged 2/1968)
Moya shkola igrï na skripke: interpretatsiya proizvedeniy skripichnoy
klassiki (Moscow, 1965) [trans. of L. Auer: Violin Playing as I Teach It
(New York, 1921) and Violin Master Works and their Interpretation
(Boston, 1925); incl. ‘ Auer i sovremennoye skripichnoye iskusstvo’
[Auer and contemporary violin playing], 3]
‘Sovetskoye muzïkal'no-ispolnitel'skoye iskusstvo’ [Soviet musical
performance], Voprosï muzïkal'no-ispolnitel'skogo iskusstva, v (1969),
5–32
with G.B. Bernandt: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on music] (Moscow,
1971–9)
‘Pervïy russkiy muzïkant v Indii’ [The first Russian musician in India: G.S.
Lebedev], Muzïka narodov Azii i Afriki, ed. V.S. Vinogradov, ii
(Moscow, 1973), 239–53
Daniil Shafran (Moscow, 1974)
Frits Kreysler: zhizn' i tvorchestvo (Moscow, 1975)
‘Pavel Kokhanskiy v Rossii’ [Pawel Kochański in Russia], Masterstvo
muzïkanta-ispolnitelya, i (Moscow, 1976), 123–46
with G.B. Bernandt: Sovetskiye kompozitorï i muzïkovedï [Soviet
composers and musicologists], i (Moscow, 1978)
LEV GINZBURG/LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Yancey, Jimmy [James Edwards]

(b Chicago, 20 Feb 1898; d Chicago, 17 Sept 1951). American blues
pianist. From the age of six he toured the USA and Europe as a singer and
tap-dancer in vaudeville shows. He gave this up in 1915 to settle in
Chicago, where he took up the piano. From around 1919 he performed in
public but also played baseball in the professional African-American
leagues, and from 1925 until just before his death he was groundskeeper
at Comiskey Park for the Chicago White Sox baseball team. He played
informally at clubs and rent parties, helping to establish the style known as
boogie woogie and influencing Meade ‘Lux’ Lewis and Albert Ammons. He
received some attention as a result of Lewis’s recording of Yancey Special
in 1936. In 1939–40 Yancey issued a series of his own recordings,
including Yancey Stomp (1939, Victor) and other works composed by him
years earlier. These highly regarded performances reveal a remarkable
balance and expressivity despite Yancey’s unassuming technique and
limited harmonic and melodic resources. Unlike other boogie pianists,
Yancey frequently altered his bass patterns in response to the right hand,
producing shifting polyrhythms and varied bass lines. He suffered a stroke
in 1941 but continued to play, even though the use of his left hand was
restricted. In later years he continued to record, sometimes accompanying
his own singing or that of his wife Mama Yancey with whom, in 1948, he
appeared at Carnegie Hall.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveJ
G. Hoefer: ‘Yancey Had Three Loves: his Piano, Wife, White Sox’, Down
Beat, xviii/22 (1951), 4 only [incl. discography]
F.S. Driggs: ‘Jimmy Yancey: a Permanent Requiem’, Record Research,
ii/1 (1956), 3
M. Harrison: ‘Boogie-woogie’, Jazz: New Perspectives on the History of
Jazz, ed. N. Hentoff and A.J. McCarthy (New York and Toronto,
1959/R), 105–35
E. Kriss: Six Blues-Root Pianists (New York, 1973) [incl. transcrs.]
S. Harris: Blues Who’s Who (New Rochelle, NY, 1979)
J. BRADFORD ROBINSON

Yang Liqing
(b Qingmuguan, nr Chongqing, Sichuan, 30 April 1942). Chinese composer
and writer on music. He studied composition at the conservatories of
Shenyang and Shanghai, from where he gained the MA. In 1980 Yang was
the first Chinese composer to be sent abroad for study after the Cultural
Revolution, taking courses in composition and the piano at the Hochschule
für Musik in Hanover and graduating with honours. He became a teacher at
 the Shanghai Conservatory on his return to China in 1983, becoming a
professor and Chair of the Department of Composition and Conducting in
1991 and rising to vice-president in 1996. In 1990 he was guest professor
at the Mozarteum in Salzburg. Yang has received many grants and
commissions from institutions worldwide and his orchestral pieces have
been performed in Asia and Europe. He has also lectured internationally on
Chinese contemporary music. In his large-scale works he combines
traditional Chinese instruments with a colourfully scored Western
orchestra. After his years in Germany his compositions veered stylistically
between Romanticism and modernism. A key figure throughout China in
promoting knowledge of international contemporary music repertory and
techniques, Yang has consistently supported and encouraged young
Chinese composers.
WORKS
(selective list)

Inst: Grievances at Wujiang, pipa, orch, 1986; Festive Ov., orch, 1987; Wuzi pei,
sym. ballet, 1988, collab. Lu Pei; Elegy, erhu, orch, 1991; Cost of Peace, orch,
1995; Si, dizi, zheng, erhu, yangqing [hammer dulcimer], dajiyue [percussion],
1996; A Shepherdess on Tianshan Mountain, erhu, orch, 1997; Desert at Dusk,
erhu, orch, 1998; Introduction, Chant and Allegro, erhu, orch, 1998; Enter the New
Age, pf, orch, 1999, collab. Wang Jianzhong
Vocal: 4 Poems from the Tang Dynasty, S, pf, perc, 1982; Die Enstehung der
Taodejing von Lao-Tze (B. Brecht), SATB, 1982; 3 Songs (F. García Lorca), S, fl,
vc, pf, 1982; The Monument Without Inscription, dance-drama, SATB, orch, 1989;
The Red Cherry, film score, S, orch, 1995

WRITINGS
‘Guanxianyue Peiqi Fenggede Lishi Yianbian Gaishu’ [Stylistic evolution in
orchestration], Yinyueshu, no.24 (1986), 42–7; no.25 (1986), 42–7;
no.26 (1986), 25–36; no.27 (1986), 42–7; no.28 (1987), 39–43; no.29
(1987), 48–57; no.30 (1987), 54–9; no.31 (1987), 69–86
‘Dangdai Ouzhou Yinyue zhongde Xinlangmanzhuyi yu Huigui Qingxiang’
[Neo-romanticism in contemporary European music], Fujian Yinyue,
no.76 (1987), 30–32; no.77 (1987), 29–32; no.78 (1987), 27–31
‘Xiandai Yinyue Jipufade Yange Jiqi Fenlei Wenti’ [The evolution and
classification of notation in new music], Zhongguo yinyuexue, no.12
(1988), 76–83
Meixian Zuoqu Jifa Chutan [Compositional techniques of Messiaen]
(Fuzhou, 1989)
‘Ligaitide Daqi’ [Atmosphères by Ligeti], Xiandai Yishu Jianshang Cidian
(Beijing, 1990), 493–5
‘Yinyue Chuangzuo Meixue Sixiang Dazhuan’ [My own compositional
aesthetic], Xiandai Yuefeng, nos.13–14 (1994), 1–5
‘Xifang Houxiandaizhuyi Yinyue Sichao Jianshu’ [Postmodernism in
contemporary Western music], Zhongguo Yinyue Nianjian (Beijing,
1995), 244–57
Xiandai Guanxianyue Peiqifa Jiaocheng [Contemporary instrumentation
techniques] (Shanghai, forthcoming)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Kouwenhoven: ‘Mainland China's New Music: the Age of Pluralism’,
CHIME, no.5 (1992), 76–134
M.D. Xu: ‘Wuwo Wujian, Daoyi weiyi: Yang Liqing Jibu Zuopinde Yanjiu
Zongping’ [The study of selected works of Yang], Zhongguo
yinyuexue, no.43 (1996), 107–18
JOYCE LINDORFF

Yangqin.
Hammered dulcimer of the Han Chinese. The name yang in its original
form means ‘foreign’; qin is generic for string instruments. More recently,
another character for yang meaning ‘elevated’ has come into public
acceptance. The yangqin is also traditionally known as hudie qin (‘butterfly
qin’, in reference to its double-wing shaped body) and daqin (‘beaten qin’).
The traditional instrument shell is trapezoidal in shape, with rounded ends
and fluted sides of hardwood, its resonating chamber covered with a thin
soundboard of white pine or other softwood (see illustration). Held against
the soundboard by pressure of the strings are two rows of bridges, each
row with seven or eight chessman-shaped bridges. The strings on older
instruments are of copper (more recently of steel) and organized in two
groups (left and right), each traditionally comprising a one-octave range of
diatonically tuned pitches, with double (or more) courses of strings for each
pitch position. Strings in the right group run from their tuning pegs, over a
common nut, across their respective bridges (the right row), between the
left row of bridges, across the left nut, and are fastened to pins on the left
side of the instrument. Strings in the left group reverse this arrangement,
running between the right row of bridges and then over the left row. The left
row of bridges is positioned on the soundboard so as to divide its strings in
a 2:3 relationship (such as 20 cm on the left side, 30 cm on the right). With
this particular division, these strings are capable of sounding two pitches a
5th apart, one on each side of its bridge (e.g. sol–re, la–mi etc., on right
and left sides respectively). A particularly distinctive characteristic of
traditional tuning (especially in south China) requires that ti and fa be
positioned on either side of the same bridge as a perfect 5th, ti roughly 50
cents flat (from equal temperament) and fa 50 cents sharp. Placement of
the right row of bridges, however, requires no such precise positioning
since only the strings on its left side are utilized (for lower octave pitches).
Range on the traditional instrument is little more than two octaves,
depending upon its numbers of bridges. In performance, it rests on a stand
or table and is struck with two slender bamboo beaters (qinzhu).
The yangqin is an adaptation of the Persian Santūr, which was introduced
to coastal areas of Guangdong province in south China late in the Ming
dynasty (1368–1644). Mentioned frequently in the literature of the 18th to
early 20th centuries, it was readily accepted into the local Cantonese and
Chaozhou ensembles, where it remains an important instrument. It is also
used to accompany narrative singing in Sichuan province, and in northern
vocal genres such as Erren tai. In the 20th century it has been accepted
into some sizhu (‘silk-and-bamboo’) ensembles in the Jiangnan area of
central-eastern China.
When the new concert-hall music (guoyue) emerged in the mid-20th
century, the traditional yangqin was enlarged in size (to about 100 cm in
length for moderate-sized instruments) and given a wider range. On most
models, a third row of bridges was added (to the far right for an extended
lower range), bridge numbers were increased from 7 or 8 to 10 or more,
and sliders or rollers were mounted under the strings (on both sides) to
facilitate fine tuning and half-step pitch changes. On some very large
present-day models, a fourth (and sometimes a fifth) row of bridges is
present as well. These ‘reformed’ instruments have ranges of between
three and four octaves, many with full chromatic capability.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.C. Moule: ‘A List of the Musical and Other Sound-Producing Instruments
of the Chinese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, North China
Branch, xxxix (1908), 1–160; repr. separately (Buren, 1989), 118–20
Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record
of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987), 277–9
Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese
instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 276–81
Xu Pingxin: ‘Zhongwai yangqin de fazhan yu bijiao’ [Development and
comparison of Chinese and foreign yangqin], Yueqi (1992), no.1,
pp.7–10, no.2, pp.11–15, no.3, pp.1–5, no.4, pp.8–11
ALAN R. THRASHER

Yanguas, (Francisco) Antonio

(b Medinaceli, 12 April 1682; d Salamanca, 27 Oct 1753).Spanish
composer. He was a choirboy at the collegiate church of Medinaceli from at
least 1689. On 14 September 1706 he was appointed choir chaplain at the
collegiate church of Alcalá de Henares, and early in 1708 maestro de
capilla at S Cayetano, Madrid. At the end of that year he was also
appointed maestro de música at the Colegio del Rey in Madrid, retaining
the post at S Cayetano. On 30 April 1710 he was made maestro de capilla
at the metropolitan cathedral in Santiago de Compostela; on 14 October
1718 he received a similar appointment at Salamanca Cathedral, and on 2
November that year he became professor of music at Salamanca
University. He remained there for the rest of his life, retiring in 1740.
Yanguas was one of the most distinguished Spanish composers of the first
half of the 18th century. The profound changes in style to be observed
between his early and late compositions – in the use of instruments, in
tonal and metrical practices and in the inclusion of recitatives and arias in
villancicos and cantatas – reflect the changes taking place in Spanish
music during the first decades of the century. His music, mostly sacred,
shows his preference for polychoral works, most of them dating from 1710–
40. His large-scale villancicos are among the most elaborate examples of
the genre. El señor de Israel (E-SA 78.31), dated 1722 and probably
composed for Corpus Christi Vespers, is for 12 voices (including four
soloists), oboe, two violins and continuo; its 12 sections include an
overture, two choruses and several recitatives and arias for one to four
voices.
Yanguas’s only known secular work, a large-scale allegorical cantata A lo
amoroso, a lo dulce (1724) to a libretto by the cathedral harpist Santiago
de Roxas, survives incomplete (E-SA 35.48). Yanguas also participated in
the famous controversy surrounding Francesc Valls’s Missa ‘Scala aretina’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Yanguas: ‘Paracer de el señor D. Antonio de Yanguas’, Elucidación de
la verdad, ed. J. Martínez (Valladolid, 1717)
F.A. Velasco: Oración fúnebre en las exequias … de el señor Don Antonio
Yanguas (Salamanca, 1754)
M. Pérez Prieto: ‘La capilla de música de la catedral de Salamanca
durante el período 1700–1750: historia y estructura’, RdMc, xviii
(1995), 144–73
M. Pérez Prieto: Tres capillas musicales salmantinas: catedralicia,
universitaria e de San Martín en el período 1700–1750 (diss., U. of
Salamanca, 1995)
A. Torrente: The Sacred Villancico in Early Eighteenth-Century Spain: the
Repertory of Salamanca Cathedral (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1997)
ÁLVARO TORRENTE

Yang Yinliu
(b Wuxi, 10 Nov 1899; d Beijing, 25 Feb 1984). Chinese musicologist.
Yang grew up under the influence of local styles of traditional music in
Wuxi, learning instruments from Daoist priests (including Abing) from the
age of six and joining the élite Tianyun she music society. He was a fine
performer of Kunqu vocal music and the pipa (plucked lute). Under the
tuition of the American missionary Louise Strong Hammond, he then
studied both Christianity and Western music theory, attending St John’s
University in Shanghai in 1923. He took up teaching, becoming professor
of music at Chongqing, Shanghai and Nanjing during the troubled 1940s,
and publishing many articles.
After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Yang’s
erudition was much needed, and he became head of the newly-formed
National Music Research Institute of the Central Conservatory of Music
(now the Music Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Arts). Until
the mid-1960s, in collaboration with other fine scholars (notably his cousin
Cao Anhe), he managed to do remarkable research on both folk and élite
traditions, including Beijing temple music, further work on the ritual
ensemble music of his home city Wuxi, a detailed fieldwork survey in
Hunan, and major collections and transcriptions of traditional notation.
Meanwhile his monumental history of Chinese music, first in draft from
1944, was published, covering the whole of Chinese music history, and
élite as well as folk genres, with unique erudition, though couched in the
language of its time.
Punished in the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) like all academics and
representatives of the ‘Four Olds’, he lived to see his history printed, and
cultural and academic life restored to normal after the downfall of the Gang
of Four. His deep historical knowledge and practical musicianship assure
his seminal influence on Chinese music study today.
WRITINGS
Zhongguo gudai yinyue shi gao [Draft history of ancient Chinese music]
(Beijing, 1981)
Yang Yinliu yinyue lunwen xuanji [Selected articles by Yang Yinliu on
music] (Shanghai, 1986)
BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Han Kuo-huang: ‘Three Chinese Musicologists: Yang Yinliu, Yin Falu, Li

Chunyi’, EthM, xxiv (1980), 483–529

Qiao Jianzhong and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo yinyuexue yidai

zongshi Yang Yinliu (jinian ji) [Yang Yinliu, master of Chinese
musicology (commemorative collection)] (Taipei, 1992)

recordings
Chuancheng: Yang Yinliu bainian danchen jinian zhuanji/Heritage: in
Memory of a Chinese Music Master Yang Yinliu, Wind Records TCD-
1023 (2000)
STEPHEN JONES

Yang Yuanheng
(b Anping county, Hebei, 1894; d 1959). Chinese guanzi double-reed pipe
player. A Daoist priest, Yang was one of many fine wind players in the
ritual ensembles of the Hebei plain south of Beijing. After his temple was
razed by the Japanese invaders in 1938, he supported himself by
agricultural labour and petty trade. In the winters of 1945 and 1946 he was
invited to teach the ‘songs-for-winds’ (chuige) ensemble of Ziwei village in
nearby Dingxian county, itself later to make a national reputation. In 1950
Yang was invited to teach guanzi at the newly established Central
Conservatory of Music, guiding many of the present generation of
conservatory-style guanzi players, including Hu Zhihou.
While still a priest, he made many innovations in the repertory, using the
flamboyant large guanzi which leads the songs-for-winds style rather than
the smaller instrument of the more traditional music associations. Apart
from traditional Daoist ceremonial pieces and classical ‘standards’ (qupai),
he also played a more popular layer of folk and local opera pieces. He is
also said to have popularized the ‘opera mimicry’ (kaxi) style.

See also China, §IV, 4(i).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 and other resources
Nie Xizhi: ‘Yang Yuanheng guanzi quji’ [Collected guanzi pieces of Yang
Yuanheng] (Beijing, 1981) [mimeograph, Central Conservatory of
Music]
Minzu yueqi chuantong duzouqu zhuanji: guanzi zhuanji [Anthology of
traditional solo pieces for Chinese instruments: guanzi vol.], ed.
Zhongyang yinyue xueyuan and Zhongguo yinyue xueyuan (Beijing,
1985), 23–71
Yuan Jingfang: Minzu qiyue xinshang shouce [Handbook for the
appreciation of Chinese instrumental music] (Beijing, 1986), 151–2
Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records
TCD 1018 (1996)
STEPHEN JONES

Yaniewicz, Felix.
See Janiewicz, Feliks.

Yanks, Byron.
See Janis, Byron.

Yannay, Yehuda
(b Timişoara, 26 May 1937). Israeli-American composer of Romanian birth.
He emigrated to Israel in 1951 where he studied with Boskovitch (1959–
64). Soon considered one of Israel's leading avant-garde composers, a
Fulbright Fellowship enabled him to pursue further studies at Brandeis
University (MFA 1966), where his teachers included Arthur Berger and
Ernst Krenek, and the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (DMA
1974) where he studied with Salvatore Martirano, among others. His
doctoral dissertation on the music of Ligeti and Varèse proved influential to
his later compositional style. In 1970 he joined the composition department
at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and in 1971 founded the Music
from Almost Yesterday concert series, dedicated to the performance of
contemporary music. He has appeared as a guest lecturer, composer and
conductor at festivals and conferences in the USA, Europe and Brazil.
While his creative roots are European, by the early 1980s his music had
become increasingly American. His compositions favour a postmodern
synthesis of elements of 20th-century modernism and a concern for the
‘here and now’.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic and multimedia: Houdini's Ninth (theatre piece), escape artist, db, 1969
[rev. for film, 1973, collab. E.J. Clark]; Wraphap (theatre piece), female actor, amp
aluminium sheet, yannachord, 1969; Coheleth (Bible: Ecclesiastes), choir, elec
processed sound environment, 1970, collab. J. Spek; American Sonorama (ballet,
choreog. A. Nassif), 1975–6; Autopiano (Piano Minus Pianist), actor, pf, 1976; All
Our Women (chbr op, Yannay), 1981; Jidyll (film, Yannay, dir. R. Blau), 1990; Celan
Ensembles ‘In Madness there is Order’ (music video), 1992, collab. Fortier [based
on Celan Ensembles, 1988]; I can't fathom it, vc, slide projections, 1993, collab. M.
Mellott
Inst ens: 2 Frags., vn, pf, 1966; Mirkamim (Textures of Sound), orch, 1967; Mutatis
mutandis, 6 insts, 1968; Per se, conc., vn, 7 insts, 1969; preFIX-FIX-sufFIX, hn, bn,
vc, 1971; Bug Piece, any insts, live insects, 1972; The Hidden Melody (Nigun
haganuz), hn, vc, 1977; Concertino, vn, chbr orch, 1980; 3 Jazz Moods, sax, tpt,
jazz ens, chbr ens, 1982; Trio, cl, vc, pf, 1982; Im Silberwald, trbn, glass harmonica,
tape, 1983; Nine Branches of the Olive Tree, rec, b cl, gui, perc, 1984; Duo, fl, vc,
1991; 5 Pieces, s sax, cl, mar, 1994; Exit Music at Century's End, orch, 1995; Loose
Connections, vn, cl, db, 1996; Marrakesh Bop, fl, gui, 1999
Vocal: The Chain of Proverbs (cant., J.I. Zabara 1962;), youth chorus, 1962;
Spheres (Y. Amichai), S, 10 insts, 1963; Incantations (W.H. Auden), 1v, pf, 1964;
Dawn (A. Rimbaud), mixed chorus, 1970; Departure (Rimbaud), 9vv, 5 insts, 1972;
At the End of the Parade (W.C. Williams), Bar, 6 insts, 1974; A Noiseless Patient
Spider (W. Whitman), women's choir, 1975; 5 Songs (Williams), T, orch, 1976–7; Le
campane di Leopardi (G. Leopardi), chorus, glass harmonica, 1979; Eros
Reminisced (C.P. Cavafy), 1v + pf, 1981; Celan Ensembles (P. Celan), T, chbr ens,
1986–92; Geometry of Aloneness (M. Mellot), 1v, glass harmonica, slide
projections, 1996
Solo inst: Music for Pf, 1962; Permutations, perc, 1964; Statement, fl, 1964;
Continuum, pf, 1966; Coloring Book, hp, 1969; 7 Late Spring Pieces, pf, 1973
[orchd 1979]; Pf Portfolio, 1994–;

MSS in Golda Meir Library, US-MAu

Principal publishers: Israel Music Institute, Levana, Mark Foster, Media Press, Smith

BURT J. LEVY

Yannidis, Costas.
See Constantinidis, Yannis.

Yanovs'ky (Siegel), Borys

Karlovych
(b Moscow, 19/31 Dec 1875; d Kharkiv, 19 Jan 1933). Ukrainian composer,
conductor and critic. A graduate of Kiev University (1903) he studied music
privately with E. Ryb and worked as a conductor and critic in Kiev until
1910. He then continued these activities in St Petersburg and then Moscow
where he conducted at the Zimin Private Opera (1916–17). In 1918 he
settled in Kharkiv where he added teaching (at the Musical Dramatic
Institute) to his activities. His opera Vybukh (‘Explosion’) was the first
Ukrainian opera on a revolutionary theme, while his last opera, Duma
chornomors'ka (‘Duma of the Black Sea’), is a grand opera based on
 Ukrainian folk music and is dedicated to Verdi. Polish and Turkish materials
are also used to characterize the various national elements of the plot.
WORKS
(selective list)

10 ops incl.: Sorochyns'kyy yarmarok [The Fair at Sorochinsky] (after N.V. Gogol'),
1899; Sestra Beatrysa [Sister Beatrice] (after M. Maeterlinck), 1907, Kiev; Ved'ma
[The Witch] (after A.P. Chekov), 1916, Zimin Theatre, Moscow; Vybukh [Explosion],
1927, Khar'kiv; Duma chornomors'ka/Samiylo kishka [Duma of the Black Sea] (4,
after Ukr. folk dumas), 1929, Kiev
Inst: Vostochnaya syuita [Eastern Suite], orch, 1896; Andante, orch, 1899; Viy,
poem, orch, 1899; Favn i pastukha [The Faun and the Shepherdess], orch, 1902;
Aria of the Eighteenth Century, vc, pf, 1908; Suite, pf, 1924; Intermezzo on
Ukrainian Themes, str qt, 1928; Zazdravnaya, orch, 1931
Other works incl.: 2 ballets, choral works, songs (A. Blok, M. Lermontov and K.
Bal'mont), Ukr. folksong arrs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Arkhimovych: ‘Nova lyudyna v umovakh novoho zhyttya’ [A new man in
conditions of a new life], Ukraïns'ke muzykoznavstvo (1968), no.3,
pp.3–17
L. Arkhimovych: ‘Shlakhy rosvytku ukraïns'koï radyans'koï opery’ [The
paths of development of Ukrainian Soviet opera] (Kiev, 1970)
VIRKO BALEY

Yanov-Yanovsky, Dmitry
Feliksovich
(b Tashkent, 24 April 1963). Russian composer. He studied with his father
Feliks at the Tashkent Conservatory, graduating in 1986. During this period
he also travelled to European Russia where he benefited from the advice
and support of, among others, Schnittke and Denisov. It was through the
latter's intervention that Dmitry Yanov-Yanovsky's music began to be heard
abroad: in 1991 his Lacrymosa for soprano and string quartet was given
special mention at the 4th International Competition for the Composition of
Sacred Music in Fribourg, Switzerland, where it was performed by the
Arditti Quartet and Phyllis Bryn-Julson. In 1993 he took part in the Summer
Academy at IRCAM and since then his music has been heard in many
countries. Of particular importance has been his association with the
Kronos Quartet who, in addition to performing Lacrymosa with Dawn
Upshaw, have given the first performances of four other works including
Conjunctions (1995), a concerto for string quartet, orchestra and tape. A
more unusual facet of his musical personality is heard in his cycle of five
pieces utilizing the Central Asian cimbalom called a chang. The composer
taught himself to play this instrument; the last piece in the cycle – Chang-
Music V – was first performed by him and the Kronos Quartet. Other works
reflect aspects of his early years in Tashkent: Awakening (1993) makes
evocative use of the Muslim call to prayer, while Takyr (1995) plays with
the sound of traditional Uzbek percussion instruments. Come and Go
 (1995) and Hommage à Gustav Mahler (1996) reflect more Western
interests not only in their texts – the former is an ‘étude for the stage’ after
Beckett – but in their respective stylistic allusions to post-Webernian
modernism and late German Romanticism. Broadly speaking, Dmitry
Yanov-Yanovsky is a composer of acute sensitivity who favours a refined
beauty of sound and emotional intensity.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Come and Go (étude for stage), 1995, Tashkent, Ilkhom Theatre, 26 April
1996; The Little Match-Girl (ballet for children), 1996–7
Orch: Conc., pf, chbr orch, 1983; Sotto voce, 1993; Ritual, 1994; Conjunctions, str
qt, orch, tape, 1995; Takyr, 6 perc, str, 1995
Vocal: Anno Domini (A. Akhmatova), S, pf, 1985; Autumn Rain in the Darkness …
(M. Basho), S, chbr orch, 1987; Thread (Omar Khayyam), 1v, dancer, 10 musicians,
1989; Lacrymosa, S, str qt, 1991; Hommage à Gustav Mahler (F. Rückert, 4 songs),
S, str qt, 1996; Moon Songs (F. García Lorca), S, 2 pf, 1996; Wiegenlied für
Heidelberg, S, fl, gui, vn, perc, 1996
Chbr and solo inst: Bagatelles, pf, 1982; Str Qt, 1985; Coda, gijak, chang, 1986;
Cadenza, pf, 1988; Solo, vn, 1988; Epilogue, str qt, pf, 1989; Chang-Music I, chang,
1990; Chang-Music II, 2 pf, 1990; Madrigal, vc, 1990; Chang-Music III, str trio,
1991; Fragments of Birdlife, rec, 1991; Haiku for Gert Sorensen, perc, 1992;
Presentiment, chbr ens, tape, 1992; Sounding Darkness, fl, ob, glass harmonica,
va, vc, 1992; Awakening, str qt, tape, 1993; Chang-Music IV, str qt, 1993; Chbr
Music, 12 pfmrs, 1993; Chang-Music V, chang, str qt, 1994; Facets, org, 1996; Lux
aeterna, vn, chbr ens, 1997
Principal publisher: Boosey & Hawkes

GERARD McBURNEY

Yanov-Yanovsky, Feliks
(b Tashkent, 28 May 1934). Russian composer. Born to Russian-speaking
parents of partly Polish-Jewish extraction, he studied the violin and
composition at the Tashkent Conservatory, graduating in 1957 and 1959
respectively. He pursued a career as a violinist for a while: firstly in the
Uzbek State SO (from 1954) and later as a member of the Uzbek Radio
String Quartet. In 1961 he was appointed to teach at the Tashkent
Conservatory and subsequently became professor of composition there.
His works immediately suggest that he is a composer of Western
sympathies – he has written symphonies, string quartets, set Latin texts
from the Catholic tradition and written an opera after Anouilh. But given that
he has spent his life in Asia, this alliance is in fact unusual and not typical
of his background. Although Western music exerted a strong appeal on
Soviet composers during the period during his younger years, Yanov-
Yanovsky was doubly isolated by his existence in the then musically
provincial Tashkent. His creative reaction to this political and geographical
isolation was not protest but a patient construction of very personal musical
bridges which reach out towards the European and even Russian traditions
to which he felt closest and from which he might otherwise be separated.
The result is a language of subtle culture and emotional generosity, in
 which surface modesty and reticence mask impressive strength and
commitment of utterance. His particularly muscular and passionate string
writing reflects his experience of playing the symphonic and chamber
music of the Austro-Germanic tradition. It would, however, be wrong to
suggest that he has ignored the Asiatic traditions which surround him: he
has set texts by Asian writers and, more importantly and generally, he has
brought an Eastern perspective to his forays into the Western mind.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Petrushka-inostranets [Petrushka is a Foreigner] (children's op, 1, after S.

Marshak), 1979; Orkestr [The Orchestra] (2, after J. Anouilh), 1991
Inst: Conc. grosso no.1, str qt, chbr orch, 1969; Conc., orch, 1973; Sym. no.1, orch,
1982; Sym. no.2, orch, 1986; Simple Conc. (Conc. grosso no.2), vn, va, vc, str,
1989; De Profundis (Sym. no.4), orch, 1990; Brass Qnt no.1, 1991; Fabula (Vn
Conc. no.3), orch, 1992; Sostenuto, str qt, 1993; Violet Light, Late Evening, fl, 1993;
Brass Qnt no.2, 1994; Music for Fl and Chbr Ens, 1995; Hommage à FGL, 8 vc,
1996; Silhouette, chbr ens, 1996
Vocal: Elegii (S. Fucao), S, fl, cl, bn, vn, va, vc, pf/hpd, 1974; Triptych (A. Aripov),
Bar, fl, vib, vc, 1978; Sym. no.3 (F. García Lorca), Bar, hpd, str, 1987; Rubaiyat
(Omar Khayyam), Bar, orch, 1990; Missa Brevis, S, str qt, 1992; Dies Irae, S, Mez,
T, B, chbr chorus, org, chbr ens, 1994; Tak mnogo lunï segodnya [So Much
Moonlight Today] (triptych, Chin. poets), S, fl, vn, 1994; Ad vitam (Kyrie, Gloria,
Sanctus, Agnus Dei), Mez, perc ens, 1995; Cantate Domino, S, 14 insts, 1995; Ne
znayu, gde … [I Know not Where …] (E. Verkhan, trans. V. Bryusov), S, 2 pf, 1996;
Requiem, S, Mez, T, B, chorus, perc, str, 1996
About 40 film scores, 15 incid music scores, music for children, pieces for Uzbek
trad. insts, songs

Principal publishers: Boosey & Hawkes

GERARD McBURNEY

Yanowski, Feliks.
See Horecki, Feliks.

Yap.
See Micronesia, §II, 6.

Yaraví.
Probably a Spanish variant of the Quechua word ‘harawi’ (or harahui)
which, in pre-Conquest times, meant any melody or sung narrative,
particularly those chanted by haravecs, the official rhapsodists of the Inca
court. Over the centuries this Andean genre has taken on a lyrical elegiac
character with a principal theme of the anguish of lost or unrequited love.
Frequently set in either a simple two-part (AA') or a rounded binary (ABA')
form with regular phrase structures, the yaraví characteristically exploits
the major and relative minor bimodality inherent in its essentially pentatonic
tonal framework; although 3/4 metre occurs regularly, multi-metre schemes
reflect the melodic flow of many expressive examples. Several composers,
including Ginastera (Impresiones de la Puna, 1934) and Luis H. Salgado
(Symphony no.1 ‘Ecuatoriana’, 1945–9), have set the yaraví for chamber
ensemble or orchestra. Yaravís were published, in musical score, as early
as the 1880s by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M.J. de la Espada and D. Marcos: ‘Yaravíes quiteños’, Actas de la cuarta
reunión: 4th International Congress of Americanists (Madrid, 1881), 1–
82
JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Yardbirds, the.
English rock band. It was formed in London in 1963 by the art school
students Keith Relf (22 Mar 1943–76; vocals and harmonica), Jim McCarty
(b 25 July 1943; drums), Paul Samwell-Smith (b 8 May 1943; bass guitar),
Chris Dreja (b 11 Nov 1945; rhythm and bass guitars) and Anthony ‘Top’
Topham (lead guitar) who was replaced by Eric Clapton (b 1945). They
began playing covers of rhythm and blues standards, and replaced the
Rolling Stones as the house band at the Crawdaddy Club in Richmond,
where they made a live recording with Sonny Boy Williamson (i). Their
early live performances were distinguished by extreme volume, quick
tempos, energy and raw power, which was captured on Five Live
Yardbirds, recorded at the Marquee in London (1965). Even in the studio
their frenetic style came across, especially in the characteristic climatic
point of such songs as I’m a man, I ain’t done wrong, Lost Woman and
Shape of Things, where repeated quavers, increasing volume and octave
leaps in the bass increased the tension.
With the exception of Clapton’s prominence on Got to hurry, Relf’s
harmonica was usually the main solo instrument. When Jeff Beck (b 1944)
replaced Clapton (1965) the guitar became the real focus of the music;
Beck’s experimental, extroverted style, along with the group’s new interest
in a wider variety of music, changed their sound. The influence of Indian
music is heard in the riffs to Heart Full of Soul, Over, Under, Sideways,
Down and Happenings Ten Years Time Ago, while Still I’m sad shows
traces of Gregorian chant. With these songs the band pioneered the
psychedelic sound; the album Yardbirds (Columbia 1966) is an important
document of this style. Happenings Ten Years Time Ago, with its heavy
use of echo, indecipherable talking and laughing during the wailing guitar
solo and lyrics in which the protagonist is ‘sinking deep into the world of
time’, is the most fully developed example of their psychedelic style, and
was made after Jimmy Page (b 1946) had joined the group in 1966, first on
bass guitar, then briefly joining Beck on lead guitar before eventually
replacing him the following year. Page continued the experimental direction
in pieces such as ‘White Summer’ (Little Games, Columbia, 1967) and ‘I’m
confused’ (Yardbirds, Col., 1968); both these songs (the latter as ‘Dazed
and Confused’) became staples in the repertory of the New Yardbirds, later
 renamed Led Zeppelin, which Page formed to succeed the Yardbirds after
its demise in 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Brown: ‘Yardbirds Inside and Out’, Musician (1982), 88–98ff
J. Platt, C. Dreja and J. McCarty: Yardbirds (London, 1983)
SUSAN FAST

Yardumian, Richard
(b Philadelphia, 5 April 1917; d Bryn Athyn, PA, 15 Aug 1985). American
composer of Armenian descent. Already familiar with Armenian folk music
and the classical repertory, he composed his first piece at the age of 14
and in his late teens studied music independently, with the encouragement
of Stokowski and Iturbi. In 1936 he became a member of the
Swedenborgian Church and later served as music director of the Lord's
New Church, Bryn Athyn; his religion was among the most important
influences on his works. He began his formal training in 1939, studying
harmony with William Happich, counterpoint with H. Alexander Matthews,
and the piano with Boyle until 1941. He attended Monteux's conducting
school in 1947 and studied with Virgil Thomson briefly in 1953. He was
closely connected with the Philadelphia Orchestra from 1951 to 1964,
during which time the orchestra gave almost 100 performances and made
four recordings of his works.
Throughout his career Yardumian strove to create his own personal
compositional language, influenced by Appalachian ballads and by the
sonorities and techniques of Debussy, as well as by Armenian music. He
formulated a system of 12 notes based on superimposed 3rds built from
alternate black and white notes of the keyboard (‘quadrads’). The resulting
homophonic free chromaticism is apparent in the Violin Concerto, the
Chromatic Sonata and other works written between 1943 and 1954. After
Cantus animae et cordis (1955) his work took a new direction, with a period
of intense study of medieval and Renaissance modality and polyphony and
of the music of Bach. Works such as the Mass are characterized by the
use of folk melodies and liturgical chants of Armenia.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Armenian Suite, 1937, last movt added 1954; Sym. Suite, 1939; 3
Pictographs of an Ancient Kingdom, 1941; Desolate City, 1943–4; Vn Conc., 1949,
2nd movt added 1960; Sym. no.1 (Noah), 1950, rev. 1961; Epigram: William M.
Kincaid, fl, str/str qt, 1951; Passacaglia, Recitatives and Fugue (Pf Conc.), 1957; 2
chorale preludes: Jesu meine Freude, Nun komm der heiden Heiland, 1978 [arrs. of
org works]
Chbr and vocal inst: Sym. no.2 ‘Psalms’ (Ps cxxx), Mez/Bar, orch, 1st movt 1947,
last movt 1964; Poem, To Mary in Heaven (R. Burns), Mez/Bar, pf, sketched 1952,
orchd 1979; Create in me a Clean Heart (Ps li, other Old Testament texts),
Mez/Bar, SATB, 1962; Magnificat, SSAA, 1965; Mass ‘Come Creator Spirit’,
Mez/Bar, chorus, congregation, orch/org, 1965–6; The Story of Abraham (orat,
Bible: Genesis, trans. P.N. Odhner), S, Mez, T, Bar, SSAATTBB, orch, film, 1968–
71, rev. 1973; Der Asdvahdz (G. Narekatsi), Mez, hn, hp, 1983; Hrashapar, SATB,
orch/org, 1984; c100 chorales, SATB, 1944–85
Chbr and solo inst: 3 Preludes, pf: Wind, 1938, Sea, 1936, Sky, 1944, orchd 1945;
Dance, pf, 1942; Chromatic Sonata, pf, 1946; Prelude and Chorale, pf, 1946;
Monologue, vn, 1947; Fl Qnt, 1951, arr. fl, str; Cantus animae et cordis, str qt, 1955,
arr. str, 1955; org works

Principal publisher: Elkan-Vogel

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
L.E. Carroll: ‘Remembering Composer Richard Yardumian’, Choral
Journal, xxvi/8 (1986), 23–7
MARY KINDER LOISELLE

Yarkov, Pyotr (Glebovich)

(b Seltso village, Bronnitsïy district, nr Moscow, 1875; d Moscow, 18 Dec
1945). Russian tenor folk singer and folk choir leader. He was originally a
joiner and later became an agronomist and a journalist. He loved traditional
song and knew several hundred Russian folksongs by heart. In 1919 he
organized a choir which improvised Russian village songs in a traditional
manner, singing in parts; his aim was to preserve folksongs as a living art
by staging rather than arranging them. His skill in doing this was
acknowledged by many distinguished Russian composers, writers and
ethnomusicologists. During the Soviet period, small regional choirs such as
Yarkov's became state folk choirs and provided models for other regional
‘folklore’ groups in the northern Russian, Voronezh, Ural' and Don regions.
With Mitrofan Pyatnitsky (1864–1927) and Ol'ga Kovaleva (1881–1962),
Yarkov was one of the leading exponents of staged folksong in Russia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.G. Novikov, ed.: Russkiye narodnïye pesni [Russian folk songs], i–iii
(Moscow, 1936–7) [score; incl. songs recorded from Yarkov]
P. Yarkov: Russkiye narodnïye pesni Podmoskoviya, sobranniye narodnïm
pevtsom-umel'tsem P.G. Yarkovïm s 1890 po 1930 g [Russian folk
songs of the Moscow region collected by the skilled folk singer Yarkov
between 1890 and 1930] (Moscow, 1951, 2/1964)
M. Nakhimovsky: Pyotr Glebovich Yarkov (Moscow, 1973)
IZALY ZEMTSOVSKY

Yarustovsky, Boris Mikhaylovich

(b Moscow, 2/15 May 1911; d Moscow, 12 July 1978). Russian
musicologist. He graduated from the history and theory department of the
Moscow Conservatory in 1937, and completed postgraduate studies there
under Valentin Ferman in 1941. He took the doctorate in 1952 with a
dissertation on the dramaturgy of Russian opera. After serving in the Soviet
army (1941–6), he headed the cultural section of the Central Committee of
the Soviet Communist Party (1946–58). From 1948 he taught at the
Moscow Conservatory, where he was appointed professor in 1956; he
joined the Institute for the History of the Arts as director in 1959, becoming
senior research fellow in 1961. A member of the Union of Soviet
Composers from 1938, he was its secretary (1968–74). He was also
secretary to the executive committee of UNESCO (1969–73), and a
member of the International Music Council of UNESCO (1972–8).
Yarustovsky wrote primarily on the music of Tchaikovsky, but his interest
covered music from both Russia and abroad. He was especially concerned
with opera, and his last book, Ocherki po dramaturgii operï XX veka (1971–
8) can be seen as the summation of his work in this field. In following
Asaf'yev’s intonatsiya theory, Yarustovsky substantiated the idea of
musical drama and the melody–genre conflict in opera. He also undertook
work on the symphony, again with special reference to Tchaikovsky: his
book on the contemporary symphony (1966) was the result of his earlier
appreciation of Tchaikovsky’s symphonies (1961). He was also the initiator
and editor-in-chief of Muzïka XX veka: ocherki, in which he attempted to
break down the barrier that had for so long separated Soviet music from
that of other countries, uniting them into a single study.
Yarustovsky did not confine himself to musicology and history in his
academic and popular work; there is invariably an aesthetic and ideological
aspect in his writings. Musicality and the capacity for aesthetic feeling are
combined with an attempt to describe the artistic event within a strict
scheme of appraisal dictated by the norms of socialist aesthetics and by
the prevailing conditions of the state ideology. Thus his role in musical life
was not limited by his own status as an academic. As a responsible
member of the chief party organ, he came to wield an influence over the
reception of other composers’ works and writings. Yarustovsky represented
Soviet musical thinking abroad at numerous symposia and festivals, and
his activities within UNESCO helped to broaden the international contacts
available to Soviet musicians. Yet in this sphere he remained faithful to his
belief in the necessity of an ideological dimension in response to any event
in musical culture.
WRITINGS
‘Oblik Chaykovskogo’ [Tchaikovsky’s temperament], SovM (1938), no.6,
pp.32–7
P.I. Chaykovskiy: zhizn' i tvorchestvo [Tchaikovsky: life and works]
(Moscow, 1940)
Opernaya dramaturgiya Chaykovskogo [The operas of Tchaikovsky]
(Moscow and Leningrad, 1947)
‘Zametki ob ėstetike russkoy klassicheskoy operï’ [Notes on aesthetics in
Russian Classical opera], SovM (1948), no.2, pp.110–16
‘O dramaticheskom konflikte v sovetskoy opere’ [Dramatic conflict in Soviet
opera], SovM (1951), no.7, 20–30
Nekotorïye chertï dramaturgii russkoy opernoy klassiki [Some
characteristics of the dramaturgy of Russian Classical opera] (diss.,
Moscow Conservatory, 1952; Moscow, 1952 as Dramaturgiya russkoy
opernoy klassiki [Drama in Russian Classical opera], 2/1953; Ger.
trans., 1957)
‘O muzïkal'nom obraze’ [On musical form], SovM (1953), no.7, pp.23–30;
no.8, pp.24–31; no.9, pp.29–38
‘Desyataya simfoniya Shostakovicha’ [Shostakovich’s Tenth Symphony],
SovM (1954), no.4, pp.4–24
Nekotorïye problemï sovetskogo muzïkal'nogo teatra [Some problems for
Soviet music theatre] (Moscow, 1957)
‘Prokof'yev i teatr: zametki o dramaturgii’ [Prokofiev and the theatre: notes
on drama], SovM (1961), no.4, pp.66–80
Simfonii Chaykovskogo [The symphonies of Tchaikovsky] (Moscow, 1961)
Igor' Stravinskiy: kratkiy ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva [Igor Stravinsky: an
outline of his life and works] (Moscow, 1963, 3/1982; Ger. trans., 1966)
Muzïka novogo mira [Music of the New World] (Moscow, 1964)
ed.: Intonatsiya i muzïkal'nïy obraz [Intonatsiya and musical form]
(Moscow, 1965; Ger. trans., 1965) [incl. ‘Kak zhizn' …’ [Like life …],
95–133]
Simfonii voynï i mira [Symphonies of war and peace] (Moscow, 1966)
‘Teoriya v razvitii’ [Theory in development], SovM (1966), no.2, pp.141–3
‘“Igrok”, tragediya-satira: k izucheniyu naslediya S. Prokof'yeva’ [The
Gambler, tragedy-satire: towards a study of Prokofiev’s legacy], SovM
(1970), no.4, pp.103–14; no.6, pp.64–76
Ocherki po dramaturgii operï XX veka [Studies in drama in 20th-century
opera] (Moscow, 1971–8)
‘Yest' sovetskiy intonatsionnïy stroy!’ [There is a Soviet intonatsiya
system!], SovM (1973), no.3, p.28–31
‘Soviet Musicology’, AcM, xlvi (1974), 50–57
‘Opernïy teatr v mezhvoyennïye godï [Opera theatre in the inter-war years],
SovM (1976), no.11, pp.59–71
‘I vnov' “Pikovaya dama”’ [Once again The Queen of Spades], SovM
(1977), no.9, pp.131–5
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Bogdanov-Berezovsky: ‘Uchyonnïy, kritik, muzïkal'nïy deyatel'’
[Scholar, critic and musical figure], SovM (1971), no.9, p.48–54
NELLI GRIGOR'YEVNA SHAKHNAZAROVA

Yashiro, Akio
(b Tokyo, 10 Sept 1929; d Yokohama, 9 April 1976). Japanese composer.
He studied composition privately with Saburō Moroi from 1940 and then
entered the National University of Fine Arts and Music, where he was a
pupil of Hashimoto, Ifukube and Ikenouchi (composition) and Kreutzer
(piano). In 1949 he graduated and in May 1951 he began to teach at the
university. Within a few months, however, he had left for Paris, where he
studied at the Conservatoire until 1956, his teachers including Boulanger,
Aubin, de la Presle, Noël Gallon and Messiaen; he gained a premier prix
for harmony in 1954. On his return he resumed teaching at the university,
while also teaching at the Tōhō Gakuen School of Music from 1958.
Yashiro’s music distinctly shows the influences of French academicism in
the tradition of Les Six and of his teachers; besides this, his works are
often characterized by a sentimental lyricism. He was primarily a composer
of ‘absolute’ instrumental music. In 1956 he won the Mainichi Music Prize
for his String Quartet (1954–5), and he received Otaka prizes in 1960 for
his Cello Concerto and in 1967 for his Piano Concerto, which also won the
Japanese government Art Festival prize. Other notable works of his include
the Sonata for two flutes and piano (1957), the Symphony (1958) and the
Piano Sonata (1961). Orufeo no shi [The Death of Orpheus] (Tokyo 1977)
is a collection of essays demonstrating his penetrating insights into
contemporary music. His works are published by Ongaku-no-Tomo Sha.
(K. Hori, ed.: Nihon no sakkyoku nijusseiki [Japanese compositions in the
20th century], Tokyo, 1999, pp.262–3).
MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Yasser, Joseph
(b Łódź, 16 April 1893; d New York, 6 Sept 1981). American musicologist
of Polish birth. After studying the piano with Jacob Weinberg in Moscow, he
attended the Imperial School of Commerce (graduating in 1912) and the
Moscow Conservatory (MA 1917), where he studied the piano with
Alexander Goedicke, organ with Leonid Sabaneyev and theory with M.
Morozov. While directing the conservatory's organ department (1918–20),
he served as organist for the Bol'shoy and occasionally performed at the
Moscow Art Theatre; he then worked as a lecturer for the Siberian Board of
Education (1920–21) and music director of the Shanghai Songsters’ Choral
Society (1921–2). He emigrated to the USA in 1923 and, following a
concert tour, he settled in New York, working as organist at the Free
Synagogue (1927–8), Temple Emanu-El (1928–9) and as organist and
choirmaster at Temple Rodeph Sholem (1929–60) and the Cantor's
Institute of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (1952–60). He was
a founding member and vice-president (1931–42) of the American Library
of Musicology, and chairman of both the musicological committee of
Mailamm (the American Palestine Music Association, 1934–9) and the New
York chapter of the American Musicological Society (1935–7), of which he
was a founding member; he also served on the National Jewish Music
Council (1944–60) and the Jewish Music Forum (1945–55). He retired in
1960, after which he led a rather reclusive life.
From 1930 Yasser wrote on various theoretical and historical aspects of
Jewish music, including an article on the Biblical magrepha (1960), which
he interpreted to be a noise-making signal instrument rather than an organ,
as commonly believed. Among his theoretical works, A Theory of Evolving
Tonality (1932) and Medieval Quartal Harmony (1937–8), which were
published by the newly founded American Library of Musicology and which
were considered controversial, remain his most important contributions.
WRITINGS
‘Rhythmical Structure of Chinese Tunes’, Musical Courier (3 April 1924)
‘Musical Moments in the Shamanistic Rites of the Siberian Pagan Tribes’,
Pro Musica Quarterly, iv (1926), 4–15
‘Saminsky as a Symphonist’, Lazare Saminsky, Composer and Civic
Worker, ed. D. de Paoli (New York, 1930), 21–47
A Theory of Evolving Tonality (New York, 1932/R)
‘A Revised Concept of Tonality’, Music Teachers National Association:
Proceedings, xxx (1935), 100–21
‘Medieval Quartal Harmony (a Plea for Restoration)’, MQ, xxiii (1937), 170–
97, 336–66; xxiv (1938), 351–85; pubd separately (New York, 1938)
‘New Guide-Posts for Jewish Music’, Bulletin of the Jewish Academy of
Arts and Sciences, iii (1937), 3–10; pubd separately (New York, 1937)
‘Foundations of Jewish Harmony’, Musica hebraica, i–ii (1938), 8–11
‘Gretchaninoff's “Heterodox” Compositions’, MQ, xxvii (1942), 309–17
‘Jewish Composer, Look Within’, Menorah Journal, xxxiv (1946), 109–15
‘A Letter from Arnold Schoenberg’, JAMS, vi (1953), 53–62
‘The Art of Nicholas Medtner’, Nicholas Medtner, 1879–1951: a Tribute to
His Art and Personality, ed. R. Holt (London, 1955), 46–65
‘My Encounters with Rachmaninoff’, Sergei Rachmaninoff, ed. S.
Bertenson and J. Leyda (New York, 1956), 197 only, 278 only, 281–3
‘The Structural Aspect of Jewish Modality’, Jewish Music Forum Bulletin, x
(1956), 33–5
‘The Musical Heritage of the Bible’, YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science,
xii (1958–9), 157–75
‘The Magrepha of the Herodian Temple: a Five-Fold Hypothesis’, JAMS,
xiii (1960), 24–42
‘The Philosophy of Improvisation’, The Cantorial Art, ed. I. Heskes (New
York, 1966), 35
‘The Hebrew Folk Song Society of St. Petersburg: Ideology and
Technique’, The Historic Contribution of Russian Jewry to Jewish
Music, ed. I. Heskes and A. Wolfson (New York, 1967), 31–42
‘The Opening Theme of Rachmaninoff's Third Piano Concerto and its
Liturgical Prototype’, MQ, lv (1969), 313–28
‘Abraham Wolf Binder: in Retrospect’, Studies in Jewish Music: Collected
Writings of A.W. Binder, ed. I. Heskes (New York, 1971), 6–11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Wunderlich: ‘Four Theories of Tonality’, Journal of Musicology, ii
(1941), 171–80
G. Saleski: Famous Musicians of Jewish Origin (New York, 1949), 663–4
D.D. Horn: ‘Quartal Harmony in the Pentatonic Folk Hyms of the Sacred
Harp’, Journal of American Folklore, no.282 (1958), 564–81
B. Brook: American Musicological Society Greater New York Chapter: a
Programmatic History 1935–1965 (New York, 1965)
K. Blaukopf: ‘Schönberg, Skrjabin, und Yasser’, 100 Jahre Staatsoper –
Wiener Schule: Almanach der Wiener Festwochen (Vienna, 1969),
103–4
A. Weisser: Selected Writings and Lectures of Joseph Yasser: an
Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1970) [incl. pubns in Russ.]
K. Blaukopf: ‘Musiksoziologie: Bindung und Freiheit bei der Wahl von
Tonsystems’, Texte zur Musiksoziologie, ed. T. Kneif (Cologne, 1975),
140–57
E. Berlinski: ‘Joseph Yasser (1893–1981): a Personal Recollection (with a
“Postscript” by Israel J. Katz)’, Musica judaica, iv (1981–2), 113–20
ISRAEL J. KATZ

Yasukawa, Kazuko
(b Hyōgo, 24 Feb 1922; d Tokyo, 12 July 1996). Japanese pianist and
teacher. While a baby she was taken to Paris and brought up there. At the
age of ten she was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire and studied with
Lazare Levy, receiving the première prix in 1937 and also winning the first
prize at the International Competition for Female Musicians in Paris in the
same year. Returning to Japan in 1939, she made a sensational début the
following year, and continued to play frequently until her retirement in 1982.
She began to teach at the Tokyo School of Music (now the Tōkyō Geijutsu
Daigaku) in 1946 and was a professor from 1952 until her retirement in
1989; her students included Kiyoko Tanaka and Izumi Tateno. In 1980 she
was one of the founders of the Japanese International Music Competition.
In a musical culture traditionally dominated by German influence,
Yasukawa was the first musician in Japan to represent the French school,
and through her teaching and editions she successfully promoted the
music of Chopin, Debussy and Ravel. After 1971 she served frequently on
the juries of various international competitions, including the Marguerite
Long-Jacques Thibaud, the Queen Elisabeth and the Warsaw Chopin
competitions. She received numerous international prizes and in 1967 was
admitted to the Légion d'Honneur.
MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Yatga [yataga, yatuga].

Mongolian half-tube zither with movable bridges. Traditionally, the
instrument varies in size and tuning even within one ethnic group, as
evidenced by two Chahar Mongol instruments collected by Haslund-
Christensen this century: one, now in the National Museum, Copenhagen,
measures 114·5 cm long by 21·6 cm wide; a second, in the Swedish
Ethnographical Museum, Stockholm, measures 153·4 cm long by 22 cm
wide. The tuning of the instrument used by Sünit Mongols was pentatonic
in the sequence of the Chinese zhi mode, using the harmonic series
45·123. Similarly, the ten-string Ordos Mongol zither described by van Oost
(1915–16) lacked the mi and ti of the Western solmization series.
The earliest documentation of the classical Mongolian term yatuga (or
yatugan) occurs in a Mongolian-Chinese dictionary of 1389, where it is
paired with the Chinese zheng, an instrument described in the Yüan shih
(1370), a history of the Yüan (Mongol) dynasty, as having 13 strings. It was
also used in the Mughal courts of Central Asia. Persian sources use the
Mongolian word ‘yatugan’ for a zither with movable bridges, and a 15th-
century poem written in old Uzbek (Chagatay) also mentions the yatugan.
An 18-century source refers to a Kalmyk yattagan with gut strings.
Mongolian sources of the 19th and early 20th centuries describe a yatga
with 14 strings. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the 12-string yatga
was a court instrument, the number of strings symbolizing the 12 ranks
within the palace. It was used to entertain the aristocracy and also was
played by the aristocracy. The ten-string yatga was played by Living
Buddhas and consequently surrounded by ritual. Three recently discovered
18th- and 19th-century song manuscripts for performance in Nomyn Khan
monasteries contain notations for the yatga. The ten-string yatga was also
used during worship at ritual cairns or oboo and during sports, such as
horse racing, held on such occasions.
The yatga appears in epics and legends in relation to both court and
religious contexts. The Kalmyk heroic epic-cycle Janggar tells how a 16-
year-old princess played on the seven lower bridges of a yatga which had
82 bridges and 8000 strings. It was used for interludes during recitations of
Buryat epics and, as with other Mongolian instruments, was played to
animals to persuade a mother to accept her rejected young.
Traditionally, the musician knelt on the ground to perform, laying the
narrower end of the yatga on his thigh and supporting the wider end on the
ground. Some Mongol groups made strings from a goat's small intestines,
after a process of stretching, boiling and drying. Others used horsehair, as
on the Tuvan chadagan and Kazakh zshetïgan. In Inner Mongolia,
horsehair was replaced by silk and, more recently, metal wound around gut
or metal. The Inner Mongolian yatga has two rows of bridges (fig.1). Strings
may be plucked by the nails. In addition, a variety of plectra have been
used including leather caps (for thumb and finger) to which is attached a
small piece of horn.
The yatga was used in ensembles in Urga (now Ulaanbaatar) in 1923.
During the early years after the communist revolution of 1924, the yatga fell
into disuse, probably because of its traditional aristocratic and religious
connections. According to Berlinsky (1933) the instrument almost
completely disappeared. It was revived as a ‘national’ instrument of the
Mongolian People's Republic during the 1950s, with Korean-style
instruments (see Kayagum). The 13-string yatga now used to accompany
singing and played in instrumental ensembles has a single row of bridges
(fig.2). Seated on a chair rather than on the floor, the player rests the
instrument on the knees with it sloping downwards to the floor on his or her
left, or plays an instrument supported by legs or a stand. The right-hand
fingernails are used to pluck the open strings. The left-hand fingers apply
pressure to the strings which pass over small bridges, each wedged
between a string and the soundboard, to produce vibrato, pitch alterations
(accidentals), and other embellishments as well as special plucking effects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
GroveI (A. Nixon)
P.S. Pallas: Sammlungen historischer Nachrichten über die mongolischen
Völkerschaften, i (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1776)
T.Z. Zhamtsarano: Obraztsï narodnoi slovesnosti mongol'skikh' plemen':
tekstï [Examples of the folk literature of the Mongolian peoples: texts], i
(Petrograd, 1918)
S.A. Kondratyev: ‘O rabotakh po izucheniyu mongol'skoi muziki v
oktyabre – dekabre 1923 g.’ [About work for the study of Mongolian
music in October and December 1923 in Urga], Izvestiya russkovo
geograficheskovo obshchestva, lvi/1 (1924)
P. Berlinsky: Mongol'skiy pevets i muzïkant Ul'dzuy-Lubsan-Khurchi [The
Mongolian singer and musician Ul'dzuy-Lubsan-Hurchi] (Moscow,
1933)
E. Emsheimer: ‘Preliminary Remarks on Mongolian Music and
Instruments’, The Music of the Mongols, i: Eastern Mongolia, ed. H.
Haslund-Christensen (Stockholm, 1943/R), 69–100
U. Zagdsüren: ‘Gür duuny bichig’, Studia mongolica, ii (Ulaanbaatar, 1974)
Xiaoshu minzu yuequ chuantong duzou qu xuanji menggu zu [Selected
traditional instrumental solos of Mongolian minorities] (Beijing, 1979)
T.S. Vizgo: Muzikal'niye instrumentï Srednei Azii [Musical instruments of
Central Asia] (Moscow, 1980)
S. Büted and A. Magnaisüren: Yatgyn Garyn Avlaga [A handbook for the
yatga] (Ulaanbaatar, 1987)
L. Erdenechimeg: The Historical Tradition of the Mongolian Yatga
(Ulaanbaatar, 1995)
L. Erdenechimeg and T. Shagdarsüren: Chin Süzegt Nomyn Han Hiidiin
gür duuny bichig [Gür song notation from Chinsüzegt Nomyn Khan
Monastery] (Ulaanbaatar, 1995)
C.A. Pegg: Mongolian Music, Dance and Oral Narrative: Performing
Diverse Identities (Seattle and London, forthcoming)
CAROLE PEGG

Yatuhasi [Yatsuhashi] Kengyō

(b Iwaki, Hukusima Prefecture, or Okura, Hukuoka Prefecture, c1614; d
Kyoto, 12 June 1685). Japanese composer and koto, shamisen and kokyū
player. He inaugurated the sōkyoku tradition. He was a member of the
guild of professional blind musicians, and his name changed as he
ascended in rank there. He was originally called Jōhide (with the rank of
zato), in 1636 he became Yamazumi (with the rank of kōtō) and in 1639 he
became known as Kaminaga Kengyō Zyōdan (Kengyō being the highest-
ranked title in the guild). Finally, some time before 1657 he changed his
name to Yatuhasi Kengyō. He began his career as a shamisen player in
Osaka. When he moved to Edo he learnt to play the tsukushi-goto style of
koto music from the master musician Hossui (or Hōsui), a disciple of
Kenjun (?1534–?1623), the founder of this style. The invention of a new
koto tuning system called hira-jōshi, which includes half steps, is attributed
to Yatuhasi.
According to a book of koto notation, Sōkyoku taiisyō (Edo, 1792),
Yatuhasi composed a set of 13 koto kumiuta (Huki, Kiritubo, Kokorozukusi,
Kumoi no kyoku, Kumo no ue, Ougi no kyoku, Siki no kyoku, Suma, Tenga
taihei, Umegae, Usugoromo, Usuyuki and Yuki no asita) to texts by his
patron, Lord Naito of Iwaki. These pieces marked a turning-point in the
development of the sōkyoku and jiuta traditions, separating them from the
older tsukushi-goto tradition, which maintained a strong connection with
gagaku. They have become the core of the sōkyoku tradition. Other pieces
by Yatuhasi include two other koto kumiuta (Koryu siki genzi (also
attributed to Ikuta) and Otu no kumi), three danmono (Hatidan no sirabe,
Midare and Rokudan no sirabe) and the rōsaimono Kumoi rōsai.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Adriaansz: The Kumiuta and Danmono Traditions of Japanese Koto
Music (Berkeley, 1973)
G. Tsuge: Anthology of Sôkyoku and Jiuta Song Texts (Tokyo, 1983)
K. Hirano and others: ‘Tokusyû: Yatsuhashi kengyô botugo man-300nen’
[Special issue: 300th anniversary of Yatsuhashi Kengyô's death],
Kikan hôgaku, xlii (1985), 67–86
K. Hirano: Syâmisen to koto no kumiuta: sôkyoku ziuta kenkyû [Kumiuta
for koto and shamisen] (Tokyo, 1987)
K. Hirano: ‘Yatuhashi kengyô’, Nihon ongaku daijiten [Encyclopedia of
Japanese music], ed. K. Hirano, Y. Kamisangō and S. Gamō (Tokyo,
1989), 756c–757b
P. Ackermann: Kumiuta: Traditional Songs for Certificates, a Study of their
Texts and Implications (Bern and New York, 1990)
E. Kikkawa: A History of Japanese Koto Music and Ziuta, ed. O. Yamaguti
(Tokyo, 1997) [trans. and suppl. by L.C. Holvik]
YOSIHIKO TOKUMARU

Yavorsky, Boleslav Leopol'dovich

(b Kharkov, 10/22 June 1877; d Saratov, 26 Nov 1942). Russian
musicologist, music educator and pianist of Polish descent. He graduated
from the Kiev College of Music, having specialized in the piano with
Pukhal'sky (1894–8); he also studied mathematics at Kiev University,
1897–8. He then attended the Moscow Conservatory (1898–1903),
studying the piano (with N.Ya. Shishkin) and composition (with Ippolitov-
Ivanov and Taneyev) and attending Smolensky's course in the history of
Russian church music. From 1921 to 1931 he was a member of the State
Academy of Artistic Studies (later the State Academy of Arts), and in 1941
he was awarded an honorary doctorate.
Yavorsky's career embraced an extremely wide variety of activities. From
1903 onwards he took an active role in the Music-Ethnography
Commission, which promoted the collection, study and teaching of
folksong. He took a special interest in music education: he was a founder
of the Moscow (1906) and director (1917–21) of the Kiev narodnïye
konservatorii (‘people's conservatories’), which were created to
disseminate knowledge of music among wide sectors of the population.
Together with the singer M.A. Deysha-Sionitzkaya, he was the organizer of
‘Muzïkal'nïye vïstavki’ (‘Musical Exhibitions’) from 1907 to 1911, concerts
programming lesser-known works by Russian and West European
composers. As a pianist he gave many concerts, both as a soloist at
concerts organized by the Association of Contemporary Music, Moscow, in
the 1920s and as an ensemble player (with the soprano Nina Koshetz and
with the Stradivari Quartet among others). Between 1921 and 1930 he
occupied leading posts in governmental organizations, in which he
contributed to the reform of musical education. From 1932 to 1939 he
worked for the publishing house Muzgiz as an editor. He also composed an
opera, orchestral and piano works and romances, and arranged folksongs.
Yavorsky was an outstanding teacher. During the course of his career he
taught the piano, conducting, composition, the history of performance
styles and theoretical subjects. He worked at a number of institutions,
among them the Moscow People's Conservatory (1906–16), the Kiev State
Conservatory and People's Conservatory (1916–21), Kiev University
(1920), Moscow University (1929–30), the opera studio of the Bol'shoy
Theatre (1930–31), the First Moscow Technical College of Music (1921–
30) and the Moscow State Conservatory (1938–42). His many
distinguished pupils include the musicologists Al'shvang, Vladimir
Protopopov and Zuckermann, and the composers A. Krein, Leontovych,
Melkikh and Sergey Protopopov.
Yavorsky was also an outstandingly original scholar whose erudition and
breadth of vision made a deep impression on his colleagues. He sought to
define the interdependence between social and historical processes, the
evolution of human psychology and the development of different types of
musical thinking. He was equally comfortable writing on historical and
aesthetic questions (1947, 1987) as he was writing on pure theory. An
example of his work in the latter field is his celebrated ‘theory of key
rhythm’ in which he examined the systems of lad (‘modes’) developed
during the 20th century. The study established for the first time the general
principles according to which these systems function, examining the inner
coherence and the ‘objective’ effect of atonal systems built primarily on
augmented and diminished intervals. His work paved the way for V.P.
Dernova's groundbreaking Garmoniya Skryabina, published in 1968 but
written in 1950, and Yavorsky's theories were later expanded by
Protopopov to include quarter tones. Messiaen also studied Yavorsky's
writings, and Messiaen's idea of intonation as a first principle of expressive
musical form reflects the writer's influence.
Very few of Yavorsky's writings were published during his lifetime, and
publication of the vast quantity of his extant written material began only
recently. His views, however, were well-known to his contemporaries by
word of mouth and were discussed at congresses. His work was highly
valued by Myaskovsky, Shostakovich, Asaf'yev and Gnesin and continues
to attract the attention of modern scholars.
WRITINGS
Stroyeniye muzïkal'noy rechi [The construction of musical speech]
(Moscow, 1908)
Uprazhneniya v golosovedenii [Exercises in part-writing] (Moscow, 1913,
2/1928)
‘Tekst i muzïka’ [Text and music], Muzïka, no.163; no.166; no.169 (1914)
Uprazhneniya v obrazovanii ladovogo ritma [Exercises in the formation of
schemes of modal rhythm], i (Moscow, 1915, 2/1928)
with S.N. Belyayeva-Ėkzemplyarskaya: ‘Vospriyatiye ladovïkh
melodicheskikh postroyeniy’ [The perception of tonal melodic
structures], Sborniki eksperimental'no-psikhologicheskikh issledovaniy
(Leningrad, 1926), 1
with S.N. Belyayeva-Ėkzemplyarskaya: Struktura melodii (Moscow,
1929) [incl. ‘Konstruktsiya melodicheskogo protessa’ [The construction
of the melodic process], 7–36]
Syuitï Bakha dlya klavira [Bach’s keyboard suites] (Moscow, 1947)
‘Pis'ma’ [Letters], B. Yavorskiy, ed. D. Shostakovich (Moscow, enlarged
2/1972), 247–610
‘Zametki o tvorcheskom mïshlenii russkikh kompozitorov ot Glinki do
Skryabina’ [Notes on creative thinking in Russian composers from
Glinka to Skryabin], ‘Vospominaniya o Sergeye Ivanoviche Taneyeve’
[Reminiscences of Sergey Ivanovich Taneyev], B. Yavorskiy:
 izbrannïye trudï, ed. D.D. Shostakovich (Moscow, 1987), 41–235,
241–348
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.M. Rimsky-Korsakov: ‘Akusticheskoye obosnovaniye teorii ladovogo
ritma’ [The acoustic basis of the theory of key rhythm], Muzïkoznaniye,
iv (1928)
N. Boicenco: Nuovi principi della composizione musicale: teoria ed
esercizi (Rome, 1928)
V. Zuckermann: ‘Teoriya ladovogo ritma i yeyo primeneniye’ [The theory
of key rhythm and its use], Proletarskiy muzïkant (1929), no.7; no.8
I.Ya. Rïzhkin: ‘Teoriya ladovogo ritma (B. Yavorsky)’, in L.A. Mazel' and
I.Ya. Rïzhkin: Ocherki po istorii teoreticheskogo muzïkoznaniya, ii
(Moscow, 1939), 105–205
V. Zuckermann and L. Kulakovsky: ‘Yavorskiy: teoretik’ [Yavorsky: the
theorist], SovM (1957), no.12, pp.68–75
D. Shostakovich, ed.: B. Yavorskiy, i (Moscow, 1964, enlarged 2/1972)
Yu.N. Kholopov: ‘Simmetrichnïye ladï v teoreticheskikh sistemakh
Yavorskogo i Messiana’ [Symmetrical modes in the theoretical
systems of Yavorsky and Messiaen], Muzïka i sovremennost', vii
(1971), 247–93
I. Nabok: ‘Problemï sotsial'noy prirodï muzïkal'nogo tvorchestva v
teoreticheskom nasledii B. Yavorskogo’ [Problems of the social
character of musical composition in the theoretical work of Yavorsky],
in A.A. Farbshteyn, ed. Muzïka v sotsialisticheskom obshchestve, iii
(Leningrad, 1977), 219–32
K. Wiłkomirski: ‘Bołeslaw Jaworski: twórca teorii myślenia musycznego’
[Boleslav Yavorsky: founder of a theory of musical thought], Ruch
muzyczny (1977), no.25, pp.3–6
B. Bayevsky: ‘Yavorskiy i nekotorïye tendentsii kul'turï yego vremeni’
[Yavorsky and some trends in the culture of his time], SovM (1978),
no.5, pp.83–9
Yu. Kon: ‘Neskol'ko teoreticheskikh paralleley’ [Some theoretical parallels],
ibid., pp.90–92
N.B.L. Finkel'berg: ‘Yavorsky ob ispolnitel'stve’ [Yavorsky on
performance], Muzïkal'noye ispolnitel'stvo, x (1979), 3–21
M. Aranovsky: ‘Intonatsiya, znak i “novïye metodï”’ [Intonation, symbol and
‘new methods’], SovM (1980), no.10, pp.99–109
L.B.L. Maslennikova: ‘Yavorsky o vospitanii slukha’ [Yavorsky on the
education of hearing], Kritika i muzïkoznaniye, ii (1980), 198–207
TAT'YANA S. KYUREGIAN

Ya-yüeh
(Chin.: ‘elegant music’).
A general term for Chinese court music. It also refers to the ritual music of
Confucianism. See China, §II.
 Ycart [Hycart, Hycaert, Icart,
Ycaert], Bernhard [Bernar,
Bernardus]
(fl c1470–1480). Catalan or Spanish composer. He was a singer at the
Aragonese court of Naples, where his presence is first recorded in 1478,
although he may have been there from 1476. A papal provision of 27
October 1478, which described Ycart as a clericus from the diocese of
Tortosa, granted him an abbacy ‘in commendam’ at the monastery of S
Maria del Pendino in Basilicata. He is last mentioned in a register of 25 (or
27) October 1480, where he is listed among 21 singers; his name is given
just above that of Tinctoris.
Musical life at the court flourished during the 1470s and 80s, with the
presence of composers such as Vincenet, Villette and Baude Cordier.
Pantaleone Malegolo, the contemporary biographer of Gaffurius, reported
that Gaffurius had discussed matters of music theory with Ycart. But if he
was a theorist there is no trace of any treatise that he may have written. He
is, however, cited in Hothby’s Dialogus in arte musica and Gaffurius’s
Tractatus practicabilium proportionum, and it seems likely that he was part
of their circle in northern Italy. His music must have already been known in
Italy by the early 1470s, as he is included in the part of I-FZc 117 that
Bonadies completed in 1473. The works included in this manuscript (the 3
Magnificat settings and the fragmentary setting of the Ordinary) must date
from before his arrival in Naples. The three-voice Magnificat sexti toni, like
the Kyrie and Gloria, sets sections of polyphony with a cantus firmus tenor;
the work is therefore an early forerunner of the ‘parody’ Magnificat, which
became more popular in the 16th century. Ycart’s large-scale setting of the
Lamentations almost certainly dates from his Neapolitan years, since such
lavish music would have been stylistically appropriate for the music of Holy
Week at the court. His music remained in circulation for some time, as
witnessed by the fact that two works were published by Petrucci in 1506.
WORKS
Kyrie, 4vv; Gloria, 4vv: I-FZc 117
Magnificat, 3vv, ed. in Atlas (1985); 2 Magnificat, 4vv: FZc 117 (1 also in F-Pn
Rés.Vm7676)
Lamentations, 4vv, 15061; ed. G. Massenkeil, Mehrstimmige Lamentationen aus
der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Mainz, 1965)
O princeps Pilate, motet, 4vv, I-MC 871, ed. in Pope and Kanazawa
Non touches a moy, chanson, 3vv, F-Pn 15123, ed. G. Haberkamp, Die weltliche
Vokalmusik in Spanien (Tutzing, 1968)
Missa de ‘Amor tu non mi gabasti’, lost
Missa ‘Voltate in qua’, lost
Pover me mischin dolente, Se io te o dato, 1 textless piece, I-PEc 431, attrib. Isaac
by J. Wolf, DTÖ, xxviii, Jg.xiv/1 (1907/R), but probably by Ycart; see Atlas (1977)
Tarde il mio cor and Amor, both FZc 117, attrib. Ycart by A.W. Ambros, Geschichte
der Musik, iii (Leipzig, 1868, rev. by O. Kade, 2/1893/R), are by John Hothby
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonSM; Vander StraetenMPB
D. Plamenac: ‘Keyboard Music of the Fourteenth Century in Codex
Faenza’, JAMS, iv (1951), 179–201
H. Anglès: La música en la corte de los reyes católicos, MME, i (1941,
2/1960/R) [see also review by D. Plamenac of 1st edn, MQ, xxxiv
(1948), 289–93]
C.A. Miller: ‘Early Gaffuriana: New Answers to Old Questions’, MQ, lvi
(1970), 367–88
A. Atlas: ‘On the Neapolitan Provenance of the Manuscript Perugia,
Biblioteca Comunale Augusta, 431 (G 20)’, MD, xxxi (1977), 45–105
I. Pope and M. Kanazawa: The Musical Manuscript Montecassino 871: a
Neapolitan Repertory of Sacred and Secular Music of the Late
Fifteenth Century (Oxford, 1978)
A.W. Atlas: Music at the Aragonese Court of Naples (Cambridge, 1985)
R. Stevenson: ‘Spanish Musical Impact (1200–1500)’, España en la
música de occidente: Salamanca 1985, 115–64
D. Fallows: Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs, 1415–1480 (Oxford, 1999)
ALLAN W. ATLAS/JANE ALDEN

Ye Dong
(b Shanghai, 21 July 1930; d Shanghai, 12 July 1989). Chinese
musicologist. He studied composition and music theory at the Shanghai
Conservatory of Music under Ding Shande, Deng Erjing and Sang Tong;
after graduating he joined the faculty there in 1956. He became vice-chair
of the Department of Chinese Composition, and director of the Chinese
Music Research programme in the conservatory’s Music Research
Institute. His 1983 book on Chinese instrumental music was one of the
earliest and most comprehensive textbooks on the subject.
In 1964 Ye had become interested in the 10th-century ce musical notation
from Dunhuang. But his work was soon interrupted by the Cultural
Revolution, which took a grave toll on his health. He was only able to
resume work early in the 1980s on this and other material relating to Tang
dynasty music. This research, along with that of scholars such as He
Changlin, Chen Yingshi and Xi Zhenguan, as well as that of Laurence
Picken, gave a high profile to the study and recreation of early Chinese
music. The publication of Ye's transnotations was a major event in the
Chinese musical life of the 1980s. Discussing important issues such as
metre, musical syntax, performing practice, and lyric settings, his work
sparked off an unprecedented interest in early notation and music, leading
to lively debates. Apart from its scholarly value, his work has also inspired
composition, dance and film music.

See also China, §II, 3.

WRITINGS
‘Dunhuang qupu yanjiu’ [Study of the Dunhuang musical notation], Yinyue
yishu (1982), no.1, pp.1–13
‘Dunhuang Tangren qupu yipu’ [Transnotation of the Tang musical notation
from Dunhuang], Yinyue yishu (1982), no.2, pp.1–5
Minzu qiyue de ticai yu xingshi [The form and structure of Chinese
instrumental music] (Shanghai, 1983)
‘Dunhuang bihua zhongde wuxian pipa jiqi Tangyue’ [The five-string pipa
and Tang music in the Dunhuang frescoes], Yinyue yishu (1984), no.1,
pp.24–41
‘Tangchuan wuxian pipapu yipu’ [Transnotation of the five-string pipa
notation transmitted from the Tang], Yinyue yishu (1984), no.2, pp.1–
11
Dunhuang pipa qupu [The Dunhuang pipa notation] (Shanghai, 1986)
‘Tangchuan zhengqu yu Tang shengshiqu jieyi: jianlun Tangyue zhongde
de jiezou jiepai’ [Interpretation of zheng and vocal music transmitted
from the Tang: rhythm and metre in Tang music], Yinyue yishu (1986),
no.3, pp.1–17
‘Dunhuang quzici de yinyue chutan’ [Study of the music of quzici from
Dunhuang], Zhonghua wenshi luncong (1987), no.2, pp.177–202
‘Tangchuan shisanxian zhengqu ershiba shou’ [28 pieces for 13-string
zheng transmitted from the Tang], Jiaoxiang (1987), no.2, pp.20–30;
no.3, pp.18–30
‘Tang daqu qushi jiegou’ [Form and structure of the Tang daqu], Zhongguo
yinyuexue (1989), no.3, pp.43–64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tansuo zhi ge: Jinian yinyuexuejia Ye Dong jiaoshou [Song of an explorer:
in memory of the musicologist Professor Ye Dong] (Shanghai, 1991)
SU ZHENG

Yefimenkova, Borislava Borisovna

(b Rostov-na-Donu, 7 Aug 1933; d Moscow, 25 March 1996). Russian
musicologist. After embarking on a degree in geochemistry at Rostov
University, she changed her studies to music, graduating in 1961 from the
Gnesin Academy of Music. She subsequently undertook a postgraduate
diploma at the academy, specializing in ethnomusicology with Gippius
(1965–8), and in 1968 began teaching a course there in musical folklore
studies. She was awarded the Kandidat degree in 1973 and was made
professor at the academy in 1994. Beginning in 1956, she participated in
many expeditions, principally in the east of the Vologda region. She was
the first to study and write down the early examples of prichtaniye
(lamentation rituals), which are noted for their complex polyphonic texture,
and in her collections of these rituals she introduced the new system of
publishing songs systematically by type and mapping them according to a
variety of factors. Her main work, Severnorusskaya prichet' (‘North Russian
Ritual’), holds a central place in Russian musical folklore studies, alongside
the collections of Mel'gunov and Lineva, and the Pesni Pinezh'ya
(‘Pinezh'ye Songs’) of Gippius and Ewald. She later devoted her work to
the systematization of verse set to music in the Russian folksong, showing
it to be a system of multiple levels with a structure founded on the principle
of binary opposition.
WRITINGS
 ‘O muzïkal'nom sklade prichtaniy vostochnïkh rayonov Vologodskogo
kraya’ [The musical mould of the ‘prichtaniye’ of the eastern regions of
the Vologda province], Voprosï muzïkovedeniya, ed. Yu.N. Rags, i
(Moscow, 1972–3), 66
‘Dramaturgiya svadeb'noy igrï mezhdurech'ya Sukhonï i Yuga i verkhov'yev
Kokshen'gi (Vologodskaya oblast')’ [The drama of wedding games in
the lands between the rivers Sukhona and Yug and the upper reaches
of the Kokshen'ga (Vologda region)], Problemï muzïkal'noy nauki, ii
(1973), 198
Ritmika russkikh traditsionnïkh pesen [Rhythm in Russian traditional songs]
(Moscow, 1993)
FOLKSONG COLLECTIONS
Severnïye bayki: kolïbel'nïye pesni Vologodskoy i Arkhangel'skoy oblastey
[Northern fairy tales: lullaby songs of the Vologda and Arkhangel'
regions] (Moscow, 1977)
Severnorusskaya prichet': mezhdurech'yeyu Sukhonï i Yuga i verkhov'yev
Kokshen'gi (Vologodskaya oblast') [The North Russian ritual: the lands
between the rivers Sukhona and Yug and the upper reaches of the
Kokshen'ga (Vologda region)] (Moscow, 1980)
M.A. LOBANOV

Yeghiazarian, Grigor Yeghiai

(b Blur, Turkey, 25 Nov/8 Dec 1908; d Yerevan, 4 Nov 1988). Armenian
composer and teacher. He moved to Yerevan in 1918 but later went to
study in Moscow at the music college and the conservatory with Glière,
Myaskovsky and Shebalin (1930–36). Back in Armenia he taught at the
Leninakan Music College (1936–8), was head of the Armenian Composers'
Union (1952–5) and rector of the Yerevan Conservatory (1954–60) where,
as professor of composition, he taught many leading Armenian composers
including Chitchian, Hovunts, Israyelian and Hovanesian. He received the
titles People's Artist of Armenia (1960), the State Prize of Armenia (1970)
and People’s Artist of the USSR (1977). His major compositional
achievement was in the development of Armenian orchestral music; his
works continue the tradition established by Spendiarian with their
programmatic nature, use of variation and dance forms, their incorporation
of eastern folk music and their expressive handling of colour. His use of
harmony and timbre bears comparison with Impressionism, but this is
counterbalanced by an epic, narrative quality which first became evident in
the symphony Hrazdan. He was drawn to ballet by his interest in plastic
movement; the first of these – Sevan – is based on Armenian folklore and
has the formal character of a divertissement, while in the second – Ara
Geghetsik yev Shamiram (‘Ara the Beautiful and Semiramis’) – various
aspects of ritual dance and action are generalized in a score which also
utilizes Assyrian orthodox music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballets: Sevan (3, I. Arbatov and V. Vardanian), 1955, Yerevan Opera Theatre,
1956, rev. as The Lake of Dreams, Yerevan Opera Theatre, 1968; Ara Geghetsik
yev Shamiram (3, A. Asatrian and V. Galstian, after M. Khorenatsi: The History of
Armenia) [Ara the Beautiful and Shamiram], c1965–73, Yerevan Opera Theatre,
1982
Orch: Rhapsody, 1939; Hayastan, 1942; Vn Conc., 1943; Ballet Fragments, 1946;
Suite on Themes of Komitas, 1948; Arevatsagin [To the Sunrise], 1952; Hrazdan,
sym., 1960
Pf: Sazandar, 1935; In Memory of Komitas, 1936; Preludes, 1962, 1968
Incid music, folksong arrs., mass songs, romances

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Tigranov: ‘O balete “Sevan”’, SovM (1956), no.7, pp.17–22
K. Khudabashian: Grigor Yeghiazaryan (Yerevan, 1966)
R. Terteryan: ‘V gostyakh u G. Yeghiazaryana’ [Visiting Yeghiazharian],
SovM (1984), no.5, pp.120–22
K. Khudabashian: ‘Stepen' vernosti originalu: o balete “Ara Prekrasnïy i
Shamiram”’ [The degree of faithfulness to the original: on the ballet Ara
the Beautiful and Semiramis], SovM (1987), no.3, pp.40–44
SVETLANA SARKISYAN

Yekaterinburg.
City in western central Russia. Founded in 1723, it was renamed
Sverdlovsk from 1924 to 1991. Musical life in Yekaterinburg in the 18th and
19th centuries was dominated by folksinging and singing in schools and
churches, as well as by amateur concerts. The city's operatic history began
in 1843, when a dramatic and musical troupe performed Bellini's La
sonnambula and Verstovsky's Askol'dova mogila (‘Askold's Grave’). The
first theatre, the 800-seat Gorodskoy Teatr (City Theatre), was opened in
1847. For many years operas were given in theatres belonging to private
entrepreneurs (1843–1912) or were produced by the Yekaterinburg ‘music
circles’, which also gave concerts of symphonic, chamber and choral
music. A music school was opened in the city in 1880.
At the start of the 20th century Yekaterinburg entered the mainstream of
Russian musical life. A new concert hall, the Makletskiy Hall, was
inaugurated in 1900, a branch of the Imperial Russian Music Society was
founded in 1912, an opera house, the Gorodskoy Opernïy Teatr (City
Opera Theatre) opened in 1912, and a college of music was founded in
1916. Musical life in Yekaterinburg was enhanced by many eminent visiting
artists from Russia and Europe. There were series of chamber, orchestral
and choral concerts (the ‘historic’ chamber music concerts of 1908, and the
seasons of orchestral music from 1912 to 1915). Concerts of sacred music,
given by the choirs of the Voznesenskiy, Kafedral'nïy and Yekaterininskiy
cathedrals, were also popular. In 1918 a new opera troupe was formed as
a Soviet company, and in 1924 the opera house was renamed the
Sverdlovskiy Gosudarstvennïy Teatr Operï i Baleta imeni A.V.
Lunacharskogo (Lunacharsky Sverdlovsk State Theatre of Opera and
Ballet) and became one of the principal operatic centres of the Soviet
Union.
In the 1920s and 30s amateur music-making flourished alongside
professional music. The repertory of the opera house was adapted to
include the works of Soviet composers on revolutionary themes, and in
1922 a ballet troupe was formed. Symphony concerts were given by the
orchestras of the opera house and the radio.
The 1930s and 40s saw the opening of new musical institutions: the Teatr
Muzïkal'noy Komedii (Theatre of Musical Comedy, 1933), the conservatory
(1934, named after Musorgsky), the Philharmonia (1936), a branch of the
Russian Union of Composers (1939), the Urals State Russian Folk Choir
(1943) and a music college for gifted children attached to the conservatory
(1943). Yekaterinburg became a centre of musical culture and music
education for an enormous tract of Russia. Leading figures in this period
include M.P. Frolov, composer, pianist and first rector of the conservatory;
V.N. Trambitsky, who with Frolov founded the so-called Urals school of
composers; and Lev Khristiansen, the first director of the Urals State
Russian Folk Choir. During the war years a number of outstanding
musicians from Moscow and Leningrad worked in Yekaterinburg, notably
Shostakovich, Oystrakh, Kabalevsky and Gilel's.
From the 1950s to the 1970s Yekaterinburg was regarded as the third
musical centre in Russia. The theatres and the Philharmonia enjoyed a rich
artistic life: in addition to concerts and opera performances there were
festivals of classical and contemporary music, opera festivals, competitions
and festivals of choral music, in which up to 5000 singers took part. Touring
soloists in these years included Oystrakh, Gilel's, Kogan, Rikhter and
Rostropovich, and there were also visits from leading Soviet orchestras
under conductors such as Svetlanov, Sanderling and Rozhdestvensky. In
1966 the opera house was renamed the Akademicheskiy Teatr Operï i
Baleta (Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet). It is renowned as a centre
for operas by Russian composers, especially those from the Urals,
including Trambitsky and Spadavecchia.
During the 1980s and 90s musical life in Yekaterinburg opened up to the
world outside Russia. In cooperation with musicians from Europe, the USA,
Japan and China, large-scale events were mounted, including international
festivals of opera, orchestral music, jazz and children's music festivals.
Folk music and jazz is provided by the Urals State Orchestra of Folk
Instruments, the Urals State Choir and the Urals State Jazz Orchestra.
Newer ensembles in Yekaterinburg include the B-A-C-H Chamber
Orchestra, the Domestik choir, focussing on early music, the Ayuska and
Ural folk ensembles, the Municipal Ballet Theatre for Children, a children's
choir and a municipal boys' choir.
The city's principal establishments for music education are the Modest
Petrovich Musorgsky State Conservatory of the Urals, the Theatres
Institute, which trains artists for the Theatre of Musical Comedy, and the
Urals State Pedagogical Institute, which trains school music teachers.
Unique recordings of folksongs from the Urals are held in the libraries of
the conservatory and the House of Folklore.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yu. Kurochkin: Iz teatral'nogo proshlogo Urala: zametki sobiratelya [From
the history of the theatre in the Urals: the notes of a collector]
(Sverdlovsk, 1957)
 O muzïke i muzïkantakh Urala [On the music and musicians of the Urals]
(Sverdlovsk, 1959)
Ye. Mayburova: ‘Muzïkal'naya zhizn' Yekaterinburga’ [The musical life of
Yekaterinburg], Iz muzïkal'nogo proshlogo, ed. B.S. Shteynpress, i
(Moscow, 1960), 22–67
B. Shteynpress: ‘Muzïkal'naya zhizn' Sverdlovska v 1917–1941’ [The
musical life of Sverdlovsk, 1917–1941], Iz muzïkal'nogo proshlogo
[From the musical past], ii (Moscow, 1965), 5–20
‘Istoriya Urala (v period sotsializma)’ [The history of the Urals (during the
period of socialism)], Teatr i muzïka, ii (1977), 271–6, 497–506
‘Sverdlovsk. Sverdlovskiy teatr operï i baleta’ [Sverdlovsk. The
Sverdlovskiy theatre of opera and ballet], Muzïkal'naya ėntsiklopediya,
iv (Moscow, 1978), 874–9
‘Istoriya Urala (v period kapitalizma)’ [The history of the Urals (during the
period of capitalism)], Iskusstvo, ii (Moscow, 1990), 401–14
Yekaterinburg: istoriya i sovremennost' [Yekaterinburg: history and modern
times] (Yekaterinburg, 1996)
NINA VOL'PER

Yekimovsky, Viktor Alekseyevich

(b Moscow, 1947). Russian composer. He graduated from the Gnesin
Institute in Moscow in 1971 where he studied composition with Aram
Khachaturian and history of music with Konstantin Rosenshil'd and then
undertook postgraduate study at the Leningrad Conservatory (which he
completed in 1978) in music history with Galina Filenko. He was awarded a
kandidat degree in 1983 and is the author of a large number of articles on
contemporary music, including the first monograph on Olivier Messiaen
published in Russia (1987). He edited several volumes of Shostakovich's
collected works. Yekimovsky is generally considered to be a westernizer in
Russian music of the latter half of the 20th century. His method of working
is experimental; each new work comes, characteristically, from a new idea
not previously encountered, and the means of expression and
compositional technique conform to this idea. In his constant search for the
new the composer has particular recourse to chamber music forms.
Yekimovsky employs most of the techniques of 20th-century composition,
from dodecaphonic and aleatory methods to intuitive improvisation and
instrumental theatre. He has written a series of pieces for puppet theatre
and for cartoon film, working with Aleksandr Fedulov and Feliks Feinstein
in the latter field. Since 1996 he has been head of the Association for
Contemporary Music in Moscow and arranges concerts of new music every
year for the Moscow Autumn festival.
WORKS
(selective list)

Music theatre: Balletto, cond., ens, 1974; Posidelki [Youth Gatherings], 2 pf, 1992;
Iz kataloga Ėshera [From Escher's Catalogue], 7 pfmrs, 1994; Lebedinaya pesnya
no.1 [Swan-Song no.1], str qt, 1996; Lebedinaya pesnya no.2 [Swan-Song no.2],
cond., str qt, tape, 1996; Lebedinaya pesnya no.3 ‘Virtual'naya’ [Swan-Song no.3
‘Virtual’], wind, 1996; Prizrak teatra [The Ghost of the Theatre], comp., 10
musicians, 1996
Orch: Liricheskiye otstupleniya [Lyrical Digressions], solo vcs, orch, 1969;
Sublimations, 1969; Ave Maria, 48 vn, 1974; Iyerikhonskiye trubï [Trumpets of
Jericho], 30 brass, 1977; Brandenburg Conc., fl, ob, vn, hpd, str orch, 1979; Sym.
Dances, pf, orch, 1993; Ėffekt Dopplera, virtual composition, 100 pfmrs, 1997
Chbr: Composition 1, pf qt, 1969; Composition 2, pf qt, 1969; Composition 7, str qt,
1970; Trio-sonata da camera, 1971; Chbr Variations, 13 pfmrs, 1974; Noktyurnï, 3
cl, 1974; Kvartet-cantabile, str qt, 1977; Cantus figuralis, 12 sax, 1980; Mandala, 7
pfmrs, 1983; Stansï [Stanzas], 2 vn, 1984; Composition 43, 2 pf, 1986; V sozvezdii
Gonchikh Psov [In the Canes Venatici Constellation], 3 fl, tape, 1986;
Doppelkammervariationen, 12 pfmrs, 1989; Uspeniye [The Dormition], perc ens,
1989; Tripelkammervariationen, 15 pfmrs, 1991; Polyotï vozdushnïkh zmeyev
[Flights of the Kites], 4 s rec, 1992; 27 razrusheniy [27 Destructions], perc ens,
1995; Zerkalo Avitsennï [Avitsenna's Mirror], 14 pfmrs, 1995; Graffiti, 7 pfmrs, 1998
Solo inst: Composition 4, pf, 1969; Kadentsiya [Cadenza], vc, 1970; Die ewige
Wiederkunft, b cl, 1980; Proshchaniye [Farewell], pf, 1980; Sonata s pokhoronnïm
marshem [Sonata and Funeral March], pf, 1981; Prelude and Fugue, org, 1985;
Deus ex machina, hpd, 1990; Lunnaya sonata [Moonlight Sonata], pf, 1993; La
favorite–la non favorite, hpd, 1994; Urok muzïki v vizantiyskoy shkole [A Music
Lesson in a Byzantine School], t rec, 1998
Works for puppet theatre, cartoon film scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Yekimovsky: Avtomonografiya [Automonograph] (Moscow, 1977)
M. Stahnke: ‘Junge Moskauer Komponisten’, NZM, Jg.142 (1981), 146–51
V. Rozhnovsky: ‘Strannïye zamïslï Viktora Yekimovskogo: 4 ėtyuda o
gramzapisyakh kompozitora’ [The curious projects of Yekimovsky: 4
studies of the composer's works on record], Melodiya (1992), nos.3–4,
pp.11–15
V. Barsky: ‘Liricheskoye otstupleniye s kommentariyami’ [A lyrical
digression, with commentaries], Muzïka iz bïvshego SSSR, ed. V.
Tsenova, V. Barsky, i (Moscow, 1994), 241–56
TAT'YANA REXROTH

Yel'cheva, Irina Mikhaylovna

(b Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 28 Nov 1926). Russian composer and
folksong collector. She was greatly influenced by her mother, the pianist,
composer and music theorist, Nadezhda Bogolyubova. Yel'cheva studied
with Sergey Vol'fenson at the Musorgsky College, Leningrad, during World
War II; she then attended the Leningrad Conservatory, where she studied
the piano with Aleksandr Kamensky (graduating in 1950) and composition
with O.S. Chishko (graduating in 1958). In 1953 and 1956 she participated
in folksong expeditions to the Pskov region, to northern Russia and to the
lower reaches of the river Pechora. Since 1965 she has collected songs
independently in the Ivanovo region; she published her edition of collected
folksongs in 1968 and in the late 1970s recorded her own performances of
some of these. Most of her original compositions reflect her two main
concerns: impressions of war and Russian folk culture. She writes in a
traditional style based on folk tunes.
WORKS
Stage: Spartak [Spartacus] (op, V. Chulisov, S. Tsenina, after Giovagnoli), 1961;
Skazka o lenivom bobryonke [Tale of the Lazy Beaver] (mini op, Yu. Shestalov),
two solo vv, pf, 1980; Riki-Tiki-Tavi (Yel'cheva, after R. Kipling), 1985; Alen'kiy
tsvetochek [The Little Scarlet Flower] (Yel'cheva, after I. Bazhov), 1996
Orch: Simfoniya pamyati pogibshikh v blokadu Leningrada [Sym. in Memory of
Those who Perished in the Siege of Leningrad], 1965; Pechorskiye starinï [Times of
Yore in Pechora], suite, 1963; Pf Conc., 1968; Zavadskaya uvertyura [A Factory
Ov.], 1975; Ivanovskaya uvertyura [Ivanovo Ov.], 1977
Choral: Russkaya svad'ba [A Russian Wedding], 1966; Khorovodnïye pesni [Round
Songs] (trad.), chorus, timp/db col legno, 1967; K novoy zhizni [Towards a New
Life] (orat, Yu. Shestakov), spkr, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1973; Derevenskiye stsenki
[Village Scenes], 1974; Vesyolaya maslenitsa [A Merry Shrovetide] (G. Ufimtseva],
cant.-performance, children’s choir, insts, 1986; Vremena goda [The Seasons],
1989
Chbr and solo inst: Palekhskaya syuita [Palekh Suite], pf, 1966; 24 prelyudii i fugi
[24 Preludes and Fugues], pf, 1969; 5 p'yes [Five Pieces], ww qnt, 1974; pf
sonatas, str qts, pieces for organ
Vocal: Ivanovskiye pesni [Ivanovo Songs] (trad.), Mez, pf, 1965; Mï zhivyom na
severe [We Live in the North] (Yu. Shestalov), Bar, pf, 1969; Lebed' belaya [White
Swan] (trad.), 1979
WRITINGS
Narodnïye pesni Ivanovskoy oblasti [Folk songs of the Ivanovo region]
(Yaroslavl', 1968)
‘V poiskakh pesen: zapiski kompozitora’ [In search of songs: recordings
made by the composer], Dïkhaniye Volgi [The breath of the river
Volga] (Yaroslavl', 1983)
OL'GA MANUL'KINA

Yellin [née Bentwich], Thelma

(b London, 15 March 1895; d Jerusalem, 21 March 1959). Israeli cellist of
English birth. She studied at the RCM from 1911 and privately with Casals.
After further studies with Hekking in Paris in 1915, she made her début
later that year in London, and in 1916 formed a trio with Myra Hess and
Jelly d'Arányi. Visiting Palestine in 1920 to recuperate from illness, she
decided to settle in Jerusalem and married Eliezer Yellin in 1921. That year
she established the Jerusalem Musical Society, and in 1922 formed the
Jerusalem String Quartet with her sister Margery, a violinist; it was
reorganized in 1933 with Emil Hauser as leader. In 1933 she formed the
Jerusalem Trio with her sister and Franz Osborn; she helped Huberman to
form the Palestine Orchestra (later the Israel PO), taking part in its
inaugural concert under Toscanini in 1936. She appeared as a soloist with
the orchestra, played in trios with Schnabel and Huberman, and taught at
the Palestine Conservatory. In 1947–8 she gave many concerts in the USA
to benefit the Palestine cause, and returned to the new state of Israel in
1948 to devote her efforts to the development of its musical life. She
established a new Israel String Quartet in 1951 and helped to establish the
Jewish Music Seminar at Zichron Jacob for Israeli composers, first directed
by Aaron Copland. One of her last achievements was to persuade the city
of Tel-Aviv to provide a secondary school for musically talented children: it
was opened in 1962 and named the Thelma Yellin High School of the Arts.
She was considered one of the foremost cellists of her generation, with
musical ideals akin to those of Casals by which her commanding technique
was at the service of artistic purpose. She communicated her vibrant
personality and unflagging enthusiasm to students and listeners alike, and
her four decades of pioneering efforts in Israel contributed decisively to the
growth of musical life there. (M. Bentwich: Thelma Yellin: Pioneer Musician,
Jerusalem, 1964)
BORIS SCHWARZ/R

Yellin, Victor (Fell)

(b Boston, 14 Dec 1924). American musicologist. He was educated at
Harvard, studying with Piston, Milhaud, Davison, Gombosi, A.T. Merritt and
J.M. Ward; he received the AB in 1949, the AM in 1952 and the PhD in
1957. From 1958 to 1960 he taught and directed the glee club at Williams
College. In 1961, after a year on the faculty of Ohio State University, he
joined the music department of New York University.
A specialist in American music, Yellin has done research on musical
activities in the colonial period, analysed the works of contemporary
American composers and written surveys of the musical development of
the USA; he has also prepared the edition of Rayner Taylor's opera The
Aethiop (New York, 1994). His other areas of scholarly activity include
Romantic opera, and since his student days he has maintained an interest
in composition.
WRITINGS
The Life and Operatic Works of George Whitefield Chadwick (diss.,
Harvard U., 1957)
‘The Operas of Virgil Thomson’, in V. Thomson: American Music since
1910 (New York, 1971), 91–109
‘Chadwick, American Musical Realist’, MQ, lxi (1975), 77–97
‘Rayner Taylor’, American Music, i/3 (1983), 48–71
‘Rayner Taylor's Music for “The Aethiop”’, American Music, iv/3 (1986),
249–67; vi (1987), 20–47
Chadwick, Yankee Composer (Washington DC, 1990)
‘Prosodic Syncopation’, A Celebration of American Music: Words and
Music in Honor of H. Wiley Hitchcock, ed. R.A. Crawford, R.A. Lott and
C.J. Ota (Ann Arbor, 1990), 449–59
‘Sullivan and Thomson, Gilbert and Stein’, JM, xi (1993), 478–98
‘Bristow's Divorce’, American Music, xii/3 (1994), 229–54
‘Mrs. Belmont, Matthew Perry, and the “Japanese Minstrels”’, American
Music, xiv/3 (1996), 257–75
The Omnibus Idea (Warren, MI, 1997)
PAULA MORGAN

Yemen, Republic of (Arab.

Jumhūriyyat al-Yaman).
Country in the Middle East. Located in southern Arabia, it has an area of
555,000 km2. Yemen was previously divided into two states but was unified
in 1990. Its music is rooted in an ancient culture (see Arab music, §I, 2(i))
and has features in common with neighbouring traditions (see Saudi
arabia, Oman and Arabian Gulf). Sedentary farmers, Bedouin nomads (see
Bedouin music), fishermen and townspeople make up a complex society,
with a huge variety of musical styles and contexts for performance. The
population of 18·2 million (2000 estimate) is predominantly Muslim (both
Sunni and Shi‘a). For details of Yemeni Jewish music in Israel, see Jewish
music, §V, 3(i)(a).
I. Popular and village music
II. Urban music
JEAN LAMBERT
Yemen

I. Popular and village music

The highlands and Hadramawt are the main regions and the best known
for popular music (fig.1). The zār ceremony and Sufi music occur in various
regions.
1. Main regional musical traditions.
(i) Highland villages.
This region is the historical heart of Yemen. Music is important in all
aspects of life. Work-songs include the mahjal, accompanying the harvests
and other collective work. Its lyrics are chanted on three notes to a simple
rhythm. The hādī is an unmetred love song, performed by women when
thinning out sorghum leaves; it is often pentatonic, with a large ambitus.
Other songs accompany solitary tasks: the plougher’s maghrad, camel-
driver’s jammālī and well-digger’s masnā. Some music has magical
functions: prayers are chanted during drought, and there are specific songs
to call rain (tasgiya).
The zāmil extols the honour and warlike virtues of tribesmen (gabā’il). It is
composed and performed at local political events and weddings, and
during war time. Its form is responsorial, with a march rhythm and mostly
tetratonic melodies. The bara‘ dance represents tribal solidarity in a suite of
three or four sections. The Prophet’s descendants (sāda) do not dance,
whereas the tribesmen dance but do not play instruments. Low-caste
musicians (mzayyinūn) provide the music, beating two kettledrums (tāsa
and marfa‘) with sticks. As many as 50 male dancers form a semicircle,
making stylized movements with their daggers.
The mzayyinūn musicians conduct wedding ceremonies, playing in bands
of three. They play mizmār (double clarinet) with a circular breathing
technique, tabl (cylindrical drum) and a sahn mīmiye (gong) (fig.2). The
percussionists sing in unison with the mizmār. Two or three men dance the
lu‘ba (‘game’), waving their daggers (fig.3). Women also perform this dance
under another name and without daggers or mizmār accompaniment.
The northern regions around Sa‘da (al-Shām) share the same musical
culture, with some influences from the desert. On the eastern slopes,
Bedouins employ few instruments other than drums. Their collective ‘sung
dances’ (e.g. razfa) are closer to styles found elsewhere in Arabia. East of
Sana‘a (San‘ā’), the capital city, weddings are enlivened with poetic
contests (bāla).
(ii) Hadhramaut.
This large green valley crossing the desert presents a musical microcosm.
As in the highlands, music and dance distinguish the various social groups
of Hadhramaut (Hadramawt). There are lullabies and women’s and
children's songs. Other music is linked to traditional activities, such as
building and farming, with songs for ploughing, harvesting, pollinating palm
trees and drawing water at wells (sināwa). The annual agricultural cycle is
sung in poems by the legendary figure Sa‘d al-Suwaynī, and there are
several types of camel-driver call (ġadwara).
When returning from the ibex hunt, tribesmen perform the Banī Maghrā
songs. Two, four or six hunters dance, parading the ibex head in a
ceremonial procession (zaff) and enacting the symbolic union between the
ibex and the community. In side valleys, tribesmen (masākīn) perform the
dahifa. Two people dance in a circle, accompanied by mizmār (double
clarinet) or qasaba (end-blown flute).
During religious feasts and processions, low-caste du‘afā’ people perform
the razīh dance. Holding sticks, sickles and palm leaves, they simulate a
type of sexual pantomime. Some of them, the baqqāra (‘ploughmen’),
make exaggerated head movements, waving their shoulder-length hair in a
style typical of women in the Arabian Gulf.
The dān is a poetic improvised contest performed at night by the Prophet’s
descendants and townspeople (hadar). Two or three poets face one
another, taking turns to compose quatrains based on combinations of the
refrain syllables ‘dān, dān’. A scribe repeats the words and writes them
down, while a singer puts them to music. The most famous dān poet was
Sa‘īd Marzūq (d 1981), a mason from Say’un. The dān rayyid takes place
indoors; its variant shabwānī is performed in the open air, after a long
sequence of dances accompanied by the ‘idda drum band comprising
several kettledrums (tāsa), cylindrical drums (tabl) and the double-headed
drums (mirwās) also found in the Gulf. On the coast, the dān is
accompanied by an oblique flute (madrūf). For a discussion of dān (or dāna
dāna) improvisation as a strophic form using refrains, see Arab music, §II,
3(ii).
At their private ceremonies, the Prophet’s descendants and townspeople
perform an aristocratic dance. It is called zerbādī or Bā-Sālih, also sharh
rayyid (‘calm’) because of its slow rhythms, or zafan (‘jumping, kneeling’).
Two or four dancers perform in two main movements, madkhal
(‘introduction’) and makhraj (‘conclusion’), the latter being faster in tempo.
The dance’s generally slow tempo, delicate rubato and varied drum timbres
reveal influences from Java. Accompanying instruments are oblique flute
(madrūf), oblong double-headed drum (hājir) and cylindrical double-headed
drum (mirwās). The poetry and melodies are mainly those of the dān.
Bedouins perform the miraykūz dance to the rhythm of hand-clapping and
wooden castanets (marāqīs). Performed in this region, the habīsh is one of
the few remaining mixed dances in Yemen. The central figure is a woman
whose face is veiled by a black kerchief. Her silver jewellery shakes in
rhythm as she dances, guided by a man who revolves around her, making
quick small steps.
In Hadhramaut towns and especially on the coast, ‘idda drum bands lead
street processions for weddings or political events. Men from the different
districts confront one another in theatrical stick dances, which sometimes
end in real fighting. In the valley, the ‘idda drum band is called zāhirī.
(iii) The coastal plains.
The Red sea and Indian ocean coasts share certain musical genres linked
with fishing, the zār spirit possession cult (see §2(i) below) and Sufism (see
§2(ii) below).
As in the Arabian Gulf, the songs of Yemeni fishermen and sailors use
hand-clapping (tasfīq) and music of the five-string lyre (simsimiyya). Sailors
have many work-songs (ahāzīj) performed in a responsorial manner to a
simple binary rhythm. They recount their sea adventures in recreational
songs, e.g. the unmetred muwājahāt (akin to the mawwāl vocal form). On
the Indian ocean, one song to Sōbān, a sea god, sounds like a prayer; it is
performed with dance-like movements of the upper body. accompanying
instruments are the small five-string lyre (simsimiyya), conical drum (hājir),
double-headed drum (mirwās), treble drum (kāsir) and the modern
signalling whistle. The various dances, rakla, darbūka, bambīla, liwā and
marjūza, are distinguished by their particular combinations of polyrhythm
(three beats against two), with syncopations and hockets. The scales are
diatonic, close to the Arab modes ‘Ajam, Nihāwand, Hijāz and Kurd.
Pentatonic scales are also used.
(iv) Tihama.
The music of this Red Sea coastal region is little known. Fishermen’s
songs are described immediately above. Countrymen's songs are not
known.
The main feature of Tihama is a band of drums (tabbālīn or tunqūra) played
by the akhdām (low status people of African origin). In Tuhayta they lead
processions to the local saint’s shrine, and at religious festivals they play
and dance in front of shops until given alms. The band uses a cylindrical
drum (tabl), kettledrums of various sizes (tāsa, marfa‘ and mishkal) played
with sticks and a kettledrum beaten with the hands (sahfa).
Tihama tribesmen, the Zarānig, perform vigorous dances during
pilgrimages to local shrines. Jumping, dancing and holding two or more
daggers, they make a show of stabbing themselves (khudmī, hanjala),
while the saint protects them from injury. They have a more dignified
collective dance (hafka), accompanied by the end-blown flute (qasaba)
played with circular breathing. Farmers use a tall drum of African origin
(jabh: ‘hive’) carved from a tree trunk and played with the hands to
accompany a harvest dance (kindū).
At wedding ceremonies in Hodeida (Al-Hudayda) and Zabid, a soloist and
chorus of several men perform religious chanting (inshād) in a style
developed by the Sufi poet and composer Ahmad Jābir Rizq (d 1905).
The rabāb, a traditional single-string quadrangular spike lute (fiddle), was
being made in Ta‘iz (Ta‘izz) in the 13th century, but today it has almost
disappeared from Tihama, the only area in Yemen where it is still played at
all.
(v) Middle Yemen.
This region (Ibb, Hugariyya, Dali‘ and Yafi‘) is less influenced by tribal
values than the highlands and Hadhramaut. The southern mountains are
irrigated by the monsoon rains and well cultivated. There are many work-
songs, but fewer instruments than in other areas.
Hugariyya is the centre of the Sufi brotherhood of Ibn ‘Alwān (d 1267) and
of panegyric singing for the Prophet Muhammad (madīh nabawī). All over
Yemen itinerant minstrels (maddāh) play the circular frame drum (tār) to
accompany the madīh, singing in a giusto syllabic style. Sometimes they
perform at weddings, as do the akhdām from Tihama. In Ta‘iz rural songs
have been modernized by musicians such as Ayyūb Tārish.
Yahyā ‘Umar, the 18th-century poet from Yafi‘, emigrated to India. His
poetry is sung in popular urban music throughout the Arabian peninsula. In
Yafi‘, a genre of improvised poetry called marjūza is also performed.
(vi) Mahra and Socotra.
In these isolated regions, traditional vocal styles have been preserved (as
well as archaic Semitic languages). They are akin to those of Hadhramaut
and Dhofar (Zufār) in Oman but retain many specific features. In Socotra
the most characteristic instrument is a pierced shell (wad‘a) producing a
single note used for calling. There are many types of calls to animals.
Work-songs include a women’s song for heating the stone to cook a meal.
In Mahra men perform a magical therapeutic ceremony, the rābūt (see also
Oman, fig.4). A soloist and chorus gather around the sick person, chanting
incantations in a simple tune consisting of two or three notes. They use
ritual and vocal ‘spitting’ to expel the illness. As the long ritual progresses,
the vocal pitch rises and tempo and volume increase until the incantations
are literally shouted.
2. Musical contexts.
(i) The ‘zār’ ceremony.
The Zār spirit possession cult is found in three main areas: the Red Sea
coastal region (Tihama), the southern region (Aden and Lahej) and the
south-east coast (Mukalla). Its purpose is to cure sickness through
establishing a personal relationship between the person possessed and a
specific spirit (jinn. The ritual and music are differentiated according to their
origins in zār cults in Africa (see Sudan, §1). The leading instrument is the
large lyre (tanbūra), which has symbolic value as a living being and
receptacle of the spirits. It is accompanied by drums and the goat-hoof belt
rattle (manjūr). The music of the zār is mainly the līwā, a genre of African
origin widespread in the Gulf.
(ii) Sufi music.
The practice of Sufism in Yemen is poorly documented. It was successively
forbidden by Shi‘a Zaydists in Sana‘a and communist officials in Aden, but
it remains widespread over the coastal plains dominated by the Shāfi‘ī
branch of Sunni Islam. Some Sufi brotherhoods originate outside Yemen
(e.g. Qādiriyya and Mirghāniyya), while others are associated with local
saints such as al-Saqqāf in Tarim. In Hadhramaut the most famous Sufi
songs are the tahwīda genre, performed during the pilgrimage of the
prophet Hūd. The voice is often accompanied by the frame drum (tār) and
flute (shabbāba). The madīh nabawī (Prophet’s panegyric) is described in
§1(v) above.
Yemen

II. Urban music

Yemen has a very ancient tradition of urban music, with recent modern
developments. Its music and poetry have been spreading throughout the
Arabian peninsula and Gulf for some time, especially recently, through star
singers such as Abū Bakr Bal-Faqīh.
1. Sana‘a.
The capital city is the centre of Zaydism, a moderate Shi‘a sect that has
influenced both religious and secular music.
(i) Religious chanting.
Sana‘a is famous for its chants (tasbīh) sung from the minarets before the
morning call to prayer. The style is only slightly melodic, with long drawn-
out notes and glissandi. Qur’anic chanting is not musically greatly
developed.
Professional hymn-singers (nashshād) enliven social occasions (fig.4) and
life-cycle ceremonies with hymns (mashrab). During eclipses of the moon,
mashrabs are sung for the remission of sins. At weddings the hymn-singers
also perform non-religious poems in an unmetred religious vocal style but
use melodies that are akin to profane music.
(ii) The song of Sana‘a (al-ghinā’ al-san‘ānī).
This is the most ancient song tradition in Yemen and the Arabian
peninsula. The singer accompanies himself on a short-necked lute.
Nowadays the ‘ūd has almost replaced the ancient local instrument,
qanbūs (for illustration see Qanbūs. A gong (sahn mīmiye) is also played,
held horizontally with the two thumbs.
Al-ghinā’ al-san‘ānī emerged alongside the humaynī, a form of lyric poetry
originating from Zabid and Ta‘iz and developed in the highlands by
Muhammad Sharaf al-Dīn (d 1607). Influenced by Muslim Spain, humaynī
employs the following verse forms: qasīda (ode), mubayyit (quatrain) and
Muwashshah (three-part stanza). This poetry and music migrated from the
luxurious Rasuli palaces to the simple dwellings of the Zaydi imāms.
Puritanical rulers often forbade performance of this music, which is poorly
documented prior to the period of great 20th-century exponents: Bā-
Sharāhīl (d 1952), al-Mās (d c1951), Ahmad Fāyi‘ (d c1964) and sālih
‘Abdallah al-‘Antarī (d 1965).
San‘ānī melodies are related to the Middle Eastern maqām, but do not
carry specific names. The main scale combines three-quarter and whole
tones, rarely semitones. The melody has a basic structure (qā‘ida) and an
improvised variation (kharsha) articulated by a short coda (lāzima)
underlining the rhythm and mode. The lute provides rhythmic and melodic
support and ornamentation. Right-hand techniques are: fard (‘one by one’),
sils (‘chain’, ostinato) and zafāra (‘plaiting’). Most rhythmic cycles have
names: das‘a (7 and 11 beats), wastā (binary), sāri‘ (like wastā but faster),
wastā mutawwala and kawkabāniyya (slow 12-beat variants) and saj‘ (a
fast march).
The qawma is a fixed succession of pieces linked to dance. It contains
atleast three different pieces: das‘a, wastā and sāri‘. Other forms can be
included at the beginning: these include the saj‘, an instrumental prelude
called fartash (‘search’), and a fixed unmetred form, mutawwal (‘stretched’).
No empty space must be left between the melodies; the transition between
two movements (nagla) is characteristic to each musician. The
performance entails a search for intimate union between poetry and music.
The ‘monodic unison’ of voice and instruments resembles a symbolic
dialogue in which both the musicians and listeners invest much emotion.
2. Hadhramaut.
The ‘awādī is an urban Hadhramaut style especially practised on the coast
(Mukalla and Shihr). It draws on other genres: the dān (see §I, 1(ii) above),
Sufi songs, and the Gulf sawt. Its most famous representative, Muhammad
Jum‘a Khān (d 1963), recorded hundreds of songs.
The voice is accompanied by the ‘ūd (from which the word ‘awādī derives),
violin, hājir and mirwās. Melodies are often in Sikāh mode or diatonic
modes (Hijāz, Kurd, Nihāwand). Rhythms are mostly binary or
polyrhythmic, with some use of seven-beat cycles. Influence from post-
1930s Indian film tunes is evident.
3. Aden.
The lahjī style was created by composer and poet Prince Ahmad Fadl
‘Komandān’ (d 1942), modelled on popular tunes from the town of Lahej.
His lyric and political songs are interpreted by Fadl al-Lahjī and Ahmad al-
Zabīdī. In the 1980s lahjī spread throughout Yemen due to the popularity of
its light polyrhythmic dance (sharh).
Aden music (‘al-ughniya al-‘adaniyya’) was born in the late 1940s, with the
creation of Khalīl Muhammad Khalīl’s Aden Club, and it grew into a
nationalist movement. Like lahjī, the accompanying instruments are ‘ūd and
violin. Since independence (1967), urban style has drawn on traditional
tunes as well as Arabic and Western music. The most important
representative of modern urban music is Muhammad Murshid Nājī.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
G. Adler: ‘Sokotri Music’, Südarabische Expedition, vi, ed. D.H. Muller
(Vienna, 1906), 377–82
R.B. Serjeant: South Arabian Poetry and Prose of Hadramawt (London,
1951)
A. al-Shāmī: min al-Yaman [About Yemini literature] (Beirut, 1974)
M. ‘Abduh Ghānim: Shi‘r al-ghinā’ al-san‘ānī [The poetry of Sana‘a song]
(Beirut, 2/ 1980)
J.M. al-Saqqaf: Lamahāt ‘an al-aghānī wa-r-raqasāt al-sha‘biyya fī
muhāfazat Hadramawt [Aspects of popular songs and dances of
Hadramawt] (Aden, 1983)
M. Murshid Nājī: Al ghinā al-yamanī al qadīm wa mashāhiruhu [Ancient
Yemeni music and its famous names] (Kuwait, 1984)
A. Bakewell: ‘Music of Tihama’, Studies on the Tihama: the Report of the
Tihama Expedition 1982, ed. F. Stone (London, 1985), 104–8
T. Fari‘: Lamahāt min t’rīkh al-ughniyya al-yamaniyya al-hadītha [Aspects
of the history of modern Yemeni song] (Aden, 1985)
S.O. Farhan: ‘Al-raqs al-sha‘bī fī muhāfazat Hadramawt’ [Popular dance in
Hadramawt], Dirāsāt wa-abhāth fī-l-mūsīqā wa-l-masrah (Aden, 1987),
1–24
‘A.al-Q. Sabbān: Al-shi‘r al-sha‘bī ma‘a -l-muzāri‘īn [Popular poetry with
the Agricultors] (Seyyun, 1987)
K.H. Ali: ‘Al-‘idda Dance in Yemen’, Al-Ma’thūrāt al-sha‘biyya, xii (1988),
8–15
J. Elsner: ‘Trommeln und Trommelensemblen in Jemen’, Beiträge zur
traditionellen Musik: Neustrelitz 1989, 18–37
‘A.M. ‘Obayd: ‘Aghānī sayyādī al-samak fī qaryat Shuqrā al-yamaniyya’
[Fishermen songs of Shuqra], Al-Ma’thūrāt al-sha‘biyya, xiv (1989),
51–66
‘A. al-Rudaynī, ed.: Dīwān zahr al-bustān fī mukhtāri al-gharīb min al-
alhān [Gathering of the rare melodies] (Sana‘a, 1989) [poems of
Shaykh Ahmed Jābir Rizq]
P. Schuyler: ‘Heart and Mind: Three Attitudes towards Performance
Practice and Music Theory in the Yemen Arabic Republic’, EthM, xxxiv
(1990), 1–18
S. Caton: Peaks of Yemen I Summon: Poetry as Cultural Practice in a
North Yemen Tribe (Berkeley, 1991)
‘A.al-Q. Sabbān: Al-dān bi-Hadramawt [Dān poetry in Hadramawt]
(Seyyun, 1991)
M. Radionov: ‘The Ibex Hunt Ceremony in Hadramawt Today’, New
Arabian Studies, ii (1992), 123–9
N. Adra: ‘Tribal Dancing and Yemeni Nationalism: Steps to Unity’, Revue
d’études du monde Musulman et Méditerranéen, lxvii/1 (1993), 161–8
H.S. Bā-Sādiq: Fīal-turāth al-sha‘bī al-yamanī [About the popular heritage
of Yemen] (Sana‘a, 1993)
A. Bū Mahdi and others: Ghinā‘iyyāt Yahyā ‘Umar, ‘Abū Mu‘jib al-Yāf‘ī’
[The sung poetry of Yahya Umar] (Aden, 1993)
N. Ghānem: Juzūr al-ughniya al-yamaniyya fī a ‘māq al-Khalīj [The roots of
the Yemeni songs, deep from the Gulf] (Al-Doha, 1993)
J. Lambert: ‘Identité nationale et régionalisme musical’, Revue d’études du
monde Musulman et Méditerranéen, lxvii/1 (1993), 171–86
J. Lambert: ‘Les musiques populaires du Yemen’, Adib, ed. Y. Gonzales-
Quijano and R. Boustani (Paris, 1994) [CD-ROM]
T. Battain: ‘Osservazioni sul rito ‘zār di possessione degli spiriti in Yemen’,
Quaderno di studii arabi, xiii (1995), 17–30
F. Shu‘aybi: Alāt al-mūsīqā al-sha‘biyya wa-istikhdāmuhā fī -l-Yaman [The
use of popular musical instruments in Yemen] (diss., Ma'had Al-
Mūsīqa Al-‘Arabiya, 1995)
M.C. Simeone-Senelle: ‘Incantations thérapeutiques dans la médecine
traditionnelle des Mahra du Yémen’, Quaderno di studii arabi, xiii
(1995), 131–57
H. Yammine: Les hommes de tribu et leur musique: hauts plateaux
yéménites, valée d’al-Ahjur (diss., U. of Paris, 1995)
G. Braune: Küstenmusik in Südarabien: die Lieder und Tänze an dem
jemenitischen Küsten des arabischen Meeres (Frankfurt, 1997)
J. Lambert: La médecine de l’âme: le chant de San‘ā dans la société
yéménite (Nanterre, 1997)
J. Lambert: ‘The Arabian Peninsula’, Encyclopedia of World Music, ed. T.
Rice and J. Porter (New York, forthcoming)
recordings
Music of South Arabia, Folkways P421 B (1951)
Islamic Liturgy: Song and Dance at a Meeting of Dervishes, Folkways FR
8943 (1960)
North Yemen: Traditional Music, coll. J. Wenzel, EMI Odeon O64 18 352
(1975)
Zaidi and Shaf‘i: Islamic Religious Chanting from North Yemen, coll. C.
Poche and J. Wenzel, Philips 6586 040 (1976) [incl. photographs]
The Afro-Arabian Crossroad: Music of the Tihama on the Red Sea, North
Yemen, coll. A. Bakewell, Lyrichord LLST 7384 (1985) [incl.
photographs]
Mohammed al-Hārithī: chant et luth de San‘ā, Media 7 CD 26 (1997)
Yemen: Songs from Hadramawt, Auvidis D 8273 (1998)

Yepes, Narciso (García)

(b Lorca, 14 Nov 1927; d Lorca, 3 May 1997). Spanish guitarist. At the age
of 13 he began studying at the Valencia Conservatory under the composer
and pianist Vicente Asencio, who although not a guitarist prompted him to
develop his technique. Ataulfo Argenta, director of the Spanish National
Orchestra, encouraged him to move to Madrid, where he made his début in
1947 playing Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez, a work of which he later
made a highly acclaimed recording. Yepes toured Europe with Argenta
soon afterwards and spent a season (1950) studying interpretation with
Gieseking and Enescu in Paris. Further tours followed and between 1960
and 1970 he visited eastern and western Europe, North and South America
and East Asia. His compositions and arrangements include scores for the
films Jeux interdits (1952) and La fille aux yeux d'or (1961). His research
on neglected music of the 17th and 18th centuries has resulted in many
transcriptions for the guitar. Composers who dedicated works to him
include Leo Brouwer, Bruno Maderna, Maurice Ohana and Rodrigo. His
prolific recordings include all Bach's lute music (which he also recorded on
guitar) and many contemporary works, among them concertos by Rodrigo
and Ernesto Halffter. After 1963 Yepes performed on a ten-string guitar for
which he claimed an enhanced resonance, the ability to play more accurate
transcriptions and a greater attraction for composers because of its
extended range.
By the 1950s Yepes had an international reputation second only to
Segovia. His approach to technique and interpretation was often
controversially different from Segovia and other leading recitalists. He
continued to develop his own characteristic (and extensive) repertory,
forging ahead into many hitherto uncharted areas of guitar culture, at the
same time maintaining a wide-ranging interest in Baroque music. His early
advocacy of Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez can now be seen as a
significant landmark in mid-20th-century guitar history. His overall
contribution to the expansion of the repertory and the establishment of the
guitar as a recital instrument has been immense.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.M. Gironella: Todos somos fugitivos (Barcelona, 1974)
P. Sensier: ‘Narciso Yepes and the Ten-String Guitar’, Guitar, iii/9 (1975),
27
G. Wade: Traditions of the Classical Guitar (London, 1980)
I. Mairants: ‘Narciso Yepes: A Reappraisal’, Classical Guitar, ii/1 (1983–4),
43–4
M. Summerfield: The Classical Guitar: its Evolution, Players and
Personalities since 1800 (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1991)
C. Cooper: ‘Narciso García Yepes (1927–1997)’, Classical Guitar, xiv/10
(1996–7), 28
PETER SENSIER/GRAHAM WADE

Yerkanian, Yervand Vahani

(b Leninakan [now Gyumri], 15 Nov 1951). Armenian composer. From
1966 to 1970 he studied at the Leninakan Music College, and then
attended the Yerevan Conservatory where he studied composition with
Grigor Eghiazarian and the violin with Hakob Vardanian, took a
postgraduate course (1975–7) and later taught composition and
counterpoint (1975–94). He was the head of the music department of
Armenian Television and Radio (1982–4) and has directed an early music
ensemble ‘Tagharan’ (1987–94), and, in the Lebanon, a choir and a
chamber orchestra. His works have been performed in festivals in Buenos
Aires, Jbail, Moscow, Paris, Tbilisi, Yerevan and Zagreb. His first works
displayed his interest in early music as well as his leanings towards post-
Webern serialism; the refined language of the early, largely instrumental
compositions was later combined with a more expressive tone in
programmatic and scenic works such as Orestes and Edip arka (‘Oedipus
rex’). The rhythmic vitality of his own writing and his intellectual
compositional approach have allowed him to individualize various stylistic
influences from the works of Stravinsky, Messiaen and Xenakis. In the
second stage of his creative development (1977–87), the rhythmic
ornamentation and melodic formulae of medieval Armenian monodies
 exerted an influence on his style, particularly in the stage and large-scale
choral compositions, which are notable for their suppleness of construction.
During this period, he honed his instrumental technique by writing a series
of string quartets and concertos. The most recent works have a sacred
orientation and make use of material from Armenian Orthodox music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage (all unperf., unless otherwise stated): Orestes (ballet, 2, Yerkanian and A.
Arevshatian, after Aeschylus: Oresteia), chorus, orch, 1975; Edip arka (Oedipus
rex) (ballet, 2, Yerkanian and Arevshatian, after Sophocles), chorus, orch, 1976;
Mokats Mirza (folk op-ballet, 1, N. Tahmizian), 1978; Shushanik (op, 2, T. Levonian,
after 5th-century Armenian hagiography), 1981; Vahagni dsnund [The Birth of
Vahagn] (choreog. cant., O. Ioannisian), 1987, Yerevan, Erebuni memorial
complex, 1987
Vocal: The Lamentations of the Prophet Jeremiah (cant.), solo v, chorus, orch,
1973; The Song of Songs, S, T, ens, 1973; Mass in Memory of Palestrina (cant.),
chorus, 1974; Polyphonic Cant. (G. Narekatsi, P. Sevak), solo v, chorus, org, 1974;
Canticle (N. Shnorhali), 6vv, 6 fl, perc, prep pf, 1975; Hellenic Songs no.1, S, 15
insts, no.2, T, 15 insts, 1977; The Country of Signs (suite, H. Edoyan and A.
Harutyunian), chorus, 1978; Navasard (choral hymnody, D. Varuzhan), 1979; The
Book of Being (V. Davtian), chorus, org, small orch, 1980; Dsisakan shrjik yerger
(folk text), carols, female chorus, 1985; Sirius (vocalization exercise), female
chorus, 1985; Kanon Surb Harutyan [Easter Canon] (liturgical text), S, Bar, chorus,
orch, 1994; Avag Shabat [Holy Week] (orat, sacred Armenian hymns), S, Bar,
chorus, orch, 1995; solo cants., vocal cycles, 1v, pf
Orch: Sym. Poem, 1974; Suite, 1975 [from the ballet Orestes]; Sym. Poem, 1975;
Sym. no.1 ‘Introspection’, 1977; Cl Conc., 1978 [from the ballet Orestes]; Sym. no.2
‘Hayk and Bel’ (M. Khorenatsi), spkr, chorus, orch, 1978; Vn Conc., 1983; Gui
Conc., 1984; Sym. no.3 ‘The Martyr’s Voice’ (Varuzhan), solo v, chorus, orch, 1984;
Sym. no.4 ‘Nemesis’, 1986; Vn Conc. no.2, 1986
Chbr and solo inst: Spontaneity, inst ens, 1972; Avetum [The Annunciation], pf,
1973; Eclogues I and 2, pf, 1973; Hagiography of Tovma Metsopetsi, 2 tpt, 2 trbn,
timp, 1974; Pantomusique, 2 pf, 1974, rev. solo pf, 1987; Hagiography of Stepanos
Sjunetsi, org, pf, perc, 1975; Pf Sonata no.1, 1975; Wind Qt, 1976; 3 Recitatives, fl,
pf, 1977; Pf Sonata no.2, 1980; Sonata, vc, pf, 1981; Intentio (In Memory of A.
Khachaturian), 15 insts, 1983; Str Qt, 1983; Entelecheia, 15 insts, 1985; The
Gleams of Sunset, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1985; Str Qt no.2, 1986
Many arrs. incl.: C. Monteverdi (L'incoronazione di Poppea); sacred Armenian
songs, chorus, orch, 1987–96; 350 sacred and national songs

MSS in Armenian Composers’ Union

Principal publishers: Sovetakan Grokh, Sovetskiy Kompozitor, G. Schirmer, H. Sikorski, Leduc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Meyer: ‘Hayastani zhamanakanits compozitorneri steghdsagor-tsutyan
shurg’ [On the work of contemporary Armenian composers],
Sovetakan arvest (1980), no.8, pp.41–2
A. Arevshatian: ‘Muzïka dlya kamerno-orkestrovïkh sostavov 70–80-ye g.’
[Chamber orchestral music in the 1970s and 80s], Armyanskoye
sovetskoye iskusstvo na sovremennom etape, ed. G. Geodakian
(Yerevan, 1987), 155–6
G. Tigranov: Armyanskiy muzïkal'nïy teatr [The Armenian musical theatre],
iv (Yerevan, 1988), 93–104
S. Sarkisian: ‘Yervand Yerkanian’, Azdak [Beirut] (6 March 1996)
SVETLANA SARKISYAN

Yermolenko-Yuzhina [Ermolenko-
Yushina; Plugovskaya], Nataliya
(Stepanovna)
(b Kiev, 1881; d after 1924). Russian soprano. She studied in Kiev and
Paris and made her début under the name of Yermolenko as Lisa in The
Queen of Spades at Kiev in 1900. She went to St Petersburg in 1901 and
to the Bol'shoy in 1905. There she met the tenor David Yuzhin, whom she
married, adding his name to her own professional name. For two seasons
both singers joined Sergey Zimin’s Private Opera in Moscow. Yermolenko
was also among the most admired members of the distinguished company
from Russia that performed in Paris in 1908, introducing Boris Godunov to
the West. From 1915 to 1917 she was with the Mariinsky Theatre opera
company, and in 1924 emigrated to Paris, where all traces of her appear to
have been lost. She was considered the leading Russian lyric-dramatic
soprano of her time, with a repertory that included Brünnhilde, Norma,
Violetta and Carmen as well as many Russian operas; among these, one
of her greatest successes was in Serov’s Judith. Her rare recordings show
clearly the impressive volume and quality of her voice and the authority of
her style and technique.
J.B. STEANE

Yes.
English rock group. Formed in London by Jon Anderson (b Accrington, 25
Oct 1944; vocals) and Chris Squire (b Wembley, 4 March 1948; bass) in
1968, Yes became one of the most commercially successful of the British
progressive rock bands between 1970 and 1977. The group is known for its
complicated arrangements, instrumental virtuosity and the ambitious scope
of its music. The Yes Album (Atlantic 1971) was its first successful album
and saw the addition of Steve Howe (guitar). Keyboard player Rick
Wakeman joined the group for Fragile (Atlantic 1971), which featured the
U.S. hit single Roundabout. In the years that followed, Yes released an
impressive string of studio albums: Close to the Edge (Atl. 1972), Tales
from Topographic Oceans (Atl. 1973) and Relayer (Atl. 1974) each contain
complex and extended tracks, many lasting up to 20 minutes. Critics often
dismissed Yes’ 1970s music as self-indulgent and pretentious, due to the
group’s eagerness to adopt classical music styles and practices; but fans,
especially in the USA, celebrated these very same tendencies. With the
rise of punk and new-wave rock at the end of the 1970s, the group faced
waning popularity and disbanded in 1980. It later reformed with South
African Trevor Rabin on guitar and released 90125 (Atl. 1983), which
returned to a more mainstream rock style, and whose track Owner of a
Lonely Heart became the group’s biggest hit single. The group remained
active in the 1990s. While Yes’ commercial success in the 1980s exceeds
that of the 70s, the innovative and eclectic earlier music was more
influential, playing a central role in the development of progressive rock.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Turner: ‘The Great Yes Technique Debate’, Rolling Stone (30 March
1972)
C. Welch: ‘Yes Please!’, Melody Maker (16 Feb 1974) [interview]
D. Hedges: Yes: the Authorised Biography (London, 1981)
T. Morse: Yesstories: Yes in Their Own Words (New York, 1996)
J. Covach: ‘Progressive Rock, “Close to the Edge” and the Boundaries of
Style’, Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis, ed. J. Covach
and G. Boone (New York and London, 1997), 3–31
JOHN COVACH

Yesipova, Anna [Annette]

Nikolayevna
(b St Petersburg, 12 Feb 1851; d St Petersburg, 18 Aug 1914). Russian
pianist and teacher. Daughter of a high official, she studied at the St
Petersburg Conservatory with Leschetizky, to whom she was married from
1880 until 1892. From 1871 to 1892 she lived mainly in western Europe,
undertaking several very successful concert tours. She made her London
début in 1874; her lightness of touch and singing tone were highly praised,
but some critics took exception to her often exaggerated interpretations of
Classical pieces. In 1875 she appeared in Paris and in the following year
went to the USA. In 1885 she was appointed pianist to the Russian court.
She taught the piano at the St Petersburg Conservatory (1893–1908),
where her pupils included Prokofiev and Borovsky.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.D. Alekseyev: Russkiye pianistï (Moscow, 1948)
T. Berkman: A.N. Yesipova: zhizn', deyatel'nost' i pedagogicheskiye
printsipï [Life, work and teaching principles], ed. G.M. Kogan (Moscow,
1948)
N. Bertenson: ‘A.N. Yesipova: k 100-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya’ [On the
centenary of her birth], SovM (1951), no.3, pp.82–4
N. Bertenson: Anna Nikolayevna Yesipova: ocherk zhizni i deyatel'nosti
(Leningrad, 1960)
JENNIFER SPENCER
 Yeston, Maury
(b Jersey City, NJ, 23 Oct 1945). American composer, lyricist and theorist.
A composer since the age of six, he attended Yale University (1963–7),
where he studied with the musicologist William G. Waite and the theorist
Allen Forte, earned the PhD in theory in 1974, became a professor of
theory for the next six years, and occasionally returned as a guest
professor. As a theorist he produced a monograph on Schenkerian
analysis and a provocative new theory on rhythmic stratification. The year
before receiving the doctorate he conceived a musical based on Federico
Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ and, after launching the project for
Lehman Engel's BMI Music Theatre Workshop, continued to develop it
over the next nine years. The result, coincidentally named Nine (1982),
was an unusual musical with one male character (the great film director,
Guido Contini (Fellini), as an adult and as a nine-year-old) and 21 women
occupying the director's real and imagined worlds. In the popular and
critically acclaimed staging by the director, Tommy Tune, Nine received
Tony Awards for Best Score and Best Musical and ran for 739
performances. Its score was notable for its successful adaptation and
personalization of traditional and popular Italian, and in one case French,
musical idioms.
Yeston's only significant earlier professional theatrical credit was the title
song and incidental music to a 1981 off-Broadway production of Caryl
Churchill's farce about sexual confusion, Cloud 9, directed by Tune. At the
end of the 1980s Tune called upon Yeston to contribute seven new songs
for the surprisingly successful Grand Hotel (1989), a considerably
reconceived revival of Wright and Forrest's At the Grand, which had closed
in Los Angeles in 1958. By the time Yeston completed Phantom, begun in
1983 with Nine's librettist Arthur Kopit, Andrew Lloyd Webber had already
mounted his phenomenally successful The Phantom of the Opera in
London and New York. Despite this obstacle, Yeston's Phantom, a work
that explores dramatic areas untapped by the novel or any stage or filmed
realization and contains music that imaginatively evokes Verdi and 19th-
century French opera, has been produced by numerous distinguished
American companies since its première in 1991. In 1997 Titanic, a musical
about the famous luxury liner that sank in 1912, became Yeston's second
musical to receive the Tony Award for Best Score and Best Musical. For
further reference, see M. Gottfried: More Broadway Musicals Since 1980
(New York, 1976).
WORKS
(selective list)

Musicals (writers shown as lyricist; book author): Nine (A. Kopit; M. Yeston, after F.
Fellini: 8½), orchd J. Tunick, New York, 46th Street, 9 May 1982; Phantom (Kopit;
M. Yeston, after G. Leroux), orchd Tunick, Houston, Theatre under the Stars, 29
Jan 1991; Titanic (P. Stone; Yeston), orchd Tunick, New York, Lunt-Fontanne, 23
April 1997
Contribs. to: Cloud 9 (play, C. Churchill), New York, Theater de Lys, 18 May 1981
[title song and incid. music]; Grand Hotel (musical, Davis), orchd P. Matz, New
York, Martin Beck, 12 Nov 1989 [collab. G. Forrest and R. Wright; rev. of At the
Grand, 1958]
Other works: Vc concerto (1977); Goya, a Life in Song (1987); December Songs
(1991) [incl. ‘Till I Loved You’]

WRITINGS
Readings in Schenker Analysis (New Haven, CT, 1975)
The Stratification of Musical Rhythm (New Haven, CT, 1976)
GEOFFREY BLOCK

Yevdokimova, Yuliya
Konstantinova
(b Moscow, 10 Oct 1939). Russian musicologist. She studied at the
Moscow Conservatory under Lev Mazel', graduating in 1966, and
undertook postgraduate study with Vladimir Protopopov. In 1969 she was
made a lecturer at the Gnesin Academy of Music in Moscow, becoming
senior lecturer in the department of polyphony in 1975, professor in 1987
and head of the department the following year. At the Academy, she
organized a new department of research into music education and
psychology, developing a concept of general and special music education.
Since 1987 she has been a member of the Georg-Friedrich-Händel
Gesellschaft in Halle and has co-written, with Albert Scheibler, two books
on the composer.
The main subject of Yevdokimova’s research is polyphony. In her work she
strives to ascertain the connections between different kinds of polyphony,
in which either melody or complementary counterpoint is predominant. Her
original views on the history and theory of polyphonic music are elucidated
in her Manual of Polyphony, a textbook based on historical principles of
study through the method of style-shaping. Since 1992 Yevdokimova has
been involved with research into old Russian church music, its connection
with the church music of other Slavonic nations and its typological
similarities to Western medieval polyphony, and has prepared some
editions of old Russian liturgical music.
WRITINGS
‘Stanovleniye sonatnoy formï v predklassicheskuyu ėpokhu’ [The formation
of sonata form in the pre-Classical era], Voprosï muzïkal'noy formï, ed.
V.V. Protopopov, ii (Moscow, 1972), 98–138
Stanovleniye sonatnoy formï v predklassicheskuyu ėpokhu (diss., Moscow
Conservatory, 1973)
with N.A. Simakova: Muzïka ėpokhi Vozrozhdeniia: cantus prius factus i
rabota s nim [The music of the Renaissance: cantus prius factus and
its usage in history] (Moscow, 1982)
Mnogogolosiye srednevekov'ya X–XIV veka [The polyphony of the Middle
Ages, 10th–14th centuries] (Moscow, 1983)
‘Organnie khoral'nïe obrabotki Bakha’ [The Choral Preludes by J.S. Bach],
Russkaya kniga o Bakhe, ed. T.N. Livanova and V.V. Protopopov
(Moscow, 1985), 222–48
 ‘Händel auf dem Wege zur Wiener Klassik’, Georg Friedrich Händel: Halle
1985, 189–94
‘Merkmale der frühdeutschen Oper in Händels Opernschaffen’, HJb 1988,
135–44
with A. Scheibler: Georg Friedrich Händel: Philosophie und Beredsamkeit
seiner Musik (Graz, 1991)
with A. Scheibler: Georg Friedrich Händel: Oratorien Führer (Cologne,
1993)
The Great Martyr Saint Paraskeva (Moscow, 1999)
The Manual of Polyphony (Moscow, 2000)
NATAL'YA ZABOLOTNAYA

Yevlakhov, Orest Aleksandrovich

(b Warsaw, 17 Jan 1912; d Leningrad, 15 Dec 1973). Russian composer
and teacher. He graduated from the Leningrad Music Technical School in
1936 as a pupil of Ryazanov, and from the Leningrad Conservatory in 1941
as a pupil of Shostakovich. In May 1941 he made his début as a composer
with the Piano Concerto, performed by Khal'fin and the Leningrad PO. He
was appointed in 1947 to teach composition and instrumentation at the
Leningrad Conservatory, where he was later made professor (1959) and
given a chair in composition (1960–69, 1971–3); his pupils included Sergey
Slonimsky and Boris Tishchenko. He contributed numerous articles for
Izvestiya, Pravda, Sovetskaya muzïka, Sovetskaya kul'tura and Vecherniy
Leningrad; he also wrote a book entitled Problemï vospitaniya kompozitora
(‘The problems of educating the composer’). In 1972 he received the title
Honoured Artist of the RSFSR.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballets: Den' chudes' [Day of Miracles] (A. Shnirman, K. Shneyder), 1946, collab. M.
Matveyev; Ivovaya Vetochka (Ivushka) (L. Brausevich), 1953–5, Leningrad, 1957
3 syms: 1946, 1963, 1968
Other orch: Pf Conc., 1939; Pioneer Suite, 1949; 2 suites from Ivovaya Vetochka,
1953, 1955; Bronzovaya syuita, ballet suite, perf. 1971; Conc.-poem, vn, orch
Vocal: Nochnoy patrul' [Night Patrol] (G. Trifonov), 1v, orch, perf, 1943; Iz ikri [Of
Caviare] (cant.), 1950; songs (A. Grashi, H. Heine, M. Lermontov, N. Yazïkov)
Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, 1948; Pf Trio, 1959; Pf Qnt, perf. 1965; Ballade, vc, pf, perf.
1966
Pf: 10 Preludes, 1939; Leningradskiy bloknot [Leningrad Notepad], 1943; Sonata,
perf. 1969
Other works: incid music, film scores, arrs.

Principal publishers: Muzfond, Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDRSC
SKM
I. Gusin: Orest Yevlakhov (Leningrad, 1964)
 DETLEF GOJOWY

Ye Xiaogang
(b Shanghai, 23 Sept 1955). Chinese composer. He studied at the Central
Conservatory of Music, Beijing (1978–83), where he attended Alexander
Goehr’s masterclass. His early works hover between overt Western
Romanticism and the tranquillity of Chinese elite traditions. With Xi jiang
yue (‘The Moon over the West River’, 1984), a subdued, contemplative
work for chamber orchestra, he became one of the first Chinese avant-
garde composers to attract international attention. Elements of meditation
and quietness became increasingly important to his style as he continued
his studies at the Eastman School of Music (MA 1991). Among his first
works written in America are the introspective Threnody for piano quintet
(1988) and a ballet evoking Tibetan ritual music. The Ruin of the Himalaya
(1989), for which he was awarded the Howard Hanson prize (1990), again
shows the influence of Western Romanticism.
In 1989, Ye became a PhD candidate at SUNY, Buffalo, where he studied
for a few months with Louis Andriessen. His music gradually developed
greater clarity and became more economical. The Mask of Sakya, a
reflective and mystical piece for shakuhachi and Chinese orchestra (1990)
reflects this new style. In 1994, after working as a freelance composer in
Pittsburgh, he joined the composition department at the Central
Conservatory in Beijing. His many honours include the Alexander
Tcherepnin Prize (1982), the Grand Prize of the First Orchestral
Composition Competition, Taiwan (1991), the Masterpiece Award from the
China Cultural Promotion Society (1993) and a Meet the Composer Award
(1996).
WORKS
Juzi shoule [Oranges Ripening] (Bei Dao), 1981; Vn Conc., 1983; Xi jiang yue [The
Moon over the West River], op.16, chbr orch, 1984; Eight Horses, 12 Chin. insts,
chbr orch, 1985; Horizon, sym., S, Bar, orch, 1985; Ballade, pf, 1986; Threnody, pf
qnt, 1988; The Ruin of the Himalaya, orch, 1989; The Silence of Sakyamuni, op.29,
shakuhachi, Chin. orch, 1990; other works incl.: Purple Fog and White Poppy,
op.10, S, orch; The Scent of Black Mango, op.11, pf, orch; Strophe, op.12, 16
players; The Old Man’s Story, op.15, orch; Enchanted Bamboo, op.18, pf qnt; Nine
Horses, op.19, 10 players; The Last Paradise, op.24, vn, orch; Winter, op.28, orch

Principal publisher: Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dai Qing and Lü Yi: ‘Ye Xiaogang de gushi’ [The Story of Ye Xiaogang],
Wenhui Yuekan, i (1986), 54–62
F. Kouwenhoven: ‘Mainland China’s New Music: the Age of Pluralism’,
CHIME, no.5 (1992), 76–133
FRANK KOUWENHOVEN

Yiddish music.
 See Jewish music, especially §III, 3, §IV, 2(iv) and 3(ii).

Yim, Jay Alan

(b St Louis, 24 April 1958). American composer. He studied at Harvard
(PhD 1989), where his teachers included Donald Martino and Maxwell
Davies, and at the Dartington Summer School (1985) with Birtwistle. In
1989 he joined the composition department at Northwestern University. His
music is often inspired by extra-musical sources: Moments of Rising Mist
(1986) derives from a Chinese scroll, while Geometry and Delirium (1989)
is based on a poem by Octavio Paz. His style fuses traditional
compositional techniques with elements from popular and non-Western
music. In the early 1980s he began to use a harmonic vocabulary based on
a set of 12-note, all-interval chords; most pieces use a subset of this
chromatic field. Rough Magic (1996–7) for large orchestra, like several
other works, exhibits two opposing processes, one generating perceptible
continuity, the other diversity. Many abrupt shifts between relatively simple
and chaotically polyphonic textures partition the surface. These texturally
defined segments return clearly enough to establish a complex rondo form.
A repeating set of chords, along with the repetition of chordal structures
nested within this set, creates a ‘chaconne of chaconnes’ that provides
continuity.
WORKS
Orch: Askesis, 1980–81, rev. 1987; Karénas, double str orch, hp, perc, 1986;
Geometry and Delirium, amp chbr orch, 1989; Rain Palace, ob, eng hn, orch, 1993;
Rough Magic, 1996–7
Vocal: Canción de atardecer (P. Neruda), Bar, str qt, 1990; LHOOQ (S. Olds, M.
Swenson), S, fl, cl, perc, pf, hp, vn, vc, 1990
Chbr: Pìak, 2 ob, 2 hn, 2 bn, dbn, 1981; Autumn Rhythm, str qt, 1985; Mille grâces,
fl, pf, 1986; Moments of Rising Mist, fl + a fl, cl, perc, pf + cel, hp, vn, vc, 1986;
Vitres de son, amp fl, hn, tpt, trbn, perc, pf, hp, str qt, db, 1988; Zazanza, fl, ob, cl,
pf, hp, str qt, db, 1989; The Blue Voice of Air, str qt, 1990; Radiant Shadows, perc
ens, 1991; Jam Karet 1, 2 prep vib, 1994; Broken Prisms, fl + pic, cl + b cl, 2 perc,
pf + cel, vn + va, vc, 1995; Soku, fl, vc, perc, 1995; :dreamin/gField, a fl, cl, hn,
perc, pf, str, 1997; Zero Crossings, fl, b cl, pf
Solo inst: Timescreen no.1, pf, 1982–4; Timescreen no.2, pf, 1983; Furiosamente,
pic, 1985; Escape Velocity 1.1a, a sax, 1995; Escape Velocity 1.1b, bar sax, 1995;
Escape Velocity 1.1s, s sax, 1995; Escape Velocity 1.2, cl, 1995; Escape Velocity
1.3, b cl, 1995; Escape Velocity 2.1, fl, prep mar, 1997
El-ac: Shiosai, cptr, 1984; Dreams Wide Awake, fl, ob, cl + b cl, pf, hp, gui, mand,
str, live elec, 1991; Song in Memory of a Circle, a fl, elec, 1992; Orenda, vc, live
elec, 1995–7
Arr.: Rachmaninoff: Vocalise, S, 2 vn, 2 vc, pf four hands, orch, 1997

Principal publisher: Shinkyoku Edition

STEVEN JOHNSON

Yin Falu
(b Feicheng county, Shandong, 25 July 1915). Chinese musicologist. He
graduated from the Department of Chinese Language and Literature,
Beijing University, in 1939 and gained an advanced degree from the
Graduate School for Humanities, also Beijing University, in 1942. He taught
at the Huazhong University in Dali, Yunnan province (1942–6), Beijing
University (1946–51), Beijing College for Political Science and Law (1952–
4), and Beijing University from 1960 until his retirement. He also worked as
a correspondent research fellow at the Research Institute for National
Music (1952–66) and vice research fellow at the Institute of History,
Chinese Academy of Sciences (1954–60). In 1982–3 he was invited for a
six-month residency at Columbia University, New York, under the auspices
of the Luce Fund for Chinese Studies.
Yin is a specialist in the history and music of the Tang and Song dynasties,
the role of music in ancient China's relation with her neighbours,
particularly with Central Asia and India, and the interrelationship of poetry,
literature, dance and music in ancient Chinese culture. His extensive
articles have appeared in scholarly journals as well as newspapers.
WRITINGS
Tang Song daqu zhi laiyuan jiqi zuzhi [Origin and structure of the daqu in
the Tang and Song dynasties] (Beijing, 1948/R)
with Yang Yinliu: Song Jiang Baishi chuangzuo gequ yanjiu [Study of the
songs created by Jiang Baishi in the Song dynasty] (Beijing, 1957)
‘Gudai Zhongwai yinyue wenhua jiaoliu wenti tantao’ [Investigation of the
question of ancient music culture exchange between China and
foreign countries], Zhongguo yinyuexue (1985), no.1, pp.39–48
‘Kaogu ziliao yu Zhongguo gudai yinyue shi’ [Archaeological material and
the history of ancient Chinese music], Zhongguo lishi bowuguan
guankan, xiii–xiv (1989), 18–21
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Han Kuo-huang: ‘Three Chinese Musicologists: Yang Yinliu, Yin Falu, Li
Chunyi’, EthM, xxiv (1980), 483–529
HAN KUO-HUANG

Yi Sung-chun
(b North Hamgyŏng Province, Korea, 28 May 1936). Korean composer and
scholar. Trained as a composer of Western music, he has risen to become
the major spokesman and apologist for new Korean music using traditional
instruments. He has been a professor at Seoul National University for
much of his academic life, and between 1995 and 1997 served as director
of the National Centre for Korean Traditional Performing Arts, the
successor to a long line of court institutes. His first composition to achieve
success, and some notoriety, was Norit'ŏ, a prize-winning suite originally
written in 1965 for piano, but adapted for kayagŭm. Yi sought to find a way
to match the versatility of the piano on a Korean instrument. He created a
grammar far removed from either the court or folk traditions, full of new
techniques alien to kayagŭm music of the time such as glissandi,
arpeggios, chords and ostinati. Criticized for not understanding Korean
musical language, Yi spent the next 15 years securing his position as a
 scholar of music history and theory, publishing many books and articles in
Korean periodicals.
In the 1980s, a mature style was firmly established in orchestral works
such as Kwanhyŏn shigok: Naŭi choguk (1981–5) and the lyric song
Sasŭm (1986). As he turned his attention to the development of Korean
music, he recovered lost techniques for playing the three Korean lutes
(tang pip'a, hyang pip'a and wŏlgŭm) and encouraged the composition of
children’s songs utilizing traditional instruments, modes and melodic
contours. He also developed new versions of old instruments, notably a
small kayagŭm for children and a larger version with 21 strings, which
increased the range towards that of the piano. Pada (1986) shows how he
applied his repertory of new techniques. The first three movements develop
melodies that explore the four-octave range, while quasi-orchestral textures
and solid triadic harmony beneath sustained melodies emerge in the last
three. While later works have programmatic titles, Yi seeks less to depict
scenery with any realism than to take his inspiration from his surroundings,
as with poets in Korea’s past.
WORKS
Orch: Ch'ŏngsonyŏnŭl wihan kugak kwanhyŏnak immun [Young Person’s Guide to
the Korean Trad. Orch], 1974; Kwanhyŏn shigok: Naŭi choguk [Poem: My
Fatherland]: 1 Koyohan ach'im ŭi nara [Land of Morning Calm], 1981, 2 Sanhwa
[Mountains and Rivers], 1983, 3 Minjok ŭi songga [Ode of the People], 1985;
Prelude, kayagŭm, orch, 1987; Sasŏng chiak [Music of the Four Saints], 1988; Orch
Ens no.6, 1989; Ishine pyŏnjugok [Yi’s Piece], 1990; Chwikumŏnge pyŏldŭrŏssŏdo
[Light in the Mousehole], haegŭm, orch, 1990; Noŭl [Sunset Sky], hyang-pip'a [5-str
pip'a], str orch, 1991; Pohashie wihan taeyŏpkok [About the Time of Poha], 1992
Chbr: Mixed Qnt, 1964; Piece, Korean str ens, 1969; Chbr Piece, Korean wind ens,
1969; Chbr Variations, wind ens, 1970; Shinawi [Fantastic Dance Suite], cl, pf,
1971; Fantasy, Korean ens, 1975; Ohyŏn'gŭm [Five-string Lute], hyang-pip'a,
kayagŭm, 1975; Pyŏllak, lyric song, arr. ens, 1987; Hahyŏn ŭi pyŏnyŏng [Variations
of Hahyŏn], Korean ens, 1989; Pyŏllo shimgakhajido annŭn iyagi [Not all that
Serious Story], 2 haegŭm, 1993; Ch'ŏlsae, sach'ŏl namu mit'unge tungjidŭl
[Migrating Birds nesting at the Base of the Evergreen Tree], haegŭm, changgo,
1995; Ch'owŏn ŭi chip [House of the Greenfield], haegŭm, changgo, 1996; Sŏng
Kŭmyŏn kayagŭm sanjo [Sanjo, Sŏng Kŭmyŏn School], arr. Korean ens, 1996; Wŏn
kwa chiksŏn sai [Circle and Straight Line], ens, 1996; Sedae ŭi haegŭmŭl wihan
sanjo [New Sanjo for Haegŭm], haegŭm, ens, 1997; Hamgyŏngdo p'unggu sori
[Song of the Bellows], 21-str kayagŭm, cl, fl, 1997; Ppalgan ŭmak [Thorough
Music], 3 kayagŭm, 1997; Ŏrŭnidwin agikoyangi [Childhood Birthplace of the
Elders], 2 haegŭm, 1997; Ch'osudaeyŏp, lyric song, arr. taegŭm, kayagŭm, 1997;
P'yŏnsudaeyŏp, lyric song, arr. taegŭm, kayagŭm, 1997
Solo inst: Norit'ŏ [The Playground], pf, rev. kayagŭm, 1965; Salgoji tari [Live and
Die], kayagŭm, 1968; Supsok ŭi iyagi [Talking of the Forest], kayagŭm, 1974; 2
Studies, pf, 1975; Yŏŭl [Whirlpool], kayagŭm, 1979; Shigol p'unggyŏng [Village
Landscapes], perc, 1981; Pada [Sea], 21-str kayagŭm, 1986; Owŏl ui norae [May
Song], kayagŭm, 1989; P'yŏnsudaeyŏp, lyric song, arr. pip'a, 1989; Matpoegi
[Taste], kŏmun'go, 1990; Shisang [Poetic Sentiment], 3 movts, 21-str kayagŭm,
1991 [based on Song of April, anon. student song]; Ch'am arŭmdawŏra [Really
Beautiful], 21-str kayagŭm, 1992; Kaebŏlt'ŏ ŭi pangge kumŏngjiptŭl [Crabholes in
the Black Mudfields], 21-str kayagŭm, 1992; Makkuraji nondurŏnge ppajida
[Mudfish falling into a Rice Paddy], 21-str kayagŭm, 1993; Ch'ilgae ŭi moŭmgok
‘Pŏlgŏbŏkkin Sŏul’ [Play of Vowels ‘Naked Seoul’], suite, 21-str kayagŭm, 1994;
Koyangi suyŏm [The Cat’s Beard], haegŭm, 1994; P'ulp'iri, p'iri, 1994; Sasŭmŭn
noraehanda [The Deer Sings], kŏmun'go, 1996; Pomi onŭn sori [Song of the coming
Spring], taegŭm, 1996; Urinŭn hana 2 [We are One 2], haegŭm, 1996; Na hana [I,
One], 21-str kayagŭm, 1998; Kangmuri hŭrŭnŭn p'unggyŏng [Scenery of the
Flowing River], haegŭm, 1998
Vocal: Iyagi [Talking], 1v, ens, 1975; Samogok, 1v, ens, 1976; Elli, Elli [Eli, Eli],
female chorus, ens, 1980; Kyrie, female chorus, ens, 1981; Sasŭm [The Deer], Bar,
pf/ens, 1986; Sagye [Four Seasons], 2vv, ens, 1988; Ŏmmaya nunaya [Mother,
Older Sister], 1v, ens, 1990, arr. taegŭm, kayagŭm, 1997; Chŏnyŏk [Evening], 1v,
pf, 1994; over 40 children’s songs, vv, ens, 1990–97
Dramatic: Hodong wangja [Prince Hodong] (music for dance), 1973; P'ansori
inhyŏnggŭk Hŏsaengjŏn [Husaeng’s Story] (puppet show), 1975
Arrs. for kayagŭm, incl. 3 collections: Norit'ŏ (1977), Supsok ŭi iyagi (1977), Pada
(1987);

Principal publisher: Sumundang

WRITINGS
Ŭmak tongnon-gwa kŭshi sŭp [Theory of Music, with Exercises] (Seoul,
1971)
Shich'anggwa ch'ŏngŭm yŏnsŭp [Ear Training and Sight Singing] (Seoul,
1972–3)
Ŭmak mihak [The Aesthetics of Music] (Seoul, 1974)
Kugasha [History of Korean Music] (Seoul, 1976)
Ŭmak hyonshikkava punsŏk [The Analysis of Musical Form] (Seoul 1976)
Ŭmak ŭi kibon yŏnsŭp [Fundamental Musical Exercises] (Seoul, 1979)
Han'guk, Han'gugin han'guk ŭmak [Koreans, Korean music] (Seoul, 1997)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CC2 (K. Howard)
A. Hovhaness: ‘Variations by Theme of Chongsunggok’, University News
(Seoul, 1963)
Sŏn Kwangju: ‘The 21-String Zither’, Ŭmak tonga, no.33 (1986)
KEITH HOWARD

Ylario.
See Illario.

Yodel.
To sing or call using a rapid alternation of vocal register.
1. Terminology.
The older designation for the contemporary German verb jodeln (to yodel)
is without doubt the Middle High German verb jôlen, which appears in
numerous sources from 1540 with the meaning ‘to call’ or ‘cry’ and ‘to sing’;
jôlen remains in use in Alpine dialects to the present. According to Grimm
and Grimm (1877), the verb jo(h)len or jola is derived from the interjection
jo and may have gained the additional ‘d’ for vocal-physiological reasons.
Jo(h)ha, jodle(n), jodeln and jödele are all forms that evolved from so-
called jo and ju(c)hui calls and they are closely related in meaning to other
regional expressions such as juchzen, jutzen, ju(u)zä, juizä in Switzerland;
lud(e)ln, dud(e)ln, jorlen, jaudeln, hegitzen in Austria; johla in the Allgäu
region of Germany; and jola, zor(r)en, zauren, rug(g)us(s)en, länderen in
the Appenzell region of Switzerland. Other languages have created their
own derivations from the German jodeln as borrowed translations: in
French, jodler (iouler) or chanter à la manière tyrolienne; in Swedish,
joddla; in Japanese, yōderu etc. The Italian gorgheggiare and the Spanish
gargantear refer to the throat (garga), that is, to the actual larynx technique
with glottal stop.
2. Definition and technique.
In most definitions, the following features are generally understood under
‘yodelling’: 1) singing without text or words, in which the play of timbres and
harmonics is emphasized in the succession of individual, nonsensical
vocal-consonant connections (such as ‘jo-hol-di-o-u-ri-a’), which are also 2)
connected in a creative way with the technique of continuous change of
register between the chest voice and the (supported or non-supported)
falsetto (or head) voice. 3) The tones, often performed in relatively large
intervallic leaps, are either connected to one another in a legato fashion
during the continuous change of register (register break), or are additionally
broken up in traditional styles with the use of glottal stops. Well-trained
yodellers have available to them a vocal range of three octaves. Through
the change of different yodelling syllables, but also through the change of
vocal register, a continuous transformation of timbre emerges which is a
result of the shifting number of overtones and stress of fundamental tone
and overtones. According to Graf (1975) the falsetto voice that alternates
with the chest voice has in almost all cases fewer partials; the partial row of
the chest voice is as a rule richer. Colton's evidence (1972, p.339) shows
that the chest voice usually has a continuous row of (15–20) overtones of
relatively strong intensity. However, the inconsistencies that emerge from
sonographic and acoustic-phonetic investigations of yodelling sounds can
be traced, according to Frank and Sparber (1972, p.165), to a
differentiation in yodelling that should be made between a supported and
an unsupported falsetto voice. Of particular significance for the timbral
spectrum of individual tones in yodelling are the relationships between
open (bright) vowels and deep registers as well as between closed (dark)
vowels and high registers.
When yodelling, air is not discharged in spurts, as a rule, but rather
gradually released through abdominal (or diaphragm) breathing, whereby
the yodelled tone uses a deeply positioned larynx (‘yawning position’) and
expanded resonance space. There are many different concepts of
‘register’. Many authors differentiate between not only the falsetto and
chest register but also the middle register of the head voice (as
hybridization of chest and falsetto voice), since both kinds are available in a
voice of mature quality. The differences in quality are often not easy to
determine.
3. Yodelling melody, forms and polyphony.
In contemporary Alpine yodelling practice, intervallic leaps are usually
performed legato. This involves above all leaps of a 4th, 6th or a 7th, and
more unusually of a 9th or 12th. Also chords from dominant 7ths to
dominant 9ths are broken up in relation to a change of register. In the
Alpine region, the yodeller is predominantly major scale-orientated, building
upon the Western tone system and very rarely yodelling in minor. In the
Muotathal and Appenzell regions of Switzerland, the fourth level of the
major scale is still sung as a ‘natural f’ (Alphorn-fa) and is jokingly called
the ‘Alpine blue note’ (with reference to the C major scale, this tone lies at
the fourth level between F and F ).
In his film Jodel und Jüüzli aus dem Muotathal (1987), Zemp examines the
issue of yodelling melody in relation to the neutral third and seventh levels
and in his analysis contrasts the fundamentally different aesthetic
interpretations of the traditional regional yodellers with those of the trained,
transregionally active yodelling associations.
Formally, traditional yodel melodies have two to six sections or even more,
quite often with parallel repetitions of phrase (AABB), or else a repeated
two-part yodel (ABAB). But AAB and BAA, as well as AABA forms can be
encountered, in addition to other melodic forms. The slow natural yodel is
often metrically free, but it can also be performed more quickly with a
regular or irregular beat.
In the Alpine region one- to five-voice yodels can be heard. The Muotathal
Jüüzli has two- to three-voices. The Zwoarer is a two-voice yodel in the
Austrian district of Scheibbs; by adding a bass voice, a Dreier (three-voice
yodel) is created. Canon-like voice-leading or crossing of voices often
occurs. In Austria, a secondary Überschlag (an upper voice) is added to
the main voice and a third voice sings below in harmonic steps to the
evolving melody (Drüber- and Druntersingen).
4. Distribution of yodelling in non-Alpine contexts.
By the beginning of the 19th century, the yodel had gained popularity and
had been introduced to the cities by travelling ‘natural’ and ‘Alpine’ singers
and by national singing societies and singer families from the Tyrol
(Zillertal), Styria and Carinthia. Travelling entertainers spread the ‘yodelling
style’ in presenting a combination of songs and yodels in popular Viennese
theatrical plays. Owing to international cultural contact, the presence of
enthusiasts in different cultures and especially the influence of various
forms of disseminating media, Alpine-like yodelling can be found in the
most diverse countries, including Japan and Korea. In Tokyo the Japanese
Jodler-Alpen-Kameraden enthusiastically cultivate this special vocal
technique. In Seoul the first yodelling club was established in 1969, and the
Korean Yodel Association was founded in 1979.
(i) Cowboy yodellers.
In America groups of immigrants and their descendents yodel in Bavarian,
Austrian or Swiss fashion. Numerous traditional cowboy songs of the 19th
century end with a yodel refrain, such as the well-known song The Old
Chisholm Trail, sung by cowboys as they drove herds on the trail between
Texas and Kansas. The image of the yodelling cowboy was spread by
musical events at rodeos, radio shows (such as ‘Melody Ranch’ featuring
the Oklahoma Yodelling Cowboy, Gene Autry), records and Hollywood
westerns. Among these yodelling cowboys, Jimmie Rodgers (1897–1933)
became an important figure. Known as ‘Mississippi Railroad Man’,
‘Yodeling Ranger’ and the ‘Blue Yodeler’, he developed (more than any
other) the fine points of the yodel song: the change of timbre according to
register, abrupt glottal stops and gentle slurring. Accompanying himself on
his ‘round-up guitar’, Rodgers became known as the ‘Father of Country
Music’ and his influence stretched from the West to the East Coast of the
United States. Yodelin’ Slim Clark (b 1917), who was born in
Massachusetts and lives today in Maine, regards himself as a direct
successor to the tradition of Rodgers (and Wilf Carter) and calls himself the
‘last real singing cowboy’.
(ii) Yodel-like singing.
This can be found not only in Central European Alpine regions, but also in
many mountainous and forest regions of other geographic areas. In the
polyphonic songs of the Tosks of Albania, two yodel-like voices are
accompanied by a sung drone. In Georgia, vocal polyphony as a harmonic
basis to a higher ‘yodelling’ voice is known as krimanchuli (see Georgia,
§II, 1(ii)).
Related vocal techniques can also be found in different African countries
such as Ethiopia, Rwanda, Zaïre, Angola, Burundi, Gabon and others.
Among the Khoisan and the ¡Kung, hunters and gatherers of southern
Angola, for example, a canon-like technique of imitation using one to four
yodelling voices is used during which the relative positions of the voices
vary and contrapuntal-like effects are produced. The Aka yodellers stand
out in that they produce four to six or even 13 overtones in the ‘high
register’. In the ‘deep register’, on the other hand, the tones display a
sound spectrum of homogeneous overtones with greater intensity; however
the fundamental tone is hardly existent or only very weak (Fürniss, 1992,
pp.79–83)
Yodel-like melodies and songs can also be found in Asiatic countries and in
the boundary region between Melanesia and Polynesia. In the southern
highlands of Papua New Guinea, the Huli have two kinds of yodel-like
songs: the soloistic and alternating falsetto song (u) of the men and the
repetitive and yodel-like singing with fixed timbre (iwa) performed during
work. On Savo in the Solomon Islands, in reference to the solo voice it is
said that one takes the song deep (neo laua) when singing with chest voice
and one uses a high voice (taga laua) when changing register and singing
with falsetto. In addition to three-voice polyphony, the sudden register
change of two solo voices is quite characteristic. These are also supported
by a vocal drone (see Melanesia, §5(ii)).
Falsetto and calls, screams and ululation that alternate between the normal
register and falsetto are important among most Indian groups found in
North and South America. Among the Bororo in Brazil, the ‘o-ie o-ie i-go’
vocalization found in hunting songs is characterized by additional elements
of a yodel-like larynx technique. With additional comparative research in
the future, perhaps the concept of yodelling will be extended in its details. It
has already been established that yodel-like singing need not necessarily
be tied to large intervals. As sonographic research has shown, two
‘different’ pitches (one in chest register and the other in falsetto register)
can have a common fundamental tone and still belong to different registers
(Fürniss, 1992, p.90).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (‘Jodel’; W. Wiora)
MGG2 (‘Jodel’; M.P. Baumann)
J. and W. Grimm: ‘Jodeln’, Deutsches Wörterbuch, iv/2 (Leipzig, 1877/R)
A. Tobler: Kühreihen oder Kühreigen, Jodel und Jodellied in Appenzell
(Leipzig and Zürich,1890)
J. Pommer: 444 Jodler und Juchezer aus Steiermark und dem steirisch-
österreichischen Grenzgebiet (Vienna, 1902/R)
E.M. von Hornbostel: ‘Die Entstehung des Jodelns’, Deutsche
Musikgesellschaft: Kongress I: Leipzig 1925, 203–10
T. Lehtisalo: ‘Beobachtungen über die Jodler’, Suomalais-ugrilaisen
seuran aikakauskirja: Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne, xxxviii
(1936), 1–35
H. Pommer: Jodeler des deutschen Alpenvolkes (Leipzig, 1936)
W. Sichardt: Der alpenländische Jodler und der Ursprung des Jodelns
(Berlin, 1939)
R. Luchsinger: ‘Die Jodelstimme’, Lehrbuch der Stimm- und
Sprachheilkunde (Vienna, 1949, enlarged 3/1970; Eng. trans., 1965,
as Voice, Speech, Language), 222–6
W. Wiora: ‘Juchschrei, Juchzer und Jodeln’, Zur Frühgeschichte der Musik
in den Alpenländern (Basle, 1949), 20–38
G. Kotek: ‘Über die Jodler und Juchezer in den österreichischen Alpen’, Jb
des österreichischen Alpenvereins, lxxxv (1960), 178–90
W. Senn: ‘“Jodeln”: eine Beitrag zur Entstehung und Verbreitung des
Wortes - mundartliche Bezeichnungen’, Jb des österreichischen
Volksliedwerkes, xi (1962), 150–66
W. Wiora: ‘Jubilare sine verbis’, In memoriam Jacques Handschin, ed. H.
Anglés and others (Strasbourg, 1962), 39–65
K. Horak: ‘Der Jodler in Tirol’, Jb des österreichischen Volksliedwerkes, xiii
(1964), 78–94
W. Graf: ‘Naturwissenschaftliche Gedanken über das Jodeln: die
phonetische Bedeutung der Jodelsilben’, Schriften des Vereins zur
Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse in Wien, cv (1965), 1–
25; repr. in Ausgewählte Aufsätze, ed. F. Födermayr (Vienna, 1980),
202–10
H. Curjel: Der Jodel in der Schweiz (Zürich, 1970)
W. Deutsch: ‘Der Jodler in Österreich’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, ii, ed.
R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan (Munich, 1975), 647–67
W. Graf: ‘Sonographische Untersuchungen’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, ii,
ed. R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan (Munich, 1975), 583–
622
M.P. Baumann: Musikfolklore und Musikfolklorismus: eine
ethnomusikologische Untersuchung zum Funktionswandel des Jodels
(Winterthur, 1976)
A. Lüderwaldt: Joiken aus Norwegen: Studien zur Charakteristik und
gesellschaftlichen Bedeutung des lappischen Gesanges (Bremen,
1976)
G. Thoma: Die Kunst des Jodelns: Alpenländnische Jodelschule (Munich,
1977)
H. Hummer: ‘Der Jodeler in Salzburg’, Die Volksmusik im Lande Salzburg,
ed. W. Deutsch and H. Dengg (Vienna, 1979), 136–50
M.P. Baumann: Bibliographie zur ethnomusikologischen Literatur der
Schweiz (Winterthur, 1981)
H.J. Leuthold: Der Naturjodel in der Schweiz: Entstehung, Charakteristik,
Verbreitung (Altdorf, 1981)
C. Luchner-Löscher: Der Jodler: Wesen, Entstehung, Verbreitung und
Gestalt (Munich, 1982)
H. Zemp: ‘Filming Music and Looking at Music Films’, EthM, xxxii (1988),
393–427
H. Zemp: ‘Visualizing Music Structure through Animation: the Making of the
Film “Head Voice, Chest Voice”’, Visual Anthropology, iii (1990), 65–79
S. Fürniss: ‘La technique du jodel chez les Pygmées Aka (Centrafrique):
étude phonétique et acoustique’, Cahiers de musiques traditionelles, iv
(1991), 167–87
S. Fürniss: Die Jodeltechnik der Aka-Pygmäen in Zentralafrika: eine
akustisch-phonetische Untersuchung (Berlin, 1992)
F. Födermayr: ‘Zur Jodeltechnik von Jimmie Rodgers: the Blue Yodel’, For
Gerhard Kubik: Festschrift, ed. A. Schmidhofer and D. Schuller
(Frankfurt, 1994), 381–404
MAX PETER BAUMANN

Yoder, Paul V(an Buskirk)

(b Tacoma, WA, 8 Oct 1908; d Hendersonville, NC, 4 April 1990).
American composer and arranger. Raised in Grand Forks, North Dakota,
he attended the University of North Dakota (BA 1930). From 1930 to 1936
he taught music in the public schools of Aurora, Illinois and Evansville,
Indiana. He received the master’s degree in music from Northwestern
University in 1941. In 1964 he became president of the American
Bandmasters Association (ABA), and founded the Journal of Band
Research and the ABA Research Center at the University of Maryland. He
appeared frequently as a band conductor in Japan, and made 12
recordings of Japanese and American folksongs and marches. His over
1400 compositions and arrangements include Alpha and Omega, Relax,
Hurricane! and (with H. Walters) Bands around the World. He also
published theory books, including methods for band, drum, marimba and
vibraphone, and (with C.S. Peters) a six-volume guide to band arranging;
several of these have been translated into German, Dutch, Japanese,
Korean and Indonesian. Some of his works appear under the pseudonyms
Max Thomas and James A. Scott.
WORKS
(selective list)

all for band

Alpha and Omega; American Pioneer; Anacapri; Arabian Nights; Avalanche!; Bands
around the World [collab. H. Walters]; Drumbeat Jamboree; Elbow Room; Glass
Slipper; Gypsy Princess; Harvest Home; Hurricane!; La Fonda; Mantilla; Midnight
Sun; Mountain Majesty; Pachinko; Relax; Rumbalita; Rush Street Tarantella;
Southern Cross; Swing Bolero; Westward Ho!; c176 marches; c340 arrs., 31
medleys

Principal publishers: Belwin-Mills, Chappell, Kjos, Rubank

RAOUL F. CAMUS

Yokomichi, Mario
(b Tokyo, 12 Oct 1916). Japanese musicologist. After studying Japanese
literature at the Imperial University of Tokyo (BA 1941) and completing
military service, he began research on nō music. He joined the Tokyo
National Research Institute of Cultural Properties (1953), becoming
research director of the music and dance section (1963) and director
general of the performing arts department (1964). He worked at the Tokyo
National University of Fine Arts and Music as professor (1976–84) and was
appointed director of the Research Institute of the Okinawa Prefectural
University of Fine Arts and Music (1986). There he founded a music faculty
and established it as the centre of research on Okinawan performing arts.
He has pursued a wide range of research interests on Japanese traditional
performing arts. He clarified the multi-layered structure of nō theatre in
terms of dramatic, melodic and rhythmic aspects; undertook research on
shōmyō (Buddhist ritual music) at the temple of the Great Buddha of
Todaiji, Nara, for which his research (1971) remains the comprehensive
model for the genre; and worked on relationships between music and
dance. He published a new notation system for the traditional dance of
mainland Japan in 1960.
WRITINGS
Hyōjun Nihon buyōfu [A standard notation for Japanese dance] (Tokyo,
1960)
Yōkyokushū (Tokyo, 1960–63) [Critical edn of texts of nō dramas with
literary and musical commentaries]
Kurokawa nō [Nō theatre in Kurokawa] (Tokyo, 1967)
Tōdaiji shunie kannon keka [Ritual of February in the Tōdaiji temple]
(Tokyo, 1971)
Shōmyō jiten [A dictionary of shōmyō] (Kyoto, 1984)
Nōgeki no kenkyū [Studies on nō drama] (Tokyo, 1986)
with H. Koyama and A. Omote, eds.: Iwanami kōza: nō kyōgen [Iwanami
series on nō and kyōgen] (Tokyo, 1987–8)
‘Ryūkyū geinō kenkyū binran’ [A manual for research on the performing
arts of Ryūkyū], Okinawa geijutsu no kagaku, i (1988), 81–139; iii
(1990), 1–93
‘Koten Ryūkyū buyōfu no kokoromi’ [An experiment in notating the
Classical dances of Ryūkyū], Okinawa geijutsu no kagaku, ii (1989),
1–57
Nōgaku zusetsu [Illustrated examples of nō theatre] (Tokyo, 1992)
YOSIHIKO TOKUMARU

Yon, Pietro Alessandro

(b Settimo Vittone, nr Turin, 8 Aug 1886; d Huntington, NY, 22 Nov 1943).
American organist and composer of Italian birth. He received his early
musical training in Ivrea, Milan, Turin and Rome. Having graduated with
honours from the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome in 1905, he stayed in the
city to become assistant to Remigio Renzi at S Pietro. In 1907 he went to
New York, where his elder brother, S. Constantino Yon, had a position at
the Church of St Vincent Ferrer. Pietro Yon became the organist and choir
director of St Francis Xavier Church and remained there until his
appointment in 1927 as organist (later also choir director) at St Patrick’s
Cathedral on Fifth Avenue; he held that post until his death. He became an
American citizen in 1921. A virtuoso player, Yon is credited with being the
first organist in New York to play complete programmes from memory, and
the first to charge money for admission to his recitals. His long list of
compositions includes The Triumph of St Patrick (an oratorio), 21 masses,
various motets, a Concerto gregoriano for organ and orchestra, chamber
music, many organ pieces, piano pieces and songs. His best-known works
are the Christmas song Gesù bambino (1917) and the organ piece Natale
in Sicilia (1912). Yon was a conservative composer who concentrated on
traditional forms. The most important figure in American Catholic church
music for many years, he was known also as a teacher. He wrote an
instruction book, Organ Pedal Technic, published posthumously in 1944.
VERNON GOTWALS/R

Yonge [Young, Younge], Nicholas

(b ?Lewes, E. Sussex; d London, bur. 23 Oct 1619). English music editor
and singer. He married about 1586. Between 1594 and 1618 he is
mentioned in St Paul’s Cathedral records as singing in the choir. He made
his will on 19 October 1619, and was buried in St Michael Cornhill, in which
parish he had spent most of his life.
Yonge was the editor of two anthologies of Italian madrigals published, with
English texts, as Musica transalpina in 1588 and 1597. The first contains
57 pieces (including an English version of La verginella by Byrd with a new
second part, and four settings of French texts) by 18 composers, of whom
the most liberally represented are the elder Ferrabosco and Marenzio. In
1583 and 1585 Pierre Phalèse of Antwerp had issued three madrigal
anthologies which not only provided the model for Yonge’s venture, but
also afforded him a quantity of Italian madrigals by minor Flemish
composers (19 pieces came from these three sources). Yonge’s 1588
collection was a direct result of the growing English enthusiasm during the
1580s for Italian madrigals. He explained that most of the English
 translations had been made in 1583 by ‘a Gentleman for his private
delight’.
Yonge’s 1588 volume was the most influential of the five volumes of Italian
madrigals in translation to appear in England between 1588 and 1598; it
was reprinted, probably in its year of issue. His volume of 1597 contained
only 24 works by 11 composers. Nine lyrics from his first volume and six
from his second were subsequently reset by English madrigalists.
EDITIONS
Musica transalpina: Madrigales translated … chosen out of Divers Excellent
Authors, 4–6vv, 158829/R
Musica transalpina: the Second Booke of Madrigalles … translated out of Sundrie
Italian Authors, 5, 6vv, 159724/R
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KermanEM
E.H. Fellowes: English Madrigal Verse, 1588–1632 (Oxford, 1920,
enlarged 3/1967 by D. Greer and F.W. Sternfeld)
A. Einstein: ‘The Elizabethan Madrigal and “Musica transalpina”’, ML, xxv
(1944), 66–77
A. Obertello: Madrigali italiani in Inghilterra (Milan, 1949)
J. Kerman: ‘Elizabethan Anthologies of Italian Madrigals’, JAMS, iv (1951),
122–38
D. Scott: ‘Nicholas Yonge and his Transalpine Music’, MT, cxvi (1975),
875–6
L. Macy: ‘The Due Decorum Kept: Elizabethan Translation and the
Madrigals Englished of Nicholas Yonge and Thomas Watson’, JMR,
xvii (1997), 1–21
DAVID BROWN

York.
Cathedral city in England. The Minster was founded in the 7th century and
there has been a building on its present site since 1079. From the mid-
1200s the music was regulated by a precentor and performed by the vicars
choral, who were assisted from about 1500 by lay singing-men; in 1425 the
number of choristers was increased from seven to twelve. Polyphonic
music was first performed at the end of the 15th century. There was an
organ in 1236, and there is evidence of organ building and repairs from
1338 onwards.
At the Reformation most of the Minster services were abolished, and
polyphonic music was banned, although it was reintroduced by the 1610s
when services by Byrd, Morley, Mundy, the older Robert Parsons and
Sheppard were sung. The number of male voices was raised to 20 in 1552,
and in the 1600s ranged between 12 and 14; there were 12 choristers
between the Reformation and the English Civil War. From the mid-1660s
until about 1800 the choir consisted of five vicars choral, seven singing-
men and six choristers. James Nares, organist from 1735 until 1756, was
succeeded by three generations of the Camidge family. The standard of
choral singing declined towards the end of the 1700s, but later the
influence of the Oxford Movement improved the musical establishment and
in the 20th century, under Noble and Bairstow, the choir reached a very
high standard. An organ built in 1833 by Elliott & Hill to John Camidge's
rather curious design was reconstructed in 1859 by Hill and in 1903 by
Walker, with further work by Harrison & Harrison in 1916 and 1931, and by
Walker again in 1960. A major rebuild by Geoffrey M. Coffin followed in
1992.
Part of the plainsong practice of the Benedictine community of St Mary is
reflected in an Ordinal and Customary copied about 1400. Five of the many
parish churches in York had organs before 1600, but in the period between
the Restoration and around 1800 there was only one (St Michael-le-
Belfrey). The number of churches with organs and then choirs grew during
the 19th century and declined in the 20th.
The York Waits were civic employees from around 1400 to 1836; they
sounded the watch and performed on ceremonial and festive occasions.
Numbers ranged from three to six. In 1561 the city bought for the waits ‘a
noyse of iiij Shalmes’, and in the 1660s they were playing sackbuts and
cornetts; oboes and bassoons were in use by 1739. Some waits also
possessed string instruments. Having first played in York Minster in 1600,
they were frequent performers there in the 1660s and 70s. During the
1700s they regularly performed at the Assembly Rooms concerts and at
the Theatre Royal.
The first known public concert in York was held in 1709. In 1730 the
Assembly Rooms were built, and concerts organized by the ‘Music
Assembly’ or the ‘Music Society’ (probably synonymous) were held there
every year until 1825, weekly between October and April, in addition to
concerts given during the annual August race-week. Performers comprised
the five York waits and other musicians engaged for the season. John
Hebden played between 1733 and 1742, while Nares was a frequent
performer between 1746 and 1756. In the mid-1700s the race-week
concerts attracted virtuoso musicians: Giardini, Noferi and Thomas Pinto
among the violinists, and Curioni, Frasi and Galli among the singers. The
weekly concerts were taken over by Thomas Shaw in 1778, and then until
1842 were run successively by William Hudson, John Erskine, the younger
John Camidge with Philip Knapton, and then by Camidge alone.
In 1825 the Festival Concert Rooms were built adjacent to the Assembly
Rooms and most of the larger concerts in York were given there until about
1900. Visiting soloists during the first half of the 1800s included Catalani,
Chopin, Liszt, Moscheles, Paganini and Thalberg. Between 1844 and 1852
concerts were given by the York Philharmonic Society. York did not again
have regular orchestral concerts until 1898 when Noble founded the York
SO. Professional chamber music concerts were sponsored by the York
Musical Union, formed by Canon Thomas Percy Hudson, between 1888
and 1902, and from 1921 by the British Music Society. The University of
York promotes a wide range of concerts.
The York Choral Society, active from 1833 to 1869, frequently attracted
audiences of 1500 and above during the 1850s. Programmes usually
included choral and orchestral music; only after 1857 were large oratorios
performed without cuts. The York Musical Society, founded in 1876, is still
active; the University of York also has a large choral society. Three smaller
choirs are noteworthy: the Micklegate Singers (founded 1962), the Chapter
House Choir (1965) and the Yorkshire Bach Choir (1979), which has
broadcast and recorded widely.
The city's first music festival, promoted by Matthew Camidge and John
Ashley, took place in August 1791; the four Yorkshire Grand Musical
Festivals, held in York in 1823, 1825, 1828 and 1835, were much larger.
Morning concerts were given in York Minster, mostly made up of ‘grand
selections’; Messiah was the only work to be given complete. They were
conducted by Thomas Greatorex in the first three festivals and William
Knyvett in 1835. The chorus was the largest of any provincial festival: 273
in 1823 and 350 thereafter. The orchestras were correspondingly large with
180 performers in 1823 and later about 250. A notable addition to the band
in 1835 was the Hibernicon. Among the vocal soloists were Catalani,
Malibran and Grisi. The evening concerts, all led by Nicolas Mori, were
given in the Assembly Rooms in 1823 and afterwards in the specially built
and adjoining Festival Concert Rooms. They included orchestral music and
solos, duets, terzettos and glees performed by the vocal soloists. The next
festival of any importance, the York Musical Festival, took place on two
days in July 1910 when Bantock, Elgar and Noble (who also organized the
festival) conducted their own works. The York Festival was first held in
1951 and was most important musically during the 1950s and 1960s when
premières were given of works by Blake, Alexander Goehr, Richard Hall,
Joubert and Sherlaw Johnson.
The York Early Music Festival, Britain's most important festival in the field
of historically informed performance, was founded in 1977 by a group of
York musicians, notably John Bryan, Alan Hacker and Peter Seymour,
working with Anthony Rooley, the London-based director of the Consort of
Musicke. In association with the BBC and overseas radio networks,
particularly WDR, the festival, held in the city's medieval churches,
guildhalls and historic houses, has presented first modern performances of
many outstanding works. The festival has led to the establishment of the
Early Music Network International Young Artists Competition.
York had many organ builders before the Restoration but their activities are
obscure. The Preston family was active immediately thereafter. Thomas
Haxby built and repaired organs in the 18th century, John Donaldson, John
Ward and Robert Postill in the 19th, and Summers & Barnes and Principal
Pipe Organs in the 20th. In the 1860s William Waddington's piano factory
employed some 160 people. Samuel Knapton (and Knapton, White &
Knapton) published keyboard music and songs during the early 19th
century; music publishing by Banks & Son was begun in the 1880s and
pursued on a large scale until 1972, when that side of the business was
sold to Ramsay Silver who retained the name ‘Banks Music Publications’ in
his imprint.
York was the first of the 1960s ‘new universities’ to support research and
teaching in music. In 1964 the composer and writer Wilfrid Mellers was
appointed Professor; he chose the composers David Blake, Peter Aston
and Robert Sherlaw Johnson as his first members of staff. In the mid-
1960s the Amadeus Quartet initiated a resident ensemble scheme.
Subsequent residencies have been held by the Fitzwilliam, Medici, Mistry,
Sorrel and Medea quartets, and by the Capricorn ensemble. In addition to
its encouragement of young composers and new music, the department
has gained wide recognition for innovative work in music technology, music
education, ethnomusicology and early music performance practice.
Opened in 1969, the Sir Jack Lyons Concert Hall (with its notable organ by
Grant, Degens & Bradbeer) is at the heart of a music building that includes
seminar and rehearsal rooms, offices and electronic music studios. An
extension (1992) contains a recital hall and a specially designed location
for the Javanese gamelan. Others who have worked at the university
include the composers Nicola LeFanu, John Paynter and Bernard Rands,
the conductor Graham Treacher, the conductor and clarinettist Alan
Hacker, and the ethnomusicologist Neil Sorrell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Crosse: An Account of the Grand Music Festival held in September
1823, in the Cathedral Church of York (York, 1825)
W.H. Frere: York Service Books (London, 1927)
F. Harrison: Life in a Medieval College: the Story of the Vicars-Choral of
York Minster (London, 1952)
P. Aston: The Music of York Minster (London, 1972)
W. Mellers: ‘The Study of Music at University, 2: a Question of Priorities’,
MT, cxiv (1973), 245–9
P. Aston: ‘Music since the Reformation’, A History of York Minster, ed.
G.E. Aylmer and R. Cant (Oxford, 1977), 395–429
N. Temperley: Jonathan Gray and Church Music in York, 1770–1840
(York, 1977)
D. Haxby and J. Malden: ‘Thomas Haxby of York (1729–1796): an
Extraordinary Musician and Musical Instrument Maker’, York Historian,
ii (1978), 43–55
D. Haxby and J. Malden: ‘Thomas Haxby: a Note’, York Historian, iii
(1980), 31
A. Fox and A. Hibbins: Mr. Noble's Band: a History of the York Symphony
Orchestra (York, 1988)
N. Thistlethwaite: The Making of the Victorian Organ (Cambridge, 1990)
D. Griffiths: ‘A Musical Place of the First Quality’: a History of Institutional
Music-Making in York, c.1550–1990 (York, 1994)
I. Jones: Brass Bands in York, 1833–1914 (York, 1995)
P. Moore, J.S. Whitely and G. Coffin: The Organs of York Minster (York,
1997)
D. Griffiths: ‘Music in the Eighteenth-Century York Theatre’, York Historian
(forthcoming)
DAVID GRIFFITHS, JOHN PAYNTER

York Buildings.
London concert room built in 1676. See London (i), §V, 2.

Yorke, Peter
 (b London, 4 Dec 1902; d England, 2 Feb 1966). English arranger,
composer and conductor. Like many of his contemporaries who later
achieved recognition for their work in light music, Yorke began his pre-war
career with Britain's leading dance bands, notably Percival Mackey, Jack
Hylton and Louis Levy. In particular his distinctive scores of popular film
songs in the pseudo-symphonic style required by Levy for recordings and
broadcasts became a trademark that would distinguish Yorke for the
remainder of his career. After the war light orchestras were a main element
of BBC radio, and he became associated with a rich, full orchestral sound,
often augmented with a strong saxophone section led by Freddy Gardner
(1911–50). Yorke used Gardner in many of his commercial recordings for
EMI's Columbia, notably pieces such as I'm in the Mood for Love and
These Foolish Things, which have become minor classics of their genre.
Yorke contributed many original compositions to the recorded music
libraries of leading London publishers (Chappells, Francis Day & Hunter,
Paxton etc.) and for ten years from 1957 his Silks and Satins used to close
the popular ITV series ‘Emergency – Ward Ten’. He broadcast regularly
until his death.
WORKS
(selective list)

all works for orchestra

Highdays and Holidays, 1946; Sapphires and Sables, 1947; Melody of the Stars,
1948; Quiet Countryside, 1948; In the News, 1950; Silks and Satins, 1952; Oriental
Bazaar, 1953; Miss in Mink, 1956; Ladies Night, 1966

DAVID ADES

Yorke Trotter, Thomas Henry

(b London, 6 Nov 1854; d London, 11 March 1934). English teacher and
writer. He was educated at Durham School and at New College, Oxford
(MA, DMus). In 1905 he became principal of the Incorporated London
Academy of Music, where he put into practice a successful system for the
musical education of children. This system was based on rhythmic
movement and led to extemporization at a very early stage, the practical
application of what he considered the two main factors in education –
reception and creation. In The Making of Musicians (1914) he formulated a
number of principles, six of which adequately summarize his thinking:
education must aim to cultivate artistic instincts, feeling should be
encouraged before intellect, individual personality must be considered,
each thing learnt must lead to the next, all exercises must have musical
meaning, and original work should be encouraged. He also conducted first
performances in England of Schumann’s Manfred and Mendelssohn’s
Athalie.
WRITINGS
with K. Bird: The Rhythmic Gradus (London, 1909, 3/1915)
Constructive Harmony, together with a Book on Form (London, 1911,
enlarged 2/1915)
The Making of Musicians (London, 1914, 2/1930)
The Rhythmic Method of Music Teaching (London,1921)
Music and Mind (London, 1924)
with S. Chapple: Yorke Trotter Principles of Musicianship for Teachers
and Students (London, 1933)
FRANK DAWES

York plays.
One of the four principal cycles of medieval English religious plays. The
York cycle survives in the city's official copy (GB-Lbl Add.35290). The
manuscript was copied some time in the period 1463–77, and additions
and annotations were made up to the mid-16th century; it apparently
represents a mid-15th-century revision of the cycle's 47 plays (a further
three were never entered). The plays were enacted on wagons in the city
streets up until the final performance some time in the period 1569–75.
Vocal music is required by 30 or more cues spread rather unevenly through
the plays. Its main purpose is to represent heaven and, by extension,
God's heavenly messengers and earthly agents. A second function of the
music is structural, marking entrances, exits and the transition from one
scene to another. Where text incipits occur, they can usually be identified
as liturgical items, presumably intended to be sung to chant.
In play 45, the Weavers' pageant of The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin,
a heavenly concert defines the beginning and end of the Assumption itself
(achieved with lifting machinery) and enhances the sumptuous visual
effect. This play, unusually, includes polyphonic settings of three Marian
texts, and a second, alternative group of settings of the same texts at the
end of the play. One text, ‘Veni electa mea’, is liturgical, but as the settings
are not chant-based they seem to have been composed specially for the
drama. Both sets are for two boys' voices, but a divisi chord shows that at
least four singers were involved; the 12 speaking angels were probably
also the singers. The music is apparently the work of one composer and
probably dates from the 1440s. Modern-day productions in the streets of
York (1992, 1994) have shown the effectiveness of both sets of pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (J. Stevens)
J. Stevens: ‘Music in Mediaeval Drama’, PRMA, lxxxiv (1958), 81–95
A.F. Johnston and M. Rogerson: York, Records of Early English Drama, i
(Toronto, 1979)
J. Dutka: Music in the English Mystery Plays, Early Drama, Art, and Music,
reference ser., ii (Kalamazoo, MI, 1980)
R. Beadle, ed.: The York Plays (London, 1982)
R. Beadle and P. Meredith: The York Play, Medieval Drama Facsimiles,
vii (Leeds, 1983)
R. Rastall: ‘Vocal Range and Tessitura in Music from York Play 45’, MAn,
iii (1984), 181–99
R. Rastall: Six Songs from the York Mystery Play ‘The Assumption of the
Virgin’ (Newton Abbot, 1985)
R. Rastall: The Heaven Singing: Music in Early English Religious Drama, i
(Cambridge, 1996)
RICHARD RASTALL

Yoruba music.
The Yoruba people live predominantly in the western state of Nigeria, but
there is also a considerable Yoruba population in the central and southern
areas of neighbouring Benin, and a lesser population in Togo. The Yoruba
of the western state, who acknowledge Ile-Ife as their ancestral and cultural
home, are grouped into the subcultures of Oyo, Egba, Egbado, Ijesha, Ife,
Ijebu, Ekiti, Ondo and Akoko. At the height of the Oyo empire in the 18th
century, most of these groups owed allegiance to the Oyo, a unity that was
broken with the collapse of the empire in the 19th century. A more
comprehensive and lasting unity developed under British administration
and the term ‘Yoruba’, originally used to refer only to the Oyo, became the
name for all Yoruba-speaking peoples.
1. Traditional music.
Yoruba traditional music is marked by an impressive variety of genres,
forms, styles and instruments. While this variety is partly a result of the
diverse subcultures, much of it is common to Yoruba culture as a whole.
The dominant music today is that known as dundun, its title being taken
from the name of the set of double-headed hourglass tension drums used
for its performance. Other important instruments and ensembles are the
bata, a set of double-headed conical drums; the koso, a single-headed
hourglass tension drum, similar to the Hausa kotso; the bembe, a double-
headed cylindrical drum, similar to the Hausa ganga (gàngáá); the sakara
or orunsa, a set of circular frame drums with earthenware bodies; the
sekere or aje oba, a set of gourd vessel rattles covered with cowrie nets;
the agogo, an externally struck iron bell, which may also be used in sets;
the agidigbo, a box-resonated lamellophone; and the goje, a single-string
bowed lute, similar to the Hausa goge (gòògè).
Drums are principally used for instrumental performances, but other
instruments in addition to those already mentioned are of fair importance.
Yoruba is a tonal language, and, as instrumental music has a very strong
textual basis, almost every instrumental performance, regardless of the
kinds of instruments involved, is based on the tonal patterns of an
unverbalized text.
Vocal music distinguishes between orin (song) and oriki (praise-chant).
Orin is characterized by its use of discrete pitches, balanced melodic lines,
and a preponderance of responsorial forms. Oriki is characterized by its
use of a speech-song style of performance, and its division into ijala, iyere,
iwi and rara, four types of praise-chant, each identified with a particular
voice quality and literary style. Ijala is used by hunters, iyere by Ifa priests
concerned with divination, iwi by egungun masqueraders, while rara is a
more general type of chant appropriate to a variety of social occasions.
2. Modern developments.
Since 1900 several new types of music have developed from traditional
models, among them apala, sakara and waka, in which traditional
instruments, styles and forms are used. Apala and sakara are essentially
praise-songs, with instrumental accompaniments that are suitable for
dancing. Waka takes its name from ‘wak’a’, the Hausa word for song, and
was originally a type of semi-religious Muslim song, but it is now a more
general song type used increasingly for entertainment. In another
prominent new type of music, Jùjú, the guitar and Western harmonic and
melodic patterns are combined with traditional Yoruba instruments and
rhythmic idioms. Jùjú is popular in night-clubs, and at marriages and on
other social occasions among westernized Yoruba.
Music dramas or ‘folk operas’ first appeared in the 1940s and are an
important part of Yoruba musical life. Their style is modelled on that of
traditional music, and their dramatic content is often based on historical
traditions. The major innovators and exponents of this form have been
Hubert Ogunde with Yoruba Ronu, the late Kola Ogunmola with The
Palmwine Drunkard and Duro Ladipo with Oba Koso.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
E. Phillips: Yoruba Music (Johannesburg, 1953)
K.J.H. Nketia: ‘Yoruba Musicians in Accra’, Odu, no.6 (1958), 35–44
Laoye I. Timi of Ede: ‘Yoruba Drums’, Odu, no.7 (1959), 5–14
A. King: ‘Employments of the “Standard Pattern” in Yoruba Music’, AfM,
ii/3 (1960), 51–4
A. King: ‘A Report on the Use of Stone Clappers for the Accompaniment of
Sacred Songs’, AfM, ii/4 (1961), 64–71
A. King: Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti (Ibadan, 1961)
S.A. Babalola: The Content and Form of Yoruba Ijala (Oxford, 1966)
M.B. Adebonojo: Text-Setting in Yoruba Secular Music (diss., U. of
California, Berkeley, 1967)
A. Euba: ‘Multiple Pitch Lines in Yoruba Choral Music’, JIFMC, xix (1967),
66–71
D. Thieme: ‘Three Yoruba Members of the Mbira-Sanza Family’, JIFMC,
xix (1967), 42–8
D. Thieme: A Descriptive Catalogue of Yoruba Musical Instruments (diss.,
Catholic U. of America, Washington, DC, 1969)
D. Thieme: ‘A Summary Report on the Oral Traditions of Yoruba
Musicians’, Africa, xl (1970), 359–62
A. Euba: ‘Islamic Musical Culture among the Yoruba: a Preliminary
Survey’, Essays on Music and History in Africa, ed. K.P. Wachsmann
(Evanston, IL, 1971), 171–81
A. Euba: ‘New Idioms of Music Drama Among the Yoruba: an Introductory
Study’, YIFMC, ii (1970), 92–107
F. Willett: ‘A Contribution to the History of Musical Instruments among the
Yoruba’, Essays for a Humanist: an Offering to Klaus Wachsmann, ed.
C. Seegar and B. Wade (New York, 1977), 350–89
A.M. Abegbite: ‘The Role of Music in Yoruba Traditional Religion’, Odu, xxi
(1981), 17–27
M.A. Omibiyi-Obidike: ‘Islam Influence on Yoruba Music’, African Notes,
viii/2 (1981), 37–54
A. Euba: ‘The Music of Yoruba Gods’, Essays on Music in Africa
(Bayreuth, 1988), 1–30
A. Euba: ‘Jùjú, Fújì and the Intercultural Aspects of Modern Yoruba
Popular Music’, Essays on Music in Africa: Intercultural Perspectives, ii
(1989), 1–30
A. Euba: ‘Yoruba Music in the Church: the Development of a Neo-African
Art among the Yoruba of Nigeria’, African Musicology: Current Trends:
a Festschrift presented to J.H. Kwabena Nketia, ed. J.C. DjeDje and
W.G. Carter (Atlanta, GA, 1989), 45–63
T. Vidal: ‘The Role and Function of Music at Yoruba Festivals’, ibid., 111–
27
C.O. Olaniyan: ‘The Dùndún Master-Drummer: Composer, Arranger and
Performer and his Devices’, African Notes, xvii/1–2 (1993), 54–61
B. Olmojola: ‘Contemporary Art Music in Nigeria: an Introductory Note on
the Works of Ayo Bankole (1935–76)’, Africa, lxiv (1994), 533–43
C.A. Waterman: ‘Our Tradition is a Very Modern Tradition: Popular Music
and the Construction of Pan-Yoruba Identity’, Readings in African
Popular Culture, ed. K. Barber (Bloomington, IN, 1997), 48–53
recordings
Yoruba Women of the Drum, Original Music OMCD 036 (1995)
Yoruba Drums from Benin, West Africa, Smithsonian Folkways CD SF
40440 (1996)
AKIN EUBA

Yoshida, Hidekazu
(b Tokyo, 23 Sep 1913). Japanese music critic. He studied French
literature at Tokyo University, graduating in 1936. During World War I he
published translations of Schumann's writings (Tokyo, 1942) and of
Richard Benz's Ewiger Musikers (Tokyo, 1943). He founded a ‘Music
Classroom for Children’ in collaboration with the conductor Hideo Saito and
the pianist Motonari Iguchi in 1948, which eventually led to the foundation
of Tōhō Gakuen School of Music in 1961. He also co-founded the Institute
of 20th-Century Music with Minao Shibata, Yoshirō Irino and others in
1957, which sponsored a series of summer festivals of contemporary
music. Meanwhile he began to write actively for journals and newspapers,
particularly for the Asahi newspaper. He has published nearly 60 books
and translated many others, including Rostand's La musique française
contemporaine (Tokyo, 1953), Arthur Honneger's Je suis compositeur
(Tokyo, 1953, 2/1970), Bernstein's The Joy of Music (Tokyo, 1966) and
Stuckenschmidt's Twentieth Century Music (Tokyo, 1971). He has been
awarded a number of prizes for his writing, and the Yoshida Hidekazu Prize
was inaugurated in 1991 to commend distinguished journalistic activities in
the fields of music, arts and the theatre.
WRITINGS
Yoshida Hidekazu Zenshū [The complete works of Yoshida Hidekazu]
(Tokyo, 1975–86)
Sekai no ongaku [Music in the World] (Tokyo, 1950; 2/1953 as Ongakuka
no sekai [World of Musicians])
Shudai to hensō [Theme and variations] (Tokyo, 1953)
Nijusseiki no ongaku [Music in the 20th century] (Tokyo, 1957)
Kagaku gijutsu no jidai to ongaku [Period of scientific technology and
music] (Tokyo, 1964)
Hihyō Sōshi [A book of criticism] (Tokyo, 1965)
Gendai no ensō [Performances today] (Tokyo, 1967)
Mozart (Tokyo, 1970)
Sekai no shikisha [Conductors of the world] (1973/R)
Ongaku o kataru [Talks on music] (Tokyo, 1974–5)
Gendai ongaku o kataru [Talks on contemporary music] (Tokyo, 1975)
Sekai no pianisuto [Pianists of the world] (Tokyo, 1976)
Ongaku tenbō [Musical views] (Tokyo, 1978–85)
Hihyō no komichi [A path of criticism] (Tokyo, 1979)
Ongaku no hikari to kage [Light and shadow of music] (Tokyo, 1980)
Chōwa no gensō [Fantasy of harmony] (Tokyo, 1981)
Bētōven o motomete [In search of Beethoven] (Tokyo, 1984)
Ongaku: tenbō to hihyō [Music: views and criticism] (Tokyo, 1986)
Opera nōto [Opera notes] (Tokyo, 1991)
Shin ongaku tenbō [New musical views] (Tokyo, 1991)
MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Yoshino, Naoko
(b London, 10 Dec 1967). Japanese harpist. Her family was living in Los
Angeles when, at the age of six, she began harp lessons with Susann
McDonald, who has been her only teacher. She launched her international
career by winning the Israel Harp Contest in 1985, and made her New York
début in 1987 and her London début in 1990, when she performed the
Mozart Flute and Harp Concerto with James Galway. She was awarded the
Tokyo Arts Festival prize in 1988, the year in which she began her
recording career. On disc, the cool elegance of her interpretation of the
classical harp repertory has been balanced by her vividly dramatic
performance of contemporary Japanese works by Takemitsu, Toyama and
Takahishi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.N. Govea: Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Harpists: a Bio-Critical
Sourcebook (Westport, CT, 1995), 303–7
ANN GRIFFITHS

Yosifov, Aleksandar
(b Sofia, 12 Aug 1940). Bulgarian composer. At the Sofia Conservatory he
studied composition with V.P. Vladigerov and conducting with K. Iliyev.
From 1969 to 1987 he was director of the Balkanton recording company.
As an active functionary in communist Bulgaria, he became a
representative of the school of socialist realism. His writing, which was
generously supported by the state, is typical of the populist mass art of the
1970s and 80s. His endeavours to strike a popular tone are expressed
through politicization and a musical language in which song, dance and
marching rhythms assume the appearance of extended, through-composed
and lavishly orchestrated forms. Yosifov's best-known opera, Han Krum
 Yuvigi (1981), is based on an historical subject celebrating the centenary of
Bulgarian liberation from Turkish rule and the 1300th anniversary of the
founding of the nation. Dominated by pathos and a romantic sublimity, the
opera is full of striking dramatic effects and has an abundance of scenic
contrasts.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Han Krum Yuvigi (op, after B. Banov), perf. 1981

Orch: 3 syms., 1968, 1971, 1973; Conc. for Orch, 1972; Pf Conc., 1972; Conc., 2
pf, perc, str, 1973; Prabulgarskr tanz [Ancient Bulgarian Dance], 1995; Ratchenitsa
[Folkdance], 1996
Choral orch: 5 cants., 1964, 1966, 1967, 1971, 1972; Golemiyat byal pat [The Great
White Way], orat, 1969; Requiem, 1973; songs and children's songs
Solo songs

MARIYA KOSTAKEVA

Yost, Michel
(b Paris, 1754; d Paris, 5 July 1786). French clarinettist, composer and
teacher. He studied the clarinet with Joseph Beer and made his first public
appearance in 1777 at the Concert Spirituel. One of the earliest French
solo clarinettists, Yost was admired for the beauty of his sound and the
precision of his execution. He performed on 38 different occasions at the
Concert Spirituel in 1781 and between 1783 and 1786, often playing his
own concertos. Although he had no formal training in composition, he had
a facility for finding agreeable melodies and brilliant flourishes, which were
edited and scored by his friend J.C. Vogel. At least three of his 14
concertos, his Duos op.10 and all his quartets were signed ‘Michel et
Vogel’. Although his writing emphasized a fluent technique it was criticized
by Gradenwitz as ‘virtuosoship [which] has degenerated into a series of
empty roulades’. However, the melody from one concerto was incorporated
into one of Cyrille Rose’s 32 Etudes. A clarinet and a flute method by ‘V.
Michel’ published in about 1802 were written not by Michel Yost but
probably by François-Louis Michel, although the duos in these methods
may have been by Yost. His pupils included the influential performer Xavier
Lefèvre.
WORKS
Orch: 14 concs, incl. no.9, ed. C. Stevens (Provo, 1963), J. Michaels (Hamburg,
1976); no.10, ed. I. Chai (Baton Rouge, 1984); no.11, ed. P. West (Lincoln, 1991)
Chbr: 48 duos, 2 cl, incl. nos.2 and 4, ed. J. Michaels (Hamburg, 1967), 6 duos,
op.5, ed. H. Voxman (London, 1979), 12 kleine Duos, ed. F.G. Holy (Lottstetten,
1992); 12 duos, cl, vn; 12 airs variés, 2 cl; 12 airs variés, cl, va; 3 trios, 2 cl, bn, incl.
no.1, ed. H. Voxman (Chicago, 1966); Trio, ed. K. Schultz-Hauser (Mainz, 1968); 27
trios: 3 for 2 cl, vc, 3 for 2 cl, va, 3 for fl, cl, bn, 3 for fl, cl, va, 3 for fl, cl, vc, 3 for cl,
hn, bn, 3 for cl, vn, bn, 3 for cl, hn, vc, 3 for cl, vn, vc; 18 qts, cl, vn, va, b; Rondo, 3
cl, bass cl, ed. J. Lancelot (Paris, 1989); op.1, ed. J. Lancelot (Paris, 1994); 12 airs
variés, cl, vn, va, b
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
PierreH
P. Gradenwitz: ‘The Beginnings of Clarinet Literature’, ML, xvii (1936),
145–50
G. Pound: ‘A Study of Clarinet Solo Concerto Literature Composed Before
1850: with Selected Items Edited and Arranged for Contemporary
Use’, (diss., Florida State U., 1965)
P. Weston: Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past (London, 1971)
ALBERT R. RICE

Youll, Henry
(b Diss, bap. ? 27 Dec 1573; fl 1608). English composer. Though it is not
impossible that he was the son of a musician, Ezekiel Youel of Newark,
Canon George Youell has more plausibly suggested that he was the Henry
Youll who graduated from Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1593 and
who, on his marriage, became a schoolmaster at Eye, near Diss. Before
this he may have been tutor in the house of Edward Bacon of Coddenham,
near Ipswich, to four of whose sons he dedicated his single publication,
Canzonets to Three Voyces (London, 1608, ed. in EM, xxviii, 1923,
2/1968). A Henry Youll ‘Scholar’ was buried at St Benet's, Cambridge, in
1661.
Youll had severe limitations as a composer, having no aptitude for sad or
pathetic expression. His models were clearly Morley's three-voice
canzonets (1593), although no piece in the volume is structurally a true
canzonet, and the last six pieces are balletts. Despite its pallid charm his
music lacks the wit and inventiveness of Morley's.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.H. Fellowes: English Madrigal Verse, 1588–1632 (Oxford, 1920,
enlarged 3/1967 by F.W. Sternfeld and D. Greer)
E.H. Fellowes: The English Madrigal Composers (Oxford, 1921, 2/1948/R)
A. Smith: ‘Parish Church Musicians in England in the Reign of Elizabeth I’,
RMARC, no.4 (1964), 42–93
DAVID BROWN

Youmans, Vincent (Millie)

(b New York, 27 Sept 1898; d Denver, 5 April 1946). American composer.
He worked as a piano salesman and music-roll maker at Aeolian, where he
came under the tutelage of Felix Arndt, and later worked as a song plugger
for Remick and Harms. He began composing while in the navy during
World War I; Sousa admired one of his marches and orchestrated it for the
Marine Corps band. In 1920, when his first song was published (The
Country Cousin), he was working as a rehearsal pianist for Victor Herbert.
He composed his first Broadway score, Two Little Girls in Blue, in
collaboration with Paul Lannin in 1921. The success of this and his next
work, The Wildflower (1923), established his fame. No, No, Nanette, also of
1923, and including ‘Tea for Two’ and ‘I want to be happy’, was the biggest
musical-comedy success of the 1920s in both Europe and the USA. From
 1927 Youmans also produced his own shows. He had another major
success with Hit the Deck! (1927; including ‘Hallelujah’), but his
subsequent productions were failures, though many of their songs remain
popular. His last contributions to Broadway were some songs for Take a
Chance (1932).
Youmans’s early songs are remarkable for their economy of melodic
material: two-, three- or four-note phrases are constantly repeated and
varied by subtle harmonic or rhythmic changes. In later years, however,
apparently influenced by Kern, he turned to longer musical sentences and
more free-flowing melodic lines. Youmans was forced to retire in 1934,
owing to tuberculosis, after a professional career of only 13 years. More
than any of his contemporaries he made constant re-use of a limited
number of melodies; he published fewer than 100 songs, but 18 of these
were considered standards by ASCAP.
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
all are musicals and, unless otherwise stated, dates are those of first New York
performance; where different, writers shown as (lyricist; book author)

Two Little Girls in Blue (A. Francis [I. Gershwin]), George M. Cohan, 3 May 1921;
collab. P. Lannin [incl. Oh me! Oh my!, Dolly]
The Wildflower (O. Harbach and O. Hammerstein), Casino, 7 Feb 1923; collab. H.
Stothart [incl. Bambalina, Wildflower]
Mary Jane McKane (W.C. Duncan and Hammerstein), Imperial, 25 Dec 1923;
collab. Stothart
Lollipop (Z. Sears), Knickerbocker, 21 Jan 1924 [incl. Tie a little string around your
finger, Take a little one step]
A Night Out (C. Grey and I. Caesar; G. Grossmith and A. Miller), Philadelphia,
Garrick, 7 Sept 1925
No, No, Nanette (Caesar and Harbach; Harbach and F. Mandel), Globe, 16 Sept
1925 [incl. Tea for Two, I want to be happy]
Oh, Please! (Harbach and A. Caldwell), Fulton, 17 Dec 1926 [incl. I know that you
know]
Hit the Deck! (L. Robin and Grey; H. Fields), Belasco, 25 April 1927 [incl. Hallelujah,
Sometimes I’m happy]
Rainbow (L. Stallings and Hammerstein), Gallo, 21 Nov 1928
Great Day (E. Eliscu and W. Rose; Duncan and J. Wells), Cosmopolitan, 17 Oct
1929 [incl. More Than You Know, Without a Song, Great Day]
Smiles (Grey, H. Adamson and R. Lardner; W.A. McGuire), Ziegfeld, 18 Nov 1930
[incl. Time on My Hands]
Through the Years (E. Heyman; B. Hooker), Manhattan, 28 Jan 1932 [incl. Through
the Years, Drums in my Heart]
Take a Chance (B.G. DeSylva and L. Schwab), Apollo, 26 Nov 1932; collab. R.
Whiting, N.H. Brown [incl. Rise ’n’ Shine]

other works
Film scores: What a Widow!, 1930; Flying Down to Rio, 1933 [incl. Carioca, Orchids
in the Moonlight, Flying Down to Rio]
Songs: Who’s who with you, in From Piccadilly to Broadway, 1918; The Country
Cousin (1920); That Forgotten Melody (W.D. Furber) (1924)

Principal publisher: Harms

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Green: The World of Musical Comedy: the Story of the American
Musical Stage as told through the Careers of its Foremost Composers
and Lyricists (New York, 1960, rev. and enlarged 4/1980)
D. Dunn: The Making of No, No, Nanette (Secaucus, NJ, 1972)
G. Bordman: Days to be Happy, Years to be Sad: the Life and Music of
Vincent Youmans (New York, 1982)
GERALD BORDMAN

Young.
English family of musicians. Six singers known as ‘Miss Young’ ((3)–(8)
below) sang professionally under their maiden names until their marriages
and sometimes afterwards.
(1) Anthony Young
(2) Charles Young
(3) Cecilia Young [Mrs Arne]
(4) Isabella Young (i) [Mrs Lampe]
(5) Esther [Hester] Young [Mrs Jones]
(6) Isabella Young (ii) [Mrs Scott]
(7) Elizabeth Young [Mrs Dorman]
(8) Polly [Mary, Maria] Young [Mrs Barthélemon]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
DNB(W.B. Squire)
FiskeETM
LS
C. Dibdin: A Complete History of the English Stage, v (London, 1800/R)
F.H. Barthélemon: Jefte in Masfa [incl. a memoir by C.M. Barthélemon]
(London,1827)
Lady Llanover, ed.: The Autobiography and Correspondence of Mary
Granville, Mrs Delany (London,1861–2/R)
C. Higham: Francis Barthélemon (London, 1896)
W.H. Cummings: Dr Arne and ‘Rule Britannia’ (London, 1912)
H. Langley: Dr Arne (Cambridge, 1938)
M. Sands: ‘Francis Barthélemon’, MMR, lxxi (1941), 195–8
H.C.R. Landon, ed.: The Collected Correspondence and London
Notebooks of Joseph Haydn (London,1959)
T.J. Walsh: Opera in Dublin 1705–1797 (Dublin, 1973)
H.C.R. Landon: Haydn in England 1791–1795 (London, 1976)
D. Dawe: Organists of the City of London, 1666–1850 (Padstow, 1983)
B. Boydell: A Dublin Musical Calendar 1700–1760 (Dublin, 1988)
J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘J.F. Lampe and English Opera at the Little
Haymarket in 1732–3’, ML, lxxviii (1997), 502–31
OLIVE BALDWIN/THELMA WILSON
Young
(1) Anthony Young
(b c1685; d London, bur. 8 May 1747). Organist and composer. He was
organist at St Clement Danes, London, from 1707 and was probably the
Anthony Young who was a chorister at the Chapel Royal until March 1700,
but he was never organist at St Katherine Cree, as Burney believed. Seven
of his songs appeared in The Monthly Mask of Vocal Music between 1705
and 1709, he published A New Collection of Songs (1707), and in 1719
Walsh and Hare brought out his Suits of Lessons for the Harpsichord or
Spinnet. In 1739 he was a founder member of the Society of Musicians.
Young
(2) Charles Young
(b London, bap. 11 Feb 1683; d London, 12 Dec 1758). Organist, brother
of (1) Anthony Young. He may have been a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral
in the late 1690s and was organist of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower,
from 1713 until his death. He composed a few songs. He was the father of
(3) Cecilia, (4) Isabella (i), (5) Esther and of Charles, a clerk at the
Treasury, whose daughters were (6) Isabella (ii), (7) Elizabeth and (8) Mary
(Polly).
Young
(3) Cecilia Young [Mrs Arne]
(b London, bap. 7 Feb 1712; d London, 6 Oct 1789). Soprano, daughter of
(2) Charles Young. A pupil of Geminiani, she sang in concerts from March
1730 and first appeared on stage in English operas by Lampe and Smith in
1732–3. According to Burney, she had ‘a good natural voice and a fine
shake [and] had been so well taught, that her style of singing was infinitely
superior to that of any other English woman of her time’. Handel chose her
for the premières of his Ariodante and Alcina (both 1735), Alexander’s
Feast (1736) and Saul (1739), and for the first London performance of
Athalia. After marrying Thomas Arne in 1737 she appeared in his stage
works (notably Comus, Rosamond and Alfred) in London and for two
seasons in Dublin (1742–4) and performed his songs at Vauxhall Gardens.
The marriage proved unhappy and she was often ill, making only
occasional appearances after 1746; her last new Arne role was in Eliza
(1754). In 1748 she went to Dublin with her sister and brother-in-law, the
Lampes, to sing in the winter concert season and returned there with Arne
in 1755 to perform in his works at Smock Alley Theatre. Here their
marriage broke down and Arne went back to London, leaving her in Ireland
with her young niece Polly, and in 1758 Mrs Delany found her employed as
a singing teacher by a charitable Irish family. She returned to London with
Polly in 1762 and seems to have made only one more public appearance,
at a benefit concert for Polly and her husband, F.H. Barthélemon, in 1774.
She was reconciled with Arne shortly before his death in 1778, after which
she lived with the Barthélemons. There were suggestions that she could be
unreliable and that she drank too much, but Burney, a pupil of Arne’s,
remembered her with affection, and Charles Dibdin wrote: ‘Mrs Arne was
deliciously captivating. She knew nothing in singing or in nature but
sweetness and simplicity’.
Young
(4) Isabella Young (i) [Mrs Lampe]
(b London, ?bap. 3 Jan 1716; d London, 5 Jan 1795). Soprano, sister of (3)
Cecilia Young. She had small singing roles at Drury Lane in 1733–4 but
otherwise appeared only in concerts until she sang the heroine Margery in
John Frederick Lampe’s burlesque opera The Dragon of Wantley in 1737.
In the middle of its long run she married the composer and subsequently
created roles in all his stage works, including Thisbe in Pyramus and
Thisbe (1745). The Lampes went to Dublin in 1748 and she appeared for
two seasons at the Smock Alley Theatre, and sang in concerts and at the
Marlborough Green pleasure gardens. In November 1750 they went to
Edinburgh and, according to Burney, were soon ‘settled very much to the
satisfaction of the patrons of Music in that city’. However, Lampe died there
of a fever in July 1751 and she returned to Covent Garden to sing her old
roles and some new ones in musical afterpieces. She remained in the
company until the 1775–6 season, often singing with her sister Esther,
although in the later years they were only members of the chorus. Her son
Charles John Frederick Lampe took over as organist at All Hallows,
Barking-by-the-Tower, after the death of his grandfather (1) Charles Young,
and her daughter-in-law sang for a time as Mrs Lampe at the pleasure
gardens and Sadler’s Wells Theatre.
Young
(5) Esther [Hester] Young [Mrs Jones]
(b London, 14 Feb 1717; d London, bur. 6 June 1795). Contralto, sister of
(3) Cecilia Young. She appeared in concerts from 1736 and created the
role of Mauxalinda in Lampe’s The Dragon of Wantley. She had other
Lampe roles, played Lucy in John Gay's The Beggar’s Opera for many
years and in 1744 sang Juno and Ino in the première of Handel’s Semele.
It is sometimes stated that she went to Ireland with the Arnes in 1755, but
in fact she sang at Covent Garden throughout the 1755–6 season and in
every year after that until her retirement in 1776. She married the music
seller and publisher Charles Jones on 8 April 1762; by December 1785, a
few years after his death, impoverished and seriously ill, she was being
cared for with ‘unremitting Tenderness’ by her sister Mrs Lampe.
Young
(6) Isabella Young (ii) [Mrs Scott]
(d London, 17 Aug 1791). Mezzo-soprano, niece of (3) Cecilia Young. She
studied with the bass Gustavus Waltz, first appearing in a concert with him
on 18 March 1751, and sang in Arne’s Alfred, Rosamond and Eliza in
1754. She became a distinguished concert and oratorio singer in London
and the provincial festivals. She sang for Handel in the last few years of the
composer’s life and was Counsel (Truth) in the first performance of The
Triumph of Time and Truth in March 1757. She was a soloist in the
Messiah performances at the Foundling Hospital on a number of
occasions. After appearing at Drury Lane as Titania in J.C. Smith’s opera
The Fairies (February 1755), she performed there regularly until 1777,
singing between the acts, in musical interludes and afterpieces. She
created roles in George Rush’s English operas The Royal Shepherd and
The Capricious Lovers. After her marriage to the Hon. John Scott
(December 1757) she usually sang in concerts and oratorios as Mrs Scott,
but on stage she continued to describe herself as Miss Young until 1769.
Young
(7) Elizabeth Young [Mrs Dorman]
(d London, 12 April 1773). Contralto, sister of (6) Isabella Young (ii). She
went to Dublin with the Arnes in 1755, singing Grideline in his Rosamond at
the Smock Alley Theatre. She returned to England with Arne in 1756, and
was a shepherdess in his Eliza that December. After playing Lucy in The
Beggar’s Opera in June 1758 (billed as making her first appearance on any
stage) she sang regularly at Drury Lane until 1772 and in some seasons at
Finch’s Grotto Gardens. Her lower voice meant she was given male or
older women’s parts. She created the roles of Agenor in Rush’s The Royal
Shepherd (1764) and the duenna Ursula in Dibdin’s The Padlock (1768).
She married the violinist Ridley Dorman in 1762.
Young
(8) Polly [Mary, Maria] Young [Mrs Barthélemon]
(b London, 7 July 1749; d London, 20 Sept 1799). Soprano, composer and
keyboard player, sister of (6) Isabella Young (ii). She went with the Arnes
to Ireland and impressed audiences in Dublin by singing ‘perfectly in Time
and Tune’ in Arne’s Eliza at the age of six. She remained in Ireland with
Mrs Arne and in 1758, after hearing her play the harpsichord, Mrs Delany
wrote: ‘the race of Youngs are born songsters and musicians’. She
appeared on stage in Dublin, where O’Keeffe admired her ‘charming face
and small figure’ as Ariel in The Tempest. She returned to London to make
her Covent Garden début in September 1762, singing and playing between
the acts; the Theatrical Review commented on the agreeable innocence of
her appearance: ‘Her performance on the harpsichord, is equal to her
excellence in singing’. After two seasons she moved to sing minor roles
with the Italian opera company at the King’s Theatre, where the violinist
and composer François Hippolyte Barthélemon was leader of the
orchestra. She married him in December 1766 and afterwards appeared
mainly with him, in occasional seasons at the Italian opera, in oratorios and
at the pleasure gardens. There were visits to Ireland, and a highly
successful tour of the Continent in 1776–7. She sang in her husband’s
oratorio Jefte in Florence and gave concerts before the Queen of Naples
and Marie Antoinette, at which their young daughter Cecilia Maria also
sang. However, their careers did not flourish after this; in an injudicious
letter (Morning Post, 2 November 1784) she complained of being refused
engagements, styling herself ‘an English Woman, of an unblemished
reputation’. Haydn visited the Barthélemons when he was in England and
at a concert in May 1792 he accompanied her in airs by Handel and
Sacchini.
Maria Barthélemon published six sonatas for harpsichord or piano and
violin (1776) and a set of six English and Italian songs op.2 (1786). The
Barthélemons lived in Vauxhall and attended the Chapel at the Asylum for
Female Orphans, where they came under the influence of the
Swedenborgian preacher, Duché. She composed three hymns and three
anthems op.3 (1795) for use at the Asylum and Magdalen Chapels, The
Weaver’s Prayer for a concert in aid of unemployed weavers and an ode
on the preservation of the king op.5 (1795), with words by another
Swedenborgian, Baroness Nolcken.

Young [Youngs], (Basil) Alexander

(b London, 18 Oct 1920; d Macclesfield, 2 March 2000). English tenor. He
studied at the RCM with Steffan Pollmann and made his début as
Scaramuccio (Ariadne auf Naxos) at the 1950 Edinburgh Festival. In 1953
he sang Tom Rakewell in the English première of The Rake’s Progress, a
BBC studio production; he recorded his classic reading of this role in 1964
under Stravinsky’s direction. He created Charles Darnay in Benjamin’s A
Tale of Two Cities (1953, BBC) and Philippe in Berkeley’s A Dinner
Engagement (1954, Aldeburgh), and sang in the British premières of
Searle’s The Diary of a Madman (1960, Sadler’s Wells) as Poprichin and
Henze’s The Bassarids (1968, BBC) as Dionysus. He appeared at Covent
Garden (1955–70), notably as Matteo (Arabella) and Britten’s Lysander; at
Sadler’s Wells, where his roles included a highly amusing Count Ory,
Almaviva, Gluck’s and Monteverdi’s Orpheus, Belmonte and Handel’s
Jupiter and Xerxes; and with the WNO and Scottish Opera, creating Cicero
in Hamilton’s The Catiline Conspiracy (1974, Stirling). He also sang
extensively in concert and oratorio, and from 1973 to 1986 was director of
singing at the RNCM. Young was a stylish singer with a silvery tenor which
he used with innate musicianship, as can be heard in his many recordings
of operas and oratorios by Handel.
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Young, Douglas
(b London, 18 June 1947). British composer. He won the composition
scholarship to the Royal College of Music, London (1966–70) and
continued postgraduate studies with Milner and Pousseur. He won the Karl
Rankl Prize for orchestral composition in 1970, by which time he was
working professionally as a freelance composer. In 1974 he founded the
ensemble Dreamtiger.
His early work The Listeners (1967) holds the key to his later development.
It interleaves two contrasting poems by Walter de la Mare – one set to
magical gamelan sonorities, the other to dynamic music redolent of
Stravinsky and Berg. The implicit conflict between East and West was
explored further in Canticle (1970), with its sinuous melodies and
Messiaen-like rhythmic structure. Throughout the 1970s Young aimed to
absorb and transcend the influence of the postwar avant garde. Increasing
interest in non-European culture and popular music (from Irish folk music to
rap) progressively transformed his work, and the driving rhythms and pure
 melodic energy of Slieve League (1979) announced a decisive change. His
scores for the Royal Ballet led to a commission from the Bayerische
Staatsoper in Munich for a full-length ballet. The result, Ludwig (1986), with
its kaleidoscopic fusion of musical languages, was hailed by the German
press as a perfect exemplar of postmodernism, although it was only later
that Young became acquainted with the work of writers such as Queneau,
Calvino and Kundera who then influenced his artistic outlook. During the
1990s Young concentrated almost exclusively on chamber music. The
string quartet Mr Klee Visits the Botanical Gardens (1990–93) is the first in
a series of works inspired by Klee and other 20th-century painters (in
whose work Young finds a freedom of invention lacking in music). In his
collection of piano pieces Herr Schoenberg Plays Ping-Pong (1992–9)
Young widened his scope to encompass jazz, popular dance music, film
scores and even advertising jingles – transformed into a personal musical
universe that has the same sense of fun and daring as Calvino's
Cosmicomics.

MSS in GB-Lbl

WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Ludwig ‘Fragments from a Mystery’ (ballet, 2), DAT tape, Munich, 1986; The
Tailor of Gloucester (op, 4, Young, after B. Potter), London, 1989; The Lost Puzzle
of Gondwana (children's adventure story, M. Blackman), London, 1999
Orch: Departure, 1970; Aubade, small orch, 1972–3; Circus Band & Other Pieces
(after Ives), 1977–80; Virages, vc, large orch, 1978; Night Journey under the Sea,
large orch, 1980–82; Lament, sitar, orch, 1984
Chorus and orch: Railway Fugue (R.L. Stevenson), spoken chorus, perc ens, 1965;
The Listeners (dramatic cant., W. de la Mare), S, female chorus, perc ens, chbr
ens, 1967; The Hunting of the Shark (dramatic cant., L. Carroll), nar, chorus, pf,
small orch, 1982; Actualité (Current Affairs) (cabaret cant., various texts), chorus,
str, pf, perc, 1997–9
Choral unacc.: Canticle (W.H. Auden: New Year Letter), SATB/SSATBB, 1970;
Lullaby of the Nativity (medieval anon.), SSA, 1978
Other vocal: 4 Nature Songs (R. Herrick, W. Shakespeare, W.B. Yeats), S, pf,
1964–77; Chbr Music (J. Joyce), S, gui, 1976–82; 2 Cabaret Songs (A. Brownjohn),
S, ens, 1987; Cada canción (F. García Lorca), v, pf, 1987
Inst: Columba, in memoriam Luigi Dallapiccola, pf, 1977; Trajet/inter/lignes, a
fl/fl/pic, perc, 1978; Slieve League, vn, va, 1979; Dreamlandscapes ‘Portrait of
Apollinaire’, pf, 1979–85; Symbols of Longevity (on Korean Paintings), cl, 1983–99;
Lines Written on a Sleepless Night, str trio, 1985–99; Mr Klee Visits the Botanical
Gardens, str qt, 1990–93; Wolferl at Berggasse 19, vc, pf, 1991–9; Sir Edward at
Garmisch, vn, 1992–6; Herr Schoenberg Plays Ping-Pong, pf, 1992–9; The
Excursions of Monsieur Jannequin, pf, 1997–; ‘… if, on a Winter's night, Schubert
… ’, vc, pf, 1997–9; The Eternal Waterfall (Microcosmicomics), vc, pf, 1998
Arrs.
MSS in GB-Lbl

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Larner: ‘Douglas Young’, MT, cxiv (1973), 787–90
K.-M. Hinz: ‘Verschmelzung des Disparaten: der Komponist Douglas
Young’, MusikTexte, no.19 (1987), 5–16
PETER HILL

Young, John
(b ?London, c1672; d London, c1732). English music printer, publisher and
instrument maker. The researches of Dawe, together with those of Ashbee,
have helped clarify the identification of members of this family. Young's
father was also John, but since he was still alive in 1693, he was evidently
not, as earlier surmised, the John Young who was appointed musician-in-
ordinary to the king as a viol player on 23 May 1673 and who had died by
1680 (according to the Lord Chamberlain's records). Young junior was
apprenticed to the music seller and publisher John Clarke, and was
established on his own by 1695. His publications included A Choice
Collection of Ayres for the Harpsichord or Spinett by Blow and others
(1700), William Gorton's A Choice Collection of New Ayres, Compos'd and
Contriv'd for Two Bass-Viols (1701), The Flute-Master Compleat Improv'd
(1706), the fifth and sixth editions of Christopher Simpson's Compendium
(1714) and other works. Some were issued in conjunction with other
publishers, including Henry Playford, Thomas Cross, John Cullen, John
Walsh and John Hare, so that such works as Jeremiah Clarke's Choice
Lessons for the Harpsichord or Spinett (1711), and editions of The Dancing
Master, Wit and Mirth, or Pills to Purge Melancholy and Purcell's Orpheus
britannicus include his imprint. A number of interesting works known to
have been published by Young are now lost, including John Banister's The
Compleat Tutor to the Violin (1699), Philip Hart's A Choice Set of Lessons
for the Harpsichord or Spinet (1702) and Alex Roathwell's The Compleat
Instructor to the Flute (1699). Young also had a high reputation as a violin
maker. His violin-playing sons, John (b London, 23 Aug 1694) and Talbot
(b London, 25 June 1699; d London, bur. 24 Feb 1758), both joined the
business. John in turn had a son, yet another John Young (b London, 1
March 1718; d London, 30 April 1767), who was a violinist and organist.
Talbot Young became the best-known violinist of the family and was a
member of the King's Music from 1717. With his father, Maurice Greene
and others, he established a series of weekly music meetings from about
1715. Held initially at the Youngs' premises, they eventually moved to
nearby taverns, and from the mid-1720s became known as the Castle
Society concerts. Talbot was also organist of All Saints, Bread Street
(1729–58), and a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1719. About 1741
the Youngs' business passed into the hands of Peter Thompson, who had
probably had an association with the firm since about 1731.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, i, v
BDA (‘Young, Talbot’)
Day-MurrieESB
EitnerQ
HawkinsH
Humphries-SmithMP
KidsonBMP
J. Pulver: A Biographical Dictionary of Old English Music (London, 1927/R)
M. Tilmouth: A Calendar of References to Music in Newspapers Published
in London and the Provinces (1660–1719), RMARC, no.1 (1961, repr.
1968)
P.M. Young: The Concert Tradition from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth
Century (London, 1965)
D. Dawe: Organists of the City of London, 1666–1850 (Padstow, 1983)
PETER WARD JONES

Young, La Monte (Thornton)

(b Bern, ID, 14 Oct 1935). American composer and performer. As a child
he learned the guitar and cowboy songs from his aunt Norma before taking
up the saxophone at the age of seven. He studied first with his father
Dennis, a sheep-herder, then with his great-uncle Thornton, a bandleader,
and from 1951 to 1954 at the Los Angeles Conservatory with William
Green, who also taught him the clarinet. Young played extensively in blues
and jazz bands in Los Angeles throughout the mid-1950s, as well as in the
orchestra, dance band and jazz combo at Los Angeles City College (1953–
6), while studying counterpoint privately with Leonard Stein (1955–6). He
took undergraduate courses at Los Angeles State College (1956–7) and at
UCLA (BA 1958), where he studied with Robert Stevenson, and did
postgraduate work at the University of California in Berkeley (1958–60).
Early in his first term he showed the Trio for Strings (1958) to his
composition teacher Seymour Shifrin, who organized its first performance
at his home in an unsuccessful attempt to show Young the error of his
ways. The Trio – composed entirely of long tones and rests, some lasting a
minute or more – is now generally recognized as a defining work in the
minimalist movement, and Young as its founder.
The spaciousness of the piece, which remains a model for Young's output
as a whole, is on one level a reflection of the spaciousness of his
upbringing until his teens and, on another, of his fascination with
variegated environmental drones – from the wind blowing through the logs
of the cabin where he was born, to the transformer he would listen to
beside his grandfather's gas station, to the motors he would sing along with
in the machine-shop where he worked after school. Young himself cites
gagaku and the static elements of Webern – which he ‘telescoped’ by
extending them exponentially – as the principal musical influences on the
Trio. He encountered another major influence at Stockhausen's (1959)
Darmstadt summer course seminar, which featured the music of Cage,
much of it performed live by David Tudor. Back in Berkeley, Young's
performances of Cage-inspired scores drew ridicule on campus but found a
sympathetic ear in the choreographer Ann Halprin, who invited Young and
his fellow student Terry Riley to accompany her troupe with outré friction
sounds, such as tin cans scraped across glass for the duration of a
performance.
In 1960 Young went to New York on a Hertz travelling fellowship to study
electronic music with Richard Maxfield at the New School for Social
Research. He organized the first loft-concert series in the city at Yoko
Ono's studio shortly after his arrival and edited the proto-Fluxus An
Anthology of avant-garde art (published after numerous delays in 1963),
including his own Compositions 1960. Termed ‘concept art’ by the writer
Henry Flynt, these pieces ranged from the purely abstract (e.g. no.15 ‘This
piece is little whirlpools in the middle of the ocean’) to those with a minimal
aural component (e.g. no.2 ‘Build a fire in front of the audience’). In 1963
Young founded the Theatre of Eternal Music, playing virtuoso sopranino
saxophone with the viol player John Cale, the violinist Tony Conrad, the
percussionist Angus MacLise, and the vocal drone of the calligrapher and
light artist Marian Zazeela, whom he married that year.
It was Riley's In C (1964) which inaugurated the style of modular repetition
adapted by other minimalists. Nonetheless, although Riley's innovation
grew out of his own early tape-loop compositions, Young had himself
experimented with radical repetition as early as arabic numeral (any
integer) in 1960, the integer in question being the number of times a note,
chord or sound (in ‘923’ a gong struck with a mallet, in ‘1698’ a forearm
piano cluster) was repeated in a given realization. However, his more
profound influence on minimalism, new age music and rock was in his
gradual extension of durations, beginning with the radical sustenance of
the Trio, moving on to the even longer tones of Four Dreams of China and
reaching the fully fledged drones of The Tortoise, his Dreams and Journeys
in 1964. With the departure of MacLise for India, the rhythmic element was
removed and the Theatre, singing and playing over the drone of, first, the
aquarium motor of the eponymous tortoise, and later of sine wave
oscillators which could theoretically extend tones ad infinitum, more closely
approximated the ‘eternal music’ of its title. In the same vein Young and
Zazeela began creating Dream Houses – long term installations comprised
of the otherworldly beauty of Zazeela's light art uncannily complementing
that of Young's drones. (A six-storey Dia Art Foundation environment in
Tribeca operated from 1979 to 1985; the most recent Dream House,
projected to last seven years, opened nearby in 1993.) By 1964 those
drones were tuned in just intonation, and Young's revival of this tuning
rivals in importance that of his extended durations.
His research bore fruit in The Well-Tuned Piano, a riposte to The Well-
Tempered Clavier in its rejection of equal temperament and its
compromises. Beginning as a 45-minute tape piece in 1964, the work has
now extended to 384 minutes in performance, developing from an
intriguing experiment to an epic masterpiece. The work explores often
exotically named chordal areas, alternating slow single-note sections with
‘clouds’, in which the keys are struck in such rapid succession as to create
the illusion of a sustained chord with their haze of harmonics. The slower
sections evoke the alap of classical Indian music, which Young studied with
master Kirana vocalist Pandit Pran Nath from 1970 until his death in 1996.
Those studies have also borne fruit in Young's return to his blues roots in
the 1990s with the Forever Bad Blues Band. While his early improvisational
performances with the band were, by Young's standards, short (under an
hour) explorations of a standard 12-bar blues progression in just intonation,
more recent performances, prefaced with a slow mode-establishing section
again reminiscent of alap, have extended to nearly three hours. As with
The Well-Tuned Piano, the elaboration has been qualitative as well as
 quantitative, a visionary exfoliation of the spirituality of the visceral blues
form in a manner hitherto unimagined.
After several rescorings of the Trio, Young returned to long-tone string
writing in Chronos Kristalla, commissioned by the Kronos Quartet. A
constant in all these varied efforts has been his desire, as he has put it, to
‘get inside a sound’ – whether a set of computerized harmonics held for the
duration of an installation or the I, IV or V chords of the blues explored over
a pedal for 15 minutes. The same desire to confront the listener on a
neurological level led him earlier in his career to extreme dynamic levels,
causing him, in 1964, to withdraw his soundtracks for Andy Warhol films
when the management of the Lincoln Center insisted on lowering the
volume. More recently, Young has achieved his aim more subtly with
electronic equipment capable of generating bass frequencies that are felt
as much as heard.
His uncompromising perfectionism has unfortunately restricted recordings
and thus, despite international touring, Young is perhaps more widely
heard of than heard. He withdrew from a Columbia Records contract in
1968 rather than accept an overdub, and remained relatively obscure while
later exponents of minimalism gained notoriety. However, his work has
appeared on Edition X, Shandar, Disques Montaigne, Bridge and most
notably Gramavison, which released a five-disc The Well-Tuned Piano (18-
8701-2, 1987), The Second Dream of the High-Tension Line Stepdown
Transformer (R279467, 1991), and a two-disc recording of the Forever Bad
Blues Band entitled Just Stompin' (R279487, 1993).
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDWARD STRICKLAND
Young, La Monte
WORKS
electronic, mixed-media, and sound environments
[untitled], live friction sounds, 1959–60; Poem for Chairs, Tables, Benches, etc.,
chairs, tables, benches, unspecified sound sources, 1960; 2 Sounds, pre-recorded
friction sounds, 1960; [untitled], collage of elec and concrete sounds, 1960
[untitled], sopranino sax, vocal drones, various insts, 1962–4; realizations incl.: B
Dorian Blues, 1963, The Overday, 1963, Early Tuesday Morning Blues, 1963;
Sunday Morning Blues, 1964
Pre-Tortoise Dream Music, sopranino sax, s sax, vocal drone, vn, va, sine waves,
1964
The Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys, vv, various insts, elec drones, 1964–;
realizations incl.: Prelude to The Tortoise, 1964; The Tortoise Droning Selected
Pitches from The Holy Numbers for The Two Black Tigers, The Green Tiger and
The Hermit, 1964; The Tortoise Recalling The Drone of The Holy Numbers as They
Were Revealed in the Dreams of The Whirlwind and The Obsidian Gong and
Illuminated by The Sawmill, The Green Sawtooth Ocelot and The High-Tension
Line Stepdown Transformer, 1964
Sunday Morning Dreams, tunable sustaining insts and/or sine waves, 1965; Map of
49's Dream The Two Systems of Eleven Sets of Galactic Intervals Ornamental
Lightyears Tracery, vv, various insts, sine wave drones, 1966–; The Two Systems
of Eleven Categories, 1966–; More Periodic Irrationals, 1966–7; Chords from The
Tortoise, His Dreams and Journeys, sine waves as sound environments, 1967;
Claes and Patty Oldenburg Commission, sound and light box, sound environment,
1967; Drift Studies, sine waves, 1967–; Frequency Environments, sine wave
drones, 1967–; Robert C. Scull Commission, sine waves, 1967; Chords from The
Well-Tuned Piano, sound environments, 1981–; The Big Dream, sound
environment, 1984; Orchestral Dreams, orch, 1985
The Big Dream Symmetries nos.1–6, sound environments, 1988; The Symmetries
in Prime Time from 144 to 112 with 119, sound environments, 1989; The Lower
Map of The Eleven's Division in The Romantic Symmetry (over a 60 cycle base) in
Prime Time from 144 to 112 with 119, tunable sustaining insts in sections of like
timbre, sound environment, 1989–90; The Prime Time Twins, sound environments,
1989–90; The Symmetries in Prime Time from 288 to 224 with 279, 261 and 2 X
119 with One of The Inclusory Optional Bases: 7; 8; 14:8; 18:14; 8:16:14;
18:16:14:8; 9:7:4 or The Empty Base, sound environments, 1991–
for conventional forces
Rondo, d, pf, c1953; Scherzo, a, pf, c1953; Annod, dance band/jazz ens, 1954;
Wind Qnt, c1954; Young's Blues, 1955–9; Variations, str qt, 1955; Five Small
Pieces for String Quartet ‘On Remembering a Naiad’, 1956; Fugue, d, vn, va, vc,
c1956; Op.4, brass, perc, 1956; Canon, any 2 insts, 1957; for Brass, brass octet,
1957; Fugue, a, any 4 insts, 1957; Fugue, c, org/hpd, 1957; Fugue, e , brass/other
insts, 1957; Fugue, f, 2 pf, 1957; Prelude, f, pf, 1957; Variations, a fl, bn, hp, vn, va,
vc, 1957; for Guitar, 1958; Trio for Str, 1958, arr. str qt, 1982, arr. str orch, 1983,
arr. vn, va, vc, db, 1983, arr. va, vc, db, 1984; Study, vn, va, c1958–9; Sarabande,
any insts, 1959; Studies I, II, inc., III, pf, 1959; [untitled], jazz-drone improvisations,
pf, 1959–62; Vision, pf, 2 brass, rec, 4 bn, vn, va, vc, db, 1959; arabic numeral (any
integer), to H.F., gong/pf, 1960
Target for Jasper Johns, pf, 1960; Young's Dorian Blues, G, c1960–1; Young's
Dorian Blues, B , c1960–1; Death Chant, male vv, carillon/large bells, 1961;
Young's Aeolian Blues, B , 1961; The Four Dreams of China, tunable, sustaining
insts of like timbre in multiples of 4, 1962; The Second Dream of The High-Tension
Line Stepdown Transformer from The Four Dreams of China, any insts that can
sustain 4-note groups in just intonation, 1962; [improvisations], sopranino sax, vocal
drones, insts, 1962–4; Studies in The Bowed Disc, gong, 1963; The Well-Tuned
Piano, prepared pf, 1964–; for Guitar [justly tuned], 1978
For Guitar Prelude and Postlude, 1 or more gui, 1980; The Subsequent Dreams of
China, 1980; Str Trio ‘Postlude from The Subsequent Dreams of China’, str, c1984;
The Melodic Versions of The Four Dreams of China, tunable sustaining insts of like
timbre in multiples of 4, 1984; The Melodic Versions of The Subsequent Dreams of
The Four Dreams of China, tunable sustaining insts of like timbre in multiples of 10,
1984; Orchestral Dreams, orch, 1985; Chronos Kristalla, str qt, 1990; Annod 92 X
19 Version for Zeitgeist, a sax, vib, pf, cb, drums, 1992; The Subsequent Dreams of
China in Simultaneity, 10 wind insts of like timbre/5 sustaining str, 1993; The Two
Subsequent Dreams of The Four Dreams of China in Perfect Simultaneity, 10 wind
insts of like timbre/5 sustaining str, 1993
action and text works
Compositions 1960, nos.2–6, 9, 10, 13, 15, 1960; Invisible Poem Sent to Terry
Jennings for him to Perform, 1960; Pf Pieces for David Tudor, nos.1–3, 1960; Pf
Pieces for Terry Riley, nos. 1–2, 1960; Compositions 1961, nos.1–29, 1961;
Response to Henry Flynt Work Such That No One Knows What's Going On, c1962;
Bowed Mortar Relays, 1964 [realization of Composition 1960 no.9]; Composition
1965 $50, 1965; The Gilbert B. Silverman Commission to Write, in 10 Words or
Less, a Complete History of Fluxus Including Philosophy, Attitudes, Influences,
Purposes, 1981
film scores
Eat (A. Warhol), tape, 1964; Sleep (Warhol), tape, 1964; Kiss (Warhol), tape, 1964;
Haircut (Warhol), tape, 1964
Young, La Monte
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.M. Young, ed.: An Anthology (New York, 1963)
J. Johnston: ‘Music: La Monte Young’, Village Voice (19 Nov 1964)
H.W. Hitchcock: ‘Current Chronicle’, MQ, li (1965), 530–40, esp. 538–9
B. Rose: ‘ABC Art’, Art in America, iii/Oct–Nov (1965), 57–69
C. Cardew: ‘One Sound: La Monte Young’, MT, cvii (1966), 959–60
R. Kostelanetz: The Theatre of Mixed Means (New York, 1968)
L.M. Young and M. Zazeela: Selected Writings (Munich, 1969)
R. Rosenbaum: ‘Eternal Music in a Dreamhouse Barn’, Village Voice (12
Feb 1970)
S. Kubota: ‘Art as a New Style Life: Interview with La Monte Young’,
Bijutsu Techō, no.2 (1971)
D. Caux: ‘La Monte Young: créer des états psychologiques précis’,
Chroniques de l'art vivant, no.30 (1972)
J. Rockwell: ‘Boulez and Young: Enormous Gulf or Unwitting Allies?’, Los
Angeles Times (13 Feb 1972)
N. Gligo: ‘Ich sprach mit La Monte Young und Marian Zazeela’, Melos, xl
(1973), 338–44
M. Nyman: Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond (London, 1974, 2/1999)
J. Rockwell: ‘La Monte Young Plays at Kitchen’, New York Times (2 May
1974)
S.S. Singh: ‘Interview with La Monte Young and Marian Zazeela’, East-
West Music (Rome, 1974) [festival catalogue]
R. Palmer: ‘La Monte Young: Lost in the Drone Zone’, Rolling Stone (13
Feb 1975)
D. Smith: ‘Following a Straight Line: La Monte Young’, Contact, no.18
(1977–8), 4
M. Nyman: ‘Against Intellectual Complexity in Music’, October, no.13
(1980), 82
R. Pelinski: ‘Upon Hearing a Performance of The Well-Tuned Piano’,
Parachute, no.19 (1980), 4–12; repr. in Interval, iv/3 (1984), 13–20;
iv/4 (1985), 16–29
K. Terry: ‘La Monte Young: Avant-Garde Visionary, Composer and
Pianist’, Contemporary Keyboard, vi/8 (1980), 12–18
P. Gena: ‘Freedom in Experimental Music: the New York Revolution’, Tri-
Quarterly, lii (1981), 223–43
P. Griffiths: Modern Music: the Avant-Garde since 1945 (New York, 1981)
R. Palmer: ‘A Father Figure for the Avant-Garde’, The Atlantic, ccxlvii/5
(1981), 48–56
J. Reinhard: ‘A Conversation with La Monte Young and Marian Zazeela’,
Ear Magazine East, vii/5 (1981–3), 4
D.J. Wolf: ‘Living and Listening in Real Time’, Interval, iv (1982–3), no.1,
pp.14–15; no.2, pp.27–32
W. Mertens: American Minimal Music (London, 1983)
R. Palmer: ‘Get Ready for the Music of Harmonics’, New York Times (17
July 1983)
J.M. Reusser: ‘La Monte Young: un musicien bien accordé’, L'autre
monde, no.68 (1983), 60
C. McCardell: ‘Sound Instincts: La Monte Young & his Breakthrough
Music’, Washington Post (15 Oct 1985)
M. Swed: ‘La Monte Young Tunes a Piano his Way’, Los Angeles Herald
Examiner (1 Nov 1985)
M. Feldman and L.M. Young: ‘A Conversation on Composition and
Improvisation’, Res, no.13 (1987), 153
K. Gann: ‘Maximal Spirit’, Village Voice (9 June 1987)
A. Rich: ‘La Monte Young's Minimalist Marathon’, Newsweek (27 July
1987)
J. Schaefer: New Sounds (New York, 1987)
L. Vidic: ‘Meet the Composer’, Ear, xii/3 (1987–8), 24
J. Kim: ‘Interview: La Monte Young’, Umak Tonga (1988) no.2, p.87
T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music (New York, 1989)
D.B. Doty: ‘The La Monte Young Interview’, 1/1 Just Intonation: the Journal
of the Just Intonation Network (1989–90), v/4, 1, 9–15; vi/1, 8–12
D. Caux: ‘John Cage, La Monte Young et la dissidence musicale
d’aujourd’hui’, Art Press, no.150 (1990), 48–52
J. Donguy: ‘Musique pour le rêve’, Art Press, no.150 (1990), 55–8
A. Licht: ‘The History of La Monte Young's Theatre of Eternal Music’,
Forced Exposure, no.16 (1990), 60
E. Strickland: American Composers (Bloomington, IN, 1991)
D. Suzuki: Minimal Music (diss., U. of Southern California, 1991)
C. Gagne: Soundpieces 2 (Metuchen, NJ, 1993)
K. Gann: ‘La Monte Young's The Well-Tuned Piano’, PNM, xxxi/1 (1993)
134–63
M. Johnson: ‘Randy Weston and La Monte Young, Kinds of Blues’, Pulse!
(1993), Nov
E. Rothstein: ‘La Monte Young Band Explores Sonic Space’, New York
Times (12 Jan 1993)
E. Strickland: Minimalism: Origins (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
K.L. Williams: ‘La Monte Young’, Down Beat, lx/8 (1993), 13 only
P. Carfi: ‘La Monte Young: il ritorno del maestro’, World Music, iv/16
(1994), 22
G. and N.W. Smith: American Originals: Interview with 25 Contemporary
Composers (London, 1994/R 1995 as New Voices: American
Composers Talk about their Music)
W. Duckworth: Talking Music (New York, 1995)
T. Miesgang: ‘La Monte Young: ein Interview’, Falter, ix (1995), 26
W. Duckworth and R. Fleming, eds.: Sounds and Light: La Monte Young
and Marian Zazeela, Bucknell Review, xl/1 (1996)
K.R. Schwarz: Minimalists (London, 1996)
K. Gann: American Music in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1997)
K. Potter: Four Musical Minimalists (Cambridge, 2000)

Young, Lester (Willis) [Pres, Prez]

(b Woodville, MS, 27 Aug 1909; d New York, 15 March 1959). American
jazz tenor saxophonist.
1. Life.
Young grew up in the vicinity of New Orleans and later Minneapolis. His
father, Willis Handy Young, taught all his children instruments and
eventually formed a family band that toured with carnivals and other shows.
Young learnt the violin, trumpet and drums, and settled on the alto
saxophone by about the age of 13. After one of many disputes with his
father, he left the family band at the end of 1927 and spent the following
years performing with various groups, including Art Bronson’s Bostonians,
with whom he took up the tenor saxophone, and Walter Page’s Blue Devils.
Early in 1932 Young joined the Thirteen Original Blue Devils, and while on
tour in Oklahoma City met Charlie Christian. He then made Kansas City his
base, and played with the Bennie Moten–George E. Lee Band, Clarence
Love, King Oliver and, on one night in December 1933, Fletcher
Henderson, then on tour with his star saxophonist, Coleman Hawkins.
In 1934 Young joined Count Basie, beginning an association that
eventually led to national recognition. He left Basie at the end of March as
a provisional replacement for Hawkins in Henderson’s band. Henderson’s
musicians rejected Young’s very different approach to the saxophone,
however, and he left after a few months. For the next year he performed
mostly around Kansas City and Minnesota on a freelance basis. By 1936
Young had resumed his association with Basie. In November of that year,
with a unit from Basie’s band, he made his first recordings. His solos on
Lady be Good and Shoe Shine Boy (Voc.) were immediately regarded by
musicians, many of whom learnt them note for note. During the next few
years, as Basie’s band became more famous, Young was prominently
featured on its recordings (for example, Jumpin’ at the Woodside, 1938,
Decca, and Clap hands, here comes Charlie, 1939, Voc.) and broadcasts.
Although he received mixed reviews from the critical establishment, the
younger generation of musicians, including Dexter Gordon, Illinois Jacquet
and others, were enthusiastic about his music. His small-group
performances, particularly Lester leaps in (1939, Voc.) and his many
recordings with Billie Holiday (notably All of me, 1941, OK), were especially
influential.
Young left Basie in December 1940 to form his own small band, which
performed in New York. In May 1942 he led a band with his brother Lee
(drums), which performed in Los Angeles and New York. When he rejoined
Basie in December 1943 Young came to the notice of the general public
and also a new generation of jazz musicians, among them John Coltrane,
Sonny Rollins and Stan Getz. In 1944 he won first place in the Down Beat
poll for tenor saxophonists, the first of many such honours.
On 30 September 1944 Young was drafted into the army but was court-
martialled the following February for drug abuse. After serving several
months in detention barracks in Georgia, he was released at the end of
1945 and resumed recording and performing in Los Angeles. At his first
recording session he produced a masterpiece, These Foolish Things
(Phil/Ala.).
Beginning in 1946 Young spent part of almost every year playing with Jazz
at the Philharmonic, touring the rest of the time with his own small groups.
From 1947 he developed and modified his approach successfully – his use
of double time and the choice of repertory showing the influence of bop.
However his health was becoming increasingly affected by an addiction to
alcohol, and from about 1953 until his death his recordings were noticeably
less consistent. Still, he was able to produce some of his best work on
concert recordings such as Prez in Europe (1956, Onyx). He made guest
appearances with Basie’s band in 1952–4 and again at the Newport Jazz
Festival in 1957 and in early 1959 he began an engagement at the Blue
Note club in Paris. He made his last recordings there in March, shortly
before his death.
2. Music.
Young was one of the most influential musicians in jazz. His style was
viewed as revolutionary when he was first recorded during the late 1930s,
and it was a primary force in the development of modern jazz in general
and the music of Charlie Parker in particular. The only influences to which
Young ever admitted were two white saxophonists of the 1920s, Jimmy
Dorsey and Frankie Trumbauer, especially the latter. Both possessed
exceptional technique and a light, dry sound. Dorsey was fond of timbral
effects achieved through low honks and alternative fingerings, and Young
carried these further. From Trumbauer, Young adopted a strong sense of
musical form, which was apparent even in his earliest recordings, such as
Lady be Good (ex.1) with its short motivic and rhythmic constructions, each
building upon its predecessor. Young’s beautiful and delicate sound must
be heard in order to appreciate fully the impact of this solo.

Young’s work of the 1940s and 50s was different in style from that of his
early years, but not necessarily inferior, as many critics have claimed. His
tone was much heavier and his vibrato wider. He was more overtly
emotional and filled his solos with wails, honks and blue notes. He drew
more heavily on a small repertory of formulas, especially simple ones such
as the arpeggiation of the tonic triad in first inversion at phrase endings. His
solos also contained astonishing leaps and bold contrasts (ex.2), relying
more on the alternation of repetition and surprise than on motivic
development. Significantly, musicians have praised his recordings of the
1940s alongside his early ones, indicating a clear appreciation of their
musical value.
Young’s impact on the course of jazz was profound. His superb melodic gift
and logical phrasing were the envy of musicians on all instruments, and his
long, flowing lines set the standard for all modern jazz. His personal
formulas are now the common property of all jazz musicians, and recur in
countless jazz compositions and improvisations. Sadly, the public, while
familiar with Young’s name, has little awareness of his music and its role in
jazz history. The feature film Round Midnight (1986), which was dedicated
to Young and Bud Powell, was largely based on Young’s life story.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Harris: ‘Pres Talks about Himself, Copycats’, Down Beat, xvi/8 (1949),
15
L. Feather: ‘Here’s Pres!’, Melody Maker (15 July 1950)
L. Feather: ‘Pres Digs Every Kind of Music’, Down Beat, xviii/22 (1951), 12
only
N. Hentoff: ‘Pres’, Down Beat, xxiii/5 (1956), 9–11
Jazz Monthly, ii/10 (1956) [special issue]
N. Hentoff: ‘Lester Young’, in N. Shapiro and N. Hentoff, eds.: The Jazz
Makers (New York, 1957/R), 243–75
D. Morgenstern: ‘Lester Leaps In’, JJ, xi/8 (1958), 1–3
W. Burckhardt and J. Gerth: Lester Young: ein Porträt (Wetzlar, 1959)
L. Gottlieb: ‘Why so Sad, Pres?’, Jazz: a Quarterly of American Music,
no.3 (1959), 185–96
F. Postif: ‘Lester: Paris, 1959’, JR, ii/8 (1959), 6–10; repr. in Jazz
Panorama, ed. M. Williams (New York, 1962/R), 139–44; new transcr.,
Jazz hot, no.362 (1979), 18–22; no.363 (1979), 34–7
V. Franchini: Lester Young (Milan, 1961)
D. Heckman: ‘Pres and Hawk: Saxophone Fountainheads’, Down Beat,
xxx/1 (1963), 20–22
J. Hammond and H. Woodfin: ‘Two Views of Lester Young: Recollections
and Analysis’, Jazz & Blues, iii/5 (1973), 10 only
G. Colombé: ‘Time and the Tenor: Lester Young in the Fifties’, Into Jazz,
i/3 (1974), 32
L. Gushee: ‘Lester Young’s “Shoeshine Boy”’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977,
pp.151–69
S. Dance: The World of Count Basie (New York, 1980), 28–36
R.A. Luckey: A Study of Lester Young and his Influence on his
Contemporaries (diss., U. of Pittsburgh, 1981)
L. Porter: ‘Lester Leaps In: the Early Style of Lester Young’, BPM, ix
(1981), 3–24
B. Cash: An Analysis of the Improvisation Technique of Lester Willis
Young, 1936–1942 (thesis, U. of Hull, 1982)
W. Balliett: ‘Pres’, Jelly Roll, Jabbo and Fats (New York, 1983), 119–28
D.H. Daniels: ‘History, Racism, and Jazz: the Case of Lester Young’,
Jazzforschung/Jazz Research, xvi (1984), 87–103
D. Gelly: Lester Young (Tunbridge Wells, 1984)
D.H. Daniels: ‘Lester Young: Master of Jive’, American Music, iii (1985),
313–28
L. Porter: Lester Young (Boston, 1985)
D.H. Daniels: ‘Big Top Blues: Jazz-Minstrel Bands and the Young Family
Tradition’, Jazzforschung/Jazz Research, xviii (1986), 133–53
G. Schuller: ‘Lester Young’, The Swing Era: the Development of Jazz,
1930–1945 (New York, 1989), 547–62
F. Büchmann-Møller: Just Fight for your Life: the Story of Lester Young
(New York, 1990)
F. Büchmann-Møller: You Got to be Original Man! The Music of Lester
Young (New York, 1990)
L. Porter, ed.: A Lester Young Reader (Washington DC, 1991)
L. Delannoy: Pres: the Story of Lester Young (Fayetteville, AR, 1993)

Oral history material in US-NEij

LEWIS PORTER

Young, Neil
(b Toronto, 12 Nov 1945). Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist. He
emerged in the late 1960s as a member of the critically acclaimed, Los
Angeles-based rock band Buffalo Springfield. He subsequently gained
mass exposure in the ‘supergroup’ Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young. This
widespread fame co-existed in the late 1960s and early 70s with his
growing reputation as a singer-songwriter and collaborator with bands such
as Crazy Horse and the Stray Gators. His early solo work with Crazy Horse
– including the albums Everybody knows this is Nowhere (1969) and After
the Gold Rush (1970) – has proved particularly enduring. On these albums
his fragile, expressive tenor, and jagged, lyrical lead guitar grace an
eclectic mixture of styles, including acoustic ballads, driving rock and lighter
country-rock. He coupled these gifts with a melodic songwriting style and
with pessimistic and occasionally enigmatic lyrics in such early songs as
Broken Arrow and Expecting to Fly (both with Buffalo Springfield), and
Cowgirl in the Sand (1969) and Only love can break your Heart (1970) from
the early solo albums. Songs such as Cowgirl in the Sand and Southern
Man (1970) provided ample solo space for his guitar playing, but the
ecstatic one-note solo in Cinnamon Girl (1969) best exemplifies his
minimalist tendencies. The epic narrative Cortez the Killer (from Zuma,
1975) broke new ground for Young in terms of subject matter and
displayed an intense lyricism in the extended guitar solo. Harvest (1972),
featuring predominantly folk and country-styled material, was his most
successful album in commercial terms, but drew mixed critical notices.
Young remained highly productive and commercially successful throughout
the 1970s and continued his occasional collaborations with Stephen Stills
(Long May You Run, 1976) and Crazy Horse (Rust Never Sleeps, 1979).
During the 1980s his eclecticism became even more extreme, ranging
through acoustic rock, hard rock, techno-pop, rockabilly, country and
rhythm and blues. The title song from the rhythm and blues album This
Note's for You (1987) criticized pop artists who made TV commercials; the
video of the title song was initially banned by MTV before eventually
winning an award for Best Video of the Year. By the end of the decade
Young showed signs of abandoning the almost wilful eclecticism of the
preceding years. Freedom (1989), followed by Ragged Glory (1990) with
Crazy Horse, were both critical successes and his most commercially
successful work for a decade. He was recognized as a predecessor to the
grunge bands of the 1990s by many of the younger musicians, principally
for his guitar style (which since the late 1960s has been characterized by
heavy distortion and ringing, open chords) and for his highly individualistic,
anti-commercial stance. This recognition resulted in Mirror Ball (1995), a
collaboration with Pearl Jam.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Rockwell: ‘Rock, Populism & Transcendental Primitivism: Neil Young’,
All-American Music: Composition in the Late Twentieth Century (New
York, 1983), 221–33
D. Downing: A Dreamer of Pictures: Neil Young, the Man and his Music
(London, 1994)
Neil Young: the Rolling Stone Files (New York, 1994)
DAVID BRACKETT

Young [Younge], Nicholas.

See Yonge, Nicholas.

Young, Percy M(arshall)

(b Northwich, Cheshire, 17 May 1912). English writer on music and music
educationist. He was educated at Christ’s Hospital (1924–30) and read
English, music and history as an organ scholar at Selwyn College,
Cambridge (1930–34; MusB 1933). He was director of music at Stranmillis
Teachers Training College, Belfast, from 1934 until 1937, when he took the
MusD at Trinity College, Dublin. From 1937 to 1944 he was music adviser
to the city of Stoke on Trent. In 1944 he became director of music at
Wolverhampton College of Technology; there he also formed a choir which
gave many performances, particularly of lesser-known works by Handel.
Since 1970 he has been a visiting scholar and lecturer at numerous
colleges in the USA.
Young is an exceptionally fluent and prolific writer. His books include short
popular biographies and several volumes for younger readers. Many of his
more substantial writings are based on a lively, fresh and industrious, if not
always highly discriminating, examination of source material; these include
original research on Elgar and useful surveys of the British choral tradition
and British music generally. As a composer Young has been equally
prolific: his works include a Fugal Concerto for two pianos and strings
(1954), a Festival Te Deum for massed voices, semichorus and organ
(1961) and much unpublished music for brass ensembles. He has edited
Handel’s Saul for the Hallische Händel-Ausgabe (Leipzig, 1972), Arne’s
cantata The Lover’s Recantation (Leipzig, 1988), and Elgar’s The Spanish
Lady, for the Elgar complete edition (London, 1991).
WRITINGS
‘The Royal Music’, ML, xviii (1937), 119–27
Samuel Pepys’ Music Book (London, 1942)
Handel (London, 1947, 3/1979)
The Oratorios of Handel (London, 1949)
Messiah: a Study in Interpretation (London, 1951)
Vaughan Williams (London, 1953)
Elgar O.M. (London, 1955, 2/1973)
ed.: Letters of Edward Elgar and Other Writings (London, 1956/R)
Tragic Muse: the Life and Works of Robert Schumann (London, 1957,
2/1961)
The Choral Tradition (London, 1962, 2/1981)
Zoltán Kodály (London, 1964)
ed.: Letters to Nimrod: Edward Elgar to August Jaeger, 1897–1908
(London, 1965)
A History of British Music (London, 1967)
ed.: Elgar: a Future for English Music and Other Lectures (London, 1968)
The Bachs 1500–1850 (London, 1970; Ger. trans., 1978; Jap. trans., 1985)
Sir Arthur Sullivan (London, 1971)
‘Vocal Music in England in an Age of Change’, Festschrift für Ernst
Hermann Meyer, ed. G. Knepler (Leipzig, 1973), 197–203
A Concise History of Music from Primitive Times to the Present Day (New
York and London, 1974)
Beethoven: a Victorian Tribute based on the Papers of Sir George Smart
(London, 1976)
Alice Elgar: Enigma of a Victorian Lady (London, 1978)
George Grove 1820–1900 (London, 1980)
‘Classics of Music Library Literature’, Modern Music Librarianship: Essays
in Honor of Ruth Watanabe, ed. A. Mann (Stuyvesant, NY, 1989),
159–72
‘Leipzig and Dresden: the Protestant Legacy’, American Choral Review,
xxxii/3–4 (1990), 7–76
Lichfield Cathedral Library: a Catalogue of Music (Birmingham, 1993)
Elgar, Newman and the Dream of Gerontius: in the Tradition of English
Catholicism (Aldershot, 1995)
DAVID SCOTT/R

Young, Simone
(b Sydney, 21 March 1961). Australian conductor. She studied composition
and piano at the NSW Conservatorium and made her conducting début at
the Sydney Opera House in 1985. In 1987 she was engaged as an
assistant conductor at the Cologne Opera, and in 1993 was appointed
Kapellmeister at the Berlin Staatsoper. Young has been the first woman to
conduct at the Vienna Volksoper (1992) and Staatsoper (1993), the Opéra-
Bastille (1993) and the Staatsoper in Munich (1995). Other important
débuts have included Covent Garden (1993), the Metropolitan Opera
(1995), both in La bohème, and the Munich PO (1996). Her repertory
 extends from Mozart to contemporary music, with special emphasis on
Wagner and Strauss, and her performances have been acclaimed for their
exciting theatricality. In 1997 Young embarked on a Ring cycle at the
Vienna Staatsoper.
CAROL NEULS-BATES

Young, Victor
(b Chicago, 8 Aug 1900; d Palm Springs, CA, 10 Nov 1956). American
composer, conductor and violinist. He began to play the violin at the age of
six, and four years later went to live with his grandfather in Warsaw, where
he studied at the conservatory. He made his début as a soloist with the
Warsaw PO in 1917. In 1920 he returned to the USA, and the following
year made his American début at Orchestra Hall in Chicago. Between 1922
and 1929 he was a leader in movie theatres, a musical supervisor of
vaudeville productions, a violinist and arranger for Ted Fiorito’s orchestra,
and the assistant musical director of the Balaban and Katz theatre chain.
He first worked for radio in 1929, and in 1931 became musical director for
Brunswick Records, where in 1932 he arranged and conducted several
selections from Show Boat with soloists, chorus and orchestra; released on
four discs, it was the first American album ever made from the score of a
Broadway musical. In 1935 he moved to Hollywood, where he formed his
own orchestra and joined the staff of Paramount Pictures.
During the next 20 years Young composed and conducted music for many
television and radio shows and record albums, and wrote scores (some
with collaborators) for over 225 films. He also composed instrumental
pieces (some of which originated in film scores), two Broadway shows and
a number of popular songs. He had a gift for writing pleasing melodies but
his music for the most part is conventional. His film scores are often
overwrought and incorporate excessively sentimental string writing, but
they are dramatically adequate and occasionally even eloquent. He won an
Academy Award (posthumously) for his score to Around the World in 80
Days.
WORKS
(selective list)

film scores
Ebb Tide, 1937; Maid of Salem, 1937; Golden Boy, 1939; Gulliver’s Travels, 1939;
North West Mounted Police, 1940; The Light That Failed, 1940; Hold Back the
Dawn, 1941; I Wanted Wings, 1941; Reap the Wild Wind, 1942; The Palm Beach
Story, 1942; For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1943; Frenchman’s Creek, 1944; Kitty,
1945; The Blue Dahlia, 1946; To Each his Own, 1946; Unconquered, 1947; The
Big Clock, 1948; The Night has a Thousand Eyes, 1948; Sands of Iwo Jima, 1949;
Samson and Delilah, 1949; Rio Grande, 1950; Payment on Demand, 1951;
Scaramouche, 1952; The Quiet Man, 1952; Shane, 1953; The Country Girl, 1954;
Three Coins in the Fountain, 1954; The Left Hand of God, 1955; Around the World
in 80 Days, 1956
 stage
Pardon our French (revue, E. Heyman), New York, 5 Oct 1950
Seventh Heaven (musical, V. Wolfson, S. Unger; lyrics, Unger), New York, 26 May
1955
songs
Sweet Sue (W.J. Harris), 1928; 9 songs, incl. A Hundred Years from Today, in
Blackbirds of 1933 (revue); Sweet Madness, in Murder at the Vanities (musical
play), 1933; Stella by Starlight (N. Washington; from the film: The Uninvited, 1944);
Love Letters (E. Heyman; from the film, 1945); The Searching Wind (Heyman; from
the film, 1946); Golden Earrings (J. Livingston and R. Evans; from the film, 1947);
My Foolish Heart (Washington; from the film, 1949); Our Very Own (J. Elliot; from
the film, 1949); Alone at Last (B. Hilliard; from the film: Something to Live For,
1952); When I Fall in Love (Heyman; from the film: One Minute to Zero, 1952);
Wintertime of Love (Heyman; from the film: Thunderbirds, 1952)
Bon Soir (Heyman; from the film: A Perilous Journey, 1953); Call of the Faraway
Hills (M. David; from the film: Shane, 1953); Change of Heart (Heyman; from the
film: Forever Female, 1953); The world is mine (S. Adams; from the film: Strategic
Air Command, 1955); Around the World in 80 Days (H. Adamson; from the film,
1956); I only live to love you (M. Gordon; from the film: The Proud and Profane,
1956); Written on the Wind (S. Cahn; from the film, 1956)
instrumental
for orchestra unless otherwise indicated – most composed 1935–52

Arizona Sketches; Columbia Square; Elegy to F. D. R.; For Whom the Bell Tolls;
Hollywood Panorama; In a November Garden; Leaves of Grass (after W.
Whitman); Overnight; Travelin’ Light; Manhattan Concerto, pf, orch [based on
the film scores]; Pearls on Velvet, pf, orch; Stella by Starlight, pf, orch [based on
the film score The Uninvited]; Stephen Foster, str qt

Principal publishers: Famous, Joy, Northern, Paramount

BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Young: ‘Confessions of a Film Composer’, Music Journal, xiv/7 (1956),
16, 38
C. McCarty: ‘Victor Young’, Film and TV Music, xvi/5 (1957), 21
T. Thomas: Music for the Movies (South Brunswick, NJ, and New York,
1973), 43–8
CLIFFORD McCARTY

Young [Joungh], William

(d Innsbruck, 23 April 1662). English composer and viol player. He was
among the 17th-century English musicians who served at continental
courts and carried to them a knowledge of the then much admired English
manner of performance on the viol. Jean Rousseau, in his Traité de la viole
(Paris, 1687/R), referred to the European reputations of some of these
players and mentioned three in particular, among them ‘Joung auprès du
Comte d’Insbruck’. Nothing is known of Young’s early life, though the
presence of five-part dances in a manuscript associated with Worcester in
the 1640s (GB-Ob Mus.Sch.E.415–18) suggests that he was already an
established composer before he left England, and possibly that he came
from the West Country.
The spelling ‘Joungh’ found in some sources of his music suggests that he
may already have been with Ferdinand Karl when the latter was Governor
of the Netherlands before becoming archduke of Innsbruck in 1646. He
had certainly entered the archduke’s service by 1652. Between February
and May of that year Ferdinand Karl and his wife Anna de’ Medici
undertook an Italian journey on which Young accompanied them as one of
their valets to Mantua, Parma, Modena, Florence and Ferrara.
Subsequently he was one of those who accompanied the court from
Innsbruck to Milan and in 1654 was probably the English musician referred
to in the court records as having received 100 ducats from the Emperor
Ferdinand III when Ferdinand Karl’s musicians, among whom was Antonio
Cesti, visited Regensburg.
In 1655, after her abdication from the Swedish throne, Queen Christina
was received into the Catholic Church at Innsbruck. She was entertained
there for ten days and recorded the great pleasure Young’s viol playing
gave her. At this time he was regarded as one of the finest viol players in
Europe, a judgment echoed by other guests on that occasion. A year later
the English merchant Robert Bargrave visited Innsbruck and heard Young,
whom he described as ‘groom of the bedchamber and chief violist to the
archduke’. On 26 August 1660 Young travelled to England but soon
returned to Innsbruck, where his death was recorded in the register of St
Jakob. The William Young who served in London from 1660 to 1670 as a
violinist in the royal music of Charles II has often been confused with the
composer, but does not seem to have been related to him; he came from
Ripon.
Young’s compositions for the viol played lyra-way are important; a few
were published, but many others remain in manuscript. He continued to
employ the technique in Innsbruck, for Bargrave stated that he had
developed there an eight-string viol to be played lyra-way. The fantasias for
viols represent Young working in the mid-century style of consort music
akin to that of Locke. The sonatas, on the other hand, show strong Italian
and German influences. The journey through Italy in 1652 must have
brought Young into direct contact with the developing sonata style there, a
contact reinforced by the presence of Italian musicians working in
Innsbruck. The pattern of his 1653 collection is similar to that of many
Italian publications of the time, and such features as the use of the title
‘canzona’ for imitative movements and, on occasion, of the rhythmic
metamorphosis of themes reflect the same influence. The disposition of
instruments, however, such as the preference for three or four violins in the
published sonatas and the combination of violin, bass viol and continuo
that occurs in several unpublished sonatas, is more in line with Germanic
usage. Young’s 1653 collection is the earliest set of works entitled ‘sonata’
by an English composer, and his use of the term canzona was a precedent
followed by Purcell. A copy of the collection was in Thomas Britton’s library,
and items from it are in a Restoration manuscript in Oxford.
 WORKS
[11] Sonate à 3, 4, 5 con alcune [19] allemand, correnti e balletti à 3 (Innsbruck,
1653/R); 3 sonatas, 19 dances, 2 vn, b, bc, 7 sonatas, 3 vn, b, bc, 1 sonata, 4 vn, b,
bc; ed. in DTÖ, cxxxv (1983)
3 sonatas (d, C, D), vn, b viol, bc, GB-DRc; 2 (d, C) ed. D. Beecher and B.
Gillingham (Ottawa, 1983); 1 (D) ed. P. Evans (London, 1956)
9 fantasias, tr, t, b, bc, Lbl, Lgc; ed. R. Morey (London, 1984–6) [possibly the
‘Fantasias for viols of three parts’ announced in 16695]

39 pieces, lyra viol, 16516, A-ETgoëss, D-Kl, F-Pc, GB-Cu, Cheshire County
Record Office, Chester, LBl, Mp, Ob, US-LAuc
23 pieces, 2 b viols, A-ETgoëss, GB-DRc, Ob
3 pieces, b viol, bc, A-ETgoëss, GB-DRc, Lcm
30 pieces, b viol; A-ETgoëss, HAdolmetsch, Ob, PL-Wtm; 29 ed. U. Rappen
(Hannacroix, nr Ravena, NY, 1989)

5 dances, a 5, GB-Ob (inc.)

6 dances, 2 tr, b, Ob; ed. W.G. Whittaker (London, 1930)
2 dances, tr, t, b, US-NH
Mr Young’s [8] Sharp Airs, tr, b, bc, GB-Ob
Mr Younges [11 dances] for two Lyra Viols, tr, b, bc [? 2 lyra viol pts missing], Ob
2 dances, tr, b, US-NH
Almain, vn, GB-Ob
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR
BDA
DoddI
GoovaertsH
HawkinsH
NewmanSBE
SennMT
W.G. Whittaker: ‘William Young’, Collected Essays (London, 1940/R), 90–
98
P. Evans: ‘Seventeenth-Century Chamber Music Manuscripts at Durham’,
ML, xxxvi (1955), 205–23
M. Tilmouth: ‘Music on the Travels of an English Merchant: Robert
Bargrave (1628–61)’, ML, liii (1972), 143–59
M. Caudle: ‘The English Repertory for Violin, Bass Viol and Continuo’,
Chelys, vi (1975–6), 69–75
G. Dodd: ‘William Young: Airs for Solo Viol’, Chelys, ix (1980), 33–5
J. Irving: ‘Consort Playing in mid-17th-Century Worcester’, EMc, xii (1984),
337–44
MICHAEL TILMOUTH/PETER HOLMAN

Young Chang.
South Korean firm of instrument makers. Founded in 1956 to assemble
upright pianos from imported components, the company began its own
manufacture in 1968 and profited from the country’s booming economy.
Though pianos imported to the USA in early years were reported as having
insufficiently seasoned lumber, improved methods have overcome these
difficulties. Manufacturing and shipping systems are sophisticated and
automated, and in 1996 the company opened a huge factory in Tianjin,
China. The quality of recent instruments is high. The concert grand has
attracted favourable notice, and the uprights are sturdy and sonorous. The
company has subsidiaries in Canada, the USA and Europe. In 1985 Young
Chang purchased the Weber name at the dissolution of the Aeolian
Corporation and in 1990 bought Kurzweil Musical Systems, which
produces very sophisticated electronic pianos and MIDI controllers.
Production in the mid-1990s was about 120,000 annually, with the opening
of the Tianjin factory expected to raise the figure substantially.
EDWIN M. GOOD

Young Poland.
A group of 20th-century Polish composers, including Fitelberg, Różycki,
Szymanowski and Szeluto. The term ‘Young Poland’ was proposed in 1898
by Artur Górski with reference to literature; his aim was to postulate the
idea of rebirth in that medium. In music a similar plea was made by Feliks
Jasieński in 1901. The revolutionary events that occurred in Russia in 1905
brought a heightened degree of expectation of political and artistic change
in the Polish territories. It was expected that the musical spirit of Young
Poland would assume an important role in concerts of contemporary music
at the Warsaw Philharmonic Hall, and there, on 6 February 1906, a concert
was given presenting works by all of the above named composers. The
following concert reviews labelled them as ‘Młoda Polska w muzyce’
(‘Young Poland in music’). Although this term was later used in a much
wider context, referring also to other contemporary Polish composers,
generally the label became synonymous with these four composers. There
were also, however, other reasons for regarding these composers as
constituting a recognizable group. In the autumn of 1905 Fitelberg,
Różycki, Szymanowski and Szeluto founded the Spółka Nakładowa
Młodych Kompozytorów Polskich (Young Polish Composers’ Publishing
Company) under the financial patronage of Prince Władysław Lubomirski.
The publishing house appointed to represent their company was Albert
Stahl in Berlin. The group did not formulate mottos or aim to present a
collective view regarding creative or artistic ideas. They did, however,
share the same broad views on art and the role of the creative artist; they
claimed the right to artistic freedom and respect towards their chosen path.
The group aimed to achieve support for new Polish music through the
publication of works by its members, but it was also open to other
composers; concerts were organized abroad as well as in Poland. (There is
a clear analogy here with Belyayev’s publishing company in Russia and
Koussevitsky and Rakhmaninov’s joint project in Berlin.) Contrary to the
views held by some, Karłowicz did not formally belong to this group; he
was nevertheless a supportive observer, and gave them his permission to
publish his song Pod jaworem (‘Under the Sycamore Tree’). The publishing
company lasted until about 1912 when Różycki joined Hansen, a Danish
firm, and Szymanowski, the true exponent of Young Poland, signed with
Universal Edition, Vienna. From this point the artistic paths of the founding
members of the company diverged.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Chybiński: ‘Jungpolen in der Musik’, Polnische Post (Vienna, 1908),
no.36
A. Chybiński: ‘Młoda Polska w muzyce’, Museion, iii (1911), 17–39
M. Gliński: ‘Młoda Polska w muzyce’, Muzyka, iv/6 [Warsaw] (1931), 189–
201
S. Łobaczewska: ‘Twórczość kompozytorów Młodej Polski’ [The works of
the composers of Young Poland], Z dziejów polskiej kultury
muzycznej, ii (Kraków, 1966), 553–642
T. Chylińska: ‘Młoda Polska: mit czy rzeczywistość?’ [Young Poland: myth
or reality?], Muzyka polska a modernizm: Kraków, 1981, 41–54
S. Jarociński: ‘Młoda Polska w muzyce na tle twórczości artystycznej
rodzimej i obcej’ [Young Poland in music against the background of
artistic creativity at home and abroad], ibid., 93–100
TERESA CHYLIŃSKA

Youngs, Alexander Basil.

See Young, Alexander.

Youth and Music.

An organization founded in London in 1954 by Robert Mayer, after the
model of the continental Jeunesses Musicales (to which it is affiliated), to
bridge the gap between his concerts for children and ordinary concert and
opera performances particularly by organizing block attendance at
performances. It is supported by a number of trusts, the Arts Council and
by commercial sponsorship.
HENRY RAYNOR/R

Yradier (y Salaverri), Sebastián de.

See Iradier sebastián de.

Yriarte, Tomás de.

See Iriarte, Tomás de.

Ysaac [Ysac], Henricus [Heinrich].

See Isaac, Henricus.

Ysaÿe, Eugène(-Auguste)
(b Liège, 16 July 1858; d Brussels, 12 May 1931). Belgian violinist,
conductor and composer. His first music teacher was his father, a violinist
(a pupil of François Prume) and conductor of amateur music societies.
Ysaÿe began studying with Désiré Heynberg at the Liège Conservatory in
1865, but he was an unsettled child and his attendance irregular, so that
the lessons with Heynberg were discontinued in 1869. However, he
returned to the Conservatory in 1872 and joined Rodolphe Massart's class.
He was unanimously adjudged co-winner with Guillaume Remy of the
Conservatory's silver medal in 1874, and also won a bursary which
enabled him to take lessons with Henryk Wieniawski in Brussels and then
study with Henry Vieuxtemps in Paris. Four years spent attending lectures
and concerts in the French capital helped him to make useful artistic
contacts. In 1879 he became leader of the Bilse orchestra in Berlin and he
stayed there until 1882.
At this time the patronage of Anton Rubinstein brought him his first
important contracts as a soloist (in Scandinavia, Russia and Hungary). He
returned to Paris in autumn 1883, and soon had many European
engagements. He maintained close links both with the great French
masters of the day – Saint-Saëns, Franck and Fauré – and with rising
composers such as d'Indy and Chausson. His first appearances at the
Concerts Colonne were triumphantly successful, and Belgium reclaimed
him; on the departure of Jenő Hubay, Vieuxtemps' successor at the
Brussels Conservatory, Gevaert appointed Ysaÿe to teach the prestigious
violin class there. His career was flourishing: besides performing as a
soloist he composed a quartet which immediately created a stir, making it a
point of honour for him to participate in concerts of avant-garde chamber
music in Paris and Brussels. He played in the first performances of many
outstanding works which are dedicated to him: Franck's Violin Sonata
(1886), Chausson's Concert (1889–91) and Poème (1896), d'Indy's First
String Quartet (1890), Debussy's String Quartet (1893) and Lekeu's Violin
Sonata (1892).
Ysaÿe's career was at its height from his first American tour in 1894 to the
outbreak of World War I in 1914. He played in the most famous concert
halls and his talent was universally acknowledged. He used his fame as a
virtuoso to launch new ventures: in 1895 he and Maurice Kufferath founded
the Société Symphonique des Concerts Ysaÿe, managing and conducting
a large orchestra which gave concerts mainly of modern music, and which
became a feature of Belgian musical life. A few months later he and Raoul
Pugno formed a duo which continued until Pugno's death in 1914. Although
Ysaÿe collaborated with other notable pianists such as Anton Rubinstein,
Busoni, Ziloti, Nat and his own brother Théophile Ysaÿe, his partnership
with Pugno was of exceptional renown. Their programmes set a new
standard in that they most often consisted exclusively of sonatas, which
was unusual at the time.
Having turned to orchestral conducting of his own volition, Ysaÿe was
increasingly obliged to take refuge in it: his playing was being impaired by
problems arising from neuritis and diabetes, and by his loss of bow control.
(The last was exacerbated by his unorthodox grip, which had not, however,
prevented him from developing one of the most immaculate techniques of
the time.) His health had been failing since the beginning of the century,
and his playing deteriorated rapidly during the war. He accepted the post of
conductor of the Cincinnati SO in 1918 and remained there until 1922,
giving precedence to modern French music. On returning to Belgium he
resumed several of his former activities – including the Concerts Ysaÿe and
the giving of private lessons – and up to 1928 he continued to perform in
notable concerts in Europe. (They included all Beethovan's sonatas with
Clara Haskil and the Violin Concerto conducted by Pablo Casals, for the
Beethoven centenary in 1927.) His right foot was amputated in 1929. He
gave his last concert in November 1930 and finished writing an opera (on a
popular Belgian subject), which was given its première at the Théâtre
Royal in Liège a few weeks before his death.
Ysaÿe's playing influenced three generations of violinists. He abandoned
the old style of Joachim, Wieniawski, Sarasate and Auer for one that
combined rigorous technique and forceful sound with creative freedom on
the part of the interpreter. To younger players such as Enescu, Flesch,
Huberman, Kreisler, Szigeti and Thibaud he was an example of absolute
devotion to his art, and the virtuosos of his own generation – César
Thomson, Hubay and Remy – always had to suffer comparison with him. At
the turn of the century, he was regarded as supreme among violinists and
when he gave the first performance in Berlin of Elgar's Violin Concerto (5
January 1912) the greatest contemporary violinists (including Kreisler,
Flesch, Elman and Marteau) were in the audience. As many eyewitness
accounts show, they were not disappointed: the wonderful sound, his
technique (including the variety of his vibrato) and his interpretation were
captivating; he was also well liked for his personality, which was marked by
generosity, a sense of solidarity with other musicians and an unquenchable
appetite for life.
Ysaÿe was long regarded as important in the development of the modern
style of violin playing. He also represented a synthesis of the qualities of
Franco-Belgian violin playing before virtuosity became an end in itself. To
Ysaÿe, virtuosity was indispensable (he admired Paganini and
Vieuxtemps), but as a means to re-create the music, rather than mere
exhibitionism (in this he agreed with Busoni, with whom he shared a liking
for transcriptions). This ideal, reinforced by his choice of high quality works
for his concerts (eloquently illustrated in the programmes of the Ysaÿe
Quartet and the Ysaÿe-Pugno duo), was not wholly realized by the next
generation: Thibaud, Kreisler, Enescu and others were influenced to some
extent, but between the wars their recitals only rarely equalled those of
Ysaÿe in choice of programmes and in their interpretation. Ysaÿe's
recordings, most of them made in 1912 in difficult circumstances, reveal an
exceptionally refined interpretative art.
From adolescence, and seemingly spontaneously, Ysaÿe joined the ranks
of virtuosos who were also composers, following the tradition of his
compatriots C.-A. de Bériot, Hubert Léonard and Henry Vieuxtemps. Some
early salon pieces and concertos made little mark at the time, but after he
became acquainted with French composers (Saint-Saëns, Fauré and the
school of Franck) he abandoned decorative virtuosity for an improvisatory,
passionate character; his scoring sometimes lacks subtlety, but the works
are full of harmonic originality. His Poème élégiaque preceded and inspired
Chausson's Poème, and expressionist anxieties can be heard in pieces
such as Exil for string orchestra. Ysaÿe was modest about his own
compositions and rarely played or conducted them. However, his witty
Caprice d'après l'Étude en forme de valse de Saint-Saëns, a piece of
sustained virtuosity, became famous. His Six Sonatas op.27 for violin solo
 and solo cello sonata (op.28), written after his return from the USA, bear
fascinating witness to Ysaÿe's art; in their harmonic originality and their
virtuosity, he was composing for posterity and the younger generation of
violinists. Increasing attention is paid to these pieces today, and they have
entered the solo violin repertory.
Of Ysaÿe's various ideas for the organization of musical life (he had hoped
to be appointed director of the Brussels Conservatory in 1912), two came
into being after his death, thanks to his friendship with Queen Elisabeth of
Belgium, to whom he gave violin lessons over a long period. One was the
Concours Eugène Ysaÿe, a competition intended to reward virtuoso
players and initiated in 1937 (after World War II it became the Concours
Musical Reine Elisabeth. The other was the Queen Elisabeth Chapelle
Musicale (1939), set up to give further training to graduates of the Belgian
conservatories.
WORKS
(selective list)

for a complete list, see Ysaÿe and Ratcliffe (1947); unless otherwise stated, works
published in Brussels

Piére li houïeu [Peter the Miner] (drame lyrique, 1, Ysaÿe), Liège, 4 March 1931,
unpubd
Vn, orch: Poème élégiaque, op.12 (Leipzig, c1895); Scène au rouet, op.14; Caprice
d'après l'Étude en forme de valse de Saint-Saëns (Paris, c1900); Chant d'hiver,
op.15 (London, 1902); Extase, op.18; Berceuse, op.20; Les neiges d'antan, op.23;
Divertimento, op.24; Fantasia, op.32; Concerto d'après deux poèmes, op. posth.,
ed. J. Ysaÿe; 8 concs., Suite, inc.: unpubd
Other orch: Méditation, vc, orch, op.16 (Paris, c1910); Sérénade, vc, orch, op.22;
Exil, str, op.25; Amitié, 2 vn, orch, op.26; Poème nocturne, vn, vc, orch, op.29;
Harmonies du soir, str qt, str orch, op.31
Vn, pf: 2 Mazurkas, op.10 (c1893); Etude-poème, op. posth.; Saltarelle
carnavalesque, 2 polonaises, Mazurka, Waltz, Berceuse, other works: unpubd
Other chbr: Trio de concert, 2 vn, va, op.19; 6 Sonatas, vn solo, op.27 (1924);
Sonata, vc solo, op.28; Qnt, 2 vn, 2 va, vc, op. posth.; Variations, on Paganini's
Caprice no.24, vn solo, ed. (London, 1960); 10 Preludes, vn solo, op. posth.;
Exercises et gammes, vn solo, op. posth.; Sonata, a, 2 vn, 1915, US-R

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Quitin: Eugène Ysaÿe: étude biographique et critique (Brussels, 1938,
2/1958)
F. Rasse: ‘Eugène Ysaije’, Académie royale de Belgique: bulletin de la
classe des beaux-arts, xxvi (1944), 85–115
E. Christen: Ysaÿe (Geneva, 1947)
A. Ysaÿe: Eugène Ysaÿe: sa vie, son oeuvre, son influence (Brussels,
1947; Eng. trans., 1947/R, as Ysaÿe, rev. B. Ratcliffe)
J. Quitin, ed.: Centenaire de la naissance de Eugène Ysaÿe (Liège, 1958)
L. Ginzburg: Ezhen Izai [Eugène Ysaÿe] (Moscow, 1959; Eng. trans.,
1980, ed. H.R. Axelrod)
M. Brunfaut: Jules Laforgue, les Ysaÿe et leur temps (Brussels, 1961)
 A. vander Linden: ‘Eugène Ysaÿe et Octave Maus’, Académie royale de
Belgique: bulletin de la classe des beaux-arts, lii (1970), 214–32
J. Maillard, ed.: ‘Lettres inédites d'Eugène Ysaÿe à Guy Ropartz’,RBM,
xxv (1971), 98–102
A. Ysaÿe: Eugène Ysaÿe, 1858–1931 (Brussels, 1972)
J. Quitin: ‘Eugène Ysaÿe et sa conception de la virtuosité
instrumentale’,Bulletin de la Société liégeoise de musicologie, no.39
(1982), 19
M. Stockhem: ‘Lettres d'Ernest Chausson à Eugène Ysaÿe’, RBM, xlii
(1988), 241–72
M. Stockhem: Eugène Ysaÿe et la musique de chambre (Liège, 1990)
MICHEL STOCKHEM

Ysaÿe, Théophile (Antoine)

(b Verviers, 2 March 1865; d Nice, 24 March 1918). Belgian composer,
pianist and conductor, younger brother of Eugène Ysaÿe. He studied at the
Liège Conservatoire from 1876 to 1880, and in 1881 joined his brother in
Berlin, where he studied wilh Kullak at the Neue Akademie der Tonkunst,
and where he became acquainted with Laforgue. In 1885 the Ysaÿe
brothers settled in Paris, and there Théophile studied composition with
Franck. His brother’s accompanist, he began a career as a virtuoso in 1886
and was professor of the piano at the Geneva Académie de Musique
(1889–1900). Back in Belgium he took an active part in his brother’s
Concerts Ysaÿe, principally as the rehearsal conductor. His own music is
close to Debussy in detail and to Franck in conception. His symphonic
poem Les abeilles was inspired by Maeterlinck’s La vie des abeilles. Its
style is Impressionist in the flowing melodic lines, the play of sonorities and
the poetic atmosphere that predominates in all three movements.
WORKS
(selective list; all dates of first performance)

Orch: Vie d’un héros, 1889, unpubd; Fantaisie sur un thème populaire wallon, op.13
(1903); Pf Conc., E , op.9, 1904; Sym. no.1, F, op.14 (1904); Les abeilles, op.17,
1910; Le cygne, op.15, 1911; La forêt et l’oiseau, op.18, 1911; Ouverture sur un
thème d’Atala, unpubd; Sym. no.2, 1914–15, unfinished
Inst: Variations, op.10, 2 pf, c1910; Pf Qnt, b, op.5, 1913; Str Qt, b , other pf pieces
Vocal: Requiem, solo vv, chorus, orch, c1906, unpubd; choral works, songs with pf
and with orch

MSS in B-Bsp

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Durand, Schirmer, Schott, Senart

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BNB (M. Kunel)
M. Schoemaker: ‘Souvenirs sur Théo Ysaÿe’, Syrinx II (1938), no.308,
pp.8–11
A. Ysaÿe: César Franck et son époque (Brussels, 1942), 50ff
M. Brunfaut: Jules Laforgue, les Ysaÿe et leur temps (Brussels, 1961)
M. Kunel: ‘Théo Ysaÿe (1865–1918)’, Vie wallonne, xxxviii (1964), 239–53
M. Stockhem: Eugène Ysaÿe et la musique de chambre (Liège, 1990)
HENRI VANHULST

Ysaÿe Quartet (i).

Belgian string ensemble, founded in Brussels in 1886 by the violinist
Eugène Ysaÿe with Mathieu Crickboom, Léon van Hout and Joseph Jacob.
It gave the premières of works by Franck, Fauré, d’Indy and Debussy and
all its members, in addition to their careers as soloists, made important
contributions to the teaching of string playing at the Brussels Conservatory.
TULLY POTTER

Ysaÿe Quartet (ii).

French string quartet, founded at the Paris Conservatoire in 1984 by
Christophe Giovaninetti, Romano Tommasini, Miguel Da Silva and Carlos
Dourthe. In 1985 Luc-Marie Aguera became the second violinist and in
1986 Michel Poulet became the cellist. From 1986 to 1989 the ensemble
studied in Cologne with members of the Amadeus Quartet; it also worked
with Walter Levin and with Hatto Beyerle – who recorded the Mozart G
minor Quintet with it. In 1987 it won the second prize at the Trapani
competition in Italy and in 1988 the second prize at Portsmouth and the
first prize at Evian. While its beauty of tone and perfection of ensemble
were much admired, both its interpretations and its platform deportment
were mildly eccentric. A reorganization in 1995 saw Aguera and Da Silva
joined by Guillaume Sutre as leader and Marc Coppey as cellist. This
formation proved no less inspired but more orthodox in its interpretative
outlook. The group has given the premières of works dedicated to it by
André Boucou and Franck Krawczyk. Among its recordings are outstanding
accounts of the string quartets by Debussy and Ravel and the piano
quartets and quintets by Fauré, with Pascal Rogé.
TULLY POTTER

Yso, Pierre.
See Iso, Pierre.

Ysoré [Isoré], Guillaume

(b early 16th century; d Paris, 11 March 1563). French composer. The
records of the Ste Chapelle du Palais in Paris reveal his appointment as a
singer there on 13 September 1522. Having served as church warden for
several years, he took clerical vows on 19 September 1526. On 1 July
 1543 he assumed the post of distributeur and by 29 August 1556 had
become permanent chaplain of St Louis, succeeding Noel Cybot.
Eight chansons survive ascribed to Ysoré – all but two of them for four
voices and all but one appearing in the 1530s. As a group, the four-voice
pieces do not conform to Parisian chanson style; rather, they show a
variety of stylistic techniques, including the pervasive yet flexible
counterpoint of Endurer fault, le temps, the ubiquitous employment of a
unifying motif in En revenant de jouer, and the indecisive harmony and
phrase structure of Ce qui me tient. The three-voice chansons differ from
these in that they are based on borrowed material. Si j’ay eu du mal ou du
bien borrows the superius of Sermisy’s setting, using it as its tenor, and
Trop dur m’est relies on Jacotin’s setting.
WORKS
Ce qui me tient en merveilleux esmoy, 4vv, 153411; Endurer fault, le temps le veult
ainsy, 4vv, 153411; En revenant de jouer trouvay m’amye, 4vv, 153411; Je
languiray si de vous n’ay secours, 4vv, 153413; Joye et douleur, 4vv, 15311, ed. A.
Seay, Thirty Chansons for Three and Four Voices from Attaingnant’s Collections
(New Haven, 1960), 70; Sans vous changer, 4vv, 15305; Si j’ay eu du mal, 3vv,
attrib. Gosse in P. Attaingnant: Trente et une chansons musicales a troys (Paris,
1535), attrib. Janequin in 154113, attrib. Ysoré in 154218; Trop dure m’est la longue
demourée, 3vv, Trente et une chansons musicales (Paris, 1535)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetM
LabordeMP
MGG1 (F. Lesure)
D. Heartz: ‘Au pres de vous: Claudin’s Chansons and the Commerce of
Publishers’ Arrangements’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 193–225
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN

Yssandon [Issandon], Jean

(b Lezat-sur-Lèze; fl Avignon, c1555–1582). French musician and author.
He wrote a short didactic work on practical music, Traité de la musique
pratique … le tout extraict de plusieurs auteurs latins et mis en langue
françoise (Paris, 1582/R). He dedicated the treatise to the humanist
Georges d’Armagnac, Archbishop of Avignon, his patron for 25 years or
more. The layout follows that of similar treatises by Bourgeois, Martin,
Guilliaud and Menehou published in the 1550s, although Yssandon
admitted only to Latin models and quoted Boethius, Tinctoris, Faber
Stapulensis and Listenius. Like his more immediate predecessor, Cornelius
Blockland (Instruction, Lyons, 1573, 2/1587/R), he included many musical
examples.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Lesure and G. Thibault: Bibliographie des éditions d’Adrian le Roy et
Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955), 43 [transcr. of ded.], 208
A. Seay: ‘French Renaissance Theory and Jean Yssandon’, JMT, xv
(1971), 254–72
 FRANK DOBBINS

Yu, Julian (Jing-Jun)

(b Beijing, 2 Sept 1957). Chinese composer, active in Australia. After
studying Chinese and Western composition at the Central Conservatory of
Music in Beijing, Yu joined the staff there (1977–80), then studied with Jōji
Yuasa at the Tokyo College of Music (1980–82). In 1985 he moved to
Australia, studying and then teaching at the Queensland Conservatorium
before studying with Henze and Knussen at Tanglewood through an
Australia Council Fellowship, where he received the Koussevitzky
Tanglewood Prize. His awards include the Irino Prize (1989), two Paul
Lowin Orchestral Prizes (1991, 1994) and the Vienna Modern Masters
Recording Award for Wu-Yu (1992); his works have been widely
performed. Yu’s music is fastidiously crafted, displaying a rigorous control
of complex texture and orchestration. Central to his technique is a principle
derived from traditional Chinese improvisation involving building up layers
of elaboration. He applies this both to traditional Chinese models and to
Western works. In Reclaimed Prefu (1989), for example, the arpeggiated
chords of the first prelude of Bach’s Das wohltemperirte Clavier are
expanded across a brilliant and massively sonorous keyboard range, while
Brahms’s music is reworked in the Piano Quartet (1992).
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: The White Snake (puppet op), op.19, 1989; Fresh Ghosts (op, 7 scenes, G.
Perry, after Lu Xun), 1997
Orch: Wu-Yu, op.14, 1987; Great Ornamented Fuga Canonica, op.17, 1988; First
Australian Suite, op.22, chbr orch, 1990; Hsiang-Wen [Filigree Clouds], op.23,
1991; Ballad, op.24, zheng, str, 1991; 3 Sym. Poems, op.31, 1994; Philpentatonia,
op.32, chbr orch, 1994; Oasis, 1995; Sinfonia passacaglissima, op.35, 1995; Conc.,
mar, small orch, 1996; Lyrical Conc., op.39, fl, orch, 1997
Chbr: 4 Pieces, op.7, wind qnt, 1981; Scintillation II, op.12, pf, 2 vib, glock, 1987;
Scintillation III, op.13, fl, pf, 1987; Medium Ornamented Fuga Canonica, op.16, wind
qnt, 1988; Reclaimed Prefu, 2 pf, 1989; Let me Sing Sonya’s Lullaby, op.25, fl, gui,
va, db, 1991; Pf Qt, op.26, 1992; Qt, op.28, 2 mar, xyl, timp, 1992;
Passacaglissima, fl, cl, str qt, 1994; Pentatonicophilia, op.32, fl, db, ens, 1995;
Atonos, op.36, fl, cl, str trio, 1995; Variations on a Theme by Paganini, op.37, fl, cl,
str qt, 1995
Solo inst: 4 Pieces based on Tajik Folk Songs, op.4, pf, 1979; 3 Pieces based on
Tartar Folk Songs, op.5, pf, 1980; Impromptu, op.9, pf, 1982, rev. 1986; Crossing,
op.10, fl, 1985; Scintillation I, op.11, pf, 1987; Dovetailing, op.29, vc, 1993; The
Magic Bamboo Flute, op.30, pf, 1993
Choral: In the Sunshine of Bach, SATB, 1989; 4 Haiku (Matsuo Basho), S, pf, 1992;
Ode to the Plum-Blossom (Mao Tse-Tung), SATB, fl, cl perc, hp, vn, vc, db, 1995

Principal publisher: Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY
CC1 (L. Whiffin)
J. Yu: ‘Tradition, Ethnic Integration and Contemporary Composition’,
Sounds Australian, no.30 (1991), 25
B. Broadstock, ed: Sound Ideas: Australian Composers Born Since 1950
(Sydney, 1995), 239–40
PETER McCALLUM

Yuasa, Jōji
(b Kōriyama, 12 Aug 1929). Japanese composer. He studied medicine at
Keio University, Tokyo (1949–51), abandoning this course for composition.
From 1951 to 1957 he was active as a member of the Jikken Kōbō
(Experimental Workshop), together with Takemitsu and others. In
composition he is self-taught, yet his music shows an exceptional
sensitivity to sonority and an intellectual approach to the handling of
materials. His compositional attitude is, however, quite unconventional,
which may be due in part to his medical interest in auditory physiology as
well as his experience with nō music; he is particularly skilled in distributing
sounds of various tone-colours in a ‘space’ without attempting any logical
formal arrangement.
The early works Yuasa wrote for the Jikken Kōbō were mainly for small
forces, such as Three Score Set (1953) for piano and the 12-note
Projection for Seven Performers (1955). He was one of the first Japanese
composers to take an interest in musique concrète, which he attempted to
combine with visual performance in several examples of ‘musique concrète
with auto-slides’, among them Mishiranu sekai no hanashi (‘The Story of an
Unknown World’, 1953). In 1964 he began to work frequently at NHK’s
Electronic Music Studio, producing such pieces as Comet Ikeya and Ai to
shura (‘Love and Asura’), both of which won Italia prizes, and Mandala,
which won the Grand Prize at the Japanese government Arts Festival. His
Voices Coming (1969), utilizing recorded telephone conversations and
speech as its materials, provoked a dispute as to whether it is music or not;
Projection (1970), for string quartet, makes effective use of noises as its
principal texture. In Utterance (1971), for mixed chorus, Yuasa uses
onomatopoeic sounds, with no text. Chronoplastic (1972), for orchestra,
with its varied use of clusters, won both the Otaka and the Art Festival
prizes. Constantly seeking new means of sonic expression, his
experiments include a theatre piece (Yobikawashi, 1973), a dance piece
(Ceremony for Delphi, 1979), recitations with action (Observations on
Weather Forecasts, 1983) and what he calls a ‘computer-controlled live
theatrical performance’ (Futurity, 1989). Further possibilities for the creation
of new sonorities appeared with his first work for computer, A Study in
White I (1987). In 1968 he received a Japan Society Fellowship, which
enabled him to make a lecture tour of the USA and Europe. Since 1970 he
has often been invited as a guest composer and lecturer to international
festivals. In 1981 he was invited to be professor of composition at the
University of California in San Diego, and in the following years became a
professor at Nihon University and also a guest professor at the Tokyo
College of Music.
WORKS
 (selective list)

Orch: Projection for Koto and Orch ‘Hana, tori, kaze, tsuki’ [Flower, Bird, Wind,
Moon], 1967; Music for Space Projection, orch, tapes, 1970; Chronoplastic, 1972;
Ōkesutora no toki no toki [Time of the Time for Orch], 1976; Bashō ni yoru jōkei
[Scenes from Bashō], 1980; Requiem, 1980; Toshizuhō [Perspective], 1983;
Hirakareta toki [Revealed Time], va, orch, 1986; Nine Levels by Ze-ami, orch,
quadraphonic tape, 1988; Bashō no jōkei II [Scenes from Bashō II], 1989;
Hommage à Sibelius, 1991; Shigen eno gansa II [Eye on Genesis II], 1992;
Concertino, pf, orch, 1994; Oku no hosomichi [The Narrow Road into the Deep
North], suite, 1995; Vn Conc., 1996; Cosmic Solitude, 1997
Chbr: Projection for 7 Performers, fl, ob, cl, hn, tpt, pf, vc, 1955; Sō soku sō nyū
[Interpenetration], 2 fl, 1963; Projection for Vc and Pf, 1967; Projection for Str Qt,
1970; Inter-posi-play-tion I, fl, pf, 2 perc, 1971; Inter-posi-play-tion II, fl, hp, perc,
1973; Ryō-iki, mar, fl, cl, perc, db, 1974; My Blue Sky no.3, str, 1977; Fuyu no hi:
Bashō san [A Winter Day: Homage to Bashō], fl, cl, hp, pf, perc, 1981; Fushi
Yukigumo, Jap. insts, 1988; Nai-shokkakuteki uchū III: Kokū [Cosmos Haptic III:
Empty Space], nijūgen, shakuhachi, 1989; Jo, fl, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1994; Jo ha kyū, fl,
vn, vc, pf, perc, 1996; Projection for Str Qt II, 1996; Solitude in Memorial T.T., vn,
vc, pf, 1997
Solo inst: 2 Pastorales, pf, 1952; 3 Score Set, pf, 1953; Nai-shokkakuteki uchū
[Cosmos Haptic], pf, 1957; Projection Topologic, pf, 1959; Projection Esemplastic,
pf, 1961; Projection, elec gui, 1968; Triplicity, db, 1970; On the Keyboard, pf, 1972;
Not I, but the Wind, a sax, 1976; Clarinet Solitude, cl, 1980; Nai-shokkakuteki uchū
II: Hen'yō [Cosmos Haptic II: Transfiguration], pf, 1986; Maibataraki, nōkan/a fl,
1987; To the Genesis, sho, 1988; Terms of Temporal Detailing, b fl, 1989; Kokū:
shigen e [Empty Space: Towards the Genesis], accdn, 1993; Viola locus, va, 1995
Tape and cptr: Mishiranu sekai no hanashi [The Story of an Unknown World], 1953;
Projection Esemplastic with White Noise, 1964; Comet Ikeya, 1966; Ai to shura
[Love and Asura], 1967; Icon on the Source of White Noise, 1967; Mandala, 1967;
Voices Coming, 1969; Music for Space Projection, 1970; The Midnight Sun, pf,
tape, 1984; Studies in White, I–II, tape, cptr, 1987; A Study in White, cptr, 1989;
Shigen eno gansa I [Eye on Genesis I], cptr, 1991
Vocal: Toi [Questions], chorus, 1971; Utterance, chorus, 1971; Projection on
Bashō’s Poems, chorus, vib, 1974; Bashō goku [Poems by Bashō], 1v, jūshichigen,
koto, 1978; Giseion ni yoru Projection [Projection for Onomatopoeic Sounds],
chorus, 1979; Furusato eishō [Songs for Homeland], female chorus, pf, 1982;
Tenkiyohō shoken [Observations on Weather Forecasts], Bar, tpt, 1983;
Natsukashii Amerika no uta [Dear Old America Songs], chorus, 1984; Shin kiyari:
Kanda sanka [New Kiyari: a Praise of Kanda], male chorus, 1984; Compositions of
Nine Vectors, male chorus, 1984; Giseion ni yoru uta-asobi [Play Songs on
Onomatopoeia], chorus, 1985; Mutterings (R.D. Laing), S, fl + a fl, cl + b cl, vn + va,
vc, amp gui, perc, pf, 1988; Phonomatopoeia, chorus, 1991; Kyōka sanka, chorus,
brass ens, 1993; Responsorium, S, A, T, B, chorus, orch, 1995 [movt 13 of
Requiem der Versöhnung, collab. Berio, Cerha, Dittrich and others]
Stage: Circus Variation (ballet), 1954; Aya no tsuzumi (music for nō), str qt, 1955;
Carmen (ballet), band, 1956; Aoi no ue (music for nō), tape, 1961; Kiguchi Kohei wa
inujini [Kohei Kiguchi Died in Vain] (music for drama), 1963; Yobikawashi [Calling
Each Other] (theatre piece), vv, 1973; Derufi no tameno gishiki [Ceremony for
Delphi], tape, chorus, shakuhachi, perc, dancers, 1979; Futurity (cptr-controlled
theatre), 1989
Film scores: Shiroi nagai sen no kiroku [The Record of a White Long Line], 1960;
Haha-tachi [Mothers], 1967; Autonomy, 1972; Shijin no shōgai [A Poet’s Life]
(music for animation), 1974; Akuryō-tō [Island of Evil Spirits], 1982; O-sōshiki [A
Funeral], 1985

Principal publisher: Schott (Japan), Zen-on Music Co. Ltd, Ongaku-no-Tomo Sha

WRITINGS
Gendai ongaku: toki no toki [Modern music: time of the time] (Tokyo, 1978)
Taidanshū: ongaku no kosumorojīe [Towards a musical cosmology: a
collection of talks] (Tokyo, 1982)
‘Gendai ongaku to nō’ [Modern music and nō], Kokubungaku, xxxi/10
(1986), 51–5
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (L. Galliano)
K. Akiyama: ‘Yuasa Jōji’, Record geijutsu (1972), June, 112ff
T. Kakinuma: ‘Yuasa Jōji to gengo toiu sōchi’ [Yuasa and words as
devices], Ongaku geijutsu, xlii (1984), no.10, pp.100–03; no.11,
pp.105–9; no.12, pp.96–101
K. Hori, ed.: Nihon no sakkyoku nijusseiki [Japanese compositions in the
20th century] (Tokyo, 1999), 267–9
MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Yudina, Mariya (Veniaminovna)

(b Nevel', 29 Aug/10 Sept 1899; d Moscow, 19/20 Nov 1970). Russian
pianist. Her first teacher was Frida Teitelbaum-Levinson, with whom she
had lessons for six years. In 1912 she entered the Petrograd Conservatory,
where, aside from studying the piano with Yesipova, Drozdov, Blumenfeld
and later Nikolayev, she also undertook a wide range of other courses. She
joined the faculty of the conservatory in 1921 (and remained there until
1930), whilst the same year making her formal début with the Petrograd
PO under Emil Kuper. Her first solo recital in Moscow took place in 1929.
Following two years from 1932 spent teaching at the Tbilisi Conservatory,
she moved permanently to the Russian capital, serving as a professor at
the conservatory from 1936 to 1951, where she also gave classes in
singing, and teaching concurrently at the Gnesin Institute from 1944 to
1960. She produced Taneyev's Orestes at the conservatory in 1939,
repeating it in 1946, and gave her final recital in May 1969.
A renowned Bach player, whose ability to master and to project details of
counterpoint won unanimous admiration, Yudina had a serious interest also
in promoting 20th-century music, and gave several performances of works
by Stravinsky, Hindemith and Shostakovich. Also noted as an effective
Beethoven interpreter, among her many recordings are versions of the
Fourth Concerto, the Choral Fantasy, the Hammerklavier Sonata and
Diabelli Variations. All are played with a fine mastery of pianism. The
eccentricities of Yudina's personality were to some extent reflected in her
interpretations, most particularly in the freedom she took with regard to
tempo markings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Yudina: ‘Mïsli o muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve’ [Thoughts on musical
performance], Muzïka i muzïkantï Leningrada (Leningrad and Moscow,
1972), 202 [transcript of conversation of 30 Oct 1970]
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Yueqin.
Short-necked lute of the Han Chinese. Literally ‘moon qin’, the name is
often popularly translated as ‘moon lute’. The yueqin is constructed of a
short fingerboard inserted into a large circular resonating chamber (about
60 cm in total length). Distinguishing features include four long tuning pegs
inserted laterally into the pegbox, soundboards of softwood (commonly
wutong) covering the top and bottom of the resonating chamber, and
between eight and 12 bamboo frets glued to the neck and upper part of the
soundboard. On traditional lutes, four silk strings are grouped in two double
courses and tuned a 5th apart.
The yueqin is historically related to several Han Chinese lutes, especially
the qinqin, shuangqing and ruan. The qinqin (‘Qin [kingdom] qin’) has a
long fretted neck, often only two or three strings (pitched about one octave
lower than the yueqin) and a scalloped or ‘plum blossom’ shaped
resonating chamber (about 90 cm in total length). The shuangqing (literally
‘double clear’) or shuangqin, a lute known since the 18th century,
resembles the qinqin in size, though it has four strings and an octagonal
resonating chamber. These instruments can all be traced back to the
ancient ruan, a lute which was described by different names in the
literature of the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). During the Tang dynasty
(618–907), the instrument was most commonly known as ruanxian after the
name of a famous 3rd century ce performer. The Shōsōin repository in
Japan is in possession of two beautifully decorated ruanxian (Jap. genkan)
from the Tang period, each about 100 cm in length, with four evenly
distributed strings (not in double courses). In the music treatise Yueshu
(c1100), the same lute is described as having a round soundbox, long
neck, four strings and 13 frets, but it is called yueqin rather than ruanxian.
While the artwork of this period shows the ruanxian to have been present in
instrumental ensembles, its popularity faded over time and it survived but
marginally into the 20th century.
The yueqin (essentially a ruanxian with short neck) and qinqin (a ruanxian
with small scalloped soundbox) are both still in use. The qinqin is especially
common in Chaozhou and Cantonese traditions of south China, and the
yueqin is most frequently employed in Beijing opera ensembles. Yueqin
variants are also used in accompaniment of dance-songs and other genres
of the Yi and other minority peoples of south-west China.
When the modern concert-hall ensembles were formed during the mid-20th
century, the ruanxian (popularly known as ruan) was revived, and it and the
yueqin were ‘improved’ at the state-owned instrument factories, both given
many more frets (up to 24) for increased range and chromatic capability,
and repositioned to accommodate the Western ideal of equal
temperament. The new ruan is now constructed in various sizes, tenor
(zhongruan) and bass (daruan) being especially effective support
instruments within large ensembles. The new yueqin retains its former size,
but its string numbers are usually reduced from four to three, and tuned to
separate pitches for an extended range. In spite of this change, the new
yueqin has not won wide acceptance into the modern Chinese orchestra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Hayashi and others: Shōsōin no gakki [Musical instruments in the
Shōsōin] (Tokyo, 1967) [with Eng. summary]
Yuan Bingchang and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo shaoshu minzu yueqi
zhi [Dictionary of musical instruments of the Chinese minorities]
(Beijing, 1986), 229–40
Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record
of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987)
A. Thrasher: La-Li-Luo Dance-Songs of the Chuxiong Yi, Yunnan
Province, China (Danbury, CT, 1990), 43–51
Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese
musical instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 210–15
Zheng Ruzhong: ‘Musical Instruments in the Wall Paintings of Dunhuang’,
CHIME, no.7 (1993), 4–56
ALAN R. THRASHER

Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of

(Serb. Savezna Republika Jugoslavija).
Country in eastern Europe. Yugoslavia consists of the republics of Serbia
and Montenegro and the autonomous provinces within Serbia of Kosovo,
Metohija and Vojvodina. It has a population of about 10·5 million people
(2000 estimate) and was formed in April 1992 following the break up of the
socialist republic, which had also included Bosnia-Hercegovina, Croatia,
Macedonia and Slovenia. The official language is Serbian, written in
Cyrillic. The majority of the population is Orthodox Christian, but there are
large Muslim minorities, especially in Kosovo and Metohija. Ethnically
Kosovo and Metohija are 80% Albanian, and there is a large Hungarian
minority in Vojvodina. Gypsies are present in almost every region of
Yugoslavia.
I. Historical background
II. Art music
III. Traditional music
DRAGOSLAV DEVIĆ (I; III, 1–2), ROKSANDA PEJOVIĆ (II), JANE
SUGARMAN (III, 3)
Yugoslavia

I. Historical background
In the 5th–7th centuries ce parts of south-eastern Europe were settled by
Slavonic tribes arriving from the north. Orthodox Christianity was adopted
by the south Slavs in the 9th century, and the medieval Serbian state
established close relations with Byzantium and its culture (manifest in
liturgical music). The medieval state was destroyed by the Turks at the
battle of Kosovo in 1389; there then followed five centuries of Ottoman rule.
This period of Turkish domination particularly influenced urban musics, in
instrumentation and melodics, and also the rural musics of Muslim
populations. Following Venetian conquests in the Mediterranean, western
European musical influences, especially from Italy, increased along the
Montenegrin coast and in the Bay of Kotor.
At the end of the 17th century, contact was re-established with central
European culture. Gradually, during the 18th century, cultural influence
from the Austro-Hungarian monarchy spread among the Serbian
population of Vojvodina. This influence spread southwards into the central
regions of Serbia and contributed to the uprisings against the Turks and the
liberation of Serbia in 1867. From then onwards urban populations became
increasingly open to influence from western Europe, unlike people in the
mountainous regions of Serbia and Montenegro who continued to maintain
their traditional instruments and music.
Yugoslavia

II. Art music

1. Before 1800.
The history of art music in the region began after the arrival and
Christianization of Serbs and other Slav tribes in the 9th century. Under
Byzantine influence, they developed church music in their own language,
and from the 12th century onwards they had an independent state, which
under Emperor Stefan Dušan (1331–55) held territory from the Sava and
the Danube down to the Gulf of Corinth.
Serbian chant followed the Byzantine system of eight modes and included
both syllabic and melismatic settings of hirmos, troparions, kontakions and
other hymns. Some were composed as text and music together (idiomela);
some melodies were taken as models (automela) for settings of other texts
(prosomoia). After the defeat of the Serbs by the Turks at the Battle of
Kosovo in 1389, manuscripts were made to preserve Serbian chant —
including compositions by Stephen the Serb, Nicholas the Serb and Isaiah
the Serb — in middle Byzantine neumatic notation.
During the Turkish occupation, which lasted until the 19th century, Serbian
church music had to continue largely in secret. Many manuscripts were
kept at the monastery of Chilandar on Mount Athos, which had been
established by Emperor Stefan Nemanjić (1166–1196), founder of the
ruling dynasty. These manuscripts have late Byzantine neumes and texts
in Greek, Greek Slavonic, Russian and Church Slavonic, including texts
from the liturgies of Serbian saints (St Simeon, St Sava etc.). The
manuscripts are from the 18th century (sticherons from the oktōēchos) and
are akin to Greek, Bulgarian and Russian sources of the period.
Secular music was cultivated at the courts of the emperors and noblemen.
Stefan Prvovenčani, the son of Nemanjić, had musicians playing the gusle
and kettledrum in his service and Stefan Dušan's musicians were the
trumpeter Dragan of Prizren, Preda and the blind Hrusa. Musicians from
the courts of Serbia, Bosnia (where King Tvrtko II, d 1443, had a band of
dancers, instrumentalists and actors), Hercegovina and Montenegro all
played in Dubrovnik. Some indication of their activities may perhaps be
gleaned from frescoes in Serbian churches and monasteries (Bogorodica
Ljeviška, Nagoričane, Dečani), miniatures, icons in Byzantine style and
reliefs (at Dečani and Kalenić).
The Great Migration of Serbs under Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević in
1690, and later migrations into southern Hungary, led to changes in church
music. Greek and Russian chant schools were founded — Greek from
1721 in Belgrade and other towns, Russian from 1726 in Sremski Karlovci
and elsewhere — and the Serbs accepted Church Slavonic in their liturgy.
Also, Ukrainian teachers introduced the Baroque style of western Europe in
songs and incidental music. Four songs in Russian square notation were
copied into a luxury manuscript, Pozdrav Mojseju Putniku (‘Respect to
Mojsej the traveller’), whose author, the engraver Zaharije Orfelin (1726–
85), may well have been their composer. During the same period, Serbian
dramas and oratorio-like works were performed with music in Boka
Kotorska.
2. 1800–1914.
The Classical and Romantic styles had their Serbian representatives.
Kornelije Stanković (1831–65) was the first to use traditional music and the
first to transcribe Serbian chant into staff notation in his Pravoslavno
crkveno pojanje u srpskoga naroda (‘The Orthodox Church chant of the
Serbian people’, 1862–4).
From the 1880s onwards, Serbian composers, especially those living on
the borders of Austria-Hungary, wrote music for Serbian plays and choral
societies, employing traditional music and expressing a nationalist
ideology. The most original of them was Stevan Mokranjac (1856–1914),
who studied in Munich, Rome and Leipzig. His works include choral pieces
(Rukoveti, ‘Handfuls’, 1883–1909), church music and editions of traditional
music and chant. With the Beogradsko Pevačko Društvo (Belgrade Choral
Society) he gave concerts all over Europe between 1894 and 1899. His
contemporary Josif Marinković (1851–1931) studied at the Prague
Conservatory, conducted the Obilić choir, and wrote songs, choral pieces
and church music. Among many Czech musicians who espoused the
Serbian cause, Robert Tolinger (1859–1911) was editor-in-chief of the first
Serbian musical magazine, Gudalo (‘The bow’, 1886–7). The Slovenian
Davorin Jenko (1835–1914) also contributed to the development of Serbian
music with his choruses and incidental music.
The leaders of the next generation were Stanislav Binički (1872–1942) and
Isidor Bajić (1878–1915). Binički conducted the first Belgrade
performances of major choral works (Haydn’s Creation in 1908,
Beethoven's Ninth in 1910) and directed the choir of the Muzičko Društvo
Stanković (Stanković Music Society) and the Muzika Kraljeve Garde (Music
of the Royal Guard). His opera Na uranku (‘At Dawn’) shows the influence
of verismo, Serbian and Asian traditional song; he also wrote songs and
choral pieces. Bajić was editor of the Srpski muzički list (‘Serbian music
magazine’, founded 1903), published the music of Serbian composers in
his Srpska Muzička Biblioteka (Serbian Music Library, 1903–4) and
founded a music school in Novi Sad in 1909. His works, showing similar
influences to Binički's, include the opera Knez Ivo od Semberije (‘Prince Ivo
of Semberia’, 1910), songs and piano miniatures.
3. Since 1914.
Between the two world wars Belgrade's musical culture, as represented by
its opera house, concert season and music magazine (Zvuk), was thriving
and there were composers to match. Those continuing a late Romantic
style included Petar Stojanović (1877–1957) and Milenko Paunović (1889–
1924); among those who used traditional elements within the same
tradition were Petar Kristić (1877–1957) and Kosta Manojlović (1890–
1949).
Other composers of this period developed the national style in more
modern directions. Petar Konjović (1883–1970) studied in Prague, and
followed Janáček in the brilliant orchestration and speech-like melody of his
operas. Miloje Milojević (1884–1946) studied in Munich and France as well
as Prague, so that Impressionist and Expressionist tendencies emerged in
his music, the former in his much loved song collection Pred veličanstvom
prirode (‘Before the Magnificence of Nature’, 1982), piano and orchestral
pieces. Stevan Hristić (1885–1958) was also a Romantic Impressionist in
his opera Suton (‘The Dawn’, 1925) and his ballet Ohridska legenda (‘The
Legend of Ohrid’, 1947) is a classic of the national school. Josip Slavenski
(1896–1955), a Croat who lived in Belgrade from 1924 onwards, used
Balkan (Balkanofonija, ‘Balkanophy’ 1927) and Asian traditional music in
his best works. Younger composers who remained within the national
tradition included Marko Tajčević (1900–84), Mihailo Vukdragović (1900–
86), Milenko Živković (1901–64), Predrag Milošević (1904–88) and Vojislav
Vučković (1910–42).
Musical life took another step forward after World War II. Certain singers,
instrumentalists, ensembles and choirs began to gain a reputation outside
Yugoslavia, and a new creative spirit emerged in the works of Stanojlo
Rajičić (b 1910), Milan Ristić (1908–82), Dragutin Čolić (1907–87), Ljubica
Marić (b 1909) and Nikola Hercigonja (b 1911). Ristić's much awaited nine
symphonies (1941–76) broke with the national style and took on neo-
classicism; Čolić more radical than his colleagues, composed quarter-tone
music and used 12-note methods in combination with tonality; Marić found
inspiration for her primeval expressions in the Serbian past (cantata Pesme
prostora, ‘Songs of Space’; the cycle for various settings Muzika oktoiha,
‘The Music of Octoëhos). But national Romanticism continued to thrive,
alongside more contemporary styles (neo-classicism, serialism and later
the colour-field music of the Polish school). Composers of a more
conservative persuasion included Vojislav Ilić (b 1912–99), Dragutin
Gostuški (b 1923–98), Kosta Babić (b 1927), Dušan Kostić (b 1925),
Vasilije Mokranjac (1923–84) and Vlastimir Peričić (b 1927). Enriko Josif (b
1924), Dušan Radić (b 1929) and Dejan Despić (b 1930) embraced neo-
classicism in various ways, while Vitomir Trifunović (b 1916) and
Aleksandar Obradović (b 1927) moved from national Romanticism to 12-
note and electronic music.
Younger composers who have similarly interested themselves in new
techniques include Petar Ozgijan (1932–79), Slobodan Atanacković (b
1937), Zoran Hristić (b 1938) and Vuk Kulenović (b 1946). Rajko
Maksimović (b 1935) evokes ancient Serbia by means of archaic modality;
Milan Mihajlović (b 1945) works with Skryabinesque and other modes; and
Vlastimir Trajković (b 1947) has used modes from other traditions and from
Messiaen. Vladan Raovanović (b 1932), Srđan Hofman (b 1947) and Zoran
Erić (b 1950) made electronic music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2(Z. Blažeković)
P. Konjović: Ličnosti [Personalities] (Zagreb, 1920)
M. Milojević: Muzičke studije i članci [Musical studies and articles]
(Belgrade, 1926–53)
P. Konjović: Knjiga o muzici srpskoj i slovenskoj [A book of Serbian and
Slavonic music] (Novi Sad, 1947)
P. Konjović: Ogledi o muzici [Essays on music] (Belgrade, 1965)
D. Stefanović: ‘The Serbian Chant from the 15th to 18th Centuries’,
Musica antiqua Europae orientalis: Bydgoszcz and Toruń 1966, 140–
63
V. Peričić,D. Kostić and D. Skovran: Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji [Musical
creators in Serbia] (Belgrade, 1969) [with Eng. summary]
S. Đurić-Klajn: A Survey of Serbian Music through the Ages (Belgrade,
1972)
D. Stefanović: Stara srpska muzika: primeri crkvenih pesama iz XV veka
[Old Serbian music: examples of church songs from the 15th century]
(Belgrade, 1974–5) [in Eng., Serbo-Croat]
Z. Kučukalić: Romantična solo-pjesma u Srbiji [Romantic song in Serbia]
(Sarajevo, 1975) [with Eng. summary]
D. Stefanović: ‘Serbian Church Music through the Centuries’, Beiträge zur
Musikkultur des Balkans, ed. R. Flotzinger (Graz, 1975), 128–38
M. Bergamo: Elementi ekspresionističke orijentacije u srpskoj muzici do
1945 [Elements of expressionistic orientation in Serbian music before
1945] (Belgrade, 1980) [with Ger. summary]
Kornelije Stanković i njegovo doba: Belgrade 1981 [summaries in Eng.,
Ger.]
D. Petrović: Osmoglasnik u muzičkoj tradiciji Južnih Slovena [Oktōēchos
in the musical tradition of southern Slavs] (Belgrade, 1982) [with Eng.
summary]
D. Petrović: ‘Crkveni elementi u srpskom narodnom obrednom pevanju’
[Church elements in Serbian ritual folksongs], Balcanica, xiii–xiv
(1982–3), 463–78
R. Pejović: Predstave muzičkih instrumenata u srednjovekovnoj Srbiji
[Musical instruments in medieval Serbia] (Belgrade, 1984) [with Eng.
summary]
Folklor i njegova umetničke transpozicija [I]: Belgrade 1987 [summaries in
Eng., Fr., Ger., Russ.]
Folklor i njegova umetnička transpozicija II: Belgrade 1989
Folklor i njegova umetnička transpozicija III: Belgrade 1991
Srpska muzička scena: Belgrade 1993 [summaries in Eng., Fr., Ger.]
M. Veselinović: Stvaralačka prisutnost evropske avangarde u nas [The
European avant garde in our country] (Belgrade, 1993)
Folklor i njegova umetnička transpozicija IV: Belgrade 1997
R. Pejović and others: Srpska muzika od naseljavanja slovenskih
plemana na Balkansko poluostrvo do kraja XVIII veka [Serbian Music
from the settling of Slavonic tribes at the Balkan Peninsula to the end
of the XVIII century] (Belgrade, 1998) [with Eng. summary]
Yugoslavia

III. Traditional music

1. Serbia.
2. Montenegro.
3. Kosovo and related Albanian musical traditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yugoslavia, §III: Traditional music
1. Serbia.
(i) Vocal music.
(ii) Musical instruments.
(iii) Instrumental ensembles.
(iv) Dance.
Yugoslavia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Serbia
(i) Vocal music.
Traditionally songs are sung by girls and women without instrumental
accompaniment. The playing and making of musical instruments is largely
the work of men. Songs are performed in two ways: monophonically and
polyphonically, the latter mostly diaphonic. Songs may be divided into three
categories: traditional (or rural), ‘new’ and urban. The most frequently
performed songs today are love songs. Religious and traditional songs are
gradually dying out because of rapidly changing social and economic
conditions in rural areas.
(a) Traditional song.
Songs of a religious nature were usually sung to ensure the well-being of
the community. They included Christmas carols (koledarske), songs sung
on the eve of Lazar's Saturday (lazaričke), Pentecostal (kraljičke) and rain
songs (dodolske), and they were sung to accompany simple, ritual dances.
According to popular belief, these songs would ensure fertility and the
renewal of the flora and fauna. They were sung in a specific order, during
the first half of the year, from the winter to the summer solstice. Until recent
times, these songs and dances continued to be performed in many
villages, especially in the eastern and southern parts of Serbia.
During the winter, around Christmas, singers and masked dancers called
koledari would for several days go from house to house in a village, singing
Christmas (koledarske) songs to ensure the health and prosperity of the
household. The masked dancers, with their characteristic dances and
zoomorphic masks, symbolized the struggle between good and evil and the
triumph of light over darkness that heralded the beginning of the new
calendar year. Meanwhile groups of male singers, a shepherd and then a
ploughman, would sing antiphonal lyrics. The dancers would usually
perform in the house around the fireplace.
The week before Easter, on Lazar's Saturday (Willow Day), a group of
village girls (singers and dancers) would visit each house, singing Easter
songs (lazaričke) to invoke a bountiful harvest and good health for the
head of the household and all its members. A similar custom of song and
dance called kraljičke would be performed by girls of marriageable age.
They would visit each village in their area during Pentecost and sing ritual
songs.
If the summer has been very dry, girls gather together to summon up rain.
They walk slowly through the village, stopping at each house to sing a set
song. The smallest and youngest girl (called a dodola, ‘rainmaker’),
adorned in greenery, constantly dances on the spot. The villagers will pour
water over her in the belief that it will rain soon afterwards. In return for the
ritual, the woman in charge of the household usually presents the
participants with food and a variety of the fruits that are in need of rain.
The many other kinds of songs, which were not strictly associated with any
particular time of the year, were performed mainly by girls. Of these, the
most well known are wedding songs, followed by those that are sung
during funerals. Wedding songs (svadbene pesme) were usually sung in
the bridegroom's and bride's houses, for a few days before, during and
after the wedding. The songs would vary according to their subjects and
purpose and also according to the singers, who were called pevice,
svadbarice or endje depending on whether they were related to the
bridegroom or were friends of the bride. During the wedding ceremony,
songs called svatovske were popular. They would be sung on the way to
bride's house or as the bride was being taken back by the bridegroom's
parents to their house. Similar wedding songs were intended primarily for
the newlyweds, but also for other prominent people present at the wedding
(the godfather, brother-in-law, wedding witness or the parents). The
melodies were either monophonic or polyphonic and varied by region (ex.1,
ex.2 and ex.3) .
When somebody dies, it is still traditional in many parts of Serbia to ‘wail’
(kukati), ‘cry’ (plakati), ‘lament’ (naricati) or sing laments (tužiti) for the
deceased. The mourning of the deceased is the responsibility of the
women members of the family or of the closest relatives. During the funeral
songs, called tužbalice (‘laments’), a simple melody and suitable content
are improvised according to an established model. In Serbia they are not
called songs, they are known as ‘keening’ (kukanje) and ‘crying’ (plakanje)
for the deceased.
The strižba, also known as šišano kumstvo, is a family celebration and
ritual for a newborn child's first haircut. This is an ancient rite carried out by
the child's godfather, the šišani kum. The striženje (‘shearing’) consists of
the godfather smearing the child's locks with wax, cutting them off and
presenting them to the parents for safekeeping. When he is finished, the
godfather immediately places a new cap on the child's head. It is believed
that in this way the child will be protected throughout its future life from evil
spells and the Devil. Throughout the ritual, girls sing a shearing song
(strižbarska pesma). Another common type of family song are lullabies
(uspavanke), with simple melodies and improvised subject matter and
form.
Girls would also sing while looking after the livestock, especially during the
summer. In those parts where the population worked the soil, songs were
sung during the harvest. The melody was usually sung with long drawn-out
tones, and the song would unfold slowly with pauses. When two or three
girls completed a verse with a cry, they would be echoed by the cries of the
other girls. The songs were ballads that lasted a long time, during which
the young men gathering the harvest would be allowed to rest (ex.4 and
ex.5).
Song texts about many different subjects may be sung to a common
melody or ‘voice’. ‘Voices’ are groups of notes that combine to form a
melody in a particular verse form. Voices may be manipulated to derive
related melodies from the original. Different texts, performed u glas or na
glas (a loud, full-voiced melody sung in the open air), of the same genre
and with the same metric structure may be fitted to these melodies.
Wedding songs may also be sung like this (ex.1, ex.2 and ex.3). A voice
can be identified by its geographical origins (zlatiborski, moravski,
dragačevski), and its basic type can be determined according to whether it
is ‘long’ (dugačak) or ‘short’ (kratak). When long tones predominate in the
individual syllables of the text (usually in diaphonic singing), the song is
performed na dugački glas (ex.1, ex.4 and ex.5), and when the syllables of
the text are sung with short note-values, then the song is sung na kratak
glas.
In order to start singing u glas, the singers assemble in pairs of the same
gender and usually of the same age and height. In the western regions,
two women or two men sing together, or in groups of three. In the eastern
regions only two or three women ever sing together in order to achieve a
uniform timbre of voice which is especially valued, known as ‘beautiful
singing’ (lepo pevanje).
Songs sung alone are called samačke pesme (‘songs for a single person’).
In Southern Pomoravlje, as well as in Kosovo and Metohija, all songs are
sung monophonically, sometimes in a group (ex.2, ex.8 and ex.9). In
western and eastern regions, where diaphonic singing is more widespread
(ex.2, ex.4 and ex.5), the role of the singer is restricted and defined. The
leading voice is defined by a special terminology. It can either ‘recite’
(izgovoriti), ‘pronounce’ (izreći), ‘cut in’ (usjeći) or ‘carry’ (zanositi). It is said
that the accompaniment ‘chases’ (goni), ‘interrupts’ (presjeca) or ‘deepens’
(dube). These terms distinguish between the leading and accompanying
parts in a polyphonic structure. In order to sing these songs polyphonically
and in unison, the singers practise them from childhood. The posture of the
singers differs with gender. For example, while singing, women join hands,
held at chin height, and nod their heads towards each other. Men prefer to
put their arms across each other's shoulders or to hook their thumbs into
their waistcoats.
A stylistic feature of two-part singing is the dominance of the 2nd. The 2nd
most frequently occurs at the intersection of voices, and is especially
emphasized towards the end of the song, before the cry (ex.4 and ex.5)
and in the cadence (ex.1). In practice a particular singing technique,
exclusive to women, is used. They squeeze their throat or clench their front
teeth, leaving their mouths half open, boosting the timbre, dynamism and
volume of the sound. Other common characteristics of traditional singing
are: heterophony, often with a drone (ex.1 and ex.5); an indeterminate
beginning; and, in the case of wedding and harvest songs, ‘shouting’.
(b) ‘New’ songs.
The main difference between traditional songs (which played an important
and significant role in the rural community) and the ‘new’, predominantly
love songs, is in the emphasis given to the individual. In keeping with this is
the genre of two-part ‘bass’ singing. It is thought that this form of singing
originated in the Serbian areas of Vojvodina towards the end of the 19th
century, and by the beginning of the 20th century it was being heard in
other Serbian regions. Although today songs are sung in the new two-part
form in many villages, the form does not exist at all in Kosovo and
Metohija.
Instead of the above-mentioned predominant 2nd or drone, the ‘new’
singing style emphasizes the bass part, introducing elements of western
European harmony, and adopts the term pevanje na bas or ‘singing in
bass’ (ex.3 and ex.6). The new stylistic feature of this form lies in the fact
that the melodic and bass parts start in parallel 3rds and finish on a 5th.
Because the accompanying voice is less mobile, this gives rise to transient
harmonies in 2nds and 4ths. Further harmonies are formed when a middle
voice is separated from the accompaniment (ex.6). The concept of ‘voice’
has been retained, defining a fixed melody (designated by the term ‘aria’),
with the rule that it can only be used with verses that possess the same
metric structure. Singing ‘in bass’ allows the song to be started by a single
singer, with the others or the accompaniment joining in after two or three
bars, or one verse. The bass part, which is sung by five, six or more
people, frequently overpowers the melody of the soloist, to the extent that
only the bass part is heard (ex.7). Women and men separately sing ‘in
bass’ in the same way. Antiphony between groups of men and women is
also common, usually at gatherings called sedeljke.
(c) Urban song (gradska pesma).
A characteristic of urban songs (gradske pesme) is that they may be sung
to instrumental accompaniment. Certain songs are the work of well-known
singers and composers. They are characterized by their wide melodic
scope (of an octave or more) and a melody consisting of similar rhythmic-
melodic models and disassembled trozvuka with clearly noticeable
harmonic functions (tonic–subdominant–dominant–tonic). The form of the
songs is more complex and is based on a melodic stanza of four verses.
Some songs sung in cities of the southern regions possess elements (e.g.
augmented 2nds and aksak ifranji rhythm) akin to the Turkish makam (ex.8
and ex.9).
(d) Accompanied song.
Epic poems accompanied by the gusle are found in Serbia and
Montenegro. The singing of epic poems is traditional throughout many
parts of Serbia, especially in western regions inhabited by people of Dinaric
origin. The singer, also the player, called a guslar, plays in unison with the
song. Following a short instrumental introduction the guslar begins to sing,
reciting the melodic verses, interspacing them from time to time with short
instrumental interludes (ex.10). The songs are tetrachordal and have a
single melodic formula which is continuously varied. The main verse is the
‘epic’ or ‘heroic’ asymmetric decasyllable (4 – 6) with parlando rubato
rhythm. At one time songs were sung by joining non-rhyming
decasyllables. However, modern singers tend to use a rhyming
decasyllabic or octosyllabic distich. Equally, the old vocal technique and
intonation used to have an irregularly tempered chromaticism, whereas
more modern epic poetry has a more diatonic recitation. Medieval subjects
and subject matter are greatly cherished by older guslars. The most
common themes are those about the struggle for liberation from the Turks
and those regarding events from the recent national past. Alongside epic
poems, in certain parts of Serbia (around Kosovska Mitrovica and Ivanjica),
women perform wedding songs while turning a copper pan.

(e) Structure.
Rural and urban songs are based primarily on different types of verseline
and rarely on text. The basic verse of Serbian traditional song has ten
syllables. Its metric structure (4–6) is most often asymmetric (ex.1, ex.2,
ex.4, ex.5, ex.6 and ex.7). However, songs of eight syllables also occur,
usually as a symmetric octosyllable (4 – 4). Verses and stanzas are formed
through the repetition of verses or their parts. Units are frequently formed
by combining identical or contrasting musical sections, i.e. either AA or AB.
ABA form is not at all common and any greater complexity depends on the
way the text is repeated (ex.1, ex.4 and ex.7). Most religious and traditional
songs are structured from a single verse with no rhyme (ex.2 and ex.3). A
refrain is also common. The rhyming distich is a recent occurrence,
adopted under the influence of artistic poetry. Songs of urban origin usually
have a complex form (AABBBB), based on a rhyming quatrain.
Rhythmically, Serbian traditional song falls into two broad categories, either
parlando rubato or giusto syllabic rhythm. The first is characteristic of
songs in which words are freely linked to the melody (ex.1, ex.2, ex.3, ex.4
and ex.5), while the other is characteristic of songs accompanied by dance.
A particular asymmetric rhythm (aksak ifranji) is sometimes initiated by the
tempo or is a remainder of Turkish influence (ex.8).
In vocal music the melodic structure of Serbian song is formed by a group
of several tones, of which the tonic is usually the second degree. It is
theoretically possible to define two basic tetrachords: f–g–a –a (ex.1, ex.4
and ex.5); and f–g–a–b (ex.2, ex.3 and ex.7). The first is characteristic of
the older type of songs with intervals that have irregular temperament.
Otherwise, the majority of Serbian songs usually has a small ambitus, and
they are sung in accordance with the diatonic scale.
Traditional melodies in Serbia also possess other tonal formations, ‘scales’,
which can be found in urban songs and are considered to be of foreign
origin: e.g. g–a –b–c–d–e (ex.8), g–a–b –c–d–e–f , g–a –b –c–d–e –f
(ex.9). The majority of melodies have gradually descending intervals (na
korak or ‘in steps’), but urban songs have greater intervallic jumps, which
favours their western European harmonization (ex.9). In urban areas with
Muslim populations (Sandžak, Kosovo and Metohija), an augmented
second is used in the melody as the nucleus of the ‘oriental tetrachord’
(ex.9).
Yugoslavia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Serbia
(ii) Musical instruments.
(a) Aerophones.
Today the most numerous group of instruments in Serbia is that of
aerophones. The frula is a short, cylindrical shepherd's flute (25–30 cm),
with six holes and, as the most popular instrument in Serbia, it can be
found in (almost) every region and even in cities. Another flute, the duduk,
has a longer pipe (40–50 cm), six holes and is more usually found in
mountainous areas. The cevara is similar to the duduk (c80 cm) and is well
known as a shepherd's instrument. It has seven holes on the front and an
eighth hole on the back. The cevara also has four additional holes
(glasnici) in the lower end to amplify sound. All these single-pipe flutes are
made by village craftsmen from different woods (e.g. plum, ash, dogwood).
The dvojnica is a double flute made from a single piece of wood and can
be short or long (30–45 cm). The holes are arranged with three on the left
and four on the right pipe. They are played in a style similar to traditional
two-part singing. The kolo, a traditional dance, is usually performed to the
music of a frula or similar instrument (ex.11), while songs and
improvisations are played on the dvojnica (ex.12). The dvojnice, which
used to be found in eastern regions of Serbia and further afield in the
mountainous areas of the Balkans and Carpathians, had six holes in one
pipe, while the other pipe served as a drone.
Single reed aerophones are less common. Those instruments that are
handcrafted (e.g. the karabica, a kind of frula made from cane or elder
wood) are used mostly by children in Serbian villages, who often make
them themselves. They also make somewhat different kinds (paljka, surla,
karabe), fashioned from elder wood or long pumpkins, with several holes
on the front. These instruments are used to entertain the villagers during
autumn celebrations (sedeljke), where the young people sing and dance.
The gajde is a bagpipe used to play polyphonic songs and dances (see
illustration.). Two-part gajde have a single chanter, eight holes and a longer
drone. Different types are found in different regions: the small gajde in
eastern areas; the middle-sized gajde in southern areas (ex.13); and the
smallest gajde found in the south-west. A distinguishing feature of the two-
part gajda is that the chanter has five holes and is the same length as the
drone. On three-part gajde the chanter consists of two pipes. There are five
holes on the first pipe and a single hole on the second, which permits two-
part playing; another large, long pipe produces a deep drone (ex.14).
There are two types of three-part gajde: a middle-range gajda from eastern
and western Serbia and a large gajda from Vojvodina. Large gajde use
manual bellows to fill the wind-bag, instead of a mouth-pipe. The gajda
player is called gajdaš or gajdar; in the Banat area they are called svirac
(‘player’). The player may also sing to the accompaniment of the gajde,
which is often done at weddings. Today gajde serve as accompaniment to
dances, though they were once used during wedding ceremonies in those
areas where they are commonly found.
Shawms (oboes) have a double reed and conical bore. Some are made
from bark spirally wound in the shape of an elongated cone and are used
in Serbian villages as seasonal instruments. During spring nights
shepherds play these instruments by the sheepfold, in the belief that their
music will protect their flock from disease. More complex shawms, called
zurle (similar to the Turkish zurna), are used by ethnic Albanians in Kosovo
and Metohija.
The bark trumpet is also seasonal and is made by shepherds from the bark
of the lime tree, forming two hollowed-out hemispheres 2·5–3·5 m long. A
copper and wooden mouth-piece (mundstuck) is then plugged into the
narrow end. Every year, on St George's Day (Djurdjevdan), the shepherds
fashion their wooden trumpets, which they call rikalo or bušen. They then
play signals and melodies in the belief that this will influence the fertility of
their sheep and cattle and protect their herd from disease (ex.15).
(b) Chordophones.
The gusle is a single-stringed chordophone that is used to accompany epic
or heroic poetry. It is thought they were used by singers of epics at the
feudal courts of medieval Serbian kings. Nowadays each player, called a
guslar, crafts his own instrument, usually from maple wood. By comparing
the resonating chambers, called varjače (lit. ‘ladles’), of different gusle, a
number of types can be identified: the Serbian gusle, with a chamber
shaped like an elongated rhombus; the Montenegrin gusle; and the
Hercegovinian gusle with a similar pear-shaped resonant chamber. The
gusle has a skin with a number of apertures stretched across the resonant
chamber. A single string runs across a wooden bridge and along the entire
length of the body, which merges into the back. The string of the gusle is
made from approximately 40 thin strands of horsehair. The headstock of
the gusle is characteristically fashioned in the likeness of a horned animal
and has a wooden peg located in the lower part. The bow is short and
arched. Before beginning to play, the guslar tunes his instrument to his
voice; he sings sitting on a chair with his legs crossed, holding the gusle at
an angle across his knee. In the 19th century every household in Serbia
possessed its own gusle and singer.
The ćemane is another chordophone similar to related instruments (e.g. the
lira) in Bulgaria, Macedonia and Greece. The ćemane can be found in
south-eastern parts of Serbia. The earliest representation of this instrument
is portrayed on a fresco from the 14th century in the monastery of Dečani.
Modern players fashion ćemane from a single piece of wood. They have a
pear-shaped body and a short neck with a number of pegs. The resonating
chamber is covered with a thin board made from the wood of a fir tree and
has two semicircular holes in the middle. The bridge can accommodate
three or four metal strings and is supported from below by a small column.
The bow is similar to that of a doublebass. The first string is stopped with
the finger-nail. Ćemane are used to accompany lyric songs, though more
often as accompaniment to folk dances.
The violin and tambura are also used in Serbian traditional music. The
earliest historical records show that Gypsies used the violin in the 18th
century in certain places in north-western Serbia, while the tambura as it is
today was used in Vojvodina no earlier than the 19th century. These
instruments are now used mainly by urban ensembles and orchestras.
(c) Membranophones and idiophones.
A number of membranophones (the snare drum, daff, tambourine and
darabukkah) are commonly found in Kosovo and Metohija. Included among
the membranophones is the ćupa. This is a type of friction drum made from
a clay cup covered on one side with a membrane. In the centre of the
membrane there is a narrow opening through which passes a narrow reed
or leather strap that the player rubs to generate sound. The role of this
instrument was to make noise during carnivals. Idiophones of a variety of
shapes and names are made and used by village children (e.g. the
ergtalka, a button on a string).
Yugoslavia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Serbia
(iii) Instrumental ensembles.
Many musical instruments, especially the various types of flutes, are not
absolutely tuned and their tone ranges often have an irregular
temperament. However, because of a tendency to use such instruments,
especially the smaller flutes (frule), in folk orchestras, they are now tuned
alike during the manufacturing process. Many instruments such as the
trumpet, clarinet, flute, saxophone, guitar and violin are used in a variety of
combinations in so-called ‘folk orchestras’.
Instrumental ensembles appeared at the beginning of the 20th century.
Their evolution and composition depended on the number of players, the
availability of different instruments and on inherited traditions. Up until the
1960s and 70s, many small village orchestras (Šumadija, Pomoravlje)
existed, which were composed exclusively of stringed instruments (two or
three violins, viola and doublebass). In some parts of Vojvodina, there are
four-part tambura orchestras (of prim, bas-prim, terc-prim and veliki bas),
with up to ten members. Popular village brass bands existed in a number of
Serbian regions, formed from a variety of trumpets (often Flügelhorns) and
the later addition of a drum with bells and a small drum called doboš. Such
village orchestras in eastern, western and southern Serbia have been
encouraged by the competitive Dragačev Trumpeters’ Fair in Guča
(Dragačevski sabor trubača u Guči). From the 1950s to the present day,
numerous orchestras of a heterogeneous composition have sprung up in
many urban centres, including not only amateurs but also professional
musicians.
Yugoslavia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Serbia
(iv) Dance.
Ethnochoreographers have recorded a large number of folk dances in
Serbia. These include regionally differing kolos with different choreography,
with odd or even beats. Their names usually relate to the manner of dance,
origin or region where they are to be found (e.g. banatsko kolo, moravac,
banjski čačak, sverkvino kolo, pop-Marinkovo kolo, leskovačka četvorka).
Ritual dances used always to be accompanied by song. Gradually,
however, songs are being replaced by instrumental accompaniment. The
main function of instruments in Serbia today is to accompany traditional
dances. As is the case with songs, instrumental accompaniment can be
provided by a single player or by a group. Until recently, the musical
accompaniment of dances was provided by flutes (frula, duduk, cevara and
dvojnica) or by the gajda, when they were available.
Yugoslavia, §III: Traditional music
2. Montenegro.
(i) Vocal music.
The Montenegrin vocal tradition is based principally on single-part and
polyphonic singing. Single-part forms are widespread and include laments
for the deceased, called tužilice or tužbarice. These are usually the
responsibility of women, although men also take part on certain occasions.
The verse melody is called a tužbalica, through which the living address
the deceased. There are many forms of laments, from the melodically
simple octosyllabic verse (4 – 4), to the ornamented 12 syllable verse (4 –
4 – 4). Basing her performance on a traditional melodic model, the tužilica
creates a ‘story’ about the deceased. The deceased is mourned from the
time of death until burial; also after 40 days, six months, a year and during
subsequent years on the day of the person's death. Women can sing
laments individually, one after the other, or as a pair taking turns. A solely
male form of expressing grief is known among Montenegrins as lelek, a
kind of condensed story recited in prose about the deceased person and
their life. The remaining genres of single-part songs are lullabies, songs for
kolos, wedding songs and love songs.
Two forms of polyphonic, mainly diaphonic, singing exist in Montenegro,
which might be termed old and new. While the old form predominates
across a greater area, the newer form is encountered usually in the Bay of
Kotor and along the Montenegrin coast. The old style (‘out of the voice’ or
iza glasa, ‘vocal’ or glasački and ‘shouting’ or izvika) is characterized by
melodic elements of small ambitus with irregular temperament, and
sometimes with ornamentation, which is more suited to the female voice
and therefore occurs more frequently in songs performed by women
(ex.16). A particular tremolo ornamentation occurs in male singing (ex.17).
Most older songs use heterophony. In these the soloist and the
accompaniment seem to begin both the melody and its ornamented version
simultaneously, resulting in characteristic 2nds (ex.18). A large number of
Montenegrin songs are similar in terms of melody and singing style to
those in western Serbia. This is not surprising, since Montenegro and
upper Hercegovina have supplied Serbia with new populations for
centuries. Apart from melodic similarities and a method of heterophonic
singing, these songs also share similar lyrics.
New forms of singing are found in urban areas, especially in the larger
towns. These single-part songs usually have a wide ambitus (particularly
love songs, Podgorica and Kotor, which differ from rural songs in their
rhythm) as well as having western European harmonic characteristics. The
new two-part singing style with its homophonous structure is related to
songs that are sung ‘in bass’ in Serbia. Where the soloist and
accompaniment are clearly separated, the singing is in parallel 3rds with a
cadential 5th (ex.19). Three-part singing is very similar to the polyphonic
singing found in coastal and island towns in Dalmatia.
Song forms in Montenegro mainly have a two-part structure (ex.18). The
complex songs characteristic of urban environments have greater repetition
of verse lines. The structure of Montenegrin traditional song is very similar
to Serbian song.
The rhythm of a song depends on the metric complexity of the verses,
which generally use (as do Serbian songs) the symmetric octosyllable (4 –
4; ex.16) or the asymmetric decasyllable (4 – 6; ex.17 and ex.18). If the
melopoetic structure is restricted by a dance (oro, songs for kolo) then the
giusto syllabic rhythm predominates. In songs of different genres, for
example in laments, the performance is mainly parlando rubato. Traditional
Montenegrin singing, especially two-part singing, has irregular
temperament and is based on small tonal groupings. Intonation in a song
can be stable, but more commonly individual tones are varied by up to 1/4
of a degree. Sometimes the entire ambitus of a two-part song with four
tones falls into a major 3rd. The division of singers according to gender
continues to be respected. If young men and women take part together,
which is most frequently the case in songs for the kolo, then singing is
antiphonal. Such songs are sung as accompaniment to dancing during
communal outdoor celebrations (sjednik) at which village youths gather
during the winter months.

(ii) Instrumental traditions.

In the mountainous parts of Montenegro, where the people's main
livelihood is cattle-raising, the most common instruments are flutes that
closely resemble the Serbian frula or dvojnice. The six-hole frula is
widespread, ranging from 15–20 cm to 60 cm in length. In the northern
mountainous regions of Montenegro, towards the border with Serbia,
double flutes, dvojnice, are also in use, and although they are very similar
to Serbian dvojnice they are considerably larger. When an improvised
shepherd's tune is played on them, it is reminiscent of the old form of
Montenegrin and Serbian singing, with a two-part heterophony and drone
structure (ex.20).
In the mountainous region of old Montenegro, the diple, a kind of double
flute, is most commonly used. The diple is a shepherd's instrument with a
single reed and consists of a wind-bag attached to a double chanter and a
set of bellows. A chanter similar to the double flute is made from a single
piece of wood and has six holes in each pipe, set parallel to each other.
There also exists a type of diple without the wind-bag, called zumara, made
from canes fastened together with a short piece of horn at the lower end.
The players, called diplari, play in the mountains while looking after their
flocks, sometimes for two or three hours without interruption. The diple also
served as a means of communication between shepherds in the
mountains, who would send each other messages (dojave).
Traditionally, the use of aerophones in Montenegro has been limited to the
shepherds, as in Albania. The Albanians have adopted another shepherd's
instrument, the kaval. This is a long flute without a mouthpiece, identical to
the instrument of the same name used by Albanians in Kosovo and
Metohija. Montenegrin children make simple single-reed instruments from
pieces of straw or cane (in the vicinity of Lake Skadar). In the spring, the
children make a kind of shepherd's pipe, called svičak, from thin twigs of
willow or ash.
The only chordophone in Montenegro is the gusle (see §1(ii)(6) above).
Nowadays they are found in every household, both in the countryside and
in towns. Even today the singing of epic poems is an everyday occurrence;
guslars are greatly respected and frequently invited to celebrations, where
they are treated as honorary guests. A gusle is ‘struck’ or ‘bowed’; it is also
said that one sings to a gusle, but plays a flute, duduk or diple.

(iii) Dance.
Montenegrins have always danced the oro without musical
accompaniment. The basic types of Old Montenegrin kolos are known as:
crnogorsko (the Montenegrin), zetsko (from the old name for Montenegro,
Zeta) and crmničko kolo. They are most frequently performed with alternate
parts sung in dialogue. There are also different kinds of dances, called
skoke (without musical accompaniment), mlado momče (with singing) or
dances from Piva, as well as ‘songs for kolos'. The kolo Bokeljske
mornarice, (lit. ‘the Fleet of the Bay of Kotor’) is performed every year in
Kotor on the day of St Tripun, on 14 February, and is accompanied by the
city orchestra.
Yugoslavia, §III: Traditional music
3. Kosovo and related Albanian musical traditions.
Albanians comprise approximately 6% of the population of Montenegro and
roughly 90% of that of Kosovo (Albanian: Kosova), an autonomous
province within Serbia. Over 90% of Yugoslav Albanians are Muslim, while
the rest are Roman Catholic; virtually all are north Albanians.
In Montenegro and western Kosovo, rural communities have maintained
musical practices much like those in the northernmost regions of Albania.
Young girls have been among the most active vocalists in these mountain
districts, singing specific songs for each stage of the wedding ceremony, as
well as for seasonal holidays such as Shingjergj (St George’s Day).
Frequently they accompany their singing on frame drum (def or daire). One
musical genre unique to this region is the kângë çobaneshave (‘song of the
sheperdesses’), sung by girls in the Podgur and Rugovë districts of
Kosovo. These songs are executed in a style known as me gisht në fyt
(‘with finger on throat’), where each girl uses her thumb to vibrate her
larynx while singing. A second local style is the narrow-range, two-part
polyphony of girls’ songs from the Opojë district of Kosovo.
Throughout Kosovo links to Ottoman musical practices are evident in
newer styles of rural music, and a few songs are sung to well-known
Turkish tunes. The most popular men’s instruments in lowland areas have
been long-necked lutes such as the two-string çifteli and the larger sharki,
which generally has five to seven strings tuned in three courses. Families
hosting weddings have often hired semi-professional ensembles of men
who sing and play these two instruments, perhaps supplemented by violin,
fyell (short end-blown flute) and accordion. These ensembles have
customarily alternated long, formulaic historical songs with dance tunes
and shorter love songs
For weddings and major religious holidays, families of Roma (Gypsy)
musicians have also been contracted to perform. Roma women have
sometimes been asked to sing, and perhaps also dance, for women’s
wedding gatherings. More frequently, Roma men have been hired to play
zurle (double-reed pipe) and lodër (or tupan, two-headed bass drum). In
addition to dance melodies, zurle-lodër ensembles have performed
medleys of listening music called nibet (from Arabic nawbah) for male
wedding guests, as well as lively melodies for Turkish wrestling and other
men’s athletic contests.
As in Albania, urban musicians in past decades incorporated features of
Ottoman and western European music into their repertories. Songs from
Kosovo as well as northern and central Albania have been performed
frequently, accompanied by a small acoustic ensemble (çallgi) or its
amplified counterpart. In the early 20th century, musicians in Gjakovë
(Serbian: Đakovica) developed a distinctive repertory of songs,
accompanied by an ensemble of violin, accordion, bugari (four-string lute),
mandoll (mandola), 12-string sharki and def. In recent decades the most
celebrated singers in this style have been Qamili i Vogël and Mazallom
Mejzini.
In the decades following World War II, Albanians in newly socialist
Yugoslavia gained considerable cultural autonomy. Priština, (Albanian:
Prishtinë), the capital of Kosovo, became home to both an institute of
Albanian studies (Instituti Albanoligjik) and the professional ensemble
Shota, which showcased folk music and dance of all ethnic groups in the
province. Amateur folklore ensembles participated in festivals throughout
Yugoslavia, including the Gllogovc festival of village folklore held each year
outside Priština. Many hours of folk music (muzika popullore) were
broadcast by radio and television stations, while cassettes recorded in
Priština were widely distributed in Albanian areas. Recordings of songs in
rural style, accompanied by a large ensemble of more than one çifteli,
sharki and def, plus other instruments, came to define a distinctive Kosovo
sound that was also popular in Macedonia and Albania. As a strong sense
of national identity increased among Yugoslav Albanians, singers
popularized a number of highly evocative patriotic songs that served as
rallying points for the expression of communal sentiments. By the mid-
1980s, young Kosovo musicians were also recording albums of Western-
influenced rock music.
Beginning in 1989, Kosovo’s autonomous status was rescinded, leading to
the closing or dissolution of schools, institutes and other cultural
organizations. Recordings of folk and popular music in Albanian were no
longer produced or broadcast by the state media, leading to the
development of a private recording industry funded largely by the Kosovar
Albanian diaspora. As a result of these events, a number of Kosovo
musicians have emigrated to western Europe or North America, where they
now perform for large expatriate communities. Any re-emergence of a fully
public Albanian musical life in Kosovo awaits a resolution of the political
situation there.
Yugoslavia, §III: Traditional music
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Kosovo und in Makedonien, (Frankfurt, 1994)
J. Sugarman: ‘Mediated Albanian Musics and the Imagining of Modernity’,
New Countries, Old Sounds? Cultural Identity and Social Change in
Southeastern Europe, ed. B.B. Rener (Munich, 1999)
recordings
Jugoslavija: muzika i tradicija [Yugoslavia: music and tradition], coll. D.
Dević, Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB LPV 190 (1971)
Srbija: muzika i tradicija [Serbia: music and tradition], coll. D. Devic, Radio-
Televizija Beograd RTB LPV 192 (1974)
Narodna muzička tradicija: Srbija (instrumenti) [The tradition of folk music:
Serbia (instruments)], coll. D. Devic, Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB
2110030 (1978)
Narodna muzička tradicija: Srbija (instrumentalni ansambli) [The tradition of
folk music: Serbia (instrumental ensembles)], coll. D. Dević, Radio-
Televizija Beograd RTB 2110049 (1978)
Narodna muzička tradicija: Srbija (pesme i igre Kosova) [The tradition of
folk music: Serbia (songs and dances of Kosovo)], coll. D. Dević,
Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB 2110073 (1981)
Srpska narodna muzika [Serbian folk music], coll. R. Petrović, RTB LP
2510057 (1981)
Sve devojke na sedenjku dosle [All the girls have come to the celebration],
coll. R. Petrović, DISKOS LPD 001 (1985)
20 godina smotre narodnog stvaralastva ‘Homoljski motivi’: Kučevo [A 20-
year review of national creativity, ‘Motifs of Homolje’: Kučevo], coll. D.
Dević, Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB NL 0069 (1987)
 ‘Sve je sveto i čestito bilo’: guslerske pesme po zapisima Vuka St
Karadžiča [‘All was holy and honourable’: songs for the Gusle as
recorded by Vuk St Karadžič], coll. D. Devic, Radio-Televizija Beograd
RTB LP 201103 (1987)
Pevačice iz Ribaševine [Women singers of Ribasevina], coll. D. Golemović,
Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB NL 0046 (1989)
Podjo’niz polje, ne znam niz koje … : muzička tradicija Podrinja [I set off
down the field, I know not which ... : the musical tradition of Podrinje],
coll. D. Golemovic, Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB NL 0043 (1989)
Dobrodošli na Rudnik: tradicionalna narodna muzika iz sela Crnuća na
Rudniku [Welcome to the mine: traditional folk music from the village
Crnuć na Rudniku], coll. R. Petrović, Radio-Televizija Beograd RTB LP
004 (1990)
The Balkans and its Musical Roots: Serbian Folk Music, coll. D. Golemović
and D. Dević, ITV Melomarket CD 3004 (1995)
Muzička tradicija Crne Gore [The musical tradition of Montenegro], coll. D.
Golemović, Pergamena (1996)
Kosova këndon dhe vallëzon [Kosova sings and dances], Radio-Televizija
Beograd LPV 1251
Kosovarja këndon [The Kosova woman sings], Radio-Televizija Beograd
2110296
Vaj moj lule [Alas, oh flowers], Jugoton LPY-V-853
Bilbili i Kosovës: Nexhmie Pagarusha [The nightingale of Kosova: Nexhmie
Pagarusha], Rozafa 021
Bilbili i Kosovës: Shyhrete Behluli [The nightingale of Kosova: Shyhrete
Behluli], Albanota CD-019
Këndojnë Bilbila: Qamili i Vogël e Mazllom Mejzini [The nightingales sing:
Qamili i Vogël and Mazllom Mejzini], EuroLiza CD-029

Yuhas, Dan
(b Hungary, 16 Aug 1947). Israeli composer of Hungarian birth. He studied
at the Rubin Academy of Music, Tel-Aviv (graduated 1968) with Seter,
Boskovitch, Partos and others, and at the Guildhall School of Music,
London (1978–9). A lecturer at the Rubin Academy, he has also directed
the Israel Contemporary Players. His style can be described as atonal,
saturated with sharp chromaticism and using serial and post-serial
techniques that echo the European avant garde. In early orchestral works,
such as Prelude (1978), textural and formal elements show an affinity with
Penderecki's ‘cluster’ pieces; later, he adopted a more motivic and
transparent style sometimes alluding to Central European early
Expressionism. Works such as Four Poems of David Vogel (1986) and the
String Quartet (1989) balance chromatic writing with the suggestion of tonal
centres and strict forms. His music has been performed by leading
orchestras and ensembles in Israel and Europe. Monologue for flute (1997)
has been recorded.
WORKS
(selective list)

3 Pieces, pf, 1974; Prelude, orch, 1978; The Fire and the Mountains (cant.), solo vv,
chorus, orch, 1979; Entities, 12 players, 1983; 4 Poems (D. Vogel), mez, chbr orch,
1986; Str Qt, 1989; Havayot, 10 players, 1992; Ov., orch, 1996; Monologue, fl,
1997; Elegy, orch, 1998; Trio, vn, cl, pf, 1998; Duo, cl, pf, 1999

ODED ASSAF

Yulchiyeva, Munadjat
(b Andizhan, Fergana Basin, 26 Nov 1960). Uzbek singer. From 1978 to
1985 she studied Uzbek classical music at the Tashkent State
Conservatory with shavkat Mirzaev, who became her spiritual teacher as
well as her musical instructor. From 1980 to 1982 she performed with the
makom ensemble at Uzbek State Radio, and in 1982 she began to work
with the Uzbek State Philharmonia. She has appeared widely in concerts
and festivals, but unlike many other Uzbek professional singers, she has
chosen not to perform at weddings. During the last decade of the 20th
century she toured the USA, Europe, Asia and Latin America. She was
awarded the titles of Honoured Artist of Uzbekistan (1991) and People’s
Artist of Uzbekistan (1994), and gained first prize and the accolade ‘Golden
Nightingale’ in the Samarkand International Festival in 1997.
Her repertory includes Uzbek classical music and the music of the bastoqor
composers, who create music in the traditional Uzbek style. Her mezzo-
soprano voice has a range of two and a half octaves, and she has often
performed songs from the traditional male repertory as well as the female.
She has specialized in Uzbek Sufi music, performing settings of the poetry
of Alisher Navai (15th century), Fisuli (16th century), Mashrab (16th
century) and Huvaido (18th century).
RECORDINGS
Ouzbekistan: Monajat Yultchieva, Ocora C560060 (1994)
Munadjat Yulchieva and Ensemble Shavkat Mirzaev: a Haunting Voice, World
Network 38 (1997)
RAZIA SULTANOVA

Yun, Isang
(b Duk San, San Chun Gun, Tongyong [now Chung Mu], 17 Sept 1917; d
Berlin, 3 Nov 1995). Korean-German composer. Son of the poet Yun Ki
Hyon, he began to write music at the age of 14 and went on to study at the
Osaka Conservatory and in Tokyo with Ikenouchi. During World War II he
participated in underground activities against the Japanese, was
imprisoned (1943) and lived in hiding until the liberation. In 1945 he helped
in the reconstruction of Korean cultural life. From 1946 he taught music in
Tongyong (now Chung Mu), Pusan, and, after the Korean War (1953), in
Seoul. As the recipient of the 1955 Seoul City Award, he travelled to
Europe for further study. He was a pupil of Pierre Revel at the Paris
Conservatoire (1956–7) and of Boris Blacher, Josef Rufer and Reinhard
Schwarz-Schilling at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1958–9); he also
attended several Darmstadt summer courses. After spending the period
1960–63 in Krefeld, Freiburg and Cologne, he returned to Berlin in 1964 at
the invitation of the Ford Foundation. In 1967 he was abducted from
 Germany to Seoul by Chung Hee Park's regime, charged as a communist
and imprisoned; after international pressure resulted in his release two
years later, he was taken back to Berlin where he was granted amnesty in
1970. He taught at the Hanover Hochschule für Musik (1970–71) and the
Berlin Hochschule (from 1970). His honours include the Kiel culture prize
(1970), the Federal German Republic's distinguished service cross (1988),
the medal of the Hamburg Academy (1992), the medal of the Goethe
Institute (1994), and membership of the Hamburg and Berlin academies.
The Isang Yun Music Institute opened in P'yŏngyang, North Korea, in 1984
and the International Isang Yun Society was established in Berlin in 1996.
Yun's fundamental aim as a composer was to develop Korean music
through Western means, combining East Asian performing practice with
European instruments, and expressing an Asian imagination in
contemporary Western musical terms. His works of 1959 and 1960 reflect
the 12-note serialism associated with Darmstadt. After 1961, however, a
more individual style began to develop in compositions such as Loyang
(1962), Gasa (1963), Garak (1963), Om mani padme hum (1964) and Réak
(1966). In these works, glissandos, pizzicatos and vibratos provide a
certain exoticism, while traditional Chinese court music ornamentation
emphasizes the highly differentiated character of multiple melodic lines. In
works written after 1964, Yun employed numerous melodic strands; these
‘Haupttöne’, as he called them, constitute centres of gravity through which
the musical form is generated. Contrasting elements, derived from the
Taoist concept of unity as the balance of Yin and Yang, influence
instrumentation, dynamics, harmony, intensity and other musical
parameters, finally uniting in a single sound stream, as suggested by Taoist
philosophy. Yun's operas draw on similar principles. The two-part work
Träume, for example, is made up of a serious drama, Der Traum des Liu-
Tung (1965), paired with the burlesque comedy Die Witwe des
Schmetterlings (1968). Other scores mirror the mood of temple ceremonies
(Bara, 1960; Konzertante Figuren, 1972; Muak, 1978; Festlicher Tanz,
1988) or employ programmes based on Asian fairy tales (Flute Concerto,
1977; Double Concerto for Oboe and Harp, 1977), antique mural paintings
(Images, 1968) and Korean history (Silla, 1992). After 1980 Yun's works
reflect his political beliefs and desires: Korean unification, democracy,
peace and freedom; these include Exemplum in memoriam kwangju
(1981), the second movement of the Violin Concerto no.2 ‘Dialog
Schmetterling und Atombombe’ (1983–6), Engel in Flammen (1994) and
the five symphonies (1983–7), among others.
WORKS
operas
Der Traum des Liu-Tung (1, H. Rudelsberger and W. Bauernfeind, after Ma Chi
Yuan), 1965, Berlin, 25 Sept 1965; Die Witwe des Schmetterlings (1, H. Kunz, after
Ma Chi Yuan), 1968, Nuremberg, 23 Feb 1969; Geisterliebe (2, Kunz), 1970, Kiel,
20 June, 1971; Sim Tjong (prol, 2, epilogue, Kunz), 1972, Munich, 1 Aug 1972
instrumental
Orch: Bara, small orch, 1960; Sym. Szene, 1960; Colloïdes sonores, str, 1961;
Fluktuationen, 1964; Réak, 1966; Dimensionen, org, orch, 1971; Konzertante
Figuren, small orch, 1972; Ov., 1973; Harmonia, 16 wind, hp, perc, 1974; Vc Conc.,
1976; Conc., fl, chbr orch, 1977; Double Conc., ob, hp, chbr orch, 1977; Muak,
1978; Fanfare & Memorial, hp, orch, 1979; Conc., cl, small orch, 1981; Exemplum
in memoriam Kwangju, 1981; Vn Conc. no.1, 1981; Sym. no.1, 1983; Vn Conc.
no.2, 1983–6; Gong-Hu, hp, str, 1984; Sym. no.2, 1984; Sym. no.3, 1985;
Impression, small orch, 1986; Mugung-Dong (Invocation), wind, perc, db, 1986;
Sym. no.4 ‘Im dunkelen singen’, 1986; Duetto concertante, ob + eng hn, vc, str,
1987; Kammersinfonie no.1, 2 ob, 2 hn, str, 1987; Sym. no.5 (N. Sachs), Bar, orch,
1987; Kammersinfonie no.2 ‘Den Opfern der Freiheit’, small orch, 1989; Konturen,
1989; Conc., ob + ob d'amore, orch, 1990; Silla, 1992; Vn Conc. no.3, vn, small
orch, 1992
Chbr: Musik, wind qnt, vn, vc, 1959; Str Qt no.3, 1959; Loyang, fl, ob, cl, bn, hp, 2
perc, vn, vc, 1962; Garak, fl, pf, 1963; Gasa, vn, pf, 1963; Nore, vc, pf, 1964;
Images, fl, ob, vn, vc, 1968; Riul, cl, pf, 1968; Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1972–5; Trio, fl, ob,
vn, 1973; Rondell, ob, cl, bn, 1975; Duo, va, pf, 1976; Pièce concertante, fl, cl, pf,
perc, str qt, 1976; Octet, cl + b cl, bn, hn, str qnt, 1978; Sonata, ob + ob d'amore,
hp, va/vc, 1979; Novellette, fl + a fl, vn, vc/va ad lib, hp, 1980; Concertino, accdn,
str qt, 1983; Inventionen, 2 ob, 1983; Sonatina, 2 vn, 1983; Cl Qnt, 1984; Duo, vc,
hp, 1984; Inventionen, 2 fl, 1984; Qnt, fl, str qt, 1986; Qt, 4 fl, 1986; Rencontre, cl,
vc, hp, 1986; Tapis, str qnt/str orch, 1987; Contemplation, 2 va, 1988; Distanzen,
ww qnt, str qnt, 1988; Festlicher Tanz, wind qnt, 1988; Intermezzo, vc, accdn, 1988;
Pezzo fantasioso, 3 insts, 1988; Qt, fl, vn, vc, pf, 1988; Str Qt no.4, 1988; Rufe, ob,
hp, 1989; Together, vn, db, 1989; Kammerkonzert no.1, large ens, 1990;
Kammerkonzert no.2, large ens, 1990; Str Qt no.5, 1990; Sonata, vn, pf, 1991;
Wind Qnt, 1991; Espace I, vc, pf, 1992; Qt, hn, tpt, trbn, pf, 1992; Str Qt no.6, 1992;
Trio, cl, bn, hn, 1992; Espace II, ob, vc, hp, 1993; Cl Qnt no.2, 1994; Ost-West-
Miniaturen, ob, vc, 1994; Qt, ob, str trio, 1994; Wind Octet, 1994
Solo: 5 Pf Pieces, 1958; Shao Yang Yin, hpd/pf, 1966; Tuyaux sonores, org, 1967;
Glissées, vc, 1970; Piri, ob, 1971; 5 Etudes, fl, 1974; Frag., org, 1975; Königliches
Thema, vn, 1976 [after J.S. Bach: Musikalischen Opfer]; Salomo, fl/a fl, 1978;
Interludium A, pf, 1982; Monolog, b cl, 1983; Monolog, bn, 1984; Li-Na im Garten,
vn, 1985; In Balance, hp, 1987; Kontraste, 1987; Sori, fl, 1988; Chinesische Bilder,
rec/fl, 1993; 7 Etudes, vc, 1993
vocal
Choral: Om mani padme hum (orat, W.D. Rogosky, after Buddha, trans. K.E.
Neumann), S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1964; Ein Schmetterlingstraum (Ma Chi Yuan),
mixed chorus, perc, 1968; An der Schwelle (A. Haushofer), sonnets, Bar, female vv,
org, insts, 1975; Der weise Mann (cant., P. Salomo, Laotse), Bar, mixed chorus,
chbr orch, 1977; Der Herr ist mein Hirte (Ps xxiii, N. Sachs), chorus, trbn, 1981; O
Licht (Sachs, Buddhist prayer), chorus, vn, perc, 1981; Naui Dang, Naui Minjokiyo!
[My Land, My People] (cant., after Korean poems), S, A, T, B, chorus, orch, 1987;
Engel in Flammen (Phoneme), S, female vv, 5 insts, 1994; Epilog, vocalises, S,
female vv, 5 insts, 1994
Solo: Namo [Prayer] (Sanskrit), 3 S, orch, 1971 [rev. S, orch, 1975]; Gagok, 1v, gui,
perc, 1972; Memory, 3vv, perc, 1974; Teile dich Nacht (Sachs), S, chbr ens, 1980

Principal publisher: Bote & Bock

BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (W.W. Sparrer) [incl. discography, further bibliography]
H. Kunz: ‘Bewegtheit in der Unbewegtheit: die Musik des Koreaners Isang
Yun’, Münchner Festspiele 1972, Bayerische Staatsoper, ed.
Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Münchner Opernfestspiele und
Bayerischen Staatsoper (Munich, 1972)
K.J. Müller: ‘Taoismus und Atonalität: zur Musik von Isang Yun’, Musik
und Bildung, lxx (1979), 463–8
H.W. Heister and W.W. Sparrer, eds.: Der Komponist Isang Yun (Munich,
1987, enlarged 2/1997)
H. Bergmeier, ed.: Isang Yun: Festschrift (Berlin, 1992) [incl. articles on
compositions, work-list, discography, bibliography]
Musiktexte, lxii–lxiii (1996) [special issue]
H. KUNZ

Yunluo.
Chinese frame of small pitched gongs suspended vertically from a wooden
frame. The frame is held by a handle or rested on a stand on a table, and
struck with a tipped beater. An ensemble may use one frame or two,
played by one player or two.
The yunluo (lit. ‘cloud gongs’) has been considered as a portable
descendant of the ancient sets of bells or lithophones (see Zhong, Qing)
and the Tang dynasty fangxiang. The Yuan dynastic history refers to a
similar instrument called yun'ao, with 13 gongs. Part of temple and court
ensembles since the Yuan dynasty (see China, §II, 4, fig.1), it is still
common in northern ritual ensembles today.
The common form of yunluo has ten gongs (though frames of 7, 9, 14 are
also found), each suspended by four cords in an individual cubicle within
the frame. They are usually arranged in rows of three with one central gong
at the top, though in the ceremonial music of Xi'an (see also An Laixu) the
gongs are in a pyramid shape of 4 3 2 1. The gongs, of equal size but
different thickness, are tuned to a heptatonic scale, with a range of a 10th;
they belong to the melodic section of an ensemble. The ‘improved’
chromatic yunluo sometimes featured in the modern ‘national music’
orchestra may have over 40 gongs.
A related instrument is the Korean ulla. The Tibetan mkhar-rnga, also a
ceremonial instrument, seems to be borrowed from Chinese temple
ensembles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
Yuan Jingfang: Minzu qiyue xinshang shouce [Handbook for the
appreciation of Chinese instrumental music] (Beijing, 1986), 93
Liu Dongsheng and Yuan Quanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian
[Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988) [YYS
pubn]
Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese
musical instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 52–5
China: Folk Instrumental Traditions, AIMP VDE 822–823 (1995)
S. Jones: Folk Music of China: Living Instrumental Traditions (Oxford,
1995, 2/1998 with CD), 181–225
STEPHEN JONES

Yuon, Paul.
See Juon, Paul.

Yupanqui, Atahualpa [Chavero,

Héctor Roberto]
(b Pergamino, Buenos Aires province, 31 Jan 1908; d Nîmes, France, 23
May 1992). Argentine composer, poet, guitarist and singer. He and the
Chilean folklorist Violeta Parra are considered the founders of the folk
music and subsequent nueva canción (new song) movement in Latin
America, rooted in the rediscovery of rural folk music. For more than 30
years Yupanqui travelled the entire Argentine landscape collecting popular
songs, sayings and poetry which later entered into his own compositions.
His goal was cantar artes olvidadas (to sing forgotten arts): by living a very
humble life among his paisanos (poor people from the countryside), he
experienced what they experienced. He wrote his first song, Caminito del
Indio, in 1926, the beginning of a wealth of compositions today considered
classics; many of them use the poetic forms and rhythms of rural
Argentina, interpreted in definitive fashion by his distinctive guitar style. At
different points in his life (1932, 1949, 1967) he was forced into exile
because of his political activities: his songs were considered ‘protest songs’
well before the term was coined in the USA: rather than ‘protest’ they
showed a committed perspective to the life and experiences of ordinary
people. In 1950 he went to Europe and captivated Edith Piaf, who
encouraged his concerts and success in Paris. In 1967, owing to problems
with the Argentine military dictatorship, Yupanqui moved to Paris, which
became his regular residence for part of each year and from whence he
toured all of Europe until his death. In France he is much admired, with
some of his poems and songs becoming part of the primary school
curriculum. In Latin America he is considered one of the seminal folklorists
and guitarists of the century: a whole generation has followed in his
footsteps.
WRITINGS
Piedra sola: poemas del cerro (Jujuy, 1941/R)
Aires indios (Montevideo, 1947/R)
Cerro Bayo: vidas y costumbres montanesas (Buenos Aires, 1953/R)
Guitarra: poemas y cantares Argentinas (Buenos Aires, 1954/R)
El canto del viento (Buenos Aires, 1965/R)
El payador perseguido (Buenos Aires, 1972/R)
La capataza (Buenos Aires, 1992)
recordings
30 ans de chansons, Le Chant du Monde LDX 274 750 (c1985)
Magia de Atahualpa Yupanqui, Toshiba EMI,
 PABLO VILA

Yurgenson, Pyotr Ivanovich.

See Jürgenson, Pyotr Ivanovich.

Yusupov, Benjamin
(b Tajikistan, 1962). Tajik composer. Born into a family of musicians, he
attended the Dushanbe Music College (1977–81) before studying
composition with Ledyonov and conducting with Kitayenko at the Moscow
Conservatory (1981–90). He worked as a conductor with the Dushanbe PO
(1988–90) before emigrating to Israel in 1990; he began doctoral studies in
Bar-Ilan University in the late 1990s. He has explored the possibilities
offered by the modern orchestra in the areas of developing the timbres and
rhythms inherent in Central Asian folk music; his skilful instrumentation has
allowed him to reproduce the sounds of Tajik instruments in an orchestral
setting. He has won the prize of the Association of Young Soviet
Composers (1989), the Clone Prize of the Israeli League of Composers
(1993) and in 1999 was granted the Israel Prime Minister Award.
WORKS
(selective list)

Kasyda on Mourning (after F. García Lorca), 4 va, cel, pf, 1982; Shiru Shakar [Milk
and Sugar] (Lohuty), 1v, Tajik folk orch, 1984; Shukrnoma [Glorificatino], vns, pf,
1984; Sadoi kuhsor [Melody of Beloved], brass qnt, 1985; Falak, poem, orch, 1988;
Shirinjon [Delightful], pf, 1990; Gabriel, sym. poem, orch, 1991; Haifa, fl, cl, orch,
1993 [from suite Views of Israel]; Jerusalem, Heart of the World, recs, perc, pf,
1993; Nola-Conc., fls, str orch, 1994; Tanovar [Dance], fl, chbr orch, 1994; Pot-
Pourri of Yiddish Songs, 1995; Qnt, mar, str qt, 1996; Segoh, fl, oud, perc, 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ye. Dolinskaya: ‘Neotlozhno reshat' ostrïye voprosï’ [Hard questions have
to be solved urgently], SovM (1987), no.3, pp.19–22
V. Sadïkova: Kompozïtorskaya molodyyozh' Uzbekistana [Young Uzbek
composers] (Dushanbe, 1987)
Ye. Vlasova: ‘Neizvestnoye pokoleniye’ [The unknown generation], SovM
(1988), no.7, pp.23–31
RAZIA SULTANOVA

Yūsuf, Zakariyyā
(b Mosul, 1911; d 24 June 1977). Iraqi musicologist. He studied music in
his native country and later in London. His work was first noticed at the
Festival of Ibn Sīnā, Baghdad (1952), and in 1964 he was appointed
general secretary of the International Conference for Arab Music held in
Baghdad. He is a pioneer of musicological studies in Iraq. His speciality is
manuscripts and he has published the writings of al-Kindī and has edited
and annotated the treatises of Ibn Sīnā, Ibn al-Munajjim, Ibn Zayla, al-Tūsī
and ‘Alī al-Kātib.
WRITINGS
al-Mūsīqā al-‘Arabiyya [Arab music] (Baghdad, 1951, 2/1952)
Mūsīqā Ibn Sīnā [The music of Ibn Sīnā] (Baghdad, 1952)
Jawāmi‘ ‘ilm al-Mūsīqā min Kitāb al-Shifā' li-Ibn Sīnā [The writings on the
science of music in The Book of Healing by Ibn Sīnā] (Cairo, 1956)
Mabādi' al-Mūsīqā al-Nazariyya [Principles of the theory of music]
(Baghdad, 1957)
ed.: Mu'allafāt al-Kindī al-Mūsīqiyya [al-Kindī's writings on music]
(Baghdad, 1962)
ed.: Mūsīqā al-Kindī [The music of al-Kindī] (Baghdad, 1962)
Tamrīn lil-Darb ‘alā al-‘ūd, ta'līf al-Kindī [Exercises on the ‘ud according to
al-Kindī] (Baghdad, 1962)
ed.: al-Kāfī fī al-Mūsīqā Ta'līf Abī Mansūr al-Husayn Ibn Zayla [Kitāb al-Kāfī
Fīl-Mūsīqā by Ibn Zayla] (Cairo, 1964)
ed.: Risāla Nāsir al-Dīn al-Tūsī fī ‘Ilm al-Mūsīqā [al-Tūsī’s treatise on
music] (Cairo, 1964)
ed.: Risāla Yahyā Ibn al-Munajjim fī al-Mūsīqā [Ibn Al-Munajjim's treatise
on music] (Cairo, 1964)
ed.: Risāla al-Kindī fī al-Luhūn wa-al-Naghm [al-Kindī’s treatise on
melodies] (Baghdad, 1965)
al-Takhtīt al-Mūsīqī lil-Bilād al-‘Arabiyya [Musical planning for Arab
countries] (Baghdad, 1965)
Makhtūtāt al-Mūsīqā al-‘Arabiyya fī al-‘Ālam: Makhtūtāt Īrān [Arabic musical
manuscripts throughout the world 1: manuscripts of Iran] (Baghdad,
1966)
Makhtūtāt al-Mūsīqā al-‘Arabiyya fī al-‘Ālam: Makhtūtāt Aqtār al-Maghrib
[Arabic musical manuscripts throughout the world 2: manuscripts of
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya] (Baghdad, 1967)
Makhtūtāt al-Mūsīqā al-‘Arabiyya fī al-‘Ālam (Makhtūtāt al-Hind, Bākistān,
Afghānistān) [Arabic musical manuscripts throughout the world 3:
manuscripts of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan] (Baghdad, 1967)
ed.: ‘Kamāl Adab al-Ghinā' Ta'līf al-Hasan Ibn Ahmad Ibn ‘Alī al-Kātib’, al-
Mawrid, ii/2 (1973), 101–54
CHRISTIAN POCHÉ

Yusupov, Prince Nikolay

Borisovich
(b St Petersburg, 1827; d Baden-Baden, 19/31 July 1891). Russian
violinist, composer and writer on music. He was a pupil of Vieuxtemps. In
his palace at St Petersburg he maintained an orchestra and a folk
ensemble, though he spent many years away in western Europe, collecting
books on music and involving himself in musical activities. In 1856 he
published in Frankfurt Luthmonographie, historique et raisonnée: essai sur
l'histoire du violon et sur les ouvrages des anciens luthiers célèbres du
temps de la Renaissance, par un amateur (written in French), which, while
containing some valuable full-sized drawings, is full of inaccuracies. He
began to write a comprehensive history of music in Russia, but only the
first volume, Musique sacrée suivie d'une choix de morceaux de chants
d'église, appeared in print (St Petersburg, 1862). He also published
Sistematicheskiy katalog knig na russkom yazïke Imperatorskoy publichnoy
biblioteki (‘A systematic catalogue of Russian books in the Imperial Public
Library’, St Petersburg, 1863).
Yusupov performed much of his own music with his private orchestra. His
compositions include a programme symphony with violin obbligato,
Gonzalo de Córdova, and a Concerto symphonique for violin and
orchestra. His Ballet d'Espagnol achieved some popularity. The title-page
of later editions of Luthmonographie describes him as ‘Maître-compositeur
de la Société Philharmonique de Bologne, et Membre Honoraire de
l'Académie Philharmonique de St Cécile à Rome’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I.M. Yampol'sky: Russkoye skripichnoye iskusstvo: ocherki i materialï
[Russian violin playing: essays and materials], i (Moscow, 1951)
JENNIFER SPENCER

Yuzhak, Kiralina Iosifovna

(b Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 3 Dec 1934). Russian musicologist. She
studied musicology with A.N. Dolzhansky at the Leningrad Conservatory
(graduating in 1960), and subsequently undertook postgraduate studies at
the Russian Institute for the History of the Arts with M.K. Mikhaylov (1966–
70). She was appointed to teach at the Petrozavodsk Conservatory in
1972, and was later made professor at the Leningrad Conservatory in
1992. She became a member of the Leipzig International Bach Society in
1987. Her chief area of interest is the theory and history of polyphony. In
her doctoral dissertation (1990) she considers the historical types of
polyphony as a reflection of the stages of development in European
musical culture. This has led to a study of mode and the evolution of modal
structures, and in particular she has examined the music of J.S. Bach,
especially the structure of his fugues. She has also written on composers
of the 19th and 20th centuries (Glazunov, Dargomïzhsky, Nielsen,
Rautavaara, Sibelius, Shostakovich and Ustvol'skaya) and has discussed
the work of various musicologists, such as Dolzhansky. She is editor of a
number of collections of essays and has organized many conferences,
including, from 1991, a series of Bach seminars at the Petrozavodsk
Conservatory.
WRITINGS
Nekotorïye osobennosti stroyeniya fugi I.S. Bakha: stretta v fugakh
‘Khorosho temperirovannogo klavira’ [Some particulars of structure of
the fugue of J.S. Bach: the stretto in the fugues of Das wohltemperirte
Clavier] (Moscow, 1965)
ed.: Polifoniya (Moscow, 1975) [incl. ‘O prirode i spetsifike
polifonicheskogo mïshleniya’ [The nature and specifics of polyphonic
thinking], 6–62]
‘Iz nablyudenii nad stilyem G. Ustvol'skoy’ [From an observation of the
style of Ustvol'skaya], Stilevïye tendentsii v sovetskoy muzïke 1960–
1970-kh godov, ed. A.N. Kryukov (Leningrad, 1979), 85–102
‘Ob ėvolyutsii khudozhestvennogo smïsla’ [On the evolution of an artistic
sense], SovM (1986), no.1, pp.112–15
‘Kontrapunkt i polifoniya’ [Counterpoint and polyphony], SovM (1989), no.8,
pp.101–5
‘Lad: tip poryadka, dinamicheskaya i ėvolyusioniruyushchaya sistema’
[Mode: a model of order and a dynamic evolving system], Traditsii
muzïkal'noy nauki, ed. L. Kovnatskaya (Leningrad, 1989), 45–69
‘O ladovom i melodicheskom stroyenii runicheskikh napevov’ [The modal
and melodic structure of runic melodies], Russkaya i finskaya
muzïkal'nïye kul'turï, ed. V.I. Nilova (Petrozavodsk, 1989), 30–48
Teoreticheskiye osnovï polifonii v svete ėvolyutsii muzïkal'noy sistemï [The
theoretical foundations of polyphony in the light of the evolution of a
musical system] (diss., Kiev Conservatory, 1990); partially pubd as
Teoreticheskiy ocherk polifonii svobodnogo pis'ma [A theoretical study
of polyphony in free writing] (Petrozavodsk, 1990)
‘Shostakovich Dolzhanskogo: opus 87, izmenyayushchiisya vo vremeni’
[Dolzhansky's Shostakovich: opus 87, changing with time], D.D.
Shostakovich: sbornik statey k 90-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya, ed. L.
Kovnatskaya (St Petersburg, 1996), 194–227
IRINA BARANOVA

Yu Zhenfei
(b Suzhou, 1902; d 1992). Chinese Kunqu opera performer. Undoubtedly
the 20th century’s most distinguished performer of Kunqu, Yu Zhenfei was
most noted for his performance of xiaosheng (young scholar-lover) roles.
He also performed in Beijing opera, belonging to troupes headed by such
notable performers as Mei Lanfang and Cheng Yanqiu, and was an
accomplished player of the dizi, the transverse flute which is so essential to
the musical accompaniment of Kunqu. He wrote a treatise on Kunqu acting
and several other works.
Yu Zhenfei was the son of the Kunqu specialist Yu Zonghai (1847–1930).
After early training, in 1923 he gained a major opportunity when the great
dan performer Cheng Yanqiu visited Shanghai and invited him to share the
stage with him in the role of the scholar-lover in the centrepiece scene of
the famous ‘Peony Pavilion’ (Mudan ting) by Tang Xianzu (1550–1617).
This item, entitled Youyuan jingmeng (‘Wandering in a Garden, Startled
from a Dream’) became one for which Yu was particularly well regarded. In
1960 this scene was made into a film, with Yu Zhenfei and Mei Lanfang in
the central roles.
Other than during the Cultural Revolution, Yu Zhenfei did well under the
Chinese Communist Party, which he joined in 1959, serving the regime
actively as a Kunqu performer, educationist and administrator. In 1958 he
made a major visit to Europe, performing Kunqu there, and in 1980 his 60th
anniversary on the stage was commemorated with much fanfare.
WRITINGS
Zhenfei qupu [Musical scores of Yu Zhenfei] (Shanghai, 1982)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
 Su Yi and others: Zhongguo jingju shi [The history of Beijing opera in
China], ii (Beijing, 1990), 625–31
Recordings
Changsheng dian [The Palace of Long Life], Zhongguo changpian chang
M-108 (c1960)
Kunju: Qiangtou mashang [Kunqu: ‘The Top of a Wall, on Horseback’],
Zhongguo changpian chang M-290 to M-295 (c1960)
Zhongguo xiqu yishujia changqiang xuan, 52: Kunqu, Yu Zhenfei [Selected
vocal melodies of Chinese opera artists, 52: Kunqu, Yu Zhenfei], ed.
Zhongguo yishu yanjiuyuan Xiqu yanjiusuo, China Record Co. HD-152
(1984)
COLIN MACKERRAS

Yvain, Maurice [Paul, Pierre;

Sautreuil, Jean]
(b Paris, 12 Feb 1891, d Suresnes, 28 July 1965). French composer. He
studied at the Paris Conservatoire, and began his career as an
accompanist and orchestral player, appearing in many Paris music halls.
After World War I he contributed many songs to a series of revues at the
Casino de Paris (Cach’ ton piano, 1920, Paris quie jazz, 1920, Avec le
sourire, 1921 and En douce, 1922); among them was his worldwide
success Mon homme, first sung and danced by Mistinguett and Max
Dearly, then sung in America by Fanny Brice and later by Billie Holiday as
My Man. The lyrics were by Albert Willemetz, who provided the text for
Yvain’s first operetta, Ta bouche (1922), which proved a major success as
did its successor, Là-haut, a vehicle for Maurice Chevalier (1923).
Yvain’s music was elegant and tuneful and went against the contemporary
trend to take elements from American popular dance styles. The small-
scale shows he produced in the 1920s having gone out of fashion, in 1935
he had an enormous success with Au soleil du Mexique, a spectacular
operetta with bullfights and earthquakes, that starred André Baugé and
Fanély Revoil. During the 1930s he also wrote several film scores (La belle
équipe, 1935, Le duel, 1938, and Lumières de Paris, 1938). For a while he
took the pseudonym Jean Sautreuil, working with Joseph Szulc and others.
Yvain’s last major success was Chanson gitane (1946), another large-scale
romantic operetta set in the 1820s.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage, all first produced in Paris (where different, writers shown as lyricist; librettist):
Ta bouche (A. Willemetz; Y. Mirande and G. Quinson), Daunou, 1 April 1922; Là-
haut (Willemetz; Mirande and Quinson), Bouffes-Parisiens, 31 March 1923; La
dame en décolleté (Mirande and L. Boyer), Bouffes-Parisiens, 23 Dec 1923; Gosse
de riche (J. Bousquet and H. Falk), Daunou, 2 May 1924; Pas sur la bouche (A.
Barde), Nouveauté, 17 Feb 1925; Bouche à bouche (Barde), Apollo, 8 Oct 1925; Un
bon garçon (Barde), Nouveautés, 13 Nov 1926; Yes (Willemetz; P. Soulaine and R.
Pujol), Capucines, 26 Jan 1928; Elle est à vous (Barde), Nouveautés, 22 Jan 1929
Jean V (Bousquet and Falk), Daunou, 2 March 1929; Kadubec (Barde), Daunou, 25
Oct 1930; Encore cinquante centimes (H. Christiné and M. Yvain; Barde),
Nouveautés, 17 Sept 1931; Oh! Papa … (Barde), Nouveautés, 2 Feb 1933; La belle
histoire (H.-G. Clouzot), Madeleine, 25 April 1934; Un, deux, trois (R. Bizet and J.
Barreyre), Moulin de la chanson, 1934; Vacances (H. Duvernois and Barde),
Nouveautés, 20 Dec 1934; Un coup de veine (Willemetz and A. Mouëzy-Éon),
Porte-St-Martin, 11 Oct 1935
Au soleil du Mexique (Mouëzy-Éon and Willemetz), Châtelet, 18 Dec 1935; [as J.
Sautreuil] Le coffre-fort vivant (H. Wernert; G. Berr and L. Verneuil), Châtelet, 17
Dec 1938, collab. J. Szulc; [as Sautreuil] Le beau voyage d’un enfant de Paris
(Wernert and E. Morel), Châtelet, 15 Jan 1944; Monseigneur, Daunou, 1945;
Chanson gitane (Mouëzy-Éon and L. Poterat), Gaité-Lyrique, 13 Dec 1946; Le
corsaire noir (J. Valmy), Marseilles, 24 Feb 1958
Songs: Cach’ ton piano (Willemetz), 1920; Mon homme (Willemetz), 1920; Une
femme qui passe (Willemetz), 1920; Avec le sourire (A. Arnould), 1921; En douce
(Willemetz and J. Charles), 1922; Le gri-gri d’amour (Willemetz and Arnould), 1922;
La java (Willemetz and Charles), 1922; J’en ai marre (Willemetz and Arnould),
1922; Le premier rendez-vous (Willemetz), 1923; La belote (Willemetz and
Carpentier), 1924; J’ai pas su y faire (Cartoux and Costil), 1925; Dans la rue (S.
Weber), 1930; La môme Caoutchouc (Weber), 1930; A travers les barreaux de
l’escalier (H. Varna, L. Lelièvre and P. De Lima), 1931
Film scores, incl. La belle équipe, 1935; Le duel, 1938; Lumières de Paris, 1938

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlEMT
M. Yvain: Ma belle opérette (Paris, 1962)
G. Brunschwig, L.-C. Calvert and J.-C. Klein: 100 ans de chanson
française (Paris, 1972)
R. Traubner: Operetta (London, 1984)
PATRICK O’CONNOR

Yvo.
See Ivo Barry and Vento, Ivo de.

Yzac, Henricus [Heinrich].

See Isaac, Henricus.

Yzo, Pierre.
See Iso, Pierre.