Figure 3-7 Sacrificial roof

❍ Controlling access to roofs to minimize the possibility of

aggressors placing explosives or chemical, biological, or
radiological agents there or otherwise threatening building
occupants or critical infrastructure. For new buildings,
eliminate all external roof access by providing access from
internal stairways or ladders, such as in mechanical rooms. For
existing buildings, eliminate external access where possible or
make roof access ladders removable, retractable, or lockable.

❍ Protecting roof openings to a facility from covert entry by

installing screens or grates or attaching Intrusion Detection
System sensors.

3.4 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical system design standards address limiting damage to
critical infrastructure and protecting building occupants against
CBR threats. The primary goal of a mechanical system after a
terrorist attack should be to continue to operate key life safety
systems. This can be accomplished by locating components in
less vulnerable areas, limiting access to mechanical systems, and
providing a reasonable amount of redundancy. Other aspects of
mechanical systems are discussed in Section 2.10.

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-33

 During an interior bombing event, smoke removal and control
are of paramount importance. The designer should consider the
fact that, if window glazing is hardened, a blast may not blow out
windows, and smoke may be trapped in the building. In the event
of a blast, the available smoke removal system may be essential
to smoke removal, particularly in large, open spaces. This equip-
ment should be located away from high-risk areas (e.g., garages
and loading docks). The system controls and power wiring to the
equipment should be protected, and the system should be con-
nected to emergency power to provide smoke removal. Smoke
removal equipment should be provided with standalone local
control panels that can continue to individually function in the
event the control wiring is severed from the main control system.

Designers should consider the following:

❍ Do not mount plumbing, electrical fixtures, or utility lines

on the inside of exterior walls, but, when this is unavoidable,
mount fixtures on a separate wall at least 6 inches from the
exterior wall face.

❍ Avoid placing plumbing on the roof slab.

❍ Avoid suspending plumbing fixtures and piping from the ceiling.

❍ Reduce the number of utility openings, manholes, tunnels, air

conditioning ducts, filters, and access panels into the structure.

❍ Locate utility systems away from likely areas of potential

attack, such as loading docks, lobbies, and parking areas.

❍ Protect building operational control areas and utility feeds to

lessen the negative effects of a blast.

❍ Design operational redundancies to survive all kinds of attack.

❍ Use lockable systems for utility openings and manholes where

appropriate. Infrequently used utility covers/manholes can be
tack-welded as an inexpensive alternative to locking tamper-
resistant covers.

3-34 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

Key HVAC System Considerations. The following HVAC design
measures (from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Na-
tional Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Guidance for
Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological,
or Radiological Attacks, May 2002) should be considered to mitigate
the risk of CBR threats for high security buildings. HVAC protec-
tive actions are discussed in Chapter 5.

❍ Elevating the fresh-air intakes to reduce the potential for

hazardous materials entering a building from a ground-level
outdoor release is most easily applied in new construction
(see Figures 3-8 and 3-9). This has two main benefits.
The first benefit is that it provides passive security against
malicious acts, which makes it more difficult for a container of
hazardous material to be inserted directly into the building’s
HVAC system and to be conveyed to various parts of the
building. The second benefit is that it makes it less likely that
high concentrations of hazardous material will occur at the
intakes if there is a ground-level release near the building.

❍ Locating ground-level intakes near streets or parking areas

can cause exhaust fumes to be drawn indoors under certain
conditions of wind and stability (see Figure 3-10). In elevating
the intakes, the dilution increases with the distance from
the source. In stable conditions, contaminants released near
the ground will likely remain close to the ground unless the
airflow over the building lifts it upward. Contaminants that
are heavier than air will also tend to remain close to the
ground under calm conditions.

❍ Placing intakes at the highest practical level on the building is

beneficial. For protection against malicious acts, the intakes
should also be covered by screens so that objects cannot be
tossed into the intakes or into air wells from the ground (see
Figure 3-10). Such screens should be sloped to allow thrown
objects to roll or slide off the screen, away from the intake.
Many existing buildings have air intakes that are located at or
below ground level. For those that have wall-mounted or below-
grade intakes close to the building, the intakes can be elevated

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-35

Figure 3-8 Example of protecting outdoor air intakes
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH, PUBLICATION NO. 2002-139, GUIDANCE FOR PROTECTING BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, MAY 2002

Figure 3-9
Example of elevated air
intake

SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH, PUBLICATION NO. 2002-139, GUIDANCE FOR

PROTECTING BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE CHEMICAL,
BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, MAY 2002

3-36 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

Figure 3-10 Another example of protecting outdoor air intakes
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH, PUBLICATION NO. 2002-139, GUIDANCE FOR PROTECTING BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE
CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, MAY 2002

by constructing a plenum or external shaft over the intake

(see Figure 3-11). An extension height of 12 feet will place the
intake out of reach of individuals without some assistance.

❍ Effectively elevating intakes has practical limits. A plume or cloud

of hazardous materials can reach the intakes, particularly if the
source is large and distant. For low-rise buildings (i.e., those
having a width more than twice the height), a plume originating
at ground level near the building will travel over the building
rather than around it; thus, the wind will convey contaminants to
the top of the building, with some dilution occurring.

❍ For existing buildings with air intakes below grade, at ground

level, or wall-mounted outside secure areas, some protection
can be gained with physical security measures (e.g., placing
fencing, surveillance cameras, and motion detectors around
the intakes to facilitate monitoring by security personnel).
These measures can help prevent malicious acts, but are less
effective than elevating the intakes, because ground level
releases under certain conditions can enter the intakes from
points outside the area fenced or under surveillance.

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-37

Figure 3-11
Example of enclosing an
existing vulnerable air Ground-level Outdoor Air Intake
intake

Raised-level Outdoor Air Intake

SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH, PUBLICATION NO. 2002-139, GUIDANCE FOR PROTECTING

BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL
ATTACKS, MAY 2002

❍ Physical security for mechanical rooms to prevent the direct

introduction of hazardous materials into the system of ducts
that distributes air to the building should be maintained. This
includes locking and controlling the access to all mechanical
rooms containing HVAC equipment.

3-38 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

❍ Public access to building roofs should be prevented. Access to the
roof may allow entry to the building and access to air intakes and
HVAC equipment (e.g., self-contained HVAC units, laboratory or
bathroom exhausts) located on the roof. From a physical security
perspective, roofs are like other entrances to the building and
should be secured appropriately. Roofs with HVAC equipment
should be treated like mechanical areas. Fencing or other
barriers should restrict access from adjacent roofs.

❍ Access to building operation systems by outsiders should be

restricted. A building staff member should escort maintenance
workers throughout their service visit and should visually
inspect their work before final acceptance of the service.
Alternatively, building managers can ensure the reliability of
pre-screened service personnel from a trusted contractor.

❍ Access to information on building operations (including

mechanical, electrical, vertical transport, fire and life safety,
security system plans and schematics, and emergency
operations procedures) should be strictly controlled. Such
information should be released to authorized personnel
through the development of an access list and controlled copy
numbering.

❍ To prevent widespread dispersion of a contaminant released

within lobbies, mailrooms, and loading docks, their HVAC
systems should be isolated and the areas maintained at a
negative pressure relative to the rest of the building, but at
positive pressure relative to the outdoors. Physical isolation
of these areas (well-sealed floor to roof-deck walls, sealed
wall penetrations) is critical to maintaining the pressure
differential. It requires special attention to ensure airtight
boundaries between these areas and adjacent spaces. In some
building designs (those having lobbies with elevator access,
for example), establishing a negative pressure differential
presents a challenge. A qualified mechanical engineer can
assist in determining if the recommended isolation is feasible
for a given building.

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-39

 ❍ Large buildings usually have multiple HVAC zones, with each
zone served by its own air handling unit and duct system. In
practice, these zones are not completely separated if they are
on the same floor. Air flows between zones through hallways,
atria, and doorways that are normally left open. Isolating the
separate HVAC zones minimizes the potential spread of an
airborne hazard within a building, and reduces the number
of people potentially exposed if an internal release occurs.
Zone separation provides a limited benefit against an external
release. It increases internal resistance to air movement that
is produced by wind forces and chimney effect, therefore
reducing the rate of infiltration. In essence, isolating zones
divide the building into separate environments, limiting the
effects of single release to an isolated portion of the building.
Isolation of zones requires full-height walls between each zone
and its adjacent zone and hallway.

❍ Consider “shelter-in-place” rooms or areas where people can

congregate in the event of an outdoor release. The goal is to
create areas where outdoor air infiltration is very low. Usually
such rooms will be in the inner part of the building in an area
with no exterior windows. The rooms should have doors that
are effective at preventing airflow and should contain staging
supplies such as duct tape and plastic to help further seal the
areas from the hallways. Typically, restrooms are a bad choice,
because they have exhaust ducts that lead directly to the
outside. Opening and closing a conventional hinged door can
pump large amounts of air into the room. If practical, replace
the door with a code compliant sliding door to reduce this
effect. Shelter-in-place is discussed in detail in Section 5.2.

❍ Many central HVAC systems have energy management and

control systems that can regulate airflow and pressures within
a building on an emergency response basis. Some fire alarm
systems provide useful capabilities during CBR events. In some
cases, the best response option (given sufficient warning)
might be to shut off the building’s HVAC and exhaust
system(s), thus avoiding the introduction of a CBR agent

3-40 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

 from outside. In other cases, interior pressure and airflow
control may prevent the spread of a CBR agent released in
the building and/or ensure the safety of egress pathways. The
decision to install emergency HVAC control options should
be made in consultation with a qualified mechanical engineer
who understands the ramifications of various HVAC operating
modes on building operation and safety systems.

❍ HVAC control may not be appropriate in all emergency

situations. Protection from CBR attacks depends upon
the design and operation of the HVAC system and the
nature of the CBR agent release. Lobbies, loading docks,
and mailrooms might be provided with manually operated
exhaust systems, activated by trained personnel to remove
contaminants in the event of a known release, exhausting air
to an appropriate area. Manipulation of the HVAC system
could minimize the spread of an agent. If an HVAC control
plan is pursued, building personnel should be trained to
recognize a terrorist attack and know when to initiate the
control measures. For example, emergency egress stairwells
should remain pressurized (unless they are known to contain
the CBR source). Other areas, such as laboratories, clean
rooms, or pressure isolation rooms in hospitals, may need to
remain ventilated. All procedures and training associated with
the control of the HVAC system should be addressed in the
building’s Emergency Response Plan (ERP).

❍ Ducted returns offer limited access points to introduce a

CBR agent. The return vents can be placed in conspicuous
locations, reducing the risk of an agent being secretly
introduced into the return system. Non-ducted return air
systems commonly use hallways or spaces above suspended
ceilings as a return-air path or plenum. CBR agents
introduced at any location above the suspended ceiling in a
ceiling plenum return system will probably migrate back to
the HVAC unit and, without highly efficient filtration for the
particular agent, redistribute it to occupied areas. Buildings
should be designed to minimize interaction between air-

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-41

 handling zones. This can be partially accomplished by limiting
shared returns. Where ducted returns are not feasible or
warranted, hold-down clips may be used for the accessible
areas of suspended ceilings that serve as the return plenum.
This issue is closely related to the isolation of lobbies and
mailrooms, because shared returns are a common way for
contaminants from these areas to disperse into the rest of the
building. These modifications may be more feasible for new
building construction or those undergoing major renovation.

❍ A rapid response, such as shutting down an HVAC system, may

involve closing various dampers, especially those controlling the
flow of outdoor air (in the event of an exterior CBR release).
When the HVAC system is turned off, the building pressure
compared to outdoors may still be negative, drawing outdoor
air into the building via many leakage pathways, including
the HVAC system. Consideration should be given to installing
low leakage dampers to minimize this flow pathway. Damper
leakage ratings are available as part of the manufacturer’s
specifications and range from ultra-low to normal categories.
Assuming that there is some warning prior to a direct CBR
release, the speed with which these dampers respond to a
“close” instruction can also be important. From a protective
standpoint, dampers that respond quickly are preferred over
dampers that might take 30 seconds or more to respond.

Emergency Plans, Training, and Procedures for HVAC Systems.

All buildings should have current emergency plans to address
fire, weather, and other types of emergencies. In light of past
U.S. experiences with anthrax and similar threats, these plans
should be updated to consider CBR attack scenarios and the as-
sociated procedures. Emergency plans should have procedures
for communicating instructions to building occupants, identi-
fying suitable shelter-in-place areas (if they exist), identifying
appropriate use and selection of personal protective equipment
(i.e., clothing, gloves, respirators), and directing emergency
evacuations. Individuals developing emergency plans and proce-
dures should recognize that there are fundamental differences

3-42 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

between chemical, biological, and radiological agents. In general,
chemical agents will show a rapid onset of symptoms, while the
response to biological and radiological agents will be delayed.
Issues such as designated areas and procedures for chemical
storage, HVAC control or shutdown, and communications with
building occupants and emergency responders, should all be ad-
dressed. The plans should be as comprehensive as possible, but,
as described earlier, protected by limited and controlled access.
When appropriately developed, these plans, policies, and pro-
cedures can have a major impact upon occupant survivability in
the event of a CBR release. Staff training, particularly for those
with specific responsibilities during an event, is essential and
should cover both internal and external events. Holding regularly
scheduled practice drills, similar to the common fire drill, allows
for plan testing, as well as occupant and key staff rehearsal of the
plan, and increases the likelihood for success in an actual event.
For protection systems in which HVAC control is done via the
energy management and control system, emergency procedures
should be exercised periodically to ascertain that the various con-
trol options work (and continue to work) as planned.

Periodic training of HVAC maintenance staff in system operations

and maintenance should be conducted. This training should in-
clude the procedures to be followed in the event of a suspected
CBR agent release. Training should also cover health and safety
aspects for maintenance personnel, as well as the potential health
consequences to occupants of poorly performing systems. Devel-
opment of current, accurate HVAC diagrams and HVAC system
labeling protocols should be addressed. These documents can be
of great value in the event of a CBR release.

Procedures and preventive maintenance schedules should be

implemented for cleaning and maintaining ventilation system
components. Replacement filters, parts, etc., should be obtained
from known manufacturers and examined prior to installation. It
is important that ventilation systems be maintained and cleaned
according to the manufacturer’s specifications. To do this requires
information on HVAC system performance, flow rates, damper

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-43

 modulation and closure, sensor calibration, filter pressure loss,
filter leakage, and filter change-out recommendations. These
steps are critical to ensure that protection and mitigation systems,
such as particulate filtration, operate as intended.

3.5 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

The major security functions of the electrical system are to main-
tain power to essential building services, especially those required
for life safety and evacuation; provide lighting and surveillance to
deter criminal activities; and provide emergency communications.
Thus, the operability of electrical systems is an important element
for deferring terrorist attacks and can become a critical component
for life safety systems after an attack. Designers should consider the
following recommendations for buildings requiring high security:

❍ Emergency and normal electric panels, conduits, and

switchgear should be installed separately, at different
locations, and as far apart as possible. Electric distribution
should be run from separate locations.

❍ Emergency generators should be located away from loading

docks, entrances, and parking. More secure locations include
the roof, protected grade level, and protected interior areas.

❍ Fuel tanks should be mounted near the generator, given the

same protection as the emergency generator, and sized to
store an appropriate amount of fuel. A battery and/or UPS
could serve a smaller building or leased facility.

❍ Conduits and lines should be installed outside to allow a

trailer-mounted generator to connect to the building’s
electrical system. If tertiary power is required, other methods
include generators and feeders from alternative substations.

❍ Site lighting should be coordinated with the CCTV system.

❍ Emergency lighting should be provided in restrooms.

❍ Building access points should be illuminated to aid in threat

detection.

3-44 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

❍ Self-contained battery lighting should be provided in stairwells
and for exit signs.

❍ Suspending electrical conduits from the ceiling should be avoided.

❍ Adequate lighting of perimeters and parking areas should be

provided to aid in visual surveillance and to support the use of
physical security systems.

3.6 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The fire protection system inside the building should maintain life
safety protection after an incident and allow for safe evacuation of
the building when appropriate. Although fire protection systems
are designed to perform well during fires, they are not tradition-
ally designed to survive bomb blasts. To enhance the performance
of fire protection systems, especially in the case of an explosive
blast, the designer should consider the following:

❍ The fire protection water system should be protected from

single-point failure in case of a blast event. The incoming
line should be encased, buried, or located 50 feet away from
high-risk areas. The interior mains should be looped and
sectionalized.

❍ To increase the reliability of the fire protection system in

strategic locations, a dual pump arrangement should be
considered, with one electric pump and one diesel pump.
The pumps should be located away from each other.

❍ All security locking arrangements on doors used for egress

must comply with requirements of the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 101, Life Safety Code.

3.7 COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

For buildings requiring greater protection, the designer should
consider the following:

❍ Redundant communications. The facility could have a

second telephone service to maintain communications in

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-45

 case of an incident. A base radio communication system with
antenna should be installed in the stairwell, and portable sets
distributed on floors. This is the preferred alternative.

❍ Radio telemetry. Distributed antennas could be located

throughout the facility if required for emergency
communications through wireless transmission of data.

❍ Alarm and information systems. Alarm and information

systems should not be collected and mounted in a single
conduit, or even collocated. Circuits to various parts of the
building should be installed in at least two directions and/
or risers. Low voltage signal and control copper conductors
should not share conduits with high voltage power conductors.
Fiber-optic conductors are generally preferred over copper.

❍ Empty conduits. Empty conduits and power outlets can be

provided for future installation of security control equipment.

❍ Mass notification. All inhabited buildings should have a timely

means to notify occupants of threats and give instructions
as to responses. Building communications systems should
provide real-time notification of occupants and passersby
in the immediate vicinity of the building during emergency
situations. The information relayed should be specific enough
to determine the appropriate response actions.

3.8 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

Electronic security, including surveillance, intrusion detection,
and screening, is a key element of facility protection. Many aspects
of electronic security and the posting of security personnel have
been adequately dealt with in other criteria and guideline docu-
ments. These criteria primarily address access control design,
including stair and lobby design, because access control must
be considered when design concepts for a building are first con-
ceived. Although fewer options are available for modernization
projects, some designs can be altered to consider future access con-
trol objectives.

3-46 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

The purpose of electronic security is to improve the reliability and
effectiveness of life safety systems, security systems, and building
functions. When possible, accommodations should be made for
future developments in security systems.

This chapter is not a design guide for Electronic Security Systems

(ESS). The following criteria are only intended to stress those
concepts and practices that warrant special attention to enhance
public safety. Consult design guides pertinent to the specific
project for detailed information about electronic security. A de-
scription of Electronic Security Systems is provided in Appendix D.

For control centers and building management systems, designers

should consider the following:

❍ The Operational Control Center (OCC), Fire Command

Center (FCC), and Security Control Center (SCC) may be
collocated. If collocated, the chain of command should be
carefully pre-planned to ensure the most qualified leadership
is in control for specific types of events. Secure information
links should be provided between the OCC, FCC, and SCC.

❍ A Backup Control Center (BCC) should be provided in a

different location, such as a manager's or engineer's office. If
feasible, an off-site location should be considered.

❍ A fully redundant BCC should be installed (this is an

alternative to the above).

❍ Basic intrusion detection devices should be provided:

magnetic reed switches for interior doors and openings,
glass break sensors for windows up to scalable heights, and
balanced magnetic contact switch sets for all exterior doors,
including overhead/roll-up doors. Roof intrusion detection
should be reviewed.

❍ Monitoring should be done at an off-site facility.

❍ An on-site monitoring center should be used during normal

business hours and be operational 24 hours.

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-47

 ❍ A color CCTV surveillance system with recording capability
should be provided to view and record activity at the perimeter
of the building, particularly at primary entrances and exits. A
mix of monochrome cameras should be considered for areas
that lack adequate illumination for color cameras.

The following considerations apply when lighting systems are in-

tended to support CCTV assessment or surveillance: field of view
of the camera; lighting intensity levels; maximum light-to-dark
ratio; scene reflectance; daylight-to-darkness transitions; camera
mounting systems relative to lighting; spectral response of the
camera; cold-start time; and restrike time.

3.9 ENTRY-CONTROL STATIONS

Entry-control stations should be provided at main perimeter en-
trances where security personnel are present (see Figure 3-12). In
addition, entry-control stations should be located close to the pe-

Figure 3-12 Physical security devices

3-48 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

rimeter entrance to permit people inside the station to maintain
constant surveillance over the entrance and its approaches. Addi-
tional considerations at entry-control stations include:

❍ A holding area for unauthorized vehicles or those needing

further inspection should be established. A turnaround area
should be provided so that traffic is not impeded.

❍ Control measures such as displaying a decal on the window or

having a specially marked vehicle should be established.

❍ Entry-control stations that are manned 24 hours each day

should have interior and exterior lighting, interior heating
and cooling (where appropriate), and a sufficient glassed
area to afford adequate observation for people inside. Where
appropriate, entry-control stations should be designed for
optimum personnel ID and movement control. Each station
should include a telephone, a radio, and badge racks (if
required).

❍ Signs should be erected to assist in controlling authorized

entry, to deter unauthorized entry, and to preclude accidental
entry. Signs should be plainly displayed and legible from
any approach to the perimeter from a reasonable distance.
The size and coloring of a sign, its letters, and the interval of
posting must be appropriate to each situation.

❍ Entry-control stations should be hardened against attacks

according to the type of threat. The methods of hardening
may include:

• Reinforced concrete or masonry

• Steel plating

• Bullet-resistant glass

• Commercially fabricated, bullet-resistant building

components or assemblies

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-49

 3.10 PHYSICAL SECURITY SYSTEMS
Physical security concerns the physical measures designed to
safeguard people; prevent unauthorized access to equipment,
installations, material, and documents; and safeguard against
terrorist attacks. As such, all security operations face new and
complex physical security challenges across the full spectrum of
operations. Challenges relative to physical security include the
control of populations, information dominance, multi-national
and interagency connectivity, antiterrorism, and the use of phys-
ical security assets as a versatile force multiplier.

The rapid evolution of physical security equipment technology

leads to physical security challenges, which are exponentially mul-
tiplied by the introduction of the information age (see Appendix
D). Physical security challenges must be understood, and mea-
sures must be taken to minimize them to enhance the protection
of people within a facility.

3.11 SUMMARY OF BUILDING ENVELOPE

MITIGATION MEASURES
A general spectrum of building envelope mitigation measures
ranging from the least protection, cost, and effort going to the
greatest protection, cost, and effort is provided below. Detailed
discussions of individual measures can be found earlier in the
chapter. Please note this is a nominal ranking of mitigation
measures. In practice, the effectiveness and cost of individual miti-
gation measures may deviate from this example based on specific
applications.

3-50 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

 • Ensure that exterior doors into inhabited areas open outward. Ensure emergency exit doors only
facilitate exiting.

• Secure roof access hatches from the interior. Prevent public access to building roofs.

• Restrict access to building operation systems.

• Conduct periodic training of HVAC operations and maintenance staff.

• Evaluate HVAC control options.

• Install empty conduits for future security control equipment during initial construction or major
renovation.

• Do not mount plumbing, electrical fixtures, or utility lines on the inside of exterior walls.

• Minimize interior glazing near high-risk areas.

• Establish emergency plans, policies, and procedures.

• Establish written plans for evacuation and sheltering in place.

• Illuminate building access points.

• Restrict access to building information.

• Secure HVAC intakes and mechanical rooms.

• Limit the number of doors used for normal entry/egress.

• Lock all utility access openings.

• Provide emergency power for emergency lighting in restrooms, egress routes, and any meeting room
without windows.

• Install an internal public address system.

• Stagger interior doors and offset interior and exterior doors.

• Eliminate hiding places.

• Install a second and separate telephone service.

• Install radio telemetry distributed antennas throughout the facility.

• Use a badge identification system for building access.

• Install a CCTV surveillance system.

• Install an electronic security alarm system.

• Install rapid response and isolation features into HVAC systems.

• Use interior barriers to differentiate levels of security.

• Locate utility systems away from likely areas of potential attack.

• Install call buttons at key public contact areas.

Continued on next page

BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE 3-51

 • Install emergency and normal electric equipment at different locations.

• Avoid exposed structural elements.

• Reinforce foyer walls.

• Use architectural features to deny contact with exposed primary vertical load members.

• Isolate lobbies, mailrooms, loading docks, and storage areas.

• Locate stairwells remotely. Do not discharge stairs into lobbies, parking, or loading areas.

• Elevate HVAC fresh-air intakes.

• Create ”shelter-in-place” rooms or areas.

• Separate HVAC zones. Eliminate leaks and increase building air tightness.

• Install blast-resistant doors or steel doors with steel frames.

• Physically separate unsecured areas from the main building.

• Install HVAC exhausting and purging systems.

• Connect interior non-load bearing walls to structure with non-rigid connections.

• Use structural design techniques to resist progressive collapse.

• Treat exterior shear walls as primary structures.

• Orient glazing perpendicular to the primary façade facing uncontrolled vehicle approaches.

• Use reinforced concrete wall systems in lieu of masonry or curtain walls.

• Ensure active fire system is protected from single-point failure in case of a blast event.

• Install a Backup Control Center (BCC).

• Avoid eaves and overhangs or harden to withstand blast effects.

• Establish ground floor elevation 4 feet above grade.

• Avoid re-entrant corners on the building exterior.

3-52 BUILDING DESIGN GUIDANCE

 EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4

T
his chapter discusses blast effects, building damage, inju-
ries, levels of protection, stand-off distance, and predicting
blast effects. Specific blast design concerns and mitigation
measures are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Explosive events have
historically been a favorite tactic of terrorists for a variety of rea-
sons and this is likely to continue into the future. Ingredients for
homemade bombs are easily obtained on the open market as are
the techniques for making bombs. Also, explosive events are easy
and quick to execute. Vehicle bombs have the added advantage
of being able to bring a large quantity of explosives to the door-
step of the target undetected. Finally, terrorists often attempt to
use the dramatic component of explosions, in terms of the sheer
destruction they cause, to generate media coverage in hopes of
transmitting their political message to the public. The DoD, GSA,
and DOS have considerable experience with blast effects and blast
mitigation. However, many architects and building designers do
not have such experience. For additional information on explo-
sive blast, see FEMA 427, Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to
Mitigate Terrorist Attacks.

4.1 BLAST EFFECTS

When a high order explosion is initiated, a very rapid exothermic
chemical reaction occurs. As the reaction progresses, the solid
or liquid explosive material is converted to very hot, dense,
high-pressure gas. The explosion products initially expand at
very high velocities in an attempt to reach equilibrium with the
surrounding air, causing a shock wave. A shock wave consists of
highly compressed air, traveling radially outward from the source
at supersonic velocities. Only one-third of the chemical energy
available in most high explosives is released in the detonation
process. The remaining two-thirds is released more slowly as the
detonation products mix with air and burn. This afterburning
process has little effect on the initial blast wave because it occurs
much slower than the original detonation. However, later stages
of the blast wave can be affected by the afterburning, particularly

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-1

 for explosions in confined spaces. As the shock wave expands,
pressures decrease rapidly (with the cube of the distance) because
of geometric divergence and the dissipation of energy in heating
the air. Pressures also decay rapidly over time (i.e., exponentially)
and have a very brief span of existence, measured typically in
thousandths of a second, or milliseconds . An explosion can be vi-
sualized as a “bubble” of highly compressed air that expands until
reaching equilibrium with the surrounding air.

Explosive detonations create an incident blast wave, characterized

by an almost instantaneous rise from atmospheric pressure to a
peak overpressure. As the shock front expands pressure decays
back to ambient pressure, a negative pressure phase occurs that
is usually longer in duration than the positive phase as shown in
Figure 4-1. The negative phase is usually less important in a design
than the positive phase.

When the incident pressure wave impinges on a structure that is

not parallel to the direction of the wave’s travel, it is reflected and
reinforced, producing what is known as reflected pressure. The

Figure 4-1 Typical pressure-time history

4-2 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

reflected pressure is always greater than the incident pressure
at the same distance from the explosion. The reflected pres-
sure varies with the angle of incidence of the shock wave. When
the shock wave impinges on a surface that is perpendicular to
the direction it is traveling, the point of impact will experience
the maximum reflected pressure. When the reflecting surface
is parallel to the blast wave, the minimum reflected pressure or
incident pressure will be experienced. In addition to the angle of
incidence, the magnitude of the peak reflected pressure is depen-
dent on the peak incident pressure, which is a function of the net
explosive weight and distance from the detonation.

Figure 4-2 shows typical reflected pressure coefficients versus the

angle of incidence for four different peak incident pressures.
The reflected pressure coefficient equals the ratio of the peak re-
flected pressure to the peak incident pressure (Cr = Pr / Pi). This
figure shows that reflected pressures for explosive detonations

Figure 4-2 Reflected pressure coefficient vs. angle of incidence

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-3

 can be almost 13 times greater than peak incident pressures and,
for all explosions, the reflected pressure coefficients are signifi-
cantly greater closer to the explosion.

Impulse is a measure of the energy from

The integrated area under the pressure verse time function is known an explosion imparted to a building.
as the impulse:
Both the negative and positive phases of
I = ∫P(t)dt the pressure-time waveform contribute
to impulse. Figure 4-3 shows how im-
I = impulse (psi-ms or Mpa-ms)
pulse and pressure vary over time from a
P = Pressure (psi or MPa) typical explosive detonation. The magni-
T = time (ms) tude and distribution of blast loads on a
structure vary greatly with several factors:

❍ Explosive properties (type of material, energy output, and

quantity of explosive)

Figure 4-3 Typical impulse waveform

4-4 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

❍ Location of the detonation relative to the structure

❍ Reinforcement of the pressure pulse through its interaction

with the ground or structure (reflections)

The reflected pressure and the reflected impulse are the forces to
which the building ultimately responds. These forces vary in time
and space over the exposed surface of the building, depending on
the location of the detonation in relation to the building. There-
fore, when analyzing a structure for a specific blast event, care
should be taken to identify the worst case explosive detonation
location.

In the context of other hazards (e.g., earthquakes, winds, or floods),

an explosive attack has the following distinguishing features:

❍ The intensity of the pressures acting on a targeted building

can be several orders of magnitude greater than these other
hazards. It is not uncommon for the peak incident pressure to
be in excess of 100 psi on a building in an urban setting for a
vehicle weapon parked along the curb. At these pressure levels,
major damages and failure are expected.

❍ Explosive pressures decay extremely rapidly with distance from

the source. Therefore, the damages on the side of the building
facing the explosion may be significantly more severe than on
the opposite side. As a consequence, direct air-blast damages
tend to cause more localized damage. In an urban setting,
however, reflections off surrounding buildings can increase
damages to the opposite side.

❍ The duration of the event is very short, measured in

thousandths of a second, or milliseconds. This differs from
earthquakes and wind gusts, which are measured in seconds,
or sustained wind or flood situations, which may be measured
in hours. Because of this, the mass of the structure has a
strong mitigating effect on the response because it takes time
to mobilize the mass of the structure. By the time the mass is
mobilized, the loading is gone, thus mitigating the response.

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-5

 This is the opposite of earthquakes, whose imparted forces are
roughly in the same timeframe as the response of the building
mass, causing a resonance effect that can worsen the damage.

4.1.1 Building Damage

The extent and severity of damage and injuries in an explosive

event cannot be predicted with perfect certainty. Past events show
that the unique specifics of the failure sequence for a building sig-
nificantly affect the level of damage. Despite these uncertainties, it
is possible to give some general indications of the overall level of
damage and injuries to be expected in an explosive event, based
on the size of the explosion, distance from the event, and assump-
tions about the construction of the building.

Damage due to the air-blast shock wave may be divided into direct
air-blast effects and progressive collapse. Direct air-blast effects
are damage caused by the high-intensity pressures of the air-blast
close in to the explosion and may induce the localized failure of
exterior walls, windows, floor systems, columns, and girders. A dis-
cussion of progressive collapse can be found in Chapter 3.

The air blast shock wave is the primary damage mechanism in an

explosion. The pressures it exerts on building surfaces may be
several orders of magnitude greater than the loads for which the
building is designed. The shock wave also acts in directions that
the building may not have been designed for, such as upward on
the floor system. In terms of sequence of response, the air-blast
first impinges on the weakest point in the vicinity of the device
closest to the explosion, typically the exterior envelope of the
building. The explosion pushes on the exterior walls at the lower
stories and may cause wall failure and window breakage. As the
shock wave continues to expand, it enters the structure, pushing
both upward and downward on the floors (see Figure 4-4).

Floor failure is common in large-scale vehicle-delivered explosive

attacks, because floor slabs typically have a large surface area for
the pressure to act on and a comparably small thickness. In terms

4-6 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

Figure 4-4 Blast pressure effects on a structure

SOURCE: NAVAL FACILITIES ENGINEERING SERVICE CENTER, USER’S GUIDE ON PROTECTION AGAINST TERRORIST VEHICLE BOMBS,
MAY 1998

of the timing of events, the building is engulfed by the shock wave

and direct air-blast damage occurs within tens to hundreds of mil-
liseconds from the time of detonation. If progressive collapse is
initiated, it typically occurs within seconds.

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-7

 Glass is often the weakest part of a building, breaking at low pres-
sures compared to other components such as the floors, walls,
or columns. Past incidents have shown that glass breakage may
extend for miles in large external explosions. High-velocity glass
fragments have been shown to be a major contributor to injuries
in such incidents. For incidents within downtown city areas, falling
glass poses a major hazard to passersby on the sidewalks below and
prolongs post-incident rescue and cleanup efforts by leaving tons
of glass debris on the street. Specific glazing design considerations
are discussed in Chapter 3.

4.1.2 Injuries

Severity and type of injury patterns incurred in explosive events

may be related to the level of structural damage. The high pres-
sure of the air-blast that enters through broken windows can cause
eardrum damage and lung collapse. As the air-blast damages the
building components in its path, missiles are generated that cause
impact injuries. Airborne glass fragments typically cause pen-
etration or laceration-type injuries. Larger fragments may cause
non-penetrating, or blunt trauma, injuries. Finally, the air-blast
pressures can cause occupants to be bodily thrown against objects
or to fall. Lacerations due to high-velocity flying glass fragments
have been responsible for a significant portion of the injuries
received in explosion incidents. In the bombing of the Murrah
Federal Building in Oklahoma City, for instance, 40 percent of
the survivors in the Murrah Federal Building cited glass as con-
tributing to their injuries. Within nearby buildings, laceration
estimates ranged from 25 percent to 30 percent.

4.1.3 Levels of Protection

The amount of explosive and the resulting blast dictate the level
of protection required to prevent a building from collapsing or
minimizing injuries and deaths. Table 4-1 shows how the DoD cor-
relates levels of protection with potential damage and expected
injuries. The GSA and the Interagency Security Committee (ISC)
also use the level of protection concept. However, wherein the
DoD has five levels, they have established four levels of protection.

4-8 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

Table 4-1: DoD Minimum Antiterrorism (AT) Standards for New Buildings*

Level of Potential Door and Glazing

Potential Structural Damage Potential Injury
Protection Hazards

Below AT Severely damaged. Frame collapse/ Doors and windows fail and result in Majority of personnel
standards massive destruction. Little left lethal hazards suffer fatalities.
standing.

Very Low Heavily damaged - onset of structural Glazing will break and is likely to be Majority of personnel
collapse. Major deformation of propelled into the building, resulting suffer serious injuries.
primary and secondary structural in serious glazing fragment injuries, There are likely to be
members, but progressive collapse is but fragments will be reduced. a limited number (10
unlikely. Collapse of non-structural Doors may be propelled into rooms, percent to 25 percent) of
elements. presenting serious hazards. fatalities.

Low Damaged – unrepairable. Glazing will break, but fall within Majority of personnel
1 meter of the wall or otherwise suffer significant injuries.
Major deformation of non-structural not present a significant fragment There may be a few
elements and secondary structural hazard. Doors may fail, but they (<10 percent) fatalities.
members, and minor deformation will rebound out of their frames,
of primary structural members, but presenting minimal hazards.
progressive collapse is unlikely.

Medium Damaged – repairable. Glazing will break, but will remain in Some minor injuries, but
the window frame. Doors will stay in fatalities are unlikely.
Minor deformations of non-structural frames, but will not be reusable.
elements and secondary structural
members and no permanent
deformation in primary structural
members.

High Superficially damaged. Glazing will not break. Doors will be Only superficial injuries
reusable. are likely.
No permanent deformation of
primary and secondary structural
members or non-structural elements.

* THE DoD UNIFIED FACILITIES CRITERIA (UFC), DoD MINIMUM ANTITERRORISM STANDARDS FOR BUILDINGS, UFC 4-010-01 31 JULY 2002

The GSA and ISC levels of protection can be found in GSA PBS-P100, Facilities Standards for the
Public Buildings Service, November 2000, Section 8.6.

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-9

 The levels of protection above can roughly be correlated for con-
ventional construction without any blast hardening to the incident
pressures shown in Table 4-2.

Table 4-2: Correlation of DoD Level of Protection to Incident Pressure

Level of Protection Incident Pressure (psi)

High 1.1

Medium 1.8

Low 2.3

Figure 4-5 shows an example of a range-to-effect chart that in-

dicates the distance or stand-off to which a given size bomb will
produce a given effect (see Section 4.2). This type of chart can
be used to display the blast response of a building component
or window at different levels of protection. It can also be used to
consolidate all building response information to assess needed ac-
tions if the threat weapon-yield changes. For example, an amount
of explosives are stolen and indications are that they may be used
against a specific building. A building-specific range-to-effect chart
will allow quick determination of the needed stand-off for the
amount of explosives in question, after the explosive weight is con-
verted to TNT equivalence.

Research performed as part of the threat assessment process

should identify bomb sizes used in the locality or region. Security
consultants have valuable information that may be used to evaluate
the range of likely charge weights. Given an explosive weight and a
stand-off distance, Figure 4-5 can be
For design purposes, large-scale truck bombs typically contain 10,000 used to predict damage for nominal
pounds or more of TNT equivalent, depending on the size and capacity building construction.
of the vehicle used to deliver the weapon. Vehicle bombs that utilize
vans down to small sedans typically contain 4,000 to 500 pounds of TNT Figures 4-6 and 4-7 show blast ef-
equivalent, respectively. A briefcase bomb is approximately 50 pounds, fects predictions for a building based
and a pipe bomb is generally in the range of 5 pounds of TNT equivalent. on a typical car bomb and a typical
large truck bomb detonated in the

4-10 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

SOURCE: DEFENSE THREAT REDUCTION AGENCY

Figure 4-5 Explosives environments - blast range to effects

building’s parking lot, respectively. A computer-based Geographic

Information System (GIS) was used to analyze the building's ve-
hicular access and circulation pattern to determine a reasonable
detonation point for a vehicle bomb. Structural blast analysis was
then performed using nominal explosive weights and a nominal
building structure. The results are shown in Figures 4-6 and 4-7.

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-11

 Figure 4- 6 Blast analysis of a building for a typical car bomb
detonated in the building’s parking lot

Figure 4-7 Blast analysis of a building for a typical large truck

bomb detonated in the building’s parking lot

4-12 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

 The red ring indicates the area in which structural collapse is
predicted. The orange and yellow rings indicate predictions for
lethal injuries and severe injuries from glass, respectively. Please
note that nominal inputs were used in this analysis and they are
not a predictive examination.

In the case of a stationary vehicle bomb, knowing the size of the

bomb (TNT equivalent in weight), its distance from the structure,
how the structure is put together, and the materials used for walls,
framing, and glazing allows the designer to determine the level
of damage that will occur and the level of protection achieved.
Whether an existing building or a new construction, the designer
can then select mitigation measures as presented in this chapter
and in Chapters 2 and 3 to achieve the level of protection desired.

4.2 STAND-OFF DISTANCE AND THE

EFFECTS OF BLAST
Energy from a blast decreases rapidly over distance. In general,
the cost to provide asset protection will decrease as the distance
between an asset and a threat increases, as shown in Figure 4-8.
However, increasing stand-off also requires more land and more
perimeter to secure with barriers, resulting in an increased
cost not reflected in Figure 4-8. As stand-off increases, blast
loads generated by an explosion decrease and the amount of

SOURCE: U.S. AIR FORCE, INSTALLATION

FORCE PROTECTION GUIDE

Figure 4-8 Relationship of cost to stand-off distance

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-13

 hardening necessary to provide the required level of protection
decreases. Figure 4-9 shows how the impact of a blast will decrease
as the stand-off distance increases, as indicated in the blast analysis
of the Khobar Towers incident. Increasing the stand-off distance
from 80 to 400 feet would have significantly limited the damage
to the building and hazard to occupants, the magnitude of which
is shown as the yellow and red areas in Figure 4-9. Additional con-
cepts of stand-off distance are discussed in Section 2.3.

The critical location of the weapon is a function of the site, the

building layout, and the security measures in place. For vehicle
bombs, the critical locations are considered to be at the closest
point that a vehicle can approach on each side, assuming that all
security measures are in place. Typically, this is a vehicle parked
along the curb directly outside the building, or at the entry con-
trol point where inspection takes place. For internal weapons,
location is dictated by the areas of the building that are publicly
accessible (e.g., lobbies, corridors, auditoriums, cafeterias, or
gymnasiums). Range or stand-off is measured from the center of
gravity of the charge located in the vehicle or other container to
the building component under consideration.

Defining appropriate stand-off distance for a given building com-

ponent to resist explosive blast effects is difficult. Often, in urban
settings, it is either not possible or practical to obtain appropriate
stand-off distance. Adding to the difficulty is the fact that defining
appropriate stand-off distance requires a prediction of the explo-
sive weight of the weapon. In the case of terrorism, this is tenuous
at best.

The DoD prescribes minimum stand-off distances based on the

required level of protection. Where minimum stand-off distances
are met, conventional construction techniques can be used with
some modifications. In cases where the minimum stand-off cannot
be achieved, the building must be hardened to achieve the re-
quired level of protection (see Unified Facilities Criteria – DoD
Minimum Antiterrorism Standards for Buildings, UFC 4-010-01,
31 July 2002).

4-14 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

SOURCE: U.S. AIR FORCE, INSTALLATION FORCE PROTECTION GUIDE

Figure 4-9 Stand-off distance and its relationship to blast impact as modeled on
the Khobar Towers site

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-15

 The GSA and ISC Security Criteria do not require or mandate
specific stand-off distances. Rather, they provide protection perfor-
mance criteria. In order to economically meet these performance
standards, they present recommended stand-off distances for ve-
hicles that are parked on adjacent properties and for vehicles that
are parked on the building site (see GSA Security Criteria, Draft Revi-
sion, October 8, 1997, and ISC Security Design Criteria for New Federal
Office Buildings and Major Modernization Projects, May 28, 2001).

Site and layout design guidance as well as specific mitigation mea-

sures to enhance stand-off and enhance protection from explosive
blast are discussed in Chapter 2.

4.3 PREDICTING BLAST EFFECTS

4.3.1 Blast Load Predictions
The first step in predicting blast effects on a building is to predict
blast loads on the structure. For a detonation that is exterior to a
building, it is the blast pressure pulse that causes damage to the
building. Because the pressure pulse varies based on stand-off dis-
tance, angle of incidence, and reflected pressure over the exterior
of the building, the blast load prediction should be performed at
multiple threat locations; however, worse case conditions are nor-
mally used for decision-making.

For complex structures requiring refined estimates of blast load,

blast consultants may use sophisticated methods such as Computa-
tional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) computer programs to predict blast
loads. These complex programs require special equipment and
training to run.

In most cases, especially for design purposes, more simplified

methods may be used by blast consultants to predict blast loads.
The overpressure is assumed to instantaneously rise to its peak
value and decay linearly to zero in a time known as the duration
time. In order to obtain the blast load, a number of different
tools can be used. Tables of pre-determined values may be used
(see GSA Security Reference Manual: Part 3 – Blast Design & Assess-

4-16 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

 ment Guidelines, July 31, 2001) or computer programs may be
used, such as: 1

❍ ATBLAST (GSA)

❍ CONWEP (U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development

Center)

Figure 4-10 provides a quick method for predicting the expected

overpressure (expressed in pounds per square inch or psi) on a
building for a specific explosive weight and stand-off distance.
Enter the x-axis with the estimated explosive weight a terrorist
might use and the y-axis with a known stand-off distance from a
building. By correlating the resultant effects of overpressure with
SOURCE: U.S. AIR FORCE, INSTALLATION FORCE PROTECTION GUIDE

Figure 4-10 Incident overpressure measured in pounds per square inch, as a function of stand-off
distance and net explosive weight (pounds-TNT)

1
For security reasons, the distribution of these computer programs is limited.

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-17

 other data, the degree of damage that the various components of
a building might receive can be estimated. The vehicle icons in
Figures 4-5 and 4-10 indicate the relative size of the vehicles that
might be used to transport various quantities of explosives.

4.3.2 Blast Effects Predictions

After the blast load has been predicted, damage levels may be eval-
uated by explosive testing, engineering analysis, or both. Explosive
testing is actively conducted by Federal Government agencies
such as the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, DOS, and GSA.
Manufacturers of innovative products also conduct explosive test
programs to verify the effectiveness of their products.

Often, testing is too expensive an option for the design community

and an engineering analysis is performed instead. To accurately
represent the response of an explosive event, the analysis needs to
be time dependent and account for non-linear behavior.

Non-linear dynamic analysis techniques are similar to those cur-

rently used in advanced seismic analysis. Analytical models range
from equivalent single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) models to
finite element (FEM) representation. In either case, numerical
computation requires adequate resolution in space and time to ac-
count for the high-intensity, short-duration loading and non-linear
response. The main problems are the selection of the model, the
appropriate failure modes, and, finally, the interpretation of the
results for structural design details. Whenever possible, results are
checked against data from tests and experiments on similar struc-
tures and loadings. Available computer programs include:

❍ AT Planner (U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development

Center)

❍ BEEM (Technical Support Working Group)

❍ BLASTFX (Federal Aviation Administration)

Components such as beams, slabs, or walls can often be modeled

by a SDOF system. The response can be found by using the charts

4-18 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

developed by Biggs and military handbooks. For more complex
elements, the engineer must resort to numerical time integration
techniques. The time and cost of the analysis cannot be ignored
in choosing analytical procedures. SDOF models are suitable for
numerical analysis on PCs and micro-computers, but the most
sophisticated FEM systems (with non-linear material models and
options for explicit modeling of reinforcing bars) may have to be
carried out on mainframes. Because the design analysis process
is a sequence of iteration, the cost of analysis must be justified in
terms of benefits to the project and increased confidence in the
reliability of the results. In some cases, an SDOF approach will
be used for the preliminary design and a more sophisticated ap-
proach, using finite elements, will be used for the final design.

Table 4-3 provides estimates of incident pressures at which

damage may occur.

Table 4-3: Damage Approximations

Incident
Damage
Overpressure (psi)

Typical window glass breakage 0.15 – 0.22

Minor damage to some buildings 0.5 – 1.1
Panels of sheet metal buckled 1.1 – 1.8
Failure of concrete block walls 1.8 – 2.9
Collapse of wood framed buildings Over 5.0
Serious damage to steel framed buildings 4–7
Severe damage to reinforced concrete structures 6–9
Probable total destruction of most buildings 10 – 12

SOURCE: EXPLOSIVE SHOCKS IN AIR, KINNEY & GRAHM, 1985; FACILITY DAMAGE AND
PERSONNEL INJURY FROM EXPLOSIVE BLAST, MONTGOMERY & WARD, 1993; AND THE
EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS, 3RD EDITION, GLASSTONE & DOLAN, 1977

EXPLOSIVE BLAST 4-19

 Additional sources of information:

❍ Air Force Engineering and Services Center. Protective

Construction Design Manual, ESL-TR-87-57. Prepared for
Engineering and Services Laboratory, Tyndall Air Force Base,
FL. (1989).

❍ U.S. Department of the Army. Fundamentals of Protective

Design for Conventional Weapons, TM 5-855-1. Washington, DC,
Headquarters, U.S. Department of the Army. (1986).

❍ U.S. Department of the Army. Security Engineering, TM 5-

853 and Air Force AFMAN 32-1071, Volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Washington, DC, Departments of the Army and Air Force. (1994).

❍ U.S. Department of the Army. Structures to Resist the Effects of

Accidental Explosions, Army TM 5-1300, Navy NAVFAC P-397,
AFR 88-2. Washington, DC, Departments of the Army, Navy,
and Air Force. (1990).

❍ U.S. Department of Energy. A Manual for the Prediction of

Blast and Fragment Loading on Structures, DOE/TIC 11268.
Washington, DC, Headquarters, U.S. Department of Energy.
(1992).

❍ U.S. General Services Administration. GSA Security Reference

Manual: Part 3 Blast Design and Assessment Guidelines. (2001).

❍ Biggs, John M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. McGraw-

Hill. (1964).

❍ The Institute of Structural Engineers. The Structural Engineer’s

Response to Explosive Damage. SETO, Ltd., 11 Upper Belgrave
Street, London SW1X8BH. (1995).

❍ Mays, G.S. and Smith, P.D. Blast Effects on Buildings: Design

of Buildings to Optimize Resistance to Blast Loading. Thomas
Telford Publications, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD. (1995).

❍ National Research Council. Protecting Buildings from Bomb

Damage. National Academy Press. (1995).

4-20 EXPLOSIVE BLAST

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5

T
his chapter is based on guidance from the CDC/NIOSH
and the DoD and presents protective measures and actions
to safeguard the occupants of a building from CBR threats.
Evacuation, sheltering in place, personal protective equipment,
air filtration and pressurization, and exhausting and purging will
be discussed, as well as CBR detection1. Additionally, CBR design
mitigation measures are discussed in Chapter 3 and Appendix C
contains a glossary of CBR terms and a summary of CBR agent
characteristics.

Recent terrorist events have increased interest in the vulnerability

of buildings to CBR threats. Of particular concern are building
HVAC systems, because they can become an entry point and distri-
bution system for airborne hazardous contaminants. Even without
special protective systems, buildings can provide protection in
varying degrees against airborne hazards that originate outdoors.
Conversely, the hazards produced by a release inside a building
can be much more severe than a similar release outdoors. Because
buildings allow only a limited exchange of air between indoors
and outdoors, not only can higher concentrations occur when
there is a release inside, but hazards may persist longer indoors.

After the presence of an airborne hazard is detected, there are

five possible protective actions for a building and its occupants. In
increasing order of complexity and cost, these actions are:

1. Evacuation

2. Sheltering in Place

3. Personal Protective Equipment

4. Air Filtration and Pressurization

5. Exhausting and Purging

1
This chapter includes a number of protective measures that are included for informational
purposes only. It is not the intention of FEMA to endorse any particular product or protective
measure.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-1

 These actions are implemented, singly or in combination, when
a hazard is present or known to be imminent. To ensure these
actions will be effective, a protective-action plan specific to each
building, as well as training and familiarization for occupants, is
required. Exhausting and purging is listed last because it is usually
the final action after any airborne hazard incident.

5.1 EVACUATION
Evacuation is the most common protective action taken when an
airborne hazard, such as smoke or an unusual odor, is perceived
in a building. In most cases, existing plans for fire evacuation
apply. Orderly evacuation is the simplest and most reliable ac-
tion for an internal airborne hazard. However, it may not be the
best action in all situations, especially in the case of an external
CBR release or plume, particularly one that is widespread. If the
area covered by the plume is too large to rapidly and safely exit,
sheltering in place should be considered. If a CBR agent has infil-
trated the building and evacuation is deemed not to be safe, the
use of protective hoods may be appropriate. Two considerations
in non-fire evacuation are: 1) to determine if the source of the
airborne hazard is internal or external, and 2) to determine if
evacuation may lead to other risks. Also, evacuation and assembly
of occupants should be on the upwind side of the building and
at least 100 feet away, because any airborne hazard escaping the
building will be carried downwind.

5.2 SHELTERING IN PLACE

In normal operations, a building does little to protect occupants
from airborne hazards outside the building because outdoor
air must be continuously introduced to provide a comfortable,
healthy indoor environment. However, a building can provide
substantial protection against agents released outdoors if the flow
of fresh air is filtered/cleaned, or temporarily interrupted or re-
duced. Interrupting the flow of fresh air is the principle applied in
the protective action known as sheltering in place.

5-2 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

The advantage of sheltering in place is that it can be implemented
rapidly. The disadvantage is that its protection is variable and di-
minishes with the duration of the hazard. Sheltering requires that
two distinct actions be taken without delay to maximize the passive
protection a building provides:

❍ First, reduce the indoor-outdoor air exchange rate before

the hazardous plume arrives. This is achieved by closing all
windows and doors, and turning off all fans, air conditioners,
and combustion heaters.

❍ Second, increase the indoor-outdoor air exchange rate as

soon as the hazardous plume has passed. This is achieved by
opening all windows and doors, and turning on all fans to
ventilate the building.

The level of protection that can be attained by sheltering in place

is substantial, but it is less than can be provided by high effi-
ciency filtration of the fresh air introduced into the building. The
amount of protection varies with:

❍ The building’s air exchange rate. The tighter the building (i.e.,
the lower the air exchange rate), the greater the protection it
provides. In most cases, air conditioners and combustion heaters
cannot be operated while sheltering in place because operating
them increases the indoor-outdoor exchange of air.

❍ The duration of exposure. Protection varies with time,

diminishing as the time of exposure increases. Sheltering
in place is, therefore, suitable only for exposures of short
duration, roughly 2 hours or less, depending on conditions.

❍ Purging or period of occupancy. How long occupants remain

in the building after the hazardous plume has passed also
affects the level of protection. Because the building slowly
purges contaminants that have entered it, at some point
during plume passage, the concentration inside exceeds the
concentration outside. Maximum protection is attained by

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-3

 increasing the air exchange rate after plume passage or by
exiting the building into clean air.

❍ Natural filtering. Some filtering occurs when the agent is

deposited in the building shell or upon interior surfaces as air
passes into and out of the building. The tighter the building,
the greater the effect of this natural filtering.

In a home, taking the actions required for sheltering (i.e., closing

windows and doors, and turning off all air conditioners, fans, and
combustion heaters) is relatively simple. Doing so in a commercial
or apartment building may require more time and planning. All
air handling units must be turned off and any dampers for outside
air must be closed. Procedures for a protective action plan, there-
fore, should include:

❍ Identifying all air handling units, fans, and the switches

needed to deactivate them.

❍ Identifying cracks, seams, joints, and pores in the building

envelope to be temporarily sealed to further reduce outside
air infiltration. Keeping emergency supplies, such as duct tape
and polyethylene sheeting, on hand.

❍ Identifying procedures for purging after an internal release

(i.e., opening windows and doors, turning on smoke fans, air
handlers, and fans that were turned off) to exhaust and purge
the building.

❍ Identifying sheltering rooms (i.e., interior rooms having

a lower air exchange rate) that may provide a higher
level of passive protection. It may be desirable to go to a
predetermined sheltering room (or rooms) and:

• Shut and lock all windows and doors

• Seal any windows and vents with plastic sheeting and

duct tape

5-4 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 • Seal the door(s) with duct tape around the top,
bottom, and sides

• Firmly pack dampened towels along the bottom of

each door

• Turn on a TV or radio that can be heard within the

shelter and listen for further instructions

• When the “all clear” is announced, open windows and

doors

Important considerations for use of sheltering in place are that

stairwells must be isolated by closed fire doors, elevators must
not be used, and clear evacuation routes must remain open if
evacuation is required. Escape hoods may be needed if the only
evacuation routes are through contaminated areas.

One final consideration for sheltering in place is that occupants

cannot be forced to participate. It is important to develop a plan
in cooperation with likely participants and awareness training pro-
grams that include discussions of sheltering in place and events
(CBR attacks, hazardous material releases, or natural disasters)
that might make sheltering preferable to evacuation. During an
event, some building protective action plans call for making a con-
cise information announcement, and then giving occupants 3 to 5
minutes to proceed to the sheltering area or evacuate the building
before it is sealed. Training programs and information announce-
ments during an event should be tailored to help occupants to
make informed decisions.

5.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

A wide range of individual protection equipment is available,
including respirators, protective hoods, protective suits, CBR
detectors, decontamination equipment, etc. The DOJ, National
Institute of Justice (NIJ), Guide for the Selection of Personal Protec-
tive Equipment for Emergency First Responders (NIJ Guide 102-00,
Volumes I-IV) provides summarizes and evaluates a wide range of
personal protective equipment. The U.S. Joint Service Materiel

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-5

 Group (JSMG) has sponsored the Nuclear Biological Chemical
(NBC) Industry Group to produce a catalogue of CBR products
and services manufactured and provided by companies in the
United States.

Of particular note, new models of universal-fit escape hoods have

been developed for short-duration “escape-only” wear to protect
against chemical agents, aerosols (including biological agents), and
some toxic industrial chemicals. These hoods are compact enough
to be stored in desks or to be carried on the belt. They should be
stored in their sealed pouches and opened only when needed.
Most of these hoods form protective seals at the neck and do not
require special fitting techniques or multiple sizes to fit a large
portion of the population. Training is required to use the hoods
properly. Depending on hood design,
the wearer must breathe through a
mouth bit or use straps to tighten a
nose cup around the nose and mouth
(see Figure 5-1).

The protective capability and shelf life

of these hoods varies with the design.
The filters of the hoods contain both
high efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
filters and packed carbon beds, so
they will remove chemical and bio-
logical aerosols, as well as chemical
vapors and gases. Although the carbon
filters are designed to filter a broad
range of toxic chemicals, they cannot
SOURCE: MSA INTERNATIONAL

filter all chemicals. An important

consideration in planning for use of
escape hoods is that their filters are
not effective against certain chemi-
cals of high vapor pressure. Chemical
masks provide no protection against
carbon monoxide, which is produced
Figure 5-1 Universal-fit escape hood in fires. Manufacturers’ data should be

5-6 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

checked closely when ordering. Other escape hoods are available
that employ compressed oxygen cylinders, rather than air filters,
to provide eye and respiratory protection for very short periods.

There are no government standards for hoods intended for pro-

tection against the malicious use of chemical or biological agents.
In selecting an escape hood, a purchaser should, therefore, re-
quire information on laboratory verification testing. Plans should
be made for training, fitting, storing, and maintaining records rela-
tive to storage life, and there should be procedures for instructing
building occupants as to when to put on the hoods. Wearing a
mask can cause physiological strain and may cause panic or stress
that could lead to respiratory problems in some people. Finally, it
should be recognized that no single selection of personal protec-
tive equipment is effective against every possible threat. Selection
must be tied to specific threat/hazard characteristics.

5.4 AIR FILTRATION AND PRESSURIZATION

Among the various protective measures for buildings, high efficiency
air filtration/cleaning provides the highest level of protection against
an outdoor release of hazardous materials. It can also provide con-
tinuous protection, unlike other approaches for which protective
measures are initiated upon detecting an airborne hazard.

Two basic methods of applying air filtration to a building are

external filtration and internal filtration. External filtration in-
volves drawing air from outside, filtering and/or cleaning it, and
discharging the air inside the building or protected zone. This
provides the higher level of protection, but involves substantially
higher costs. Internal filtration involves drawing air from inside
the building, filtering and/or cleaning it, and discharging the air
back inside the building.

The relative levels of protection of the two methods can be illus-

trated in terms of protection factor, and the ratio of external dose
and internal dose (concentration integrated over time). External
filtration systems with high efficiency filters can yield protection

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-7

 factors greater than 100,000. For internal filtration, the protection
factors are likely to be less and are highly variable. The protection
of internal filtration varies with a number of factors, including
those listed in sheltering in place, the efficiency of the filter, flow
rate of the filter unit, and size of the room or building in which
the filter unit operates.

5.4.1 Air Filtration and Cleaning Principles

Air filtration is the removal of particulate contaminants from the

air. Air cleaning is the removal of gases or vapors from the air.
Airborne contaminants can
The collection mechanisms for these two types of systems are very
be gases, vapors, or aerosols
different.
(small solid and liquid
particles). Most biological and Particulate Air Filters. Particulate air filters consist of fibrous ma-
radiological agents are aerosols, terials (see Figure 5-2), which capture aerosols. Their efficiency
whereas most chemical warfare will depend on the size of the aerosol, the type of filter, the ve-
agents are gaseous. locity of the air, and the type of microbe. The basic principle of
particulate air filtration is not to restrict the passage of particles
by the gap between fibers, but
by altering the airflow stream-
lines. The airflow will slip
around the fiber, but higher
density aerosols and particu-
lates will not change direction
as rapidly.

Four different collection

mechanisms govern particulate
air filter performance: iner-
tial impaction, interception,
diffusion, and electrostatic at-
traction (see Figure 5-3). The
first three mechanisms are the
most important for mechanical
Figure 5-2 Scanning electron microscope image of a filters and are influenced by
polyester-glass fiber filter particle size. Impaction oc-
curs when a particle in an air
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH PUBLICATION NO. 2003-136, GUIDANCE FOR FILTRATION
AND AIR CLEANING SYSTEMS TO PROTECT BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM stream passing around a filter
AIRBORNE CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, APRIL 2003

5-8 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

fiber, because of its inertia, deviates
from the air stream and collides with
a fiber. Interception occurs when
a particle in the air stream passing
around filter fibers comes in contact
with a fiber because of its size. Impac-
tion and interception are dominant
for large particles (> 0.2 microns).
Diffusion occurs when the random
(Brownian) motion of a particle
causes that particle to contact a fiber.
Diffusion is the dominant collection
mechanism for smaller particles (<
0.2 microns). The combined effect
of these three collection mechanisms
results in the classic collection effi-
ciency curve that is shown in Figure
5-4. The fourth mechanism, electro-
static attraction, plays a minor role in
mechanical filtration because, after
fiber contact is made, small particles
are retained on the fibers by a weak Figure 5-3 Four primary filter collection mechanisms
electrostatic force.
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH PUBLICATION NO. 2003-136, GUIDANCE FOR
FILTRATION AND AIR CLEANING SYSTEMS TO PROTECT BUILDING
ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR
Electrostatically enhanced filters RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, APRIL 2003

are different from electrostatic pre-

cipitators, also known as electronic air cleaners. Electrostatic
precipitators require electrical power and charged plates to
attract and capture particles. In electrostatic filters, the elec-
trostatically enhanced fibers actually attract the particles to the
fibers, in addition to retaining them. Electrostatic filters use po-
larized fibers to increase the collection efficiency, typically have
less packing density, and consequently will have a much lower
pressure drop than a similar efficiency mechanical filter.

Particulate air filters are classified as mechanical filters or elec-

trostatic filters. As a mechanical filter loads with particles over
time, its collection efficiency and pressure drop typically in-

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-9

 crease. The pressure drop
caused by particulate air
filters must be taken into
account in HVAC system
design. Higher capacity
fan units may be needed
to overcome increased
resistance caused by
higher efficiency filters.
Eventually, the increased
pressure drop signifi-
cantly inhibits airflow,
and the filters must be
replaced. For this reason,
pressure drop across me-
Figure 5-4 Classic collection efficiency curve chanical filters is often
monitored because it
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH PUBLICATION NO. 2003-136, GUIDANCE FOR FILTRATION
AND AIR CLEANING SYSTEMS TO PROTECT BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM indicates when to replace
AIRBORNE CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, APRIL 2003
filters. Conversely, electro-
static filters may lose their
collection efficiency over time when exposed to certain chemicals,
aerosols, or high relative humidities. Pressure drop in an electro-
static filter generally increases at a slower rate than it does in a
mechanical filter of similar efficiency. Thus, unlike the mechanical
filter, pressure drop for the electrostatic filter is a poor indicator
of the need to change filters. Periodic aerosol measurements may
be appropriate to verify their performance. When selecting an
HVAC filter, the differences between mechanical and electrostatic
filters will have an impact on the filter’s performance (collection
efficiency over time), as well as on maintenance requirements
(change-out schedules).

Particulate air filters are commonly rated based on their

collection efficiency, pressure drop (airflow resistance), and par-
ticulate holding capacity. Two filter-rating systems are currently
used in the United States, the American Society of Heating, Re-
frigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard
52.1-1992 and ASHRAE Standard 52.2-1999. Standard 52.1 mea-

5-10 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

sures arrestance, dust spot efficiency, and dust holding capacity.
Arrestance refers to a filter’s ability to capture a mass fraction
of coarse test dust and is better suited for describing low- and
medium-efficiency filters. Dust spot efficiency measures a filter’s
ability to remove particles that tend to soil the interior of build-
ings. Arrestance values may be high even for low efficiency
filters, and may not adequately differentiate the effectiveness
of different filters for CBR protection. Dust holding capacity
is a measure of the total amount of dust a filter is able to hold
during a dust-loading test.

ASHRAE Standard 52.2 measures particle size efficiency (PSE).

This newer standard is a more descriptive test, which quantifies
filtration efficiency in different particle size ranges and is more
applicable in determining a filter’s effectiveness to capture a
specific agent. Standard 52.2 reports the particle size efficiency
results as a minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) rating
between 1 and 20. A higher MERV rating indicates a more ef-
ficient filter. The standard provides a table (see Table 5-1)
showing minimum PSE for three size ranges for each of the
MERV numbers 1 through 16. Thus, if the size of a contaminant
is known, an appropriate filter with the desired PSE for that par-
ticular particle size can be identified.

A wide variety of particulate air filters are available to meet many

specialized needs. They range from the low efficiency dust filters,
such as roll-type filters used in commercial buildings, to HEPA
and ultra low penetration air (ULPA) filters used in clean rooms
and operating rooms (see Figure 5-5).

HEPA filters are typically rated as 99.97 percent effective in

removing dust and particulate matter greater than 0.3 micron
in size. The performance of high efficiency ASHRE filters is de-
fined in terms of their total arrestance. Graphs of filter efficiency
versus particle size do not constitute performance requirements
and are merely a convenient way of describing performance (see
Figure 5-6). Filters with the same total arrestance may have dif-
ferent performance curves.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-11

Table 5-1: Comparison of ASHRAE Standards 52.1 and 52.2

ASHRAE 52.2 ASHRAE 52.1

Particle Size
Particle Size Range Test Applications
Range, µm
MERV 3 to 10 µm 1 to 3 µm 0.3 to 1 µm Arrestance Dust Spot
1 < 20% - - < 65% < 20% Residential,
2 < 20% - - 65 - 70% < 20% light,
> 10
3 < 20% - - 70 - 75% < 20% pollen,
4 < 20% - - > 75% < 20% dust mites
5 20 - 35% - - 80 - 85% < 20%
Industrial,
6 35 - 50% - - > 90% < 20%
3.0 - 10 dust, molds,
7 50 - 70% - - > 90% 20 - 25%
spores
8 > 70% - - > 95% 25 - 30%
9 > 85% < 50% - > 95% 40 - 45%
Industrial,
10 > 85% 50 - 65% - > 95% 50 - 55%
1.0 – 3.0 Legionella,
11 > 85% 65 - 80% - > 98% 60 - 65%
dust
12 > 90% > 80% - > 98% 70 - 75%
13 > 90% > 90% < 75% > 98% 80 - 90%
Hospitals,
14 > 90% > 90% 75 - 85% > 98% 90 - 95%
0.3 – 1.0 Smoke removal,
15 > 90% > 90% 85 - 95% > 98% ~95%
bacteria
16 > 95% > 95% > 95% > 98% > 95%
17 - - ≥ 99.97% - - Clean rooms,
18 - - ≥ 99.99% - - Surgery,
< 0.3
19 - - ≥ 99.999% - - chem-bio,
20 - - ≥ 99.9999% - - viruses

Note: This table is adapted from American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 52.2: Method of
Testing General Ventilation Air-cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size, Atlanta, GA., 1999 and Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M., and
McCarthy, J.F., Indoor air quality Handbook, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Figure 5-5
A bag filter and HEPA filter

SOURCE: TRION INCORPORATED

5-12 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH
PUBLICATION NO. 2003-136,
GUIDANCE FOR FILTRATION
AND AIR CLEANING SYSTEMS
TO PROTECT BUILDING
ENVIRONMENTS FROM
AIRBORNE CHEMICAL,
BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL
ATTACKS, APRIL 2003

Figure 5-6 Comparison of filter collection efficiency based on particle size

Figure 5-7 is the characteristic performance curve of a typical

HEPA filter with the design point indicated. The dip between 0.1
and 0.3 microns represents the most penetrating particle size.
Many bacteria and viruses fall into this size range. Fortunately,
microbes in this range are also vulnerable to ultraviolet radiation.
For this reason, many health care facilities couple particulate air
filters with ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI). UVGI will be
discussed later in this section.

Sorbent Filters. Particulate filters are not intended to remove

gases and vapors. Sorbent filters use one of two mechanisms for
capturing and controlling gas-phase air contaminants, physical ab-
sorption or chemisorption.

Both mechanisms remove specific types of gas-phase contaminants

in indoor air. Unlike particulate filters, sorbents cover a wide
range of highly porous materials (see Figure 5-8), ranging from
simple clays and carbons to complex engineered polymers. Many
sorbents, with the exception of those that are chemically active,
can be regenerated by application of heat or other processes.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-13

 Figure 5-7 Typical performance of a HEPA 99.97%

Figure 5-8 Scanning electron microscope image of

activated carbon pores
SOURCE: CDC/NIOSH PUBLICATION NO. 2003-136, GUIDANCE FOR FILTRATION AND AIR
CLEANING SYSTEMS TO PROTECT BUILDING ENVIRONMENTS FROM AIRBORNE CHEMICAL,
BIOLOGICAL, OR RADIOLOGICAL ATTACKS, APRIL 2003

5-14 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Understanding the precise removal mechanism for gases and
vapors is often difficult due to the nature of the adsorbent and
the processes involved. Although knowledge of adsorption
equilibrium helps in understanding vapor protection, filter per-
formance depends on such properties as mass transfer, chemical
reaction rates, and chemical reaction capacity. Some of the most
important parameters include the following:

❍ Breakthrough concentration. Breakthrough concentration

is the downstream contaminant concentration, above which
the sorbent is considered to be performing inadequately. Its
concentration indicates the agent has broken through the
sorbent, which is no longer providing maximum protection.
This parameter is a function of loading history, relative
humidity, and other factors.

❍ Breakthrough time. Breakthrough time is the elapsed time

between initial contact of the toxic agent, at a reported challenge
concentration, with the upstream surface of the sorbent bed and
the time at which the breakthrough concentration occurs on the
downstream side of the sorbent bed.

❍ Challenge concentration. Challenge concentration is the

airborne concentration of the hazardous agent entering the
sorbent.

❍ Residence time. Residence time is the length of time that the

hazardous agent spends in contact with the sorbent. This term
is generally used in the context of superficial residence time,
which is calculated on the basis of the adsorbent bed volume
and the volumetric flow rate.

❍ Mass transfer zone or critical bed depth. Mass transfer zone

or critical bed depth are interchangeably used terms. They
refer to the adsorbent bed depth required to reduce the
chemical vapor challenge to the breakthrough concentration.
When applied to the challenge chemicals that are removed by
chemical reaction, mass transfer is not as precise a descriptor,
but is often used in that context. The portion of the adsorbent
bed not included in the mass transfer zone is often termed
the capacity zone.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-15

 Choosing the appropriate sorbent or sorbents for an airborne
contaminant is a complex decision that involves many factors.
The installation of sorbent filters for the removal of gaseous con-
taminants from a building’s air is a less common practice than the
installation of particulate filtration. Sorbents have different affini-
ties, removal efficiencies, and saturation points for each chemical
agent. The EPA states that a well-designed adsorption system
should have removal efficiencies ranging from 95 percent to 98
percent for industrial contaminant concentrations in the range
of 500 to 2,000 ppm; higher collection efficiencies are needed
for high toxicity CBR agents. Sorbent physicochemical proper-
ties (e.g., pore size and shape, surface area, pore volume, and
chemical inertness) all influence the ability of a sorbent to collect
gases and vapors. Sorbent manufacturers have published extensive
information regarding the proper use of gas-phase sorbents, based
upon contaminants and conditions. The air contaminant’s con-
centration, molecular weight, molecule size, and temperature are
all important.

Sorbents are rated in terms of adsorption capacity (i.e., the amount

of the chemical that can be captured) for many chemicals. This ca-
pacity rises as concentration increases and temperature decreases.
The rate of adsorption (i.e., the efficiency) falls as the amount of
contaminant captured grows. Adsorption capacity information
(available from manufacturers, scientific literature, and the In-
ternet) allows users to predict the service life of a sorbent bed.

Gases are removed in the sorbent bed’s mass transfer zone. As the
sorbent bed removes gases and vapors, the leading edge of this
zone is saturated with the contaminant, while the trailing edge is
clean, as dictated by the adsorption capacity, exposure history, and
filtration dynamics. Significant quantities of the air contaminant
may pass through the sorbent bed if breakthrough occurs. Break-
through may be avoided by selecting the appropriate quantity of
sorbent and performing regular maintenance.

Activated carbon (see Figure 5-9) is the most common sorbent.

The huge surface area of activated carbon gives it countless

5-16 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

bonding sites. Typically, the pores in highly activated
carbon have a total surface area of over 1,000 square
meters per gram. Common substances used as a base
material for producing carbon are wood, coal, and
coconut shell. Impregnating carbon with special
chemicals can enhance the absorption of specific
gases. A broad-based chemical addition typically used
is copper-silver-zinc-molybdenum-triethylenediamine
(ASZM-TEDA). Both the DOS and DoD currently rec-
Figure 5-9 Charcoal filter beds
ommend ASZM-TEDA sorbent for collecting classical
chemical warfare agents. SOURCE: FLANDERS CORPORATION

Sorbent filters should be located downstream of the particulate

filters. This arrangement allows the sorbent to collect vapors gen-
erated from liquid aerosols collected on the particulate filter and
reduces the amount of particulate reaching the sorbent. Gas-phase
contaminant removal can potentially be a challenging and costly
undertaking, and different factors should be addressed.

All sorbents have limited adsorption capacities and require sched-

uled maintenance. The effective residual capacity of an activated
carbon sorbent bed is not easily determined while in use, and
saturated sorbents can re-emit collected contaminants. Sorbent
life depends upon bed volume or mass, along with shape, which
influences airflow through the sorbent bed. Chemical agent con-
centrations and other gases (including humidity) affect the bed
capacity. Because of differences in affinities, it is possible that
one chemical may displace another chemical, which can be re-
adsorbed downstream or forced out of the bed. Most sorbents
come in pellet form, which makes it possible to mix them. Mixed-
and/or layered-sorbent beds permit effective removal of a broader
range of contaminants than possible with a single sorbent. Many
sorbents can be regenerated, and it is important to closely follow
manufacturers’ guidance to ensure that sorbents are replaced or
regenerated in a safe and effective manner.

Some chemically active sorbents are impregnated with strong

oxidizers, such as potassium permanganate. The adsorbent part

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-17

 of the bed captures the target gas and gives the oxidizer time to
react and destroy other agents. Chemically active sorbents should
not be reused because the oxidizer is consumed over time. If the
adsorbent bed is exposed to high concentrations of vapors, exo-
thermic adsorption could lead to a large temperature rise and
filter bed ignition. This risk can be exacerbated by the nature
of impregnation materials. It is well known that lead and other
metals can significantly lower the spontaneous ignition tem-
perature of a carbon filter bed. Sorbent bed fires are extremely
dangerous, and steps should be taken to avoid this hazard. These
systems should be located away from heat sources and automatic
shut-off and warning capabilities should be included in the system.

Air Filtration Considerations. In addition to proper filter or sor-

bent selection, the following must be considered when installing
or upgrading filtration systems:

❍ Filter bypass is a common problem found in many HVAC

filtration systems. It occurs when air, rather than moving
through the filter, goes around it, decreasing collection
efficiency and defeating the intended purpose of the filtration
system. Filter bypass is often caused by poorly fitting filters,
poor sealing of filters in their framing systems, missing
filter panels, or leaks and openings in the air handling unit
downstream of the filter bank and upstream of the blower.
Simply improving filter efficiency without addressing filter
bypass provides little, if any, improvement to system efficiency.

❍ Cost is another issue affected by HVAC filtration systems.

Both first and life-cycle costs should be considered (e.g.,
initial installation, replacement, operating, maintenance,
etc.). Not only are higher-efficiency filters and sorbent
filters more expensive than the filters traditionally used in
HVAC systems, but fan units may also need to be upgraded
to handle the increased pressure drop associated with the
upgraded filtration systems. Although improved filtration will
normally come at a higher cost, many of these costs can be
partially offset by the beneficial effects, such as cleaner (and

5-18 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 more efficient) HVAC components and improved indoor
environmental quality.

❍ Filtration and air-cleaning affect only the air that passes

through the filtration and air-cleaning device, whether it is
outdoor air, recirculated air, or a mixture of the two. Building
envelopes in residential and commercial buildings are, in
general, quite leaky, and significant quantities of air can
infiltrate the building envelope with minimal filtration. Field
studies have shown that, unless specific measures are taken to
reduce infiltration, as much air may enter a building through
infiltration as through the mechanical ventilation system.
Therefore, building managers should not expect filtration
alone to protect a building from outdoor releases, particularly
for systems in which no make-up air or inadequate over-
pressure is present. Instead, filtration in combination with
other steps, such as building pressurization and tightening
the building envelope, should be considered to increase the
likelihood that the air entering the building actually passes
through the filtration and air-cleaning systems.

Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI). UVGI has long

been used in laboratories and health care facilities. Ultraviolet
radiation in the range of 2,250-3,020 Angstroms is lethal to micro-
organisms. All viruses and almost all bacteria (excluding spores)
are vulnerable to moderate levels of UVGI exposure. Spores,
which are larger and more resistant to UVGI than most bacteria,
can be effectively removed through high efficiency air filtration.
For these reasons, today most UGVI systems are installed in con-
junction with high efficiency filtration systems in many health
care facilities.

Ultraviolet (UV) lamps resemble ordinary fluorescent lamps (see

Figure 5-10), but are specially designed to emit germicidal UV and
Figure 5-10
include a glass envelope to filter out harmful, ozone forming radia-
UVGI array used for air
tion. The lamps are available in a variety of sizes and shapes and
disinfection with reflective
must be mounted in special housings and located so that people
surfaces
are not exposed to direct irradiation. Newer more advanced
SOURCE: LUMALIER
compact UV tubes provide higher output in the UV-C bandwidth INCORPORATED

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-19

 (253.7 nanometer wavelength) and increased reliability. UVGI
safety measures, such as duct access interlocks that turn off the
lamps when the duct housing is opened, should be used.

Manufacturers offer UVGI systems suitable for in-duct or large

plenum installations. Retrofitting UVGI systems can also be rela-
tively simple if sufficient space is available. There are UV lamps
that can be mounted externally in ductwork and pressure losses
across such lamps are often negligible. When installing a UVGI
system, attention must be paid to maintaining design air velocity
and temperature of the UV lamps. Cooling the plasma inside a UV
lamp can significantly affect its UV output. Polished aluminum re-
flective panels can also be used to increase the intensity of a UVGI
field in an enclosed duct or chamber. The design velocity for a
typical UVGI unit is similar to that of particulate filters (about 400
feet per minute). It is very important to properly design and in-
stall UVGI systems in order to obtain the desired effects. Improper
systems may provide a false sense of protection. For a discussion of
the factors that should be considered when designing and sizing
a UVGI system, additional information can be found in W. J. Kow-
alski, Immune Building Systems Technology (McGraw Hill, 2003).

A design utilizing a combination of filtration and UVGI can be

very effective against biological agents. Smaller microbes, which
are difficult to filter out, tend to be more susceptible to UVGI;
while larger microbes, such as spores, which are more resistant to
UVGI, tend to be easier to filter out.

5.4.2 Applying External Filtration

Applying external filtration to a building requires modifica-

tions to the building’s HVAC system and electrical system, and it
also usually requires minor architectural changes to reduce air
leakage from the selected protective envelope. These changes
are necessary to ensure that, when the protective system is in
operation, all outside air enters the building through the filters.
The air exchange that normally occurs due to wind, chimney
effect, and operation of fans must be reduced to zero. This is

5-20 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

achieved mainly by introducing filtered air at a rate sufficient to
produce an overpressure in the building and create an outward
flow through all cracks, pores, seams, and other openings in the
building envelope. For standby systems, dampers are normally
required to tighten the envelope in transitioning to the protec-
tive mode. The level of overpressure required varies with weather
conditions and height of the building.

The capacity of filtration units needed for protection is determined

by the leakage characteristics and size of the building. The cost of
installing a high efficiency filtration system varies directly with the
leakage rate; higher leakage rate equals higher costs, and the need
for additional heating and cooling capacity for the filtered air.

Filtration system capacity must be matched to the leakage of the

building to achieve maximum protection. Fan-pressurization tests
are usually performed on buildings to determine their normalized
leakage rates. Nominal data on the leakage rates of various types
of buildings are available in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Engineering Technical Letter (ETL) 1110-3-498, Design of Collec-
tive Protection Shelters to Resist Chemical, Biological, and Radiological
(CBR) Agents, (February 24, 1999) and
can be used to estimate the leakage rate
of a building.

For a terrorist threat, the U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers recommends a
minimum HVAC CBR filtration system
overpressure goal of 5 Pa (0.02 inch water
gauge [wg]). This overpressure corre-
sponds to an impact pressure normal to a
wall from a 12-km/hr (7-mph) wind. After
installation of an overpressure system (see
Figure 5-11), it is possible that a pressure
greater than 5 Pa (0.02 inch wg) will be Figure 5-11
achieved. A higher pressure provides a A military FFA 580 air filtration system containing
higher factor of safety and should not be both a HEPA filter and an ASZM-TEDA carbon
intentionally lowered. adsorber as part of an overpressure system

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-21

 Currently, there are no criteria or guidance for the performance
of filtration systems designed for protecting building occupants
against CBR agents. The U.S. military has issued very conservative
criteria in the ETL referenced above, which is not based on ana-
lytical or empirical research. Recent research in the field suggests
significant levels of protection can be achieved with medium to
high efficiency filters (see Figure 5-12), especially when used in
combination with UVGI.1 In a recent simulation in the Architec-
tural Engineering Department of Pennsylvania State University,
various combinations of MERV and UVGI Rating Values (URV)
systems were modeled for a 20-story building subject to releases of
anthrax, smallpox, and botulinum. No significant benefits were
shown for filtration/URV levels beyond MERV 13/URV 13.2

Figure 5-12
A commercial air filtration
unit

SOURCE: TRION INCORPORATED

1
W. J. Kowalski, W. P. Bahnfleth, and T. S. Whittam, Filtration or Airborne Microorganisms: Modeling and Prediction
http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/wjk/fom.html.

2
W. J. Kowalski, Defending Buildings Against Bioterrorism, Engineering Systems, September 30, 2002
http://www.esmagazine.com/CDA/ArticleInformation/features/BNP_Features_Item/0,2503,84858,00.html.

5-22 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Various types of high efficiency filter systems, both commercial
and military, have been used for building protection. The current
DoD recommended carbon for filtering a broad range of toxic
chemical vapors and gases is ASZM-TEDA carbon per military
specification EA-C-1704A maintained by the U.S. Army Edgewood
Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.

High efficiency air filtration can be most economically applied

by integrating it into the HVAC system in the design of new con-
struction. Application of filtration systems in retrofit involves
greater costs.

Filter systems can be applied to protect either all or part of a

building. At least part of the building is always excluded from
the envelope being protected (i.e., areas having or requiring
high rates of air exchange with the outdoors, such as mechanical
rooms containing boilers or generators and receiving areas). Me-
chanical rooms that contain air handling units must be included
within the protective envelope. Filter systems may be designed
to operate on either a continuous duty cycle or on standby. The
assumption with the latter is that they will be turned on when
there is greater likelihood of an airborne hazard occurring.

The disadvantage of external air filtration is its high costs for

hardware, installation, operation, and maintenance. The main
cost component of operating the filter units is the electrical
power required to force air through the filters. The airflow
resistance of HEPA filters is typically about 1 inch wg, and this
resistance increases steadily as the filter loads with dust or other
fine particles in service. For high efficiency carbon filters, the
pressure drop may range from about 1 to 4 inch wg. Mainte-
nance costs involve periodic filter replacement. Particulate filter
change-out is generally based on the airflow resistance rising to
unacceptable levels.

There is no simple means for determining how much capacity

remains in a carbon filter. Because the service life varies with the
environment in which it operates, it can be replaced according

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-23

 to time in service using a conservative estimate, or its remaining
capacity can be measured by the use of test canisters. With the
reserve capacity normally designed into carbon filters, a filter
can maintain efficiency greater than 99.999 percent for about
3 years of continuous use with ASZM-TEDA carbon, depending
upon the quality of air in the environment it operates.

5.4.3 Applying Internal Filtration

(Recirculation Filter Units)

Internal filtration can be applied much more easily, in many cases

without any modifications to the building or installation costs;
however, it provides a much lower level of protection against an
external release than does high efficiency external filtration. One
advantage of internal filtration is in purging contaminants from
a building following an internal release. Also referred to as recir-
culation filtering, the protection it provides against an external
release is dependent upon the rate at which air in the building
envelope is exchanged with outdoor air. The tighter the building,
the greater the protection achieved with internal filtration.

Recirculation filter units can be employed to increase protection

achieved by sheltering in place. This involves the use of free-
standing units referred to as indoor air purifiers or indoor air
quality filter units. Many of these contain filters for removal of both
aerosols and chemicals vapors. These typically have high efficiency
filters for the removing aerosols (HEPA filters); however, the chem-
ical filters are of relatively low efficiency, typically ranging from less
than 50 percent to as high as 99 percent. Because of the relatively
high efficiency of the HEPA filter versus the carbon filter, typically
available in recirculation filter units, these units can provide a
higher level of protection against an aerosol than against chemical
vapors. The carbon filters also do not typically contain the im-
pregnated carbon capable of removing chemicals of high vapor
pressure. Manufacturers provide guidance on the size of room a
single unit will accommodate. Because these filters are designed
mainly for filtering pollen and dust and removing odors, there are
no claims or guidance as to their protective capability.

5-24 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Internal filtration can also be applied by simply installing higher
efficiency particulate filters and/or carbon filters in place of stan-
dard dust filters in air handling units. Air handling units are not
designed, however, to accommodate the large increase in airflow
resistance a high efficiency filter or carbon filter would add. The
capability of the existing air handling unit must be examined be-
fore such installations are attempted. In typical air handling units,
dust filter slots allow relatively high bypass around the filter media,
reducing overall efficiency of the HEPA filters. Internal filtration
protection against biological agents can also be enhanced through
the installation of an UVGI system as discussed earlier.

5.4.4 Radiological Hazards

Radiological hazards can be divided into three general forms:

alpha, beta, and gamma radiation, which are emitted by radio-
isotopes that may occur as an aerosol, be carried on particulate
matter, or occur in a gaseous state. Alpha particles, consisting of
two neutrons and two protons, are the least penetrating and the
most ionizing form of radiation. They are emitted from the nu-
cleus of radioactive atoms and transfer their energy at very short
distances. Alpha particles are readily shielded by paper or skin and
are most dangerous when inhaled and deposited in the respira-
tory tract. Beta particles are negatively charged particles emitted
from the nucleus of radioactive atoms. Beta particles are more
penetrating than alpha particles, presenting an internal exposure
hazard. They can penetrate the skin and cause burns. If they con-
tact a high density material, they may generate x-rays also known
as “Bremmstrahlung radiation.” Gamma particles are emitted
from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. Gamma ra-
diation can cause ionization in materials and biological damage to
human tissues, presenting an external radiation hazard.

There are three primary scenarios in which radioactive materials

could be dispersed by a terrorist: use of conventional explosives or
other means to spread radioactive materials (a dirty bomb), attack
on a fixed nuclear facility, and use of a nuclear weapon. In any of
these events, filtration and air cleaning devices would be ineffec-

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-25

 tive at stopping the radiation itself; however, they would be useful
in collecting the material from which the radiation is emitted.
Micrometer-sized aerosols from a radiological event are effectively
removed from air streams by HEPA filters. This collection could
prevent distribution throughout a building; however, decontami-
nation of the HVAC system would be required.

5.5 EXHAUSTING AND PURGING

Turning on building ventilation fans and smoke-purge fans is a
protective action for purging airborne hazards from the building
and reducing occupant exposure, but it is mainly useful when the
source of the hazard is indoors.

Purging must be carefully applied with regard to the location of

the source and the time of the release. It must be clear that the
source of the hazard is inside the building and, if not, purging
should not be attempted. If the hazardous material has been
identified before release or immediately upon release, purging
should not be employed, because it may spread the hazardous
material throughout the building or HVAC zone. In this case, all
air handling units should be turned off to isolate the hazard while
evacuating or temporarily sheltering in place.

Additionally, the ventilation system and smoke purge fans can be

used to purge the building following an external release after the
hazard outdoors has dissipated, and it has been confirmed that
the agent is no longer present near the building.

5.6 CBR DETECTION

Most strategies for protecting people from airborne hazards
require a means of detection (i.e., determining that a hazard
exists). Although effective and inexpensive devices are widely
available to detect, for example, smoke and carbon monoxide,
there are no detectors that can rapidly alert occupants to a broad
range of chemical and biological hazards.

5-26 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Chemical detection technology has improved vastly since Op-
eration Desert Storm, where many military detection systems
experienced high false alarm rates, but biological detection
technology has not matured as fast. Biological signatures are not
as distinctive as chemical signatures and can take 30 minutes or
more to detect. Biological detection systems are expensive and
generally require trained specialists to operate. Current chemical
detectors work in approximately 10 seconds; however, the current
state of biological and chemical detection is limited to detecting
specific agents. There currently is no all-inclusive detection system
available. Wide varieties of efficient radiological detectors have
been developed for the nuclear industry and are commercially
available. The NBC Products and Services Handbook, which was
discussed in Section 5.3, contains a catalogue of CBR detection
equipment. Additionally, the NIJ has reviewed chemical and bio-
logical detection devices in NIJ Guide 100-00: Guide for the selection
of Chemical Agent and Toxic Industrial Material Detection Equipment
for Emergency First Responders, June 2000; and NIJ Guide 101-00:
An Introduction to Biological Agent Detection Equipment for Emergency
First Responders, December 2001.

Chemical Detectors. Driven largely by a desire to protect workers

from toxic vapors in industrial environments, considerable in-
formation is known on the toxicity of chemical warfare agents,
which often have dual uses in industry. A variety of detection tech-
nologies exist, ranging from inexpensive manual point detection
devices (e.g., paper strips and calorimetric tubes) utilizing basic
chemical reactions to trigger color changes, to sophisticated detec-
tion systems utilizing advanced technologies.

Chemical agents do not possess universal properties that permit

detection by any single method. Therefore, most chemical detec-
tors are designed to detect specific agents or a group of related
agents. Most broad range detection systems actually combine
several different sensors utilizing different technologies and can
be very expensive and complex. Nevertheless, today there are
numerous commercially available chemical detectors. The most
capable detectors utilize ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), surface

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-27

 acoustic wave (SAW), or gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer
(GC/MS) technologies to detect chemical agents and toxic indus-
trial materials (TIMs).

IMS detectors draw gaseous samples with an air pump into a reac-
tion chamber where a radioactive source ionizes the sample. The
ionized sample is then injected into a closed drift tube through
a shutter that isolates the sample from atmospheric air. The drift
tube has a weak electric field that draws the sample toward an ion
detector. An electrical charge is generated upon impact with the
ion detector. The time it takes for species to traverse the field and
the intensity of the charge generated are used as a means of iden-
tifying the chemical agent.

SAW detectors consist of piezoelectric crystals coated with a film

specially designed to absorb chemical agents from the air. They
typically use multiple piezoelectric crystals coated with different
polymeric films, each designed to absorb a particular class of vola-
tile compound. The piezoelectric crystals absorb chemical vapors,
which cause the resonant frequency of the crystal to change. By
monitoring the resonant frequency of the different piezoelectric
crystals, a response pattern of the system for a particular vapor is
generated. Many SAW devices use pre-concentration tubes to re-
duce environmental interferences and increase detector sensitivity.

A GC uses inert gas to transport a sample of air through a long

chromatographic column. Each molecule sticks to the column
with a different amount of force and does not travel down the
column at the same speed as the carrier gas. This causes the
chemical agents and interferants to come out of the end of the
column at different times (called the retention time). Because the
retention time is known for the chemical agents, the signal from
an associated detector is only observed for a short period starting
before and ending just after the retention time of the chemical
agent, eliminating false alarms from similar compounds that have
different retention times. Using a pre-concentrator specific to the
analyte can also reduce false alarms caused by interferants.

5-28 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Mass spectrometry is a technique that can positively identify a
chemical agent at very low concentrations. In this technique, a
volatilized sample is ionized, typically by an electron beam, which
also causes the molecule to fragment into smaller ionized pieces.
The ionized molecules and fragments are then passed into a mass
analyzer that uses electric fields to separate the ions according
to the ratio of their mass divided by their electric charge. The
analyzer allows only ions of the same mass over charge ratio to im-
pinge upon the detector. By scanning the electric potentials in the
mass analyzer, all the different mass/charge ions can be detected.
The result is a mass spectrum that shows the relative amount and
the mass of each fragment, and the unfragmented parent mol-
ecule. Because each molecule forms a unique set of fragments,
mass spectroscopy provides positive identification. To simplify in-
terpretation of the mass spectrum, it is best to introduce only one
compound at a time. This is often achieved by using a gas chro-
matograph to separate the components in the sample. The end
of the gas chromatography column is connected
directly to the inlet of the mass spectrometer. When
used in combination, a GC/MS is one of the most
sensitive and discerning tools for identifying chem-
ical and biological compounds; however, it requires
significant skill to operate and interpret the results.

Today, there are commercially available IMS detec-

tion systems that will detect most chemical agents and
many TIMs (see Figure 5-13). They are suitable for Figure 5-13
integration into a building's HVAC system, can interface with HVAC An IMS chemical detector
control systems, have reasonable maintenance requirements (every 3 designed for installation in
months), low false alarm rates, and can be programmed to detect spe- HVAC systems
cific chemical agents. SOURCE: SMITHS DETECTION

Biological Detectors. The current state of biological detection

technology is very different from that of chemical agent detec-
tion technology. In general, most biological detection systems are
currently in the research and early development stages. There
are some commercially available devices that have limited utility
(responding only to a small number of agents) and are generally

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-29

 high cost items. Because commercially available biological warfare
(BW) detection systems and/or components exhibit limited utility
in detecting and identifying BW agents and are also costly, it is
strongly recommended that purchasers be very careful when con-
sidering any device that claims to detect BW agents.

One reason for the lack of available biological detection equip-

ment is that detection of biological agents requires extremely high
sensitivity (because of the very low effective dose needed to cause
infection and spread the disease) and an unusually high degree of
selectivity (because of the large and diverse biological background
in the environment). Another reason for the lack of biological de-
tection equipment is that biological agents, compared to chemical
agents, are very complex systems of molecules, which makes them
much more difficult to identify. For example, ionization/ion mo-
bility spectrometry, an excellent system for collection, detection,
and identification of chemical agents, cannot detect or discrimi-
nate biological agents in their current forms. In fact, the need for
high efficiency collection and concentration of the sample, high
sensitivities, and high selectivities make almost all chemical detec-
tors in their current form unusable for biological agent detection.

Because of the need for high selectivity and sensitivity, biological

detection systems are necessarily complex and expensive devices. In
general, biological sensors can detect one specific agent, and can
usually only be used once. Some biological sensors are in current
use in the food industry. The U.S. military is developing several de-
tection systems that show some promise. However, these systems are
very complicated, require highly trained operators, extensive main-
tenance, and are extremely expensive to purchase and operate.

For all these reasons, biological detection technologies will not

be discussed herein. One alternative could be to use particle
detectors. In theory, biological agents could be identified by
a particle detector based on their characteristic size range. In
fact, most biological detectors use trigger or cue technology to
identify a change in the particulate background at the sensor to
trigger the additional components of the detection system into

5-30 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

operation. However, in practice, there are numerous problems
when attempting to identify biological agents with particle detec-
tors. Particulates in the atmosphere originate from a number of
sources. Dust, dirt, pollen, and fog are all examples of naturally
occurring particulates found in the air. Manmade particu-
lates such as engine exhaust, smoke, and industrial effluents
(smokestacks) also contribute significantly to the environmental
particulate background. The particulate background can change
on a minute-by-minute basis, depending on the meteorological
conditions at the time. For example, the particulate background
next to a road will change dramatically, depending on whether
there is traffic on the road disturbing the dust, or if the road is
empty. Likewise, if there is little wind, not many particulates are
carried into the atmosphere; however, when the wind begins to
blow, it can carry many particulates from the immediate vicinity,
as well as from remote locations. The challenge for a biological
detection system is to be able to discriminate between all of the
naturally occurring particulates and the biological agent par-
ticulates. Thus, identification of biological agents with particle
detectors alone may be extremely difficult.

5.7 INDICATIONS OF CBR CONTAMINATION

Most hazardous chemicals have warning properties that provide
a practical means for detecting a hazard and initiating protective
actions. Such warning properties make chemicals perceptible;
for example, vapors or gases can be perceived by the human
senses (i.e., smell, sight, taste, or irritation of the eyes, skin, or
respiratory tract) before serious effects occur. The distinction be-
tween perceptible and imperceptible agents is not an exact one.
The concentrations at which a person can detect an odor vary
from person to person, and these thresholds also vary relative to
the concentration that can produce immediate, injurious effects.

Most of the industrial chemicals and chemical-warfare agents are

readily detectable by smell. Soldiers in World Wars I and II were
taught to identify, by smell, such agents as mustard, phosgene,
and chlorine, and this detection method proved effective for

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-31

 determining when to put on and take off a gas mask. An excep-
tion is the chemical-warfare agent sarin, which is odorless and
colorless in its pure form and, therefore, imperceptible. Among
the most common toxic industrial chemicals, carbon monoxide
is one of the few that is imperceptible.

Biological agents are also imperceptible and there are no detection

devices that can determine their presence in the air in real time. Cur-
rent methods for detecting bacterial spores, such as anthrax, require
a trained operator and expensive equipment. It is not currently pos-
sible to base protective responses to biological agents on detection.

Researchers are working on a prototype device to automatically and

continuously monitor the air for the presence of bacterial spores.
The device would continuously sample the air and use microwaves
to trigger a chemical reaction, the intensity of which would corre-
spond to the concentration of bacterial spores in the sample. If an
increase in spore concentration is detected, an alarm similar to a
smoke detector would sound and a technician would respond and
use traditional sampling and analysis to confirm the presence of an-
thrax spores. Researchers hope the device response time will be fast
enough to help prevent widespread contamination.

In the absence of a warning property, people can be alerted to

some airborne hazards by observing symptoms or effects in others.
This provides a practical means for initiating protective actions,
because the susceptibility to hazardous materials varies from
person to person. The concentrations of airborne materials may
also vary substantially within a given building or room, producing
a hazard that may be greater to some occupants than to others.

Other warning signs of a hazard may involve seeing and hearing

something out of the ordinary, such as the hiss of a rapid release
from a pressurized cylinder. Awareness to warning properties,
signs, and symptoms in other people is the basis of a protective
action plan. Such a plan should apply four possible protective ac-
tions: sheltering in place, using protective masks, evacuating, and
purging, as already discussed in this chapter.

5-32 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

For protection against imperceptible agents, the only practical
protective measures are those that are continuously in place, such
as filtering all air brought into the building on a continuous basis
and using automatic, real-time sensors that are capable of de-
tecting the imperceptible agents.

Chemical, biological, and radiological materials, as well as in-

dustrial agents, may travel in the air as a gas or on surfaces we
physically contact. Dispersion methods may be as simple as
placing a container in a heavily used area, opening a container,
or using conventional (garden)/commercial spray devices, or as
elaborate as detonating an aerosol.

Chemical incidents are characterized by the rapid onset (minutes

to hours) of medical symptoms and easily observed indicators
(e.g., colored residue, dead foliage, pungent odor, and dead ani-
mals, birds, fish, or insects; see Table 5-2 and Figure 5-14).

In the case of a biological incident, the onset of symptoms takes

days to weeks and, typically, there will be no characteristic indica-
tors (see Table 5-3 and Figure 5-15). Because of the delayed onset
of symptoms in a biological incident, the area affected may be
greater due to the migration of infected individuals.

In the case of a radiological incident, the onset of symptoms also takes

days to weeks to occur and typically there will be no characteristic indi-
cators (see Table 5-4 and Figure 5-16). Radiological materials are not
recognizable by the senses because they are colorless and odorless.

Specialized equipment is required to determine the size of the af-

fected area and if the level of radioactivity presents an immediate
or long-term health hazard. Because of the delayed onset of symp-
toms in a radiological incident, the affected area may be greater
due to the migration of contaminated individuals.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-33

Table 5-2: Indicators of a Possible Chemical Incident

Not just an occasional roadkill, but numerous animals (wild and domestic, small and large),
Dead animals, birds, fish
birds, and fish in the same area.

If normal insect activity (ground, air, and/or water) is missing, check the ground/water surface/
Lack of insect life
shore line for dead insects. If near water, check for dead fish/aquatic birds.

Numerous individuals experiencing unexplained water-like blisters, wheals (like bee stings),
Physical symptoms
pinpointed pupils, choking, respiratory ailments, and/or rashes.

Numerous individuals exhibiting unexplained serious health problems ranging from nausea to
Mass casualties
disorientation to difficulty in breathing to convulsions to death.

Casualties distributed in a pattern that may be associated with possible agent dissemination
Definite pattern of casualties
methods.

Illness associated with confined

Lower attack rates for people working indoors than those working outdoors, and vice versa.
geographic area

Numerous surfaces exhibit oily droplets/film; numerous water surfaces have an oily film. (No
Unusual liquid droplets
recent rain.)

Areas that look different in Not just a patch of dead weeds, but trees, shrubs, bushes, food crops, and/or lawns that are
appearance dead, discolored, or withered. (No current drought.)

Smells may range from fruity to flowery to sharp/pungent to garlic/horseradish-

Unexplained odors like to bitter almonds/peach kernels to new mown hay. It is important to note
that the particular odor is completely out of character with its surroundings.

Low-lying clouds Low-lying cloud/fog-like condition that is not explained by its surroundings.

Unusual metal debris Unexplained bomb/munitions-like material, especially if it contains a liquid. (No recent rain.)

5-34 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 Gases – Toxic and/or Corrosive Gases – Toxic (Corrosive)

Substances – Toxic
(Non-Combustible)

Figure 5-14 Placards associated with chemical incidents

Table 5-3: Indicators of a Possible Biological Incident

Any number of symptoms may occur. As a first responder, strong consideration should be
given to calling local hospitals to see if additional casualities with similar symptoms have been
Unusual numbers of sick or observed. Casualties may occur hours to days or weeks after an incident has occurred. The
dying people or animals time required before symptoms are observed is dependent on the biological agent used and
the dose received. Additional symptoms likely to occur include unexplained gastrointestinal
illnesses and upper respiratory problems similar to flu/colds.

Unscheduled and unusual spray

Especially if outdoors during periods of darkness.
being disseminated

Abandoned spray devices Devices will have no distinct odors.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES 5-35

 Infectious Substances

Figure 5-15 Placards associated with biological incidents

Table 5-4: Indicators of a Possible Radiological Incident

As a first responder, strong consideration should be given to calling local hospitals to see if
additional casualties with similar symptoms have been observed. Casualties may occur hours to
Unusual numbers of sick or
days or weeks after an incident has occurred. The time required before symptoms are observed
dying people or animals
is dependent on the radioactive material used and the dose received. Additional symptoms
likely to occur include skin reddening and, in severe cases, vomiting.

Unusual metal debris Unexplained bomb/munitions-like material.

Radiation symbols Containers may display a radiation symbol.

Heat emitting material Material that seems to emit heat without any sign of an external heating source.

Glowing material/particles If the material is strongly radioactive, it may emit a radioluminescence.

Radioactive Materials

Figure 5-16 Placards associated with radiological incidents

5-36 CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL MEASURES

 ACRONYMS A

This appendix contains some acronyms that do not actually

appear in this manual. They have been included to present a com-
prehensive list that pertains to this series of publications.

A
AA&E Arms, Ammunition, and Explosives

AAR After Action Report

ACL Access Control List

ACP access control point

ACS Access Control System

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act

ADAAG Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility

Guidelines

AECS Automated Entry Control System

AFJMAN Air Force Joint Manual, also may be known as

AFMAN (I) for Air Force Manual

AFMAN Air Force Manual

ALERT Automated Local Evaluation in Real Time

AMS Aerial Measuring System

ANS Alert and Notification System

ANSI American National Standards Institute

ANSIR Awareness of National Security Issues and

Response Program

AOR Area of Responsibility

ACRONYMS A-1
 AP armor piercing

APHL Agency for Public Health Laboratories

ARAC Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability

ARC American Red Cross

ARG Accident Response Group

ARS Agriculture Research Service

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air-Conditioning Engineers

ASTHO Association for State and Territorial Health

Officials

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

ASZM-TEDA copper-silver-zinc-molybdenum-triethylenediamine

AT Antiterrorism

ATC Air Traffic Control

ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms

ATSD(CS) Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Civil Support

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

AWG American wire gauge

B
BCA Benefit/Cost Analysis

BCC Backup Control Center

BCP Business Continuity Plan

BDC Bomb Data Center

A-2 ACRONYMS
BLASTOP Blast-Resistant Window Program

BMS balanced magnetic switch

BW biological warfare

C
CAMEO Computer-Aided Management of Emergency
Operations

CB Citizens Band

CBIAC Chemical and Biological Defense Information and

Analysis Center

CBR chemical, biological, or radiological

CBRNE chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or

explosive

CCTV closed circuit television

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CDR Call Detail Report

CDRG Catastrophic Disaster Response Group

CEO Chief Executive Officer

CEPPO Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention

Office

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation, and Liability Act

CERT Community Emergency Response Team

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CFO Chief Financial Officer

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

ACRONYMS A-3
 CHEMTREC Chemical Manufacturers’ Association Chemical
Transportation Emergency Center

CHPPM Center for Health Promotion and Preventive

Medicine

CIAO Chief Infrastructure Assurance Office

CIAO Critical Infrastructure Assurance Officer

CICG Critical Infrastructure Coordination Group

CIO Chief Information Officer

CIP Critical Infrastructure Protection

CIRG Crisis Incident Response Group

CJCS Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

CM Consequence Management

CM Crisis Management

CMS Call Management System

CMU concrete masonry unit

CMU Crisis Management Unit (CIRG)

COB Continuity of Business

COBIT TM Control Objectives for Information Technology

CO/DO Central Office/Direct Outdial

CONEX Container Express

CONOPS Concept of Operations

COO Chief Operating Officer

COOP Continuity of Operations Plan

COR Class of Restriction

COS Class of Service

CPG Civil Preparedness Guide

A-4 ACRONYMS
CPTED Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

CPX Command Post Exercise

CRU Crisis Response Unit

CSEPP Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness

Program

CSI Construction Specifications Institute

CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education, and

Extension Service

CST Civil Support Team

CSTE Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists

CT Counterterrorism

CW/CBD Chemical Warfare/Contraband Detection

D
DBMS Database Management System

DBT Design Basis Threat

DBU dial backup

DD Data Dictionary

DES Data Encryption Standard

DEST Domestic Emergency Support Team

DFO Disaster Field Office

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DISA Direct Inward System Access

DMA Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000

DMAT Disaster Medical Assistance Team

ACRONYMS A-5
 DMCR Disaster Management Central Resource

DMORT Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team

DOC Department of Commerce

DoD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOJ Department of Justice

DOS Department of State

DOT Department of Transportation

DPP Domestic Preparedness Program

DRC Disaster Recovery Center

DTCTPS Domestic Terrorism/Counterterrorism Planning

Section (FBI HQ)

DTIC Defense Technical Information Center

DTM data-transmission media

DWI Disaster Welfare Information

E
EAS Emergency Alert System

ECL Emergency Classification Level

EECS Electronic Entry Control System

EFR Emergency First Responder

EM Emergency Management

EMAC Emergency Medical Assistance Compact

EMI Emergency Management Institute

EMP electromagnetic pulse

A-6 ACRONYMS
EMS Emergency Medical Services

EOC Emergency Operations Center

EOD Explosive Ordnance Disposal

EOP Emergency Operating Plan

EOP Emergency Operations Plan

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-

Know Act

EPG Emergency Planning Guide

EPI Emergency Public Information

EP&R Directorate of Emergency Preparedness and

Response (DHS)

EPZ Emergency Planning Zone

ERP Emergency Response Plan

ERT Emergency Response Team

ERT-A Emergency Response Team Advance Element

ERT-N Emergency Response Team National

ERTU Evidence Response Team Unit

ESC Expandable Shelter Container

ESF Emergency Support Function

ESS Electronic Security System

EST Emergency Support Team

ETL Engineering Technical Letter

EU explosives unit

ACRONYMS A-7
 F
FAsT Field Assessment Team

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FCC Fire Control Center

FCO Federal Coordinating Officer

FEM finite element

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEST Foreign Emergency Support Team

FHBM Flood Hazard Boundary Map

FIA Federal Insurance Administration

FIPS Federal Information Processing Standard

FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map

FIS Flood Insurance Study

FISCAM Federal Information Systems Control Audit

Manual

FMFIA Federal Manager’s Financial Integrity Act

FNS Food and Nutrition Service

FOIA Freedom of Information Act

FOUO For Official Use Only

FPEIS Final Programmatic Environmental Impact

Statement

FRERP Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan

FRF fragment retention film

FRL Facility Restriction Level

A-8 ACRONYMS
FRMAC Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment
Center

FRP Federal Response Plan

FS Forest Service

FSTFS Frame-Supported Tensioned Fabric Structure

FTP File Transfer Protocol

FTX Functional Training Exercise

G
GAO General Accounting Office

GAR Governor’s Authorized Representative

GC/MS gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer

GIS Geographic Information System

GP General Purpose

GPS Global Positioning System

GSA General Services Administration

H
HazMat hazardous material

HAZUS Hazards U.S.

HEPA high efficiency particulate air

HEU highly enriched uranium

HF high frequency

HHS Department of Health and Human Services

ACRONYMS A-9
 HIRA Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

HMRU Hazardous Materials Response Unit

HQ Headquarters

HRCQ Highway Route Controlled Quantity

HRT Hostage Rescue Team (CIRG)

HTIS Hazardous Technical Information Services (DoD)

HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

I
IC Incident Commander

ICDDC Interstate Civil Defense and Disaster Compact

ICP Incident Command Post

ICS Incident Command System

ID identification

IDS Intrusion Detection System

IED Improvised Explosive Device

IEMS Integrated Emergency Management System

IESNA Illuminating Engineering Society of North

America

IID Improvised Incendiary Device

IMS ion mobility spectrometry

IND Improvised Nuclear Device

IPL Initial Program Load

IR infrared

IRZ Immediate Response Zone

A-10 ACRONYMS
IS Information System

ISACF Information Systems Audit and Control Foundation

ISC Interagency Security Committee

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ISP Internet Service Provider

IT Information Technology

J
JIC Joint Information Center

JIISE Joint Interagency Intelligence Support Element

JIS Joint Information System

JNACC Joint Nuclear Accident Coordinating Center

JOC Joint Operations Center

JSMG Joint Service Materiel Group

JTF-CS Joint Task Force for Civil Support

JTTF Joint Terrorism Task Force

JTWG Joint Terrorism Working Group

K
kHz kilohertz

kPa kilo Pascal

ACRONYMS A-11
 L
LAN Local Area Network

LAW Light Antitank Weapon

LBNL Lawrence Berkley National Lab

LCM Life-cycle Management

LED light-emitting diode

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

LEPC Local Emergency Planning Committee

LF low frequency

LFA Lead Federal Agency

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

LOP level of protection

LOS line of sight

LPHA Local Public Health Agency

LPHS Local Public Health System

M
MAC Moves, Adds, Changes

MEDCOM Medical Command

MEI Minimum Essential Infrastructure

M/E/P Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing

MEP Mission Essential Process

MERV minimum efficiency reporting value

MMRS Metropolitan Medical Response System

A-12 ACRONYMS
MOU/A Memorandum of Understanding/Agreement

mph miles per hour

MPOP Minimum-Points-of-Presence

ms millisecond

MSCA Military Support to Civil Authorities

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet

MSS Medium Shelter System

MW medium wave

N
NACCHO National Association for County and City Health
Officials

NAP Nuclear Assessment Program

NAVFAC Naval Facilities Command

NBC nuclear, biological, and chemical

NCJ National Criminal Justice

NCP National Contingency Plan (also known as

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan)

NDA National Defense Area

NDMS National Disaster Medical System

NDPO National Domestic Preparedness Office

NEST Nuclear Emergency Search Team

NETC National Emergency Training Center

NFA National Fire Academy

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program

ACRONYMS A-13
 NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NFPC National Fire Protection Code

NIJ National Institute of Justice

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health

NMRT National Medical Response Team

NMS Network Management System

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

NRC National Response Center

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NRT National Response Team

NSC National Security Council

NTIS National Technical Information Service

NUREG Nuclear Regulation

NWS National Weather Service

O
OCC Operational Control Center

ODP Office of Disaster Preparedness

OEP Office of Emergency Preparedness

OES Office of Emergency Services

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology

OHS Office of Homeland Security

OJP Office of Justice Programs

A-14 ACRONYMS
O&M operations and maintenance

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OPA Oil Pollution Act

OSC On-scene Coordinator

OSD Office of Secretary of Defense

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSLDPS Office for State and Local Domestic Preparedness

Support

P
Pa Pascal

PA public address

PAZ Protective Action Zone

PBX Public Branch Exchange

PC personal computer

PCC Policy Coordinating Committee

PCCIP President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure

Protection

PCM Procedures Control Manual

PDA personal data assistant

PDA Preliminary Damage Assessment

PDD Presidential Decision Directive

PHS Public Health Service

PIN Personal Identification Number

PIO Public Information Officer

ACRONYMS A-15
 PL Public Law

POC Point of Contact

POD probability of detection

POI probability of intrusion

POL Petroleum, Oils, and Lubricants

POV privately owned vehicle

PPA Performance Partnership Agreement

ppm parts per million

PSE particle size efficiency

psi pounds per square inch

PT Preparedness, Training, and Exercises Directorate

(FEMA)

PTE Potential Threat Element

PTZ pan-tilt-zoom (camera)

PVB polyvinyl butyral

PZ Precautionary Zone

R
RACES Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service

RAP Radiological Assistance Program

RCRA Research Conservation and Recovery Act

RDD Radiological Dispersal Device

RDT&E Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation

REACT Radio Emergency Associated Communications

Team

A-16 ACRONYMS
REAC/TS Radiation Emergency Assistance Center/Training
Site

REM Roentgen Man Equivalent

REP Radiological Emergency Preparedness Program

RF radio frequency

ROC Regional Operations Center

ROD Record of Decision

RPG Rocket Propelled Grenade

RRIS Rapid Response Information System (FEMA)

RRP Regional Response Plan

RRT Regional Response Team

S
SAA State Administrative Agency

SAC Special Agent in Charge (FBI)

SAFEVU Safety Viewport Analysis Code

SAME Specific Area Message Encoder

SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

SATCOM satellite communications

SAW surface acoustic wave

SBCCOM Soldier and Biological Chemical Command

(U.S. Army)

SCADA Supervisory, Control, and Data Acquisition

SCBA Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus

SCC Security Control Center

ACRONYMS A-17
 SCO State Coordinating Officer

SDOF single-degree-of-freedom

SEA Southeast Asia

SEB State Emergency Board

SEL Standardized Equipment List

SEMA State Emergency Management Agency

SERC State Emergency Response Commission

SFO Senior FEMA Official

SIOC Strategic Information and Operations Center

(FBI HQ)

SLA Service Level Agreement

SLG State and Local Guide

SNM Special Nuclear Material

SOP Standard Operating Procedure

SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

SPSA Super Power Small Arms

SSS Small Shelter System

STC Sound Transmission Class

SWAT Special Weapons and Tactics

T
TAC Trunk Access Codes

TDR transferable development right

TEA Threat Environment Assessment

TEMPER Tent, Extendable, Modular, Personnel

A-18 ACRONYMS
TERC Tribal Emergency Response Commission

TIA Terrorist Incident Appendix

TIM toxic industrial material

TM Technical Manual

TNT trinitrotoluene

TRIS Toxic Release Inventory System

TSC triple-standard concertina

TSO Time Share Option

TTG thermally tempered glass

U
UC Unified Command

UCS Unified Command System

UFAS Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards

UFC Unified Facilities Criteria

UL Underwriters Laboratories

ULPA ultra low penetration air

UPS uninterrupted power supply

URV UVGI Rating Values

U.S. United States

USA United States Army

USAF United States Air Force

USC U.S. Code

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFA U.S. Fire Administration

ACRONYMS A-19
 USGBC U.S. Green Building Council

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

US&R Urban Search and Rescue

UV ultraviolet

UVGI ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

V
VA Department of Veterans Affairs

VAP Vulnerability Assessment Plan

VAV Variable Air Volume

VDN Vector Directory Number

VHF very high frequency

VRU Voice Response Unit

W
WAN Wide Area Network

wg water gauge

WINGARD Window Glazing Analysis Response and Design

WINLAC Window Lite Analysis Code

WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction

WMD-CST WMD Civil Support Team

A-20 ACRONYMS
 GENERAL GLOSSARY B

This appendix contains some terms that do not actually appear in

this manual. They have been included to present a comprehensive
list that pertains to this series of publications.

A
Access control. Any combination of barriers, gates, electronic
security equipment, and/or guards that can deny entry to
unauthorized personnel or vehicles.

Access control point (ACP). A station at an entrance to a building

or a portion of a building where identification is checked and
people and hand-carried items are searched.

Access controls. Procedures and controls that limit or detect

access to minimum essential infrastructure resource elements
(e.g., people, technology, applications, data, and/or facilities),
thereby protecting these resources against loss of integrity,
confidentiality, accountability, and/or availability.

Access Control System (ACS). Also referred to as an Electronic

Entry Control Systems; an electronic system that controls entry
and egress from a building or area.

Access Control System elements. Detection measures used to

control vehicle or personnel entry into a protected area. Access
Control System elements include locks, Electronic Entry Control
Systems, and guards.

Access group. A software configuration of an Access Control

System that groups together access points or authorized users for
easier arrangement and maintenance of the system.

Access road. Any roadway such as a maintenance, delivery,

service, emergency, or other special limited use road that is
necessary for the operation of a building or structure.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-1

 Accountability. The explicit assignment of responsibilities for
oversight of areas of control to executives, managers, staff,
owners, providers, and users of minimum essential infrastructure
resource elements.

Acoustic eavesdropping. The use of listening devices to monitor

voice communications or other audibly transmitted information
with the objective to compromise information.

Active vehicle barrier. An impediment placed at an access

control point that may be manually or automatically deployed in
response to detection of a threat.

Aerosol. Fine liquid or solid particles suspended in a gas (e.g., fog

or smoke).

Aggressor. Any person seeking to compromise a function or

structure.

Airborne contamination. Chemical or biological agents

introduced into and fouling the source of supply of breathing or
conditioning air.

Airlock. A building entry configuration with which airflow from

the outside can be prevented from entering a toxic-free area.
An airlock uses two doors, only one of which can be opened at a
time, and a blower system to maintain positive air pressures and
purge contaminated air from the airlock before the second door
is opened.

Alarm assessment. Verification and evaluation of an alarm

alert through the use of closed circuit television or human
observation. Systems used for alarm assessment are designed to
respond rapidly, automatically, and predictably to the receipt of
alarms at the security center.

Alarm printers. Alarm printers provide a hard-copy of all alarm

events and system activity, as well as limited backup in case the
visual display fails.

Alarm priority. A hierarchy of alarms by order of importance.

This is often used in larger systems to give priority to alarms with
greater importance.

B-2 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Annunciation. A visual, audible, or other indication by a security
system of a condition.

Antiterrorism (AT). Defensive measures used to reduce the

vulnerability of individuals, forces, and property to terrorist acts.

Area Commander. A military commander with authority in a

specific geographical area or military installation.

Area lighting. Lighting that illuminates a large exterior area.

Areas of potential compromise. Categories where losses can

occur that will impact either a department’s or an agency’s
minimum essential infrastructure and its ability to conduct core
functions and activities.

Assessment. The evaluation and interpretation of measurements

and other information to provide a basis for decision-making.

Assessment System elements. Detection measures used to assist

guards in visual verification of Intrusion Detection System Alarms
and Access Control System functions and to assist in visual
detection by guards. Assessment System elements include closed
circuit television and protective lighting.

Asset. A resource of value requiring protection. An asset can be

tangible (e.g., people, buildings, facilities, equipment, activities,
operations, and information) or intangible (e.g., processes or a
company’s information and reputation).

Asset protection. Security program designed to protect

personnel, facilities, and equipment, in all locations and
situations, accomplished through planned and integrated
application of combating terrorism, physical security, operations
security, and personal protective services, and supported by
intelligence, counterintelligence, and other security programs.

Asset value. The degree of debilitating impact that would be

caused by the incapacity or destruction of an asset.

Attack. A hostile action resulting in the destruction, injury, or

death to the civilian population, or damage or destruction to
public and private property.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-3

 Audible alarm device. An alarm device that produces an audible
announcement (e.g., bell, horn, siren, etc.) of an alarm condition.

B
Balanced magnetic switch. A door position switch utilizing a
reed switch held in a balanced or center position by interacting
magnetic fields when not in alarm condition.

Ballistics attack. An attack in which small arms (e.g., pistols,

submachine guns, shotguns, and rifles) are fired from a distance
and rely on the flight of the projectile to damage the target.

Barbed tape or concertina. A coiled tape or coil of wires with wire

barbs or blades deployed as an obstacle to human trespass or
entry into an area.

Barbed wire. A double strand of wire with four-point barbs

equally spaced along the wire deployed as an obstacle to human
trespass or entry into an area.

Barcode. A black bar printed on white paper or tape that can be

easily read with an optical scanner.

Biological agents. Living organisms or the materials derived from

them that cause disease in or harm to humans, animals, or plants
or cause deterioration of material. Biological agents may be used
as liquid droplets, aerosols, or dry powders.

Biometric reader. A device that gathers and analyzes biometric

features.

Biometrics. The use of physical characteristics of the human body

as a unique identification method.

Blast curtains. Heavy curtains made of blast-resistant materials

that could protect the occupants of a room from flying debris.

Blast-resistant glazing. Window opening glazing that is resistant to

blast effects because of the interrelated function of the frame and

B-4 GENERAL GLOSSARY

glazing material properties frequently dependent upon tempered
glass, polycarbonate, or laminated glazing.

Blast vulnerability envelope. The geographical area in which an

explosive device will cause damage to assets.

Bollard. A vehicle barrier consisting of a cylinder, usually made

of steel and sometimes filled with concrete, placed on end in the
ground and spaced about 3 feet apart to prevent vehicles from
passing, but allowing entrance of pedestrians and bicycles.

Boundary penetration sensor. An interior intrusion detection

sensor that detects attempts by individuals to penetrate or enter a
building.

Building hardening. Enhanced construction that reduces

vulnerability to external blast and ballistic attacks.

Building separation. The distance between closest points on the

exterior walls of adjacent buildings or structures.

Business Continuity Program (BCP). An ongoing process

supported by senior management and funded to ensure that
the necessary steps are taken to identify the impact of potential
losses, maintain viable recovery strategies and recovery plans,
and ensure continuity services through personnel training, plan
testing, and maintenance.

C
Cable barrier. Cable or wire rope anchored to and suspended off
the ground or attached to chain-link fence to act as a barrier to
moving vehicles.

Capacitance sensor. A device that detects an intruder

approaching or touching a metal object by sensing a change in
capacitance between the object and the ground.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-5

 Card reader. A device that gathers or reads information when a
card is presented as an identification method.

Chemical agent. A chemical substance that is intended to kill,

seriously injure, or incapacitate people through physiological
effects. Generally separated by severity of effect (e.g., lethal,
blister, and incapacitating).

Chimney effect. Air movement in a building between floors caused

by differential air temperature (differences in density), between
the air inside and outside the building. It occurs in vertical
shafts, such as elevators, stairwells, and conduit/wiring/piping
chases. Hotter air inside the building will rise and be replaced by
infiltration with colder outside air through the lower portions of
the building. Conversely, reversing the temperature will reverse the
flow (down the chimney). Also known as stack effect.

Clear zone. An area that is clear of visual obstructions and

landscape materials that could conceal a threat or perpetrator.

Closed circuit television (CCTV). An electronic system of

cameras, control equipment, recorders, and related apparatus
used for surveillance or alarm assessment.

CCTV pan-tilt-zoom camera (PTZ). A CCTV camera that can

move side to side, up and down, and zoom in or out.

CCTV pan-tilt-zoom control. The method of controlling the PTZ

functions of a camera.

CCTV pan-tilt-zoom controller. The operator interface for

performing PTZ control.

CCTV switcher. A piece of equipment capable of presenting

multiple video images to various monitors, recorders, etc.

Collateral damage. Injury or damage to assets that are not the

primary target of an attack.

Combating terrorism. The full range of federal programs and

activities applied against terrorism, domestically and abroad,
regardless of the source or motive.

B-6 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Community. A political entity that has the authority to adopt and
enforce laws and ordinances for the area under its jurisdiction. In
most cases, the community is an incorporated town, city, township,
village, or unincorporated area of a county; however, each state
defines its own political subdivisions and forms of government.

Components and cladding. Elements of the building envelope

that do not qualify as part of the main wind-force resisting system.

Confidentiality. The protection of sensitive information against

unauthorized disclosure and sensitive facilities from physical,
technical, or electronic penetration or exploitation.

Consequence Management. Measures to protect public health

and safety, restore essential government services, and provide
emergency relief to governments, businesses, and individuals
affected by the consequences of terrorism. State and local
governments exercise the primary authority to respond to the
consequences of terrorism.

Contamination. The undesirable deposition of a chemical,

biological, or radiological material on the surface of structures,
areas, objects, or people.

Continuity of services and operations. Controls to ensure that,

when unexpected events occur, departmental/agency minimum
essential infrastructure services and operations, including
computer operations, continue without interruption or are
promptly resumed, and that critical and sensitive data are
protected through adequate contingency and business recovery
plans and exercises.

Control center. A centrally located room or facility staffed by

personnel charged with the oversight of specific situations and/
or equipment.

Controlled area. An area into which access is controlled or

limited. It is that portion of a restricted area usually near
or surrounding a limited or exclusion area. Correlates with
exclusion zone.

Controlled lighting. Illumination of specific areas or sections.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-7

 Controlled perimeter. A physical boundary at which vehicle
and personnel access is controlled at the perimeter of a site.
Access control at a controlled perimeter should demonstrate the
capability to search individuals and vehicles.

Conventional construction. Building construction that is not

specifically designed to resist weapons, explosives, or chemical,
biological, and radiological effects. Conventional construction
is designed only to resist common loadings and environmental
effects such as wind, seismic, and snow loads.

Coordinate. To advance systematically an exchange of

information among principals who have or may have a need to
know certain information in order to carry out their roles in a
response.

Counterintelligence. Information gathered and activities

conducted to protect against: espionage, other intelligence
activities, sabotage, or assassinations conducted for or on behalf
of foreign powers, organizations, or persons; or international
terrorist activities, excluding personnel, physical, document, and
communications security programs.

Counterterrorism (CT). Offensive measures taken to prevent,

deter, and respond to terrorism.

Covert entry. Attempts to enter a facility by using false credentials

or stealth.

Crash bar. A mechanical egress device located on the interior side

of a door that unlocks the door when pressure is applied in the
direction of egress.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). A

crime prevention strategy based on evidence that the design and
form of the built environment can influence human behavior.
CPTED usually involves the use of three principles: natural
surveillance (by placing physical features, activities, and people
to maximize visibility); natural access control (through the
judicial placement of entrances, exits, fencing, landscaping, and
lighting); and territorial reinforcement (using buildings, fences,
pavement, signs, and landscaping to express ownership).

B-8 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Crisis Management (CM). The measures taken to identify,
acquire, and plan the use of resources needed to anticipate,
prevent, and/or resolve a threat or act of terrorism.

Critical assets. Those assets essential to the minimum operations

of the organization, and to ensure the health and safety of the
general public.

Critical infrastructure. Primary infrastructure systems (e.g.,

utilities, telecommunications, transportation, etc.) whose
incapacity would have a debilitating impact on the organization’s
ability to function.

D
Damage assessment. The process used to appraise or determine
the number of injuries and deaths, damage to public and private
property, and the status of key facilities and services (e.g.,
hospitals and other health care facilities, fire and police stations,
communications networks, water and sanitation systems, utilities,
and transportation networks) resulting from a manmade or
natural disaster.

Data gathering panel. A local processing unit that retrieves,

processes, stores, and/or acts on information in the field.

Data transmission equipment. A path for transmitting data

between two or more components (e.g., a sensor and alarm
reporting system, a card reader and controller, a CCTV camera
and monitor, or a transmitter and receiver).

Decontamination. The reduction or removal of a chemical,

biological, or radiological material from the surface of a
structure, area, object, or person.

Defense layer. Building design or exterior perimeter barriers

intended to delay attempted forced entry.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-9

 Defensive measures. Protective measures that delay or prevent
attack on an asset or that shield the asset from weapons,
explosives, and CBR effects. Defensive measures include site work
and building design.

Delay rating. A measure of the effectiveness of penetration

protection of a defense layer.

Design Basis Threat (DBT). The threat (e.g., tactics and

associated weapons, tools, or explosives) against which assets
within a building must be protected and upon which the security
engineering design of the building is based.

Design constraint. Anything that restricts the design options for

a protective system or that creates additional problems for which
the design must compensate.

Design opportunity. Anything that enhances protection, reduces

requirements for protective measures, or solves a design problem.

Design team. A group of individuals from various engineering

and architectural disciplines responsible for the protective system
design.

Detection layer. A ring of intrusion detection sensors located on

or adjacent to a defensive layer or between two defensive layers.

Detection measures. Protective measures that detect intruders,

weapons, or explosives; assist in assessing the validity of
detection; control access to protected areas; and communicate
the appropriate information to the response force. Detection
measures include Detection Systems, Assessment Systems, and
Access Control System elements.

Detection System elements. Detection measures that detect the

presence of intruders, weapons, or explosives. Detection System
elements include Intrusion Detection Systems, weapons and
explosives detectors, and guards.

Disaster. An occurrence of a natural catastrophe, technological

accident, or human-caused event that has resulted in severe
property damage, deaths, and/or multiple injuries.

B-10 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Disaster Field Office (DFO). The office established in or near
the designated area of a Presidentially declared major disaster to
support federal and state response and recovery operations.

Disaster Recovery Center (DRC). Places established in the area of

a Presidentially declared major disaster, as soon as practicable, to
provide victims the opportunity to apply in person for assistance
and/or obtain information relating to that assistance.

Domestic terrorism. The unlawful use, or threatened use, of force

or violence by a group or individual based and operating entirely
within the United States or Puerto Rico without foreign direction
committed against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof in
furtherance of political or social objectives.

Door position switch. A switch that changes state based on

whether or not a door is closed. Typically, a switch mounted in a
frame that is actuated by a magnet in a door.

Door strike, electronic. An electromechanical lock that releases

a door plunger to unlock the door. Typically, an electronic door
strike is mounted in place of or near a normal door strike plate.

Dose rate (radiation). A general term indicating the quantity

(total or accumulated) of ionizing radiation or energy absorbed
by a person or animal, per unit of time.

Dosimeter. An instrument for measuring and registering total

accumulated exposure to ionizing radiation.

Dual technology sensor. A sensor that combines two different

technologies in one unit.

Duress alarm devices. Also known as panic buttons, these devices

are designated specifically to initiate a panic alarm.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-11

 E
Effective stand-off distance. A stand-off distance at which the
required level of protection can be shown to be achieved through
analysis or can be achieved through building hardening or other
mitigating construction or retrofit.

Electromagnetic pulse (EMP). A sharp pulse of energy radiated

instantaneously by a nuclear detonation that may affect or
damage electronic components and equipment. EMP can also
be generated in lesser intensity by non-nuclear means in specific
frequency ranges to perform the same disruptive function.

Electronic emanations. Electromagnetic emissions from computers,

communications, electronics, wiring, and related equipment.

Electronic-emanations eavesdropping. Use of electronic-

emanation surveillance equipment from outside a facility or its
restricted area to monitor electronic emanations from computers,
communications, and related equipment.

Electronic Entry Control Systems (EECS). Electronic devices that

automatically verify authorization for a person to enter or exit a
controlled area.

Electronic Security System (ESS). An integrated system that

encompasses interior and exterior sensors, closed circuit
television systems for assessment of alarm conditions, Electronic
Entry Control Systems, data transmission media, and alarm
reporting systems for monitoring, control, and display of various
alarm and system information.

Emergency. Any natural or human-caused situation that results in

or may result in substantial injury or harm to the population or
substantial damage to or loss of property.

Emergency Alert System (EAS). A communications system of

broadcast stations and interconnecting facilities authorized by
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The system
provides the President and other national, state, and local

B-12 GENERAL GLOSSARY

officials the means to broadcast emergency information to the
public before, during, and after disasters.

Emergency Environmental Health Services. Services required to

correct or improve damaging environmental health effects on
humans, including inspection for food contamination, inspection
for water contamination, and vector control; providing for sewage
and solid waste inspection and disposal; cleanup and disposal of
hazardous materials; and sanitation inspection for emergency
shelter facilities.

Emergency Medical Services (EMS). Services including personnel,

facilities, and equipment required to ensure proper medical care
for the sick and injured from the time of injury to the time of
final disposition, including medical disposition within a hospital,
temporary medical facility, or special care facility; release from
the site; or declared dead. Further, Emergency Medical Services
specifically include those services immediately required to ensure
proper medical care and specialized treatment for patients in a
hospital and coordination of related hospital services.

Emergency Mortuary Services. Services required to assure

adequate death investigation, identification, and disposition of
bodies; removal, temporary storage, and transportation of bodies
to temporary morgue facilities; notification of next of kin; and
coordination of mortuary services and burial of unclaimed bodies.

Emergency Operations Center (EOC). The protected site from which

state and local civil government officials coordinate, monitor, and
direct emergency response activities during an emergency.

Emergency Operations Plan (EOP). A document that describes

how people and property will be protected in disaster and disaster
threat situations; details who is responsible for carrying out
specific actions; identifies the personnel, equipment, facilities,
supplies, and other resources available for use in the disaster; and
outlines how all actions will be coordinated.

Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ). Areas around a facility for

which planning is needed to ensure prompt and effective
actions are taken to protect the health and safety of the public

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-13

 if an accident or disaster occurs. In the Radiological Emergency
Preparedness Program, the two EPZs are:

Plume Exposure Pathway (10-mile EPZ). A circular

geographic zone (with a 10-mile radius centered
at the nuclear power plant) for which plans are
developed to protect the public against exposure to
radiation emanating from a radioactive plume caused
as a result of an accident at the nuclear power plant.

Ingestion Pathway (50-mile EPZ). A circular

geographic zone (with a 50-mile radius centered
at the nuclear power plant) for which plans are
developed to protect the public from the ingestion of
water or food contaminated as a result of a nuclear
power plant accident.

In the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness

Program (CSEPP), the EPZ is divided into three concentric
circular zones:

Immediate Response Zone (IRZ). A circular zone

ranging from 10 to 15 kilometers (6 to 9 miles) from
the potential chemical event source, depending on
the stockpile location on-post. Emergency response
plans developed for the IRZ must provide for the most
rapid and effective protective actions possible, because
the IRZ will have the highest concentration of agent
and the least amount of warning time.

Protective Action Zone (PAZ). An area that extends

beyond the IRZ to approximately 16 to 50 kilometers
(10 to 30 miles) from the stockpile location. The PAZ
is that area where public protective actions may still be
necessary in case of an accidental release of chemical
agent, but where the available warning and response
time is such that most people could evacuate.
However, other responses (e.g., sheltering) may be
appropriate for institutions and special populations
that could not evacuate within the available time.

B-14 GENERAL GLOSSARY

 Precautionary Zone (PZ). The outermost portion of the
EPZ for CSEPP, extending from the PAZ outer boundary
to a distance where the risk of adverse impacts to humans
is negligible. Because of the increased warning
and response time available for implementation of
response actions in the PZ, detailed local emergency
planning is not required, although Consequence
Management planning may be appropriate.

Emergency Public Information (EPI). Information that is

disseminated primarily in anticipation of an emergency or at
the actual time of an emergency and, in addition to providing
information, frequently directs actions, instructs, and transmits
direct orders.

Emergency Response Team (ERT). An interagency team,

consisting of the lead representative from each federal
department or agency assigned primary responsibility for an ESF
and key members of the FCO’s staff, formed to assist the FCO in
carrying out his/her coordination responsibilities.

Emergency Response Team Advance Element (ERT-A). For

federal disaster response and recovery activities under the
Stafford Act, the portion of the ERT that is first deployed to the
field to respond to a disaster incident. The ERT-A is the nucleus
of the full ERT.

Emergency Response Team National (ERT-N). An ERT that has been

established and rostered for deployment to catastrophic disasters
where the resources of the FEMA Region have been, or are expected
to be, overwhelmed. Three ERT-Ns have been established.

Emergency Support Function (ESF). In the Federal Response

Plan (FRP), a functional area of response activity established
to facilitate the delivery of federal assistance required during
the immediate response phase of a disaster to save lives, protect
property and public health, and to maintain public safety. ESFs
represent those types of federal assistance that the state will
most likely need because of the impact of a catastrophic or
significant disaster on its own resources and response capabilities,

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-15

 or because of the specialized or unique nature of the assistance
required. ESF missions are designed to supplement state and
local response efforts.

Emergency Support Team (EST). An interagency group

operating from FEMA Headquarters. The EST oversees the
national-level response support effort under the FRP and
coordinates activities with the ESF primary and support agencies
in supporting federal requirements in the field.

Entity-wide security. Planning and management that provides

a framework and continuing cycle of activity for managing
risk, developing security policies, assigning responsibilities,
and monitoring the adequacy of the entity’s physical and cyber
security controls.

Entry control point. A continuously or intermittently manned

station at which entry to sensitive or restricted areas is controlled.

Entry control stations. Entry control stations should be provided at

main perimeter entrances where security personnel are present.
Entry control stations should be located as close as practical to
the perimeter entrance to permit personnel inside the station to
maintain constant surveillance over the entrance and its approaches.

Equipment closet. A room where field control equipment such as

data gathering panels and power supplies are typically located.

Evacuation. Organized, phased, and supervised dispersal of

people from dangerous or potentially dangerous areas.

Evacuation, mandatory or directed. This is a warning to persons

within the designated area that an imminent threat to life and
property exists and individuals MUST evacuate in accordance
with the instructions of local officials.

Evacuation, spontaneous. Residents or citizens in the threatened

areas observe an emergency event or receive unofficial word of
an actual or perceived threat and, without receiving instructions
to do so, elect to evacuate the area. Their movement, means, and
direction of travel are unorganized and unsupervised.

B-16 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Evacuation, voluntary. This is a warning to persons within a
designated area that a threat to life and property exists or is likely
to exist in the immediate future. Individuals issued this type
of warning or order are NOT required to evacuate; however, it
would be to their advantage to do so.

Evacuees. All persons removed or moving from areas threatened

or struck by a disaster.

Exclusion area. A restricted area containing a security interest.

Uncontrolled movement permits direct access to the item. See
controlled area and limited area.

Exclusion zone. An area around an asset that has controlled entry

with highly restrictive access. See controlled area.

Explosives disposal container. A small container into which small

quantities of explosives may be placed to contain their blast
pressures and fragments if the explosive detonates.

F
Facial recognition. A biometric technology that is based on
features of the human face.

Federal Coordinating Officer (FCO). The person appointed

by the FEMA Director to coordinate federal assistance in a
Presidentially declared emergency or major disaster.

Federal On-scene Commander. The FBI official designated upon

JOC activation to ensure appropriate coordination of the overall
United States government response with federal, state, and local
authorities, until such time as the Attorney General transfers the
LFA role to FEMA.

Federal Response Plan (FRP). The FRP establishes a process and

structure for the systematic, coordinated, and effective delivery
of federal assistance to address the consequences of any major
disaster or emergency.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-17

 Fence protection. An intrusion detection technology that detects
a person crossing a fence by various methods such as climbing,
crawling, cutting, etc.

Fence sensor. An exterior intrusion detection sensor that

detects aggressors as they attempt to climb over, cut through, or
otherwise disturb a fence.

Fiber optics. A method of data transfer by passing bursts of light

through a strand of glass or clear plastic.

Field Assessment Team (FAsT). A small team of pre-identified

technical experts that conduct an assessment of response needs
(not a PDA) immediately following a disaster.

Field of view. The visible area in a video picture.

First responder. Local police, fire, and emergency medical

personnel who first arrive on the scene of an incident and take
action to save lives, protect property, and meet basic human needs.

Flash flood. Follows a situation in which rainfall is so intense

and severe and runoff so rapid that it precludes recording and
relating it to stream stages and other information in time to
forecast a flood condition.

Flood. A general and temporary condition of partial or complete

inundation of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or
tidal waters, unusual or rapid accumulation or runoff of surface
waters, or mudslides/mudflows caused by accumulation of water.

Forced entry. Entry to a denied area achieved through force to create

an opening in fence, walls, doors, etc., or to overpower guards.

Fragment retention film (FRF). A thin, optically clear film applied

to glass to minimize the spread of glass fragments when the glass
is shattered.

Frame rate. In digital video, a measurement of the rate of change

in a series of pictures, often measured in frames per second (fps).

Frangible construction. Building components that are designed

to fail to vent blast pressures from an enclosure in a controlled
manner and direction.

B-18 GENERAL GLOSSARY

G
Glare security lighting. Illumination projected from a secure
perimeter into the surrounding area, making it possible to see
potential intruders at a considerable distance while making it
difficult to observe activities within the secure perimeter.

Glass-break detector. An intrusion detection sensor that is designed

to detect breaking glass either through vibration or acoustics.

Glazing. A material installed in a sash, ventilator, or panes (e.g.,

glass, plastic, etc., including material such as thin granite installed
in a curtain wall).

Governor’s Authorized Representative (GAR). The person

empowered by the Governor to execute, on behalf of the State,
all necessary documents for disaster assistance.

Grid wire sensor. An intrusion detection sensor that uses a grid of

wires to cover a wall or fence. An alarm is sounded if the wires are cut.

H
Hand geometry. A biometric technology that is based on
characteristics of the human hand.

Hazard. A source of potential danger or adverse condition.

Hazard mitigation. Any action taken to reduce or eliminate the

long-term risk to human life and property from hazards. The
term is sometimes used in a stricter sense to mean cost-effective
measures to reduce the potential for damage to a facility or
facilities from a disaster event.

Hazardous material (HazMat). Any substance or material that,

when involved in an accident and released in sufficient quantities,
poses a risk to people’s health, safety, and/or property. These
substances and materials include explosives, radioactive materials,

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-19

 flammable liquids or solids, combustible liquids or solids,
poisons, oxidizers, toxins, and corrosive materials.

High-hazard areas. Geographic locations that, for planning

purposes, have been determined through historical experience
and vulnerability analysis to be likely to experience the effects of a
specific hazard (e.g., hurricane, earthquake, hazardous materials
accident, etc.), resulting in vast property damage and loss of life.

High-risk target. Any material resource or facility that, because of

mission sensitivity, ease of access, isolation, and symbolic value,
may be an especially attractive or accessible terrorist target.

Human-caused hazard. Human-caused hazards are technological

hazards and terrorism. They are distinct from natural hazards
primarily in that they originate from human activity. Within the
military services, the term threat is typically used for human-
caused hazard. See definitions of technological hazards and
terrorism for further information.

Hurricane. A tropical cyclone, formed in the atmosphere over

warm ocean areas, in which wind speeds reach 74 miles per
hour or more and blow in a large spiral around a relatively calm
center or “eye.” Circulation is counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

I
Impact analysis. A management level analysis that identifies the
impacts of losing the entity’s resources. The analysis measures the
effect of resource loss and escalating losses over time in order to
provide the entity with reliable data upon which to base decisions
on hazard mitigation and continuity planning.

Incident Command System (ICS). A standardized organizational

structure used to command, control, and coordinate the use of
resources and personnel that have responded to the scene of an
emergency. The concepts and principles for ICS include common

B-20 GENERAL GLOSSARY

terminology, modular organization, integrated communication,
unified command structure, consolidated action plan,
manageable span of control, designated incident facilities, and
comprehensive resource management.

Insider compromise. A person authorized access to a facility (an

insider) compromises assets by taking advantage of that accessibility.

Intercom door/gate station. Part of an intercom system where

communication is typically initiated, usually located at a door or gate.

Intercom master station. Part of an intercom system that

monitors one or more intercom door/gate stations; typically,
where initial communication is received.

Intercom switcher. Part of an intercom system that controls the

flow of communications between various stations.

Intercom System. An electronic system that allows simplex, half-

duplex, or full-duplex audio communications.

International terrorism. Violent acts or acts dangerous to

human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the
United States or any state, or that would be a criminal violation
if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or any
state. These acts appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce
a civilian population, influence the policy of a government by
intimidation or coercion, or affect the conduct of a government
by assassination or kidnapping. International terrorist acts occur
outside the United States, or transcend national boundaries in
terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons
they appear intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in
which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum.

Intrusion Detection Sensor. A device that initiates alarm signals by

sensing the stimulus, change, or condition for which it was designed.

Intrusion Detection System (IDS). The combination of

components, including sensors, control units, transmission lines,
and monitor units, integrated to operate in a specified manner.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-21

 Isolated fenced perimeters. Fenced perimeters with 100 feet
or more of space outside the fence that is clear of obstruction,
making approach obvious.

J
Jersey barrier. A protective concrete barrier initially and still
used as a highway divider that now also functions as an expedient
method for traffic speed control at entrance gates and to keep
vehicles away from buildings.

Joint Information Center (JIC). A central point of contact for

all news media near the scene of a large-scale disaster. News
media representatives are kept informed of activities and events
by Public Information Officers who represent all participating
federal, state, and local agencies that are collocated at the JIC.

Joint Information System (JIS). Under the FRP, connection of

public affairs personnel, decision-makers, and news centers by
electronic mail, fax, and telephone when a single federal-state-
local JIC is not a viable option.

Joint Interagency Intelligence Support Element (JIISE). An inter-

agency intelligence component designed to fuse intelligence in-
formation from the various agencies participating in a response to
a WMD threat or incident within an FBI JOC. The JIISE is an ex-
panded version of the investigative/intelligence component that
is part of the standardized FBI command post structure. The JIISE
manages five functions, including: security, collections manage-
ment, current intelligence, exploitation, and dissemination.

Joint Operations Center (JOC). Established by the LFA under

the operational control of the federal OSC, as the focal point for
management and direction of on-site activities, coordination/
establishment of state requirements/priorities, and coordination
of the overall federal response.

B-22 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Jurisdiction. Typically counties and cities within a state, but
states may elect to define differently in order to facilitate their
assessment process.

L
Laminated glass. A flat lite of uniform thickness consisting of
two monolithic glass plies bonded together with an interlayer
material as defined in Specification C1172. Many different
interlayer materials are used in laminated glass.

Landscaping. The use of plantings (shrubs and trees), with or

without landforms and/or large boulders, to act as a perimeter
barrier against defined threats.

Laser card. A card technology that uses a laser reflected off of a

card for uniquely identifying the card.

Layers of protection. A traditional approach in security

engineering using concentric circles extending out from an area to
be protected as demarcation points for different security strategies.

Lead Agency. The federal department or agency assigned lead

responsibility under U.S. law to manage and coordinate the
federal response in a specific functional area.

Lead Federal Agency (LFA). The agency designated by the

President to lead and coordinate the overall federal response
is referred to as the LFA and is determined by the type of
emergency. In general, an LFA establishes operational
structures and procedures to assemble and work with agencies
providing direct support to the LFA in order to provide an
initial assessment of the situation, develop an action plan,
monitor and update operational priorities, and ensure each
agency exercises its concurrent and distinct authorities under
U.S. law and supports the LFA in carrying out the President’s
relevant policy. Specific responsibilities of an LFA vary,
according to the agency’s unique statutory authorities.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-23

 Level of protection (LOP). The degree to which an asset is
protected against injury or damage from an attack.

Liaison. An agency official sent to another agency to facilitate

interagency communications and coordination.

Limited area. A restricted area within close proximity of a security

interest. Uncontrolled movement may permit access to the item.
Escorts and other internal restrictions may prevent access to the
item. See controlled area and exclusion area.

Line of sight (LOS). Direct observation between two points with

the naked eye or hand-held optics.

Line-of-sight sensor. A pair of devices used as an intrusion

detection sensor that monitor any movement through the field
between the sensors.

Line supervision. A data integrity strategy that monitors the

communications link for connectivity and tampering. In
Intrusion Detection System sensors, line supervision is often
referred to as two-state, three-state, or four-state in respect to the
number of conditions monitored. The frequency of sampling the
link also plays a big part in the supervision of the line.

Local government. Any county, city, village, town, district, or

political subdivision of any state, and Indian tribe or authorized
tribal organization, or Alaska Native village or organization,
including any rural community or unincorporated town or village
or any other public entity.

M
Magnetic lock. An electromagnetic lock that unlocks a door when
power is removed.

Magnetic stripe. A card technology that uses a magnetic stripe on

the card to encode data used for unique identification of the card.

B-24 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Mail-bomb delivery. Bombs or incendiary devices delivered to the
target in letters or packages.

Man-trap. An access control strategy that uses a pair of

interlocking doors to prevent tailgating. Only one door can be
unlocked at a time.

Mass care. The actions that are taken to protect evacuees and
other disaster victims from the effects of the disaster. Activities
include providing temporary shelter, food, medical care,
clothing, and other essential life support needs to those people
who have been displaced from their homes because of a disaster
or threatened disaster.

Mass notification. Capability to provide real-time information to

all building occupants or personnel in the immediate vicinity of a
building during emergency situations.

Microwave motion sensor. An intrusion detection sensor that uses

microwave energy to sense movement within the sensor’s field of
view. These sensors work similar to radar by using the Doppler
effect to measure a shift in frequency.

Military installations. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine

Corps bases, posts, stations, and annexes (both contractor and
government operated), hospitals, terminals, and other special
mission facilities, as well as those used primarily for military
purposes.

Minimum essential infrastructure resource elements. The broad

categories of resources, all or portions of which constitute the
minimal essential infrastructure necessary for a department,
agency, or organization to conduct its core mission(s).

Minimum measures. Protective measures that can be applied to

all buildings regardless of the identified threat. These measures
offer defense or detection opportunities for minimal cost,
facilitate future upgrades, and may deter acts of aggression.

Mitigation. Those actions taken to reduce the exposure to and

impact of an attack or disaster.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-25

 Motion detector. An intrusion detection sensor that changes state
based on movement in the sensor’s field of view.

Moving vehicle bomb. An explosive-laden car or truck driven into

or near a building and detonated.

Mutual Aid Agreement. A pre-arranged agreement developed

between two or more entities to render assistance to the parties of
the agreement.

N
Natural hazard. Naturally-occurring events such as floods,
earthquakes, tornadoes, tsunami, coastal storms, landslides, and
wildfires that strike populated areas. A natural event is a hazard
when it has the potential to harm people or property (FEMA
386-2, Understanding Your Risks). The risks of natural hazards may
be increased or decreased as a result of human activity; however,
they are not inherently human-induced.

Natural protective barriers. Natural protective barriers are

mountains and deserts, cliffs and ditches, water obstacles, or
other terrain features that are difficult to traverse.

Non-exclusive zone. An area around an asset that has controlled

entry, but shared or less restrictive access than an exclusive zone.

Non-persistent agent. An agent that, upon release, loses its

ability to cause casualties after 10 to 15 minutes. It has a high
evaporation rate, is lighter than air, and will disperse rapidly.
It is considered to be a short-term hazard; however, in small,
unventilated areas, the agent will be more persistent.

Nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. Also called Weapons

of Mass Destruction (WMD). Weapons that are characterized by
their capability to produce mass casualties.

Nuclear detonation. An explosion resulting from fission and/or fusion

reactions in nuclear material, such as that from a nuclear weapon.

B-26 GENERAL GLOSSARY

O
On-Scene Coordinator (OSC). The federal official pre-designated
by the EPA and U.S. Coast Guard to coordinate and direct
response and removals under the National Oil and Hazardous
Substances Pollution Contingency Plan.

Open systems architecture. A term borrowed from the IT

industry to claim that systems are capable of interfacing with
other systems from any vendor, which also uses open system
architecture. The opposite would be a proprietary system.

Operator interface. The part of a security management system

that provides that user interface to humans.

Organizational areas of control. Controls consist of the policies,

procedures, practices, and organization structures designed to
provide reasonable assurance that business objectives will be
achieved and that undesired events will be prevented or detected
and corrected.

P
Passive infrared motion sensor. A device that detects a change
in the thermal energy pattern caused by a moving intruder
and initiates an alarm when the change in energy satisfies the
detector’s alarm-criteria.

Passive vehicle barrier. A vehicle barrier that is permanently

deployed and does not require response to be effective.

Patch panel. A concentrated termination point that separates

backbone cabling from devices cabling for easy maintenance and
troubleshooting.

Perimeter barrier. A fence, wall, vehicle barrier, landform, or line

of vegetation applied along an exterior perimeter used to obscure
vision, hinder personnel access, or hinder or prevent vehicle access.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-27

 Persistent agent. An agent that, upon release, retains its casualty-
producing effects for an extended period of time, usually
anywhere from 30 minutes to several days. A persistent agent
usually has a low evaporation rate and its vapor is heavier than
air; therefore, its vapor cloud tends to hug the ground. It is
considered to be a long-term hazard. Although inhalation hazards
are still a concern, extreme caution should be taken to avoid skin
contact as well.

Physical security. The part of security concerned with

measures/concepts designed to safeguard personnel; to prevent
unauthorized access to equipment, installations, materiel, and
documents; and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage,
damage, and theft.

Planter barrier. A passive vehicle barrier, usually constructed of

concrete and filled with dirt (and flowers for aesthetics). Planters,
along with bollards, are the usual street furniture used to keep
vehicles away from existing buildings. Overall size and the depth
of installation below grade determine the vehicle stopping
capability of the individual planter.

Plume. Airborne material spreading from a particular source; the

dispersal of particles, gases, vapors, and aerosols into the atmosphere.

Polycarbonate glazing. A plastic glazing material with enhanced

resistance to ballistics or blast effects.

Predetonation screen. A fence that causes an anti-tank round to

detonate or prevents it from arming before it reaches its target.

Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA). A mechanism used to

determine the impact and magnitude of damage and the resulting
unmet needs of individuals, businesses, the public sector, and the
community as a whole. Information collected is used by the state as
a basis for the Governor’s request for a Presidential declaration, and
by FEMA to document the recommendation made to the President
in response to the Governor’s request. PDAs are made by at least one
state and one federal representative. A local government representative
familiar with the extent and location of damage in the community

B-28 GENERAL GLOSSARY

often participates; other state and federal agencies and voluntary relief
organizations also may be asked to participate, as needed.

Preparedness. Establishing the plans, training, exercises, and

resources necessary to enhance mitigation of and achieve
readiness for response to, and recovery from all hazards,
disasters, and emergencies, including WMD incidents.

Pressure mat. A mat that generates an alarm when pressure is

applied to any part of the mat’s surface, such as when someone
steps on the mat. Pressure mats can be used to detect an intruder
approaching a protected object, or they can be placed by doors
and windows to detect entry.

Primary asset. An asset that is the ultimate target for compromise

by an aggressor.

Primary gathering building. Inhabited buildings routinely

occupied by 50 or more personnel. This designation applies to
the entire portion of a building that meets the population density
requirements for an inhabited building.

Probability of detection (POD). A measure of an intrusion

detection sensor’s performance in detecting an intruder within
its detection zone.

Probability of intercept. The probability that an act of aggression

will be detected and that a response force will intercept the
aggressor before the asset can be compromised.

Progressive collapse. A chain reaction failure of building

members to an extent disproportionate to the original localized
damage. Such damage may result in upper floors of a building
collapsing onto lower floors.

Protective barriers. Define the physical limits of a site, activity, or

area by restricting, channeling, or impeding access and forming a
continuous obstacle around the object.

Protective measures. Elements of a protective system that protect

an asset against a threat. Protective measures are divided into
defensive and detection measures.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-29

 Protective system. An integration of all of the protective
measures required to protect an asset against the range of threats
applicable to the asset.

Proximity sensor. An intrusion detection sensor that changes

state based on the close distance or contact of a human to the
sensor. These sensors often measure the change in capacitance as
a human body enters the measured field.

Public Information Officer (PIO). A federal, state, or local

government official responsible for preparing and coordinating
the dissemination of emergency public information.

R
Radiation. High-energy particles or gamma rays that are emitted
by an atom as the substance undergoes radioactive decay.
Particles can be either charged alpha or beta particles or neutral
neutron or gamma rays.

Radiation sickness. The symptoms characterizing the sickness

known as radiation injury, resulting from excessive exposure of
the whole body to ionizing radiation.

Radiological monitoring. The process of locating and measuring

radiation by means of survey instruments that can detect and
measure (as exposure rates) ionizing radiation.

Recovery. The long-term activities beyond the initial crisis period

and emergency response phase of disaster operations that focus
on returning all systems in the community to a normal status
or to reconstitute these systems to a new condition that is less
vulnerable.

Regional Operations Center (ROC). The temporary operations

facility for the coordination of federal response and recovery
activities located at the FEMA Regional Office (or Federal

B-30 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Regional Center) and led by the FEMA Regional Director or
Deputy Director until the DFO becomes operational. After the
ERT-A is deployed, the ROC performs a support role for federal
staff at the disaster scene.

Report printers. A separate, dedicated printer attached to the

Electronic Security Systems used for generating reports utilizing
information stored by the central computer.

Request-to-exit device. Passive infrared motion sensors or push

buttons that are used to signal an Electronic Entry Control
System that egress is imminent or to unlock a door.

Resolution. The level to which video details can be determined in

a CCTV scene is referred to as resolving ability or resolution.

Resource Management. Those actions taken by a government to:

identify sources and obtain resources needed to support disaster
response activities; coordinate the supply, allocation, distribution,
and delivery of resources so that they arrive where and when most
needed; and maintain accountability for the resources used.

Response. Executing the plan and resources identified to

perform those duties and services to preserve and protect life and
property as well as provide services to the surviving population.

Response force. The people who respond to an act of aggression.

Depending on the nature of the threat, the response force
could consist of guards, special reaction teams, military or
civilian police, an explosives ordnance disposal team, or a fire
department.

Response time. The length of time from the instant an attack is

detected to the instant a security force arrives on site.

Restricted area. Any area with access controls that is subject to

these special restrictions or controls for security reasons. See
controlled area, limited area, exclusion area, and exclusion zone.

Retinal pattern. A biometric technology that is based on features

of the human eye.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-31

 RF data transmission. A communications link using radio
frequency to send or receive data.

Risk. The potential for loss of, or damage to, an asset. It is

measured based upon the value of the asset in relation to the
threats and vulnerabilities associated with it.

Rotating drum or rotating plate vehicle barrier. An active vehicle

barrier used at vehicle entrances to controlled areas based on a
drum or plate rotating into the path of the vehicle when signaled.

Routinely occupied. For the purposes of these standards, an

established or predictable pattern of activity within a building
that terrorists could recognize and exploit.

RS-232 data. IEEE Recommended Standard 232; a point-to-point

serial data protocol with a maximum effective distance of 50 feet.

RS-422 data. IEEE Recommended Standard 422; a point-to-point

serial data protocol with a maximum effective distance of 4,000
feet.

RS-485 data. IEEE Recommended Standard 485; a multi-drop

serial data protocol with a maximum effective distance of 4,000
feet.

S
Sacrificial roof or wall. Roofs or walls that can be lost in a blast
without damage to the primary asset.

Safe haven. Secure areas within the interior of the facility. A

safe haven should be designed such that it requires more time
to penetrate by aggressors than it takes for the response force
to reach the protected area to rescue the occupants. It may be
a haven from a physical attack or air-isolated haven from CBR
contamination.

B-32 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Scramble keypad. A keypad that uses keys on which the numbers
change pattern with each use to enhance security by preventing
eavesdropping observation of the entered numbers.

Secondary asset. An asset that supports a primary asset and whose

compromise would indirectly affect the operation of the primary
asset.

Secondary hazard. A threat whose potential would be realized

as the result of a triggering event that of itself would constitute
an emergency (e.g., dam failure might be a secondary hazard
associated with earthquakes).

Secure/access mode. The state of an area monitored by an

intrusion detection system in regards to how alarm conditions are
reported.

Security analysis. The method of studying the nature of and the

relationship between assets, threats, and vulnerabilities.

Security console. Specialized furniture, racking, and related

apparatus used to house the security equipment required in a
control center.

Security engineering. The process of identifying practical, risk

managed short- and long-term solutions to reduce and/or
mitigate dynamic manmade hazards by integrating multiple
factors, including construction, equipment, manpower, and
procedures.

Security engineering design process. The process through which

assets requiring protection are identified, the threat to and
vulnerability of those assets is determined, and a protective system
is designed to protect the assets.

Security Management System database. In a Security

Management System, a database that is transferred to various
nodes or panels throughout the system for faster data processing
and protection against communications link downtime.

Security Management System distributed processing. In a Security

Management System, a method of data processing at various

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-33

 nodes or panels throughout the system for faster data processing
and protection against communications links downtime.

Segregation of duties. Policies, procedures, and an organizational

structure established so that one individual cannot control key
aspects of physical and/or computer-related operations and
thereby conduct unauthorized actions or gain unauthorized
access to minimum essential infrastructure resource elements.

Semi-isolated fenced perimeters. Fence lines where approach

areas are clear of obstruction for 60 to 100 feet outside of the
fence and where the general public or other personnel seldom
have reason to be in the area.

Senior FEMA Official (SFO). The official appointed by the

Director of FEMA, or his representative, that is responsible
for deploying to the JOC to serve as the senior interagency
consequence management representative on the Command
Group, and to manage and coordinate activities taken by the
Consequence Management Group.

Serial interface. An integration strategy for data transfer where

components are connected in series.

Shielded wire. Wire with a conductive wrap used to mitigate

electromagnetic emanations.

Situational crime prevention. A crime prevention strategy based

on reducing the opportunities for crime by increasing the effort
required to commit a crime, increasing the risks associated
with committing the crime, and reducing the target appeal or
vulnerability (whether property or person). This opportunity
reduction is achieved by management and use policies such as
procedures and training, as well as physical approaches such as
alteration of the built environment.

Smart card. A newer card technology that allows data to

be written, stored, and read on a card typically used for
identification and/or access.

Software level integration. An integration strategy that uses

software to interface systems. An example of this would be digital

B-34 GENERAL GLOSSARY

video displayed in the same computer application window and
linked to events of a security management system.

Specific threat. Known or postulated aggressor activity focused on

targeting a particular asset.

Stand-off distance. A distance maintained between a building

or portion thereof and the potential location for an explosive
detonation or other threat.

Stand-off weapons. Weapons such as anti-tank weapons and

mortars that are launched from a distance at a target.

State Coordinating Officer (SCO). The person appointed by

the Governor to coordinate state, commonwealth, or territorial
response and recovery activities with FRP-related activities of the
Federal Government, in cooperation with the FCO.

State Liaison. A FEMA official assigned to a particular state, who

handles initial coordination with the state in the early stages of an
emergency.

Stationary vehicle bomb. An explosive-laden car or truck stopped

or parked near a building.

Storm surge. A dome of sea water created by the strong winds

and low barometric pressure in a hurricane that causes severe
coastal flooding as the hurricane strikes land.

Strain sensitive cable. Strain sensitive cables are transducers that

are uniformly sensitive along their entire length and generate
an analog voltage when subjected to mechanical distortions or
stress resulting from fence motion. They are typically attached to
a chain-link fence about halfway between the bottom and top of
the fence fabric with plastic ties.

Structural protective barriers. Manmade devices (e.g., fences,

walls, floors, roofs, grills, bars, roadblocks, signs, or other
construction) used to restrict, channel, or impede access.

Superstructure. The supporting elements of a building above the

foundation.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-35

 Supplies-bomb delivery. Bombs or incendiary devices concealed
and delivered to supply or material handling points such as
loading docks.

System events. Events that occur normally in the operation of a

security management system. Examples include access control
operations and changes of state in intrusion detection sensors.

System software. Controls that limit and monitor access to the

powerful programs and sensitive files that control the computer
hardware and secure applications supported by the system.

T
Tactics. The specific methods of achieving the aggressor’s goals to
injure personnel, destroy assets, or steal materiel or information.

Tamper switch. Intrusion detection sensor that monitors an

equipment enclosure for breach.

Tangle-foot wire. Barbed wire or tape suspended on short metal

or wooden pickets outside a perimeter fence to create an obstacle
to approach.

Taut wire sensor. An intrusion detection sensor utilizing a

column of uniformly spaced horizontal wires, securely anchored
at each end and stretched taut. Each wire is attached to a sensor
to indicate movement of the wire.

Technical assistance. The provisioning of direct assistance to

states and local jurisdictions to improve capabilities for program
development, planning, and operational performances related to
responses to WMD terrorist incidents.

Technological hazards. Incidents that can arise from human

activities such as manufacture, transportation, storage, and use
of hazardous materials. For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed
that technological emergencies are accidental and that their
consequences are unintended.

B-36 GENERAL GLOSSARY

TEMPEST. An unclassified short name referring to investigations
and studies of compromising emanations. It is sometimes used
synonymously for the term “compromising emanations” (e.g.,
TEMPEST tests, TEMPEST inspections).

Terrorism. The unlawful use of force and violence against

persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the
civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of
political or social objectives.

Thermally tempered glass (TTG). Glass that is heat-treated to

have a higher tensile strength and resistance to blast pressures,
although with a greater susceptibility to airborne debris.

Threat. Any indication, circumstance, or event with the potential

to cause loss of, or damage to an asset.

Threat analysis. A continual process of compiling and examining

all available information concerning potential threats and
human-caused hazards. A common method to evaluate terrorist
groups is to review the factors of existence, capability, intentions,
history, and targeting.

Time/date stamp. Data inserted into a CCTV video signal with

the time and date of the video as it was created.

TNT equivalent weight. The weight of TNT (trinitrotoluene) that

has an equivalent energetic output to that of a different weight of
another explosive compound.

Tornado. A local atmospheric storm, generally of short duration,

formed by winds rotating at very high speeds, usually in a
counter-clockwise direction. The vortex, up to several hundred
yards wide, is visible to the observer as a whirlpool-like column of
winds rotating about a hollow cavity or funnel. Winds may reach
300 miles per hour or higher.

Toxic-free area. An area within a facility in which the air supply is

free of toxic chemical or biological agents.

Toxicity. A measure of the harmful effects produced by a given

amount of a toxin on a living organism.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-37

 Triple-standard concertina (TSC) wire. This type of fence uses
three rolls of stacked concertina. One roll will be stacked on top
of two other rolls that run parallel to each other while resting on
the ground, forming a pyramid.

Tsunami. Sea waves produced by an undersea earthquake. Such

sea waves can reach a height of 80 feet and can devastate coastal
cities and low-lying coastal areas.

Twisted pair wire. Wire that uses pairs of wires twisted together to
mitigate electromagnetic interference.

Two-person rule. A security strategy that requires two people

to be present in or gain access to a secured area to prevent
unobserved access by any individual.

U
Unobstructed space. Space around an inhabited building without
obstruction large enough to conceal explosive devices 150 mm
(6 inches) or greater in height.

Unshielded wire. Wire that does not have a conductive wrap.

V
Vault. A reinforced room for securing items.

Vertical rod. Typical door hardware often used with a crash bar
to lock a door by inserting rods vertically from the door into the
doorframe.

Vibration sensor. An intrusion detection sensor that changes state

when vibration is present.

Video intercom system. An intercom system that also

incorporates a small CCTV system for verification.

B-38 GENERAL GLOSSARY

Video motion detection. Motion detection technology that looks
for changes in the pixels of a video image.

Video multiplexer. A device used to connect multiple video

signals to a single location for viewing and/or recording.

Visual displays. A display or monitor used to inform the operator

visually of the status of the electronic security system.

Visual surveillance. The aggressor uses ocular and photographic

devices (such as binoculars and cameras with telephoto lenses) to
monitor facility or installation operations or to see assets.

Voice recognition. A biometric technology that is based on

nuances of the human voice.

Volumetric motion sensor. An interior intrusion detection sensor

that is designed to sense aggressor motion within a protected
space.

Vulnerability. Any weakness that can be exploited by an

aggressor or, in a nonterrorist threat environment, make an asset
susceptible to hazard damage.

W
Warning. The alerting of emergency response personnel and
the public to the threat of extraordinary danger and the related
effects that specific hazards may cause.

Watch. Indication in a defined area that conditions are favorable

for the specified type of severe weather (e.g., flash flood watch,
severe thunderstorm watch, tornado watch, tropical storm watch).

Waterborne contamination. Chemical, biological, or radiological

agent introduced into and fouling a water supply.

Weapons-grade material. Nuclear material considered most

suitable for a nuclear weapon. It usually connotes uranium
enriched to above 90 percent uranium-235 or plutonium with
greater than about 90 percent plutonium-239.

GENERAL GLOSSARY B-39

 Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). Any device, material,
or substance used in a manner, in a quantity or type, or under
circumstances showing an intent to cause death or serious injury
to persons, or significant damage to property. An explosive,
incendiary, or poison gas, bomb, grenade, rocket having a
propellant charge of more than 4 ounces, or a missile having an
explosive incendiary charge of more than 0.25 ounce, or mine
or device similar to the above; poison gas; weapon involving a
disease organism; or weapon that is designed to release radiation
or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life.

Weigand protocol. A security industry standard data protocol for

card readers.

Z
Zoom. The ability of a CCTV camera to close and focus or open
and widen the field of view.

B-40 GENERAL GLOSSARY

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C

This appendix contains some CBR terms that do not actually

appear in this manual. They have been included to present a com-
prehensive list that pertains to this series of publications.

CHEMICAL TERMS

A
Acetylcholinesterase. An enzyme that hydrolyzes the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The action of this enzyme is
inhibited by nerve agents.

Aerosol. Fine liquid or solid particles suspended in a gas (e.g., fog

or smoke).

Atropine. A compound used as an antidote for nerve agents.

C
Casualty (toxic) agents. Produce incapacitation, serious injury, or
death, and can be used to incapacitate or kill victims. They are the
blister, blood, choking, and nerve agents.

Blister agents. Substances that cause blistering of the

skin. Exposure is through liquid or vapor contact with any
exposed tissue (eyes, skin, lungs). Examples are distilled
mustard (HD), nitrogen mustard (HN), lewisite (L),
mustard/lewisite (HL), and phenodichloroarsine (PD).

Blood agents. Substances that injure a person by

interfering with cell respiration (the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues). Examples
are arsine (SA), cyanogens chloride (CK), hydrogen
chloride (HCl), and hydrogen cyanide (AC).

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-1

 Choking/lung/pulmonary agents. Substances that cause
physical injury to the lungs. Exposure is through
inhalation. In extreme cases, membranes swell and
lungs become filled with liquid. Death results from lack
of oxygen; hence, the victim is “choked.” Examples
are chlorine (CL), diphosgene (DP), cyanide (KCN),
nitrogen oxide (NO), perfluororisobutylene (PHIB),
phosgene (CG), red phosphorous (RP), sulfur trioxide-
chlorosulfonic acid (FS), Teflon and PHIB, titanium
tetrachloride (FM), and zinc oxide (HC).

Nerve agents. Substances that interfere with the central

nervous system. Exposure is primarily through contact
with the liquid (skin and eyes) and secondarily through
inhalation of the vapor. Three distinct symptoms
associated with nerve agents are: pin-point pupils, an
extreme headache, and severe tightness in the chest. See
also G-series and V-series nerve agents.

Chemical agents. Substances that are intended for use in military

operations to kill, seriously injure, or incapacitate people through
its physiological effects. Excluded from consideration are riot
control agents, and smoke and flame materials. The agent may
appear as a vapor, aerosol, or liquid; it can be either a casualty/
toxic agent or an incapacitating agent.

Cutaneous. Pertaining to the skin.

D
Decontamination. The process of making any person, object, or
area safe by absorbing, destroying, neutralizing, making harmless,
or removing the hazardous material.

C-2 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

G
G-series nerve agents. Chemical agents of moderate to high
toxicity developed in the 1930s. Examples are tabun (GA), sarin
(GB), soman (GD), phosphonofluoridic acid, ethyl-, 1-methylethyl
ester (GE), and cyclohexyl sarin (GF).

I
Incapacitating agents. Produce temporary physiological and/or
mental effects via action on the central nervous system. Effects
may persist for hours or days, but victims usually do not require
medical treatment; however, such treatment speeds recovery.

Vomiting agents. Produce nausea and vomiting effects; can

also cause coughing, sneezing, pain in the nose and throat,
nasal discharge, and tears. Examples are adamsite (DM),
diphenylchloroarsine (DA), and diphenylcyanoarsine (DC).

Tear (riot control) agents. Produce irritating or disabling

effects that rapidly disappear within minutes after
exposure ceases. Examples are bromobenzylcyanide
(CA), chloroacetophenone (CN or commercially known
as Mace), chloropicrin (PS), CNB (CN in benzene and
carbon tetrachloride), CNC (CN in chloroform), CNS
(CN and chloropicrin in chloroform, CR (dibenz-(b,f)-
1,4-oxazepine, a tear gas), CS (tear gas), and Capsaicin
(pepper spray).

Central nervous system depressants. Compounds that

have the predominant effect of depressing or blocking the
activity of the central nervous system. The primary mental
effects include the disruption of the ability to think,
sedation, and lack of motivation.

Central nervous system stimulants. Compounds that have

the predominant effect of flooding the brain with too

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-3

 much information. The primary mental effect is loss of
concentration, causing indecisiveness and the inability to
act in a sustained, purposeful manner.

Examples of the depressants and stimulants include agent

15 (suspected Iraqi BZ), BZ (3-quinulidinyle benzilate),
canniboids, fentanyls, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide),
and phenothiazines.

Industrial agents. Chemicals developed or manufactured for use

in industrial operations or research by industry, government, or
academia. These chemicals are not primarily manufactured for
the specific purpose of producing human casualties or rendering
equipment, facilities, or areas dangerous for use by man.
Hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen chloride, phosgene, chloropicrin,
and many herbicides and pesticides are industrial chemicals that
also can be chemical agents.

L
Liquid agents. Chemical agents that appear to be an oily film or
droplets. The color ranges from clear to brownish amber.

N
Nonpersistent agents. Agents that, upon release, lose the ability
to cause casualties after 10 to 15 minutes. They have a high
evaporation rate and are lighter than air and will disperse rapidly.
They are considered to be short-term hazards; however, in small
unventilated areas, these agents will be more persistent.

C-4 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

O
Organophosphorous compound. A compound containing the
elements phosphorus and carbon, whose physiological effects
include inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Many pesticides
(malathione and parathion) and virtually all nerve agents are
organophosphorous compounds.

P
Percutaneous agents. Agents that are able to be absorbed by the
body through the skin.

Persistent agents. Agents that, upon release, retain their casualty-

producing effects for an extended period of time, usually
anywhere from 30 minutes to several days. A persistent agent
usually has a low evaporation rate and its vapor is heavier than
air. Therefore, its vapor cloud tends to hug the ground. They are
considered to be long-term hazards. Although inhalation hazards
are still a concern, extreme caution should be taken to avoid skin
contact as well.

Protection. Any means by which an individual protects his or

her body. Measures include masks, self-contained breathing
apparatuses, clothing, structures such as buildings, and vehicles.

V
V-series nerve agents. Chemical agents of moderate to high toxicity
developed in the 1950s. They are generally persistent. Examples are
VE (phosphonothioic acid, ethyl-, S-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl] O-
ethylester), VG (phosphorothioic acid, S-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]
O, O-diethyl ester), VM (phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-[2-
(diethylamino) ethyl] O-ethyl ester), VS (phosphonothioic
acid, ethyl, S-[2-[bis(1-methylethyl)amino] ethyl] O-ethyl

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-5

 ester), and VX (phosphonothioic acid, methyl-, S-[2-[bis(1-
methylethyl)amino]ethyl] O-ethyl ester).

Vapor agents. A gaseous form of a chemical agent. If heavier than

air, the cloud will be close to the ground. If lighter than air, the
cloud will rise and disperse more quickly.

Volatility. A measure of how readily a substance will vaporize.

Placards Associated with Chemical Incidents

Gases – Toxic and/or Corrosive Gases – Toxic (Corrosive)

Substances – Toxic
(Non-Combustible)

C-6 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

BIOLOGICAL TERMS

A
Aerosol. Fine liquid or solid particles suspended in a gas (e.g., fog
or smoke).

Antibiotic. A substance that inhibits the growth of or kills

microorganisms.

Antisera. The liquid part of blood containing antibodies that react

against disease-causing agents such as those used in biological
warfare.

B
Bacteria. Single-celled organisms that multiply by cell division and
that can cause disease in humans, plants, or animals.

Biochemicals. The chemicals that make up or are produced by

living things.

Biological warfare. The intentional use of biological agents as

weapons to kill or injure humans, animals, or plants, or to damage
equipment.

Biological warfare agents. Living organisms or the materials

derived from them that cause disease in or harm to humans,
animals, or plants, or cause deterioration of material. Biological
agents may be used as liquid droplets, aerosols, or dry powders.

Bioregulators. Biochemicals that regulate bodily functions.

Bioregulators that are produced by the body are termed “endogenous.”
Some of these same bioregulators can be chemically synthesized.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-7

 C
Causative agents. The organism or toxin that is responsible for
causing a specific disease or harmful effect.

Contagious. Capable of being transmitted from one person to

another.

Culture. A population of microorganisms grown in a medium.

D
Decontamination. The process of making people, objects, or areas
safe by absorbing, destroying, neutralizing, making harmless, or
removing the hazardous material.

F
Fungi. Any of a group of plants mainly characterized by the
absence of chlorophyll, the green colored compound found in
other plants. Fungi range from microscopic single-celled plants
(such as molds and mildews) to large plants (such as mushrooms).

H
Host. An animal or plant that harbors or nourishes another organism.

I
Incapacitating agents. Agents that produce physical or
psychological effects, or both, that may persist for hours or days
after exposure, rendering victims incapable of performing normal
physical and mental tasks.

C-8 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

Infectious agents. Biological agents capable of causing disease in a
susceptible host.

Infectivity. (1) The ability of an organism to spread. (2) The number

of organisms required to cause an infection to secondary hosts. (3)
The capability of an organism to spread out from the site of infection
and cause disease in the host organism. Infectivity also can be viewed
as the number of organisms required to cause an infection.

L
Line-source delivery system. A delivery system in which the
biological agent is dispersed from a moving ground or air vehicle
in a line perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind.
(See also “point-source delivery system.”)

M
Microorganism. Any organism, such as bacteria, viruses, and some
fungi, that can be seen only with a microscope.

Mycotoxin. A toxin produced by fungi.

N
Nebulizer. A device for producing a fine spray or aerosol.

O
Organism. Any individual living thing, whether animal or plant.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-9

 P
Parasite. Any organism that lives in or on another organism
without providing benefit in return.

Pathogen. Any organism (usually living), such as bacteria, fungi,

and viruses, capable of producing serious disease or death.

Pathogenic agents. Biological agents capable of causing serious disease.

Point-source delivery system. A delivery system in which the

biological agent is dispersed from a stationary position. This
delivery method results in coverage over a smaller area than with
the line-source system. See also line-source delivery system.

R
Route of exposure (entry). The path by which a person comes
into contact with an agent or organism (e.g., through breathing,
digestion, or skin contact).

S
Single-cell protein. Protein-rich material obtained from cultured
algae, fungi, protein, and bacteria, and often used as food or
animal feed.

Spore. A reproductive form some microorganisms can take to

become resistant to environmental conditions, such as extreme
heat or cold, while in a “resting stage.”

T
Toxicity. A measure of the harmful effect produced by a given
amount of a toxin on a living organism. The relative toxicity of

C-10 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

an agent can be expressed in milligrams of toxin needed per
kilogram of body weight to kill experimental animals.

Toxins. Poisonous substances produced by living organisms.

V
Vaccine. A preparation of killed or weakened microorganism
products used to artificially induce immunity against a disease.

Vector. An agent, such as an insect or rat, capable of transferring a

pathogen from one organism to another.

Venom. A poison produced in the glands of some animals (e.g.,

snakes, scorpions, or bees).

Virus. An infectious microorganism that exists as a particle

rather than as a complete cell. Particle sizes range from 20 to 400
nanometers (one-billionth of a meter). Viruses are not capable of
reproducing outside of a host cell.

Placards Associated with Biological Incidents

Infectious Substances

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-11

 RADIOLOGICAL TERMS

A
Acute radiation syndrome. Consists of three levels of effects:
hernatopoletic (blood cells, most sensitive); gastrointestinal (GI
cells, very sensitive); and central nervous system (brain/muscle
cells, insensitive). The initial signs and symptoms are nausea,
vomiting, fatigue, and loss of appetite. Below about 200 rems,
these symptoms may be the only indication of radiation exposure.

Alpha particles (α). Alpha particles have a very short range in air
and a very low ability to penetrate other materials, but also have
a strong ability to ionize materials. Alpha particles are unable to
penetrate even the thin layer of dead cells of human skin and
consequently are not an external radiation hazard. Alpha-emitting
nuclides inside the body as a result of inhalation or ingestion are a
considerable internal radiation hazard.

B
Beta particles (β). High-energy electrons emitted from the
nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. They normally can
be stopped by the skin or a very thin sheet of metal.

C
Cesium-137 (Cs-137). A strong gamma ray source and can
contaminate property, entailing extensive cleanup. It is commonly
used in industrial measurement gauges and for irradiation of
material. Its half-life is 30.2 years.

Cobalt-60 (Co-60). A strong gamma ray source, and is extensively

used as a radiotherapeutic for treating cancer, food and material
irradiation, gamma radiography, and industrial measurement
gauges. Its half-life is 5.27 years.

C-12 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

Curie (Ci). A unit of radioactive decay rate defined as 3.7 x 1010
disintegrations per second.

D
Decay. The process by which an unstable element is changed to
another isotope or another element by the spontaneous emission
of radiation from its nucleus. This process can be measured by
using radiation detectors such as Geiger counters.

Decontamination. The process of making people, objects, or areas

safe by absorbing, destroying, neutralizing, making harmless, or
removing the hazardous material.

Dose. A general term for the amount of radiation absorbed over a

period of time.

Dosimeter. A portable instrument for measuring and registering

the total accumulated dose to ionizing radiation.

G
Gamma ray (γ). A high-energy photon emitted from the nucleus
of atoms; similar to an x-ray. It can penetrate deeply into body
tissue and many materials. Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 are both
strong gamma-emitters. Shielding against gamma radiation re-
quires thick layers of dense materials, such as lead. Gamma rays
are potentially lethal to humans.

H
Half-life. The amount of time needed for half of the atoms of a
radioactive material to decay.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-13

 Highly enriched uranium (HEU). Uranium that is enriched to
above 20 percent Uranium-235 (U-235). Weapons-grade HEU is
enriched to above 90 percent in U-235.

I
Ionize. To split off one or more electrons from an atom, thus leaving
it with a positive electric charge. The electrons usually attach to one
of the atoms or molecules, giving them a negative charge.

Iridium-192. A gamma ray emitting radioisotope used for gamma

radiography. Its half-life is 73.83 days.

Isotope. A specific element always has the same number of

protons in the nucleus. That same element may, however, appear
in forms that have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
These different forms are referred to as “isotopes” of the element;
for example, deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) are isotopes of
ordinary hydrogen (H).

L
Lethal dose (50/30). The dose of radiation expected to cause
death within 30 days to 50 percent of those exposed without
medical treatment. The generally accepted range is from 400-500
rem received over a short period of time.

N
Nuclear reactor. A device in which a controlled, self-sustaining
nuclear chain reaction can be maintained with the use of cooling
to remove generated heat.

C-14 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

P
Plutonium-239 (Pu-239). A metallic element used for nuclear
weapons. Its half-life is 24,110 years.

R
Rad. A unit of absorbed dose of radiation defined as deposition
of 100 ergs of energy per gram of tissue. A rad amounts to
approximately one ionization per cubic micron.

Radiation. High energy alpha or beta particles or gamma rays that

are emitted by an atom as the substance undergoes radioactive decay.

Radiation sickness. Symptoms resulting from excessive exposure

to radiation of the body.

Radioactive waste. Disposable, radioactive materials resulting

from nuclear operations. Wastes are generally classified into two
categories, high-level and low-level.

Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD). A device (weapon or equip-

ment), other than a nuclear explosive device, designed to disseminate
radioactive material in order to cause destruction, damage, or injury
by means of the radiation produced by the decay of such material.

Radioluminescence. The luminescence produced by particles

emitted during radioactive decay.

Roentgen Equivalent Man (REM or rem). A unit of absorbed dose

that takes into account the relative effectiveness of radiation that
harms human health.

S
Shielding. Materials (lead, concrete, etc.) used to block or attenuate
radiation for protection of equipment, materials, or people.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-15

 Special Nuclear Material (SNM). Plutonium and uranium
enriched in the isotopes Uranium-233 or Uranium-235.

U
Uranium 235 (U-235). Naturally-occurring U-235 is found at
0.72 percent enrichment. U-235 is used as a reactor fuel or for
weapons; however, weapons typically use U-235 enriched to 90
percent. Its half-life is 7.04 x 108 years.

X
X-ray. An invisible, highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation
of much shorter wavelength (higher frequency) than visible light.
Very similar to gamma rays.

Placards Associated with Radiological Incidents

Radioactive Materials

The following web sites are available for further clarification or for
terms not used in this manual:

Chemical, Biological, Radiological (CBR)

[Formerly NBC (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical]

http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/glossary.asp?B

http://www.nbcprotect.com/new/glossary.htm

C-16 CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY

CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENT CHARACTERISICS

Note:
Tables reduced for
review purposes
only. These tables
will be appear
as 11x17 foldout
pages in the printed
publication.

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-17

SELECTED BIOLOGICAL AGENT CHARACTERISICS

CHEMICAL, BIOLOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL GLOSSARY C-19

This appendix contains some CBR terms that do not actually
appear in this manual. They have been included to present a com-
prehensive list that pertains to this series of publications.

CHEMICAL TERMS

A
Acetylcholinesterase. An enzyme that hydrolyzes the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The action of this enzyme is
inhibited by nerve agents.

Aerosol. Fine liquid or solid particles suspended in a gas (e.g., fog

or smoke).

Atropine. A compound used as an antidote for nerve agents.

C
Casualty (toxic) agents. Produce incapacitation, serious injury, or
death, and can be used to incapacitate or kill victims. They are the
blister, blood, choking, and nerve agents.

Blister agents. Substances that cause blistering of the

skin. Exposure is through liquid or vapor contact with any
exposed tissue (eyes, skin, lungs). Examples are distilled
mustard (HD), nitrogen mustard (HN), lewisite (L),
mustard/lewisite (HL), and phenodichloroarsine (PD).

Blood agents. Substances that injure a person by

interfering with cell respiration (the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues). Examples
are arsine (SA), cyanogens chloride (CK), hydrogen
chloride (HCl), and hydrogen cyanide (AC).

Choking/lung/pulmonary agents. Substances that cause

physical injury to the lungs. Exposure is through
inhalation. In extreme cases, membranes swell and
 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D

A
n overall site-security system is composed of three
major subelements: detection, delay, and response. The
detection subelement includes intrusion detection, as-
sessment, and entry control. The purpose of this appendix is to
introduce the basic concepts of site security systems, including the
use of Electronic Security Systems (ESSs), boundary-penetration
sensors, volumetric motion sensors, exterior intrusion detec-
tion sensors, microwave sensors, infrared sensors, video motion
sensors, electronic entry control, and monitoring designated re-
stricted areas.

USE OF ESS
An ESS is an integrated system that encompasses interior and exte-
rior sensors; closed circuit television (CCTV) systems for assessing
alarm conditions; Electronic Entry Control Systems (EECSs);
data-transmission media (DTM); and alarm reporting systems for
monitoring, controlling, and displaying various alarm and system
information. Interior and exterior sensors and their associated
communication and display subsystems are collectively called IDSs.

An ESS is used to provide early warning of an intruder. This system

consists of hardware and software elements operated by trained
security personnel.

A system is configured to provide one or more layers of detection

around an asset. Each layer is made up of a series of contiguous
detection zones designed to isolate the asset and to control the
entry and exit of authorized personnel and materials.

General ESS Description

An ESS consists of sensors interfaced with electronic entry control

devices, CCTV, alarm reporting displays (both visual and audible),
and security lighting. The situation is assessed by sending guards

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-1

 to the alarm point or by using CCTV. Alarm reporting devices and
video monitors are located in the security center. The asset’s im-
portance will determine whether multiple or redundant security
centers are required and, ultimately, the required sophistication
of all elements in the ESS. Digital and analog data are transmitted
from local (field) interior and exterior locations to the security
center for processing. Reliability and accuracy are important func-
tional requirements of the data-transmission system.

ESS Design Considerations

A facility may require interior and exterior ESS elements, depending

on the level of protection required. The applicable regulations,
threat, and design criteria will define the ESS’s general requirements.
For an existing ESS, hardware and software may need to be supple-
mented, upgraded, or completely replaced. A site layout (in which all
assets are identified and located) is required. It is a useful design tool
for such tasks as configuring the DTM.

The exterior and interior IDSs should be configured as layers

of unbroken rings concentrically surrounding the asset. These
rings should correspond to defensive layers that constitute the
delay system. The first detection layer is located at the outermost
defensive layer necessary to provide the required delay. Detec-
tion layers can be on a defensive layer, in the area between two
defensive layers, or on the asset itself, depending on the delay
required. For example, if a wall of an interior room provides suf-
ficient delay for effective response to aggression, detection layers
could be between the facility exterior and interior-room wall or
on the interior-room wall. They would detect the intruder before
penetration of the interior wall is possible.

PERIMETER LAYOUT AND ZONING SENSORS

A protected area’s perimeter is usually defined by an enclosing
wall or fence or a natural barrier such as water. For exterior sen-
sors to be effective, the perimeter around which they are to be
deployed must be precisely defined. In most applications, a dual

D-2 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

chain-link-fence configuration will be established around the pe-
rimeter (see Chapter 2.4.1 for additional information). Typically,
fences should be between 30 and 50 feet apart; as the distance
increases, it is harder for an intruder to bridge the fences. If
fence separation is less than 30 feet, some microwave and ported
coax sensors cannot be used. The area between fences (called
the controlled area or isolation zone) may need to be cleared of
vegetation and graded, depending on the type of sensor used.
Proper drainage is required to preclude standing water and to
prevent the formation of gullies caused by running water after
a heavy rain or melting snow. Cleared areas are required inside
and outside of the controlled area. These areas enhance routine
observation, as well as sensor-alarm assessment, and minimize the
protective cover available to a would-be intruder.

After the perimeter has been defined, the next step is to divide it
into specific detection zones. The length of each detection zone
is determined by evaluating the contour, the existing terrain, and
the operational activities along the perimeter. Detection zones
should be long and straight to minimize the number of sensors
or cameras necessary and to aid guard assessment if cameras are
not used. It may be more economical to straighten an existing
fence line than to create numerous detection zones in accom-
modating a crooked fence line. If the perimeter is hilly and line
of sight (LOS) sensors or CCTV assessment are used, the length
of individual detection zones will be commensurate with sensor
limitations. Entry points for personnel and vehicles must be con-
figured as independent zones. This enables deactivation of the
sensors in these zones; that is, placing them in the access mode
during customary working hours (assuming the entry points are
manned) without having to deactivate adjacent areas.

The specific length of individual zones can vary around the pe-
rimeter. Although specific manufacturers may advertise maximum
zone lengths exceeding 1,000 feet, it is not practical to exceed a
zone length of 300 feet. If the zone is longer, it will be difficult for
an operator using CCTV assessment or for the response force to
identify the location of an intrusion or the cause of a false alarm.

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-3

 When establishing zones using multiple sensors, the designer
should establish coincident zones where the length and location
of each individual sensor will be identical for all sensors within a
given zone. If an alarm occurs in a specific zone, the operator can
readily determine its approximate location by referring to a map
of the perimeter. This also minimizes the number of CCTV cam-
eras required for assessment and simplifies the interface between
the alarm-annunciation system and the CCTV switching system.

BOUNDARY-PENETRATION SENSORS
Boundary-penetration sensors are designed to detect penetration
or attempted penetration through perimeter barriers. These bar-
riers include walls, ceilings, duct openings, doors, and windows.

❍ Structural-vibration sensors. Structural-vibration sensors

detect low-frequency energy generated in an attempted
penetration of a physical barrier (such as a wall or a ceiling)
by hammering, drilling, cutting, detonating explosives, or
employing other forcible methods of entry. A piezoelectric
transducer senses mechanical energy and converts it into
electrical signals proportional in magnitude to the vibrations.

❍ Glass-breakage sensors. Glass-breakage sensors detect the

breaking of glass. The noise from breaking glass consists of
frequencies in both the audible and ultrasonic range. Glass-
breakage sensors use microphone transducers to detect the
glass breakage. The sensors are designed to respond to specific
frequencies only, thus minimizing such false alarms as may be
caused by banging on the glass.

❍ Passive ultrasonic sensors. Passive ultrasonic sensors detect

acoustical energy in the ultrasonic frequency range, typically
between 20 and 30 kilohertz (kHz). They are used to detect an
attempted penetration through rigid barriers (such as metal or
masonry walls, ceilings, and floors). They also detect penetration
through windows and vents covered by metal grilles, shutters, or
bars if these openings are properly sealed against outside sounds.

D-4 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

❍ Balanced magnetic switches. Balanced magnetic switches
(BMSs) are typically used to detect the opening of a door.
These sensors can also be used on windows, hatches, gates,
or other structural devices that can be opened to gain entry.
When using a BMS, mount the switch mechanism on the
doorframe and the actuating magnet on the door. Typically,
the BMS has a three-position reed switch and an additional
magnet (called the bias magnet) located adjacent to the
switch. When the door is closed, the reed switch is held in the
balanced or center position by interacting magnetic fields.
If the door is opened or an external magnet is brought near
the sensor in an attempt to defeat it, the switch becomes
unbalanced and generates an alarm. A BMS must be mounted
so that the magnet receives maximum movement when the
door or window is opened.

❍ Grid wire sensors. The grid wire sensor consists of a

continuous electrical wire arranged in a grid pattern. The wire
maintains an electrical current. An alarm is generated when
the wire is broken. The sensor detects forced entry through
walls, floors, ceilings, doors, windows, and other barriers. An
enamel-coated number 24 or 26 American wire gauge (AWG)
solid-copper wire typically forms the grid. The grid’s maximum
size is determined by the spacing between the wires, the wire’s
resistance, and the electrical characteristics of the source
providing the current. The grid wire can be installed directly
on the barrier, in a grille or screen that is mounted on the
barrier, or over an opening that requires protection.

VOLUMETRIC MOTION SENSORS

Volumetric motion sensors are designed to detect intruder mo-
tion within the interior of a protected volume. Volumetric sensors
may be active or passive. Active sensors (such as microwave) fill
the volume to be protected with an energy pattern and recognize
a disturbance in the pattern when anything moves within the de-
tection zone. Whereas active sensors generate their own energy
pattern to detect an intruder, passive sensors (such as infrared

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-5

 (IR)) detect energy generated by an intruder. Some sensors,
known as dual technology sensors, use a combination of two dif-
ferent technologies, usually one active and one passive, within
the same unit. If CCTV assessment or surveillance cameras are
installed, video motion sensors can be used to detect intruder
movement within the area. Because ultrasonic motion sensors are
seldom used, they will not be discussed herein.

❍ Microwave motion sensors. With microwave motion sensors,

high-frequency electromagnetic energy is used to detect
an intruder’s motion within the protected area. Interior or
sophisticated microwave motion sensors are normally used.

• Interior microwave motion sensors. Interior

microwave motion sensors are typically monostatic; the
transmitter and the receiver are housed in the same
enclosure (transceiver).

• Sophisticated microwave motion sensors.

Sophisticated microwave motion sensors may be
equipped with electronic range gating. This feature
allows the sensor to ignore the signals reflected
beyond the settable detection range. Range gating
may be used to effectively minimize unwanted alarms
from activity outside the protected area.

❍ Passive infrared (PIR) motion sensors. PIR motion sensors

detect a change in the thermal energy pattern caused by a
moving intruder and initiate an alarm when the change in
energy satisfies the detector’s alarm criteria. These sensors
are passive devices because they do not transmit energy; they
monitor the energy radiated by the surrounding environment.

❍ Dual technology sensors. To minimize the generation

of alarms caused by sources other than intruders, dual-
technology sensors combine two different technologies in one
unit. Ideally, this is achieved by combining two sensors that
individually have a high probability of detection (POD) and do
not respond to common sources of false alarms. Available dual-

D-6 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

 technology sensors combine an active ultrasonic or microwave
sensor with a PIR sensor. The alarms from each sensor are
logically combined in an “and” configuration (i.e., nearly
simultaneous alarms from both active and passive sensors are
needed to produce a valid alarm).

❍ Video motion sensors. A video motion sensor generates an

alarm when an intruder enters a selected portion of a CCTV
camera’s field of view. The sensor processes and compares
successive images between the images against predefined
alarm criteria. There are two categories of video motion
detectors, analog and digital. Analog detectors generate an
alarm in response to changes in a picture’s contrast. Digital
devices convert selected portions of the analog video signal
into digital data that are compared with data converted
previously; if differences exceed preset limits, an alarm is
generated. The signal processor usually provides an adjustable
window that can be positioned anywhere on the video image.
Available adjustments permit changing horizontal and vertical
window size, window position, and window sensitivity. More
sophisticated units provide several adjustable windows that
can be individually sized and positioned. Multiple windows
permit concentrating on several specific areas of an image
while ignoring others. For example, in a scene containing six
doorways leading into a long hallway, the sensor can be set to
monitor only two critical doorways.

❍ Point sensors. Point sensors are used to protect specific

objects within a facility. These sensors (sometimes referred
to as proximity sensors) detect an intruder coming in close
proximity to, touching, or lifting an object. Several different
types are available, including capacitance sensors, pressure
mats, and pressure switches. Other types of sensors can also be
used for object protection.

❍ Capacitance sensors. Capacitance sensors detect an intruder

approaching or touching a metal object by sensing a change
in capacitance between the object and the ground. A capacitor

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-7

 consists of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric
medium. A change in the dielectric medium or electrical
charge results in a change in capacitance. In practice, the
metal object to be protected forms one plate of the capacitor
and the ground plane surrounding the object forms the
second plate. The sensor processor measures the capacitance
between the metal object and the ground plane. An
approaching intruder alters the dielectric value, thus changing
the capacitance. If the net capacitance change satisfies the
alarm criteria, an alarm is generated.

❍ Pressure mats. Pressure mats generate an alarm when pressure

is applied to any part of the mat’s surface, such as when
someone steps on the mat. One type of construction uses two
layers of copper screening separated by soft-sponge rubber
insulation with large holes in it. Another type uses parallel
strips of ribbon switches made from two strips of metal
separated by an insulating material and spaced several inches
apart. When enough pressure is applied to the mat, either
the screening or the metal strips make contact, generating
an alarm. Pressure mats can be used to detect an intruder
approaching a protected object, or they can be placed by
doors or windows to detect entry. Because pressure mats are
easy to bridge, they should be well concealed, such as placing
them under a carpet.

❍ Pressure switches. Mechanically activated contact switches

or single ribbon switches can be used as pressure switches.
Objects that require protection can be placed on top of the
switch. When the object is moved, the switch actuates and
generates an alarm. In this usage, the switch must be well
concealed. The interface between the switch and the protected
object should be designed so that an adversary cannot slide a
thin piece of material under the object to override the switch
while the object is removed.

D-8 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

EXTERIOR INTRUSION DETECTION SENSORS
Exterior intrusion detection sensors are customarily used to detect
an intruder crossing the boundary of a protected area. They can
also be used in clear zones between fences or around buildings,
for protecting materials and equipment stored outdoors within a
protected boundary, or in estimating the POD for buildings and
other facilities.

Because of the nature of the outdoor environment, exterior sen-

sors are also more susceptible to nuisance and environmental
alarms than interior sensors. Inclement weather conditions (e.g.,
heavy rain, hail, and high wind), vegetation, the natural variation
of the temperature of objects in the detection zone, blowing de-
bris, and animals are major sources of unwanted alarms.

Due to this vulnerability, it is extremely important that enclosures

are located and installed properly and that adequate physical pro-
tection is provided. Several different types of exterior intrusion
detection sensors are available:

❍ Fence sensors

❍ Buried line sensors

❍ Video motion sensors

FENCE SENSORS
Fence sensors detect attempts to penetrate a fence around a
protected area. Penetration attempts (e.g., climbing, cutting, or
lifting) generate mechanical vibrations and stresses in fence fabric
and posts that are usually different than those caused by natural
phenomena like wind and rain. The basic types of sensors used to
detect these vibrations and stresses are strain sensitive cable, taut
wire, fiber optics, and capacitance.

❍ Strain sensitive cables. Strain sensitive cables are transducers

that are uniformly sensitive along their entire length. They
generate an analog voltage when subject to mechanical

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-9

 distortions or stress resulting from fence motion. Strain
sensitive cables are sensitive to both low and high frequencies.
Because the cable acts like a microphone, some manufacturers
offer an option that allows the operator to listen to fence
noises causing the alarm. Operators can then determine
whether the noises are naturally occurring sounds from wind
or rain or are from an actual intrusion attempt.

❍ Taut wire sensors. Taut wire sensors combine a physically

taut-wire barrier with an intrusion detection sensor network.
The taut wire sensor consists of a column of uniformly spaced
horizontal wires up to several hundred feet in length and
securely anchored at each end. Typically, the wires are spaced
4 to 8 inches apart. Each is individually tensioned and attached
to a detector located in a sensor post. Two types of detectors
are commonly used, mechanical switches and strain gauges.

❍ Fiber optic cable sensors. Fiber optic cable sensors are functionally
equivalent to the strain-sensitive cable sensors previously discussed.
However, rather than electrical signals, modulated light is
transmitted down the cable and the resulting received signals are
processed to determine whether an alarm should be initiated.
Because the cable contains no metal and no electrical signal
is present, fiber optic sensors are generally less susceptible to
electrical interference from lightning or other sources.

❍ Capacitance proximity sensors. Capacitance proximity sensors

measure the electrical capacitance between the ground and
an array of sense wires. Any variations in capacitance, such as
that caused by an intruder approaching or touching one of the
sense wires, initiates an alarm. These sensors usually consist of
two or three wires attached to outriggers along the top of an
existing fence, wall, or roof edge.

BURIED LINE SENSORS

A buried line sensor system consists of detection probes or cable
buried in the ground, typically between two fences that form an

D-10 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

isolation zone. These devices are wired to an electronic processing
unit. The processing unit generates an alarm if an intruder passes
through the detection field. Buried line sensors have several sig-
nificant features:

❍ They are hidden, making them difficult to detect and circumvent.

❍ They follow the terrain’s natural contour.

❍ They do not physically interfere with human activity, such as

grass mowing or snow removal.

❍ They are affected by certain environmental conditions, such

as running water and ground freeze/thaw cycles. (Seismic,
seismic/magnetic, magnetic, and balanced pressure sensors
are seldom used and will not be µdiscussed herein.)

MICROWAVE SENSORS
Microwave intrusion detection sensors are categorized as bistatic
or monostatic. Bistatic sensors use transmitting and receiving an-
tennas located at opposite ends of the microwave link, whereas
monostatic sensors use the same antenna.

❍ A bistatic system uses a transmitter and a receiver that are

typically separated by 100 to 1,200 feet and that are within
direct LOS of each other.

❍ Monostatic microwave sensors use the same antenna or

virtually coincident antenna arrays for the transmitter and
receiver, which are usually combined into a single package.

INFRARED (IR) SENSORS

The IR sensors are available in both active and passive models. An
active sensor generates one or more near-IR beams that generate
an alarm when interrupted. A passive sensor detects changes in
thermal IR radiation from objects located within its field of view.

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-11

 Active sensors consist of transmitter/receiver pairs. The trans-
mitter contains an IR light source (such as a gallium arsenide
light-emitting diode [LED]) that generates an IR beam. The light
source is usually modulated to reduce the sensor’s susceptibility to
unwanted alarms resulting from sunlight or other IR light sources.
The receiver detects changes in the signal power of the received
beam. To minimize nuisance alarms from birds or blowing debris,
the alarm criteria usually require that a high percentage of the
beam be blocked for a specific interval of time.

VIDEO MOTION SENSORS

Video motion sensors are available on most digital video re-
corders used in security applications. They can be programmed
to activate alarms, initiate recording, or any other designated ac-
tion when motion is detected by a security camera. Some digital
video recorders can be programmed to monitor very specific
fields of view for specific rates of motion in order to increase
effectiveness and minimize extraneous detections. Video mo-
tion sensors can also greatly improve the efficiency of security
personnel monitoring security cameras by alerting them when
motion is detected.

ELECTRONIC ENTRY CONTROL

The function of an entry control system is to ensure that only au-
thorized personnel are permitted into or out of a controlled area.
Entry can be controlled by locked fence gates, locked doors to a
building or rooms within a building, or specially designed portals.

These means of entry control can be applied manually by guards

or automatically by using entry control devices. In a manual
system, guards verify that a person is authorized to enter an area,
usually by comparing the photograph and personal characteristics
of the individual requesting entry. In an automated system, the
entry control device verifies that a person is authorized to enter or
exit. The automated system usually interfaces with locking mecha-
nisms on doors or gates that open momentarily to permit passage.

D-12 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

Mechanical hardware (e.g., locking mechanisms, electric door
strikes, and specially designed portal hardware) and equipment
used to detect contraband material (e.g., metal detectors, X-ray
baggage-search systems, explosives detectors, and special nuclear-
material monitors) are described in other documentation.

All entry control systems control passage by using one or more

of three basic techniques (e.g., something a person knows, some-
thing a person has, or something a person is or does). Automated
entry control devices based on these techniques are grouped into
three categories: coded, credential, and biometric devices.

CODED DEVICES
Coded devices operate on the principle that a person has been
issued a code to enter into an entry control device. This code will
match the code stored in the device and permit entry. Depending
on the application, a single code can be used by all persons au-
thorized to enter the controlled area or each authorized person
can be assigned a unique code. Group codes are useful when
the group is small and controls are primarily for keeping out the
general public. Individual codes are usually required for control
of entry to more critical areas. Coded devices verify the entered
code’s authenticity, and any person entering a correct code is au-
thorized to enter the controlled area. Electronically coded devices
include electronic and computer-controlled keypads.

Electronic Keypad Devices. The common telephone keypad (12

keys) is an example of an electronic keypad. This type of keypad
consists of simple push-button switches that, when depressed, are
decoded by digital logic circuits. When the correct sequence of
buttons is pushed, an electric signal unlocks the door for a few
seconds.

Computer-controlled Keypad Devices. These devices are similar to

electronic keypad devices, except they are equipped with a micro-
processor in the keypad or in a separate enclosure at a different
location. The microprocessor monitors the sequence in which the

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-13

 keys are depressed and may provide additional functions such as
personal ID and digit scrambling. When the correct code is entered
and all conditions are satisfied, an electric signal unlocks the door.

CREDENTIAL DEVICES
A credential device identifies a person having legitimate authority
to enter a controlled area. A coded credential (e.g., plastic card or
key) contains a prerecorded, machine-readable code. An electric
signal unlocks the door if the prerecorded code matches the code
stored in the system when the card is read. Like coded devices,
credential devices only authenticate the credential; it assumes a
user with an acceptable credential is authorized to enter. The most
commonly used types of cards are described as follows:

Magnetic-stripe Card. A strip of magnetic material located along

one edge of the card is encoded with data (sometimes encrypted).
The data is read by moving the card past a magnetic read head.

Wiegand-effect Card. The Wiegand-effect card contains a series

of small-diameter, parallel wires approximately 1⁄2-inch long,
embedded in the bottom half of the card. The wires are manufac-
tured from ferromagnetic materials that produce a sharp change
in magnetic flux when exposed to a slowly changing magnetic
field. This type of card is impervious to accidental erasure. The
card reader contains a small read head and a tiny magnet to
supply the applied magnetic field. It usually does not require ex-
ternal power.

Proximity Card. A proximity card is not physically inserted into a

reader; the coded pattern on the card is sensed when it is brought
within several inches of the reader. Several techniques are used
to code cards. One technique uses a number of electrically tuned
circuits embedded in the card. Data are encoded by varying
resonant frequencies of the tuned circuits. The reader contains
a transmitter that continually sweeps through a specified range
of frequencies and a receiver that senses the pattern of resonant
frequencies contained in the card. Another technique uses an

D-14 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

integrated circuit embedded in the card to generate a code that
can be magnetically or electro-statically coupled to the reader. The
power required to activate embedded circuitry can be provided by
a small battery embedded in the card or by magnetically coupling
power from the reader.

Smart Card. A smart card is embedded with a microprocessor,

memory, communication circuitry, and a battery. The card con-
tains edge contacts that enable a reader to communicate with the
microprocessor. Entry control information and other data may be
stored in the microprocessor’s memory.

Bar Code. A bar code consists of black bars printed on white

paper or tape that can be easily read with an optical scanner. This
type of coding is not widely used for entry control applications
because it can be easily duplicated. It is possible to conceal the
code by applying an opaque mask over it. In this approach, an IR
scanner is used to interpret the printed code. For low-level secu-
rity areas, the use of bar codes can provide a cost-effective solution
for entry control. Coded strips and opaque masks can be attached
to existing ID badges, alleviating the need for complete badge re-
placement.

BIOMETRIC DEVICES
The third basic technique used to control entry is based on the
measurement of one or more physical or personal characteristics
of an individual. Because most entry control devices based on
this technique rely on measurements of biological characteris-
tics, they have become commonly known as biometric devices.
Characteristics such as fingerprints, hand geometry, voiceprints,
handwriting, and retinal blood-vessel patterns have been used for
controlling entry. Typically, in enrolling individuals, several refer-
ence measurements are made of the selected characteristic and
then stored in the device’s memory or on a card. From then on,
when that person attempts entry, a scan of the characteristic is
compared with the reference data template. If a match is found,
entry is granted. Rather than verifying an artifact, such as a code

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-15

 or a credential, biometric devices verify a person’s physical char-
acteristic, thus providing a form of identity verification. Because
of this, biometric devices are sometimes referred to as personnel
identity verification devices. The most common biometric devices
are discussed below.

Fingerprints. Fingerprint-verification devices use one of two ap-

proaches. One is pattern recognition of the whorls, loops, and
tilts of the referenced fingerprint, which is stored in a digitized
representation of the image and compared with the fingerprint
of the prospective entrant. The second approach is minutiae com-
parison, which means that the endings and branching points of
ridges and valleys of the referenced fingerprint are compared with
the fingerprint of the prospective entrant.

Hand Geometry. Several devices are available that use hand ge-
ometry for personnel verification. These devices use a variety
of physical measurements of the hand, such as finger length,
finger curvature, hand width, webbing between fingers, and light
transmissivity through the skin to verify identity. Both two- and
three-dimensional units are available.

Retinal Patterns. This type of technique is based on the premise

that the pattern of blood vessels on the human eye’s retina is
unique to an individual. While the eye is focused on a visual
target, a low-intensity IR light beam scans a circular area of the
retina. The amount of light reflected from the eye is recorded as
the beam progresses around the circular path. Reflected light is
modulated by the difference in reflectivity between blood-vessel
pattern and adjacent tissue. This information is processed and
converted to a digital template that is stored as the eye’s signa-
ture. Users are allowed to wear contact lenses; however, glasses
should be removed.

D-16 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

MONITORING OF DESIGNATED RESTRICTED
AREAS
A restricted area is any area that can be monitored by electronic
devices and that is subject to special restrictions or controls for
security reasons. Restricted areas may be established for the fol-
lowing:

❍ The enforcement of security measures and the exclusion of

unauthorized personnel.

❍ Intensified controls in areas requiring special protection.

❍ The protection of classified information or critical equipment

or materials.

DEGREE OF SECURITY
The degree of security and control required depends on the na-
ture, sensitivity, or importance of the security interest. Restricted
areas are classified as controlled, limited, or exclusion areas:

Controlled Area. A controlled area is that portion of a restricted

area usually near or surrounding a limited or exclusion area.
Entry to the controlled area is restricted to personnel with a need
for access. Movement of authorized personnel within this area is
not necessarily controlled because mere entry to the area does not
provide access to the security interest. The controlled area is pro-
vided for administrative control, for safety, or as a buffer zone for
indepth security for the limited or exclusion area.

Limited Area . A limited area is a restricted area within close prox-

imity of a security interest. Uncontrolled movement may permit
access to the item. Escorts and other internal restrictions may pre-
vent access within limited areas.

Exclusion Area. An exclusion area is a restricted area containing a

security interest. Uncontrolled movement permits direct access to
the item.

ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS D-17

 There are other important considerations concerning restricted
areas and their lines of division. These considerations include the
following:

❍ A survey and analysis of the facility, its missions, and its security
interests. This can determine immediate and anticipated needs
that require protection. Anticipated needs are determined
from plans for the future.

❍ The size and nature of the security interest being protected.

Safes may provide adequate protection for classified
documents and small items; however, large items may have to
be placed within guarded enclosures.

❍ Some security interests are more sensitive to compromise

than others. Brief observation or a simple act by an untrained
person may constitute a compromise in some cases. In others,
detailed study and planned action by an expert may be
required.

D-18 ELECTRONIC SECURITY SYSTEMS

 BIBLIOGRAPHY E

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials
A Guide to Highway Vulnerability Assessment for Critical Asset
Identification and Protection, May 2002 , The American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials’ Security Task Force,
Washington, DC
http://security.transportation.org/community/security/guides.html

The American Institute of Architects

Building Security Through Design: A Primer for Architects, Design
Professionals, and their Clients, November 2001, The American
Institute of Architects (book)
http://www.aia.org/security

American Institute of Chemical Engineers

Pub No: G-79, Guidelines for Analyzing and Managing the Security
Vulnerabilities at Fixed Chemical Sites, 2002, Center for Chemical
Process Safety, ISBN No: 0-8169-0877-X
http://www.aiche.org/ccpssecurity

American Medical Association

Physical injuries and fatalities resulting from the Oklahoma City bombing,
August 7, 1996, S. Mallonee, S. Shariat, G. Stennies, R. Waxweiler,
D. Hogan, and F. Jordan., The Journal of the American Medical
Association, Vol. 276 No. 5., pp 382-387
Abstract at URL:
http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/276/5/382

American Society of Civil Engineers

Architectural Engineering Institute of American Society of Civil
Engineers, AEI Newsletter, The Team, Special Terrorism Issue, Fall 2001,
Volume 4, Issue 3
http://www.asce.org/pdf/aei_11_1.pdf

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-1
 Blast Effects on Buildings: Design of Buildings to Optimize Resistance to
Blast Loading, 1995, G.C. Mays and P.D. Smith, London: Thomas
Telford, Ltd., American Society of Civil Engineers, ISBN: 0-7277-2030-9
http://www.pubs.asce.org/BOOKdisplay.cgi?9990338

Blast Resistant Design of Commercial Buildings, 1996, M. Ettouney, R.

Smilowitz, and T. Rittenhouse, Practice Periodical on Structural
Design and Construction, Vol. 1, No. 1, February 1996, American
Society of Civil Engineers
http://ojps.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=PPSCFX&Volume=1&Issue=1
A preprint of the final article is available at
http://www.wai.com/AppliedScience/Blast/blast-struct-design.html

Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, 1997,

American Society of Civil Engineers, ISBN: 0-7844-0265-5
http://www.pubs.asce.org/BOOKdisplay.cgi?9704510

Glass-Related Injuries in Oklahoma City Bombing, Journal of

Performance of Constructed Facilities, May 1999, 13, No. 2, H
Scott Norville, Natalie Harville, Edward J. Conrath, Sheryll Shariat,
and Sue Mallonee
http://www.pubs.asce.org/WWWdisplay.cgi?9902006

Lessons from the Oklahoma City Bombing: Defensive Design Techniques,

January 1997, Eve E. Hinman and David J. Hammond, January
1997, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE Press), Reston,
VA, ISBN: 0784402175
http://www.asce.org/publications/booksdisplay.cfm?type=9702295

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02,
2002, American Society of Civil Engineers, ISBN: 0-7844-0624-
3 [Note revision of 7-98, does not include building security or
antiterrorism, but covers all natural hazards]
http://www.pubs.asce.org/ASCE7.html?9991330

Structural Engineering Institute of American Society of Civil

Engineers, Structural Design for Physical Security: State of the Practice,
1999, Edward Conrath, et al., Reston, VA, Structural Engineering
Institute of American Society of Civil Engineers
http://www.pubs.asce.org/BOOKdisplay.cgi?9990571

E-2 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Vulnerability and Protection of Infrastructure Systems: The State of the Art,
An ASCE Journals Special Publication compiling articles from 2002
and earlier available online
https://ascestore.aip.org/OA_HTML/aipCCtpItmDspRte.jsp?a=b
& item=39885

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air-Conditioning Engineers
Defensive Filtration, ASHRAE Journal, December 2002, James D. Miller
http://resourcecenter.ashrae.org/store/ashrae/
newstore.cgi?itemid= 9346&view=item&categoryid=409&page=1&l
oginid=29483

Report of Presidential Ad Hoc Committee for Building Health and Safety

under Extraordinary Incidents on Risk Management Guidance for Health,
Safety and Environmental Security under Extraordinary Incidents,
Washington, DC, January 26, 2003
http://xp20.ashrae.org/about/extraordinary.pdf

Risk Management Guidance for Health and Safety under Extraordinary

Incidents, ASHRAE 2002 Winter Meeting Report, January 12, 2002
http://atfp.nfesc.navy.mil/pdf/ASHRAE%20CBR%20Guidance.pdf
or
http://engineering.tamu.edu/safety/guidelines/faclab/ASHRAE_
Security_Rpt_12Jan02.pdf

Standard 62-2001, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (ANSI

Approved), ISSN 1041-2336, addenda to basic ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 62 basic (1989)
http://resourcecenter.ashrae.org/store/ashrae/newstore.cgi?
itemid= 6852&view=item&categoryid=311&page=1&loginid=29483

Building Owners and Managers Association

International
How to Design and Manage Your Preventive Maintenance Program, 1996
http://www.boma.org/pubs/bomapmp.htm

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-3
 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health
Publication No. 2002-139, Guidance for Protecting Building
Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks,
May 2002, Cincinnati, OH
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/bldvent/2002-139.html

Publication No. 2003-136, Guidance for Filtration and Air Cleaning

Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,
Biological, or Radiological Attacks, April 2003, Cincinnati, OH
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-136/2003-136.html

Central Intelligence Agency

Chemical, Biological, Radiological Incident Handbook, October 1998
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/cbr_handbook/cbrbook.htm

Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

Building Safety Enhancement Guidebook, 2002
http://www.ctbuh.org

Task Force on Tall Buildings: “The Future,” October 15, 2001

http://www.lehigh.edu/ctbuh/htmlfiles/hot_links/report.pdf
or http://www.ctbuh.org/htmlfiles/hot_links/report.pdf

Federal Aviation Administration

DOT/FAA/AR-00/52, Recommended Security Guidelines for Airport
Planning, Design and Construction, Revised June 2001, Associate
Administrator for Civil Aviation Security Office of Civil Aviation
Security, Policy and Planning, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC 20591 (not available on Internet)

FAA Order 1600.69A, FAA Facility Security Management Program,

updated FAA Order 1600.69B to be published shortly – The
Federal Aviation Administration’s criteria for the protection of its
facilities. [For Official Use Only] (not available on Internet)

E-4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEMA 152, Seismic Considerations: Apartment Buildings, Earthquake

Hazards Reduction Series 37, November 1988, Washington, DC (not
available on Internet) Contact FEMA Distribution Center, P.O.
Box 2012, 8231 Stayton Drive, Jessup, MD 20794-2012, Telephone:
1-800-480- 2520, Fax: 301-362-5335

FEMA 153, Seismic Considerations: Office Buildings, Earthquake Hazards

Reduction Series 38, November 1988, Washington, DC (not available
on Internet) Contact FEMA Distribution Center, P.O. Box 2012,
8231 Stayton Drive, Jessup, MD 20794-2012, Telephone: 1-800-480-
2520, Fax: 301-362-5335

FEMA 154, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Seismic Hazards: A

Handbook (2nd Edition), 2002, 1988, Washington, DC (not available
on Internet) Contact FEMA Distribution Center, P.O. Box 2012,
8231 Stayton Drive, Jessup, MD 20794-2012, Telephone: 1-800-480-
2520, Fax: 301-362-5335

FEMA 277, The Oklahoma City Bombing: Improving Building

Performance through Multi-Hazard Mitigation, August 1, 1996,
Washington, DC
http://www.fema.gov/mit/bpat/bpat009.htm

FEMA 372, Mitigation Resources for Success (CD-ROM), October 2001,

Washington, DC
http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/poster_fnl2.pdf

FEMA 386-2, Understanding Your Risks, Identifying Hazards and

Estimating Losses, August 2001
http://www.fema.gov/fima/planning_toc3.shtm

FEMA 386-7, Integrating Human-Caused Hazards Into Mitigation

Planning, September 2002
http://www.fema.gov/fima/antiterrorism/resources.shtm

FEMA 403, World Trade Center Building Performance Study: Data

Collection, Preliminary Observations, and Recommendations, May 2002,
Washington, DC
http://www.fema.gov/library/wtcstudy.shtm

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-5
 State and Local Guide 101, Guide for All-Hazard Emergency Operations
Planning, Chapter 6, Attachment G, Terrorism, April 2001
http://www.fema.gov/rrr/allhzpln.shtm

General Services Administration

Balancing Security and Openness: A Thematic Summary of a Symposium
on Security and the Design of Public Buildings, November 30, 1999
http://hydra.gsa.gov/pbs/pc/gd_files/SecurityOpenness.pdf

Cost Impact of ISC Security Criteria, GSA & Applied Research

Associates, Inc., L. Bryant and J. Smith, Vicksburg, MS
[Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov/specialphp/References.php

Facility Standards for the Public Building Service (PBS-P100); Chapter

8, Security Design, Revised November 2000
http://hydra.gsa.gov/pbs/pc/facilitiesstandards/

Mail Center Manager’s Security Guide – Second Edition, October 22, 2002
http://www.gsa.gov//attachments/GSA_PUBLICATIONS/
extpub/MailCenterManagersSecurityGuideV2.pdf

Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design Guidelines for New

Federal Office Buildings and Major Modernization Projects,
November 2000 [Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov/specialphp/References.php

Security Reference Manual, Part 3: Blast Design and Assessment

Guidelines, July 31, 2001 [For Official Use Only] [Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov/specialphp/References.php

Healthly Building International, Inc.

Vulnerability Assessments and Counter Terrorist Protocols
http://www.healthybuildings.com/s2/vacbt.pdf

Interagency Security Committee

(executive agent – GSA)
ISC Security Design Criteria for New Federal Office Buildings and Major
Modernization Projects, May 28, 2001, [For Official Use Only]

E-6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov/specialphp/References.php

Institute of Transportation Engineers

The Influence of Traffic Calming Devices upon Fire Vehicle Travel Times,
Michael A. Coleman, 1997, ITE Annual Meeting Compendium,
1997 pp. 838-845
http://webservices.camsys.com/fhwa/cmn/cmn33.htm

Split Speed Bump, 1998, Kathy Mulder, Washington, DC, TE

International Conference, 1998
http://www.ite.org/traffic/documents/CCA98A33.pdf

Lawrence Berkeley National Lab

Protecting Buildings From a Biological or Chemical Attack: actions to take
before or during a release. LBNL/PUB-51959, January 10, 2003
http://securebuildings.lbl.gov/images/bldgadvice.pdf

National Academy of Sciences

Combating Terrorism: Prioritizing Vulnerabilities and Developing
Mitigation Strategies, Project Identification Number: NAEP-R-02-01-
A, National Academy of Engineering on-going project – results to
be published.
http://www4.nationalacademies.org/webcr.nsf/ProjectScopeDisplay/
NAEP-R-02-01-A?OpenDocument

National Capital Planning Commission

Designing for Security in the Nation’s Capital, October 2001
http://www.ncpc.gov/planning_init/security/DesigningSec.pdf

The National Capital Planning Urban Design and Security Plan,

October 2002
http://www.ncpc.gov/publications/udsp/Final%20UDSP.pdf

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-7
 National Institute of Building Sciences
Whole Building Design Guide: Provide Security for Building Occupants
and Assets
http://www.wbdg.org/design/index.php?cn=2.7.4&cx=0

National Research Council

Protecting Buildings and People from Terrorism: Technology Transfer for
Blast-effects Mitigation, 2001, National Academy Press, Washington,
DC, ISBN 0-309-08286-2
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309082862/html/index.html

Protecting Buildings From Bomb Blast, Transfer of Blast-Effects Mitigation

Technologies from Military to Civilian Applications, 1995, National
Academy Press, Washington, DC, ISBN 0-309-05375-7
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309053757/html/index.html

Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism, 1988,

Committee on the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism,
Building Research Board, National Academy Press, Washington,
DC, ISBN 0-309-07691-9
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309076463/html/index.html

Society of American Military Engineers

National Symposium of Comprehensive Force Protection, October
2001, Charleston, SC, Lindbergh & Associates. For a list of
participants, access
http://www.same.org/forceprot/force.htm

Technical Support Working Group (TSWG)

Terrorist Bomb Threat Stand-Off Card with Explanation of Use
http://www.tswg.gov/tswg/prods_pubs/newBTSCPress.htm

The House National Security Committee

Statement of Chairman Floyd D. Spence on the Report of the
Bombing of Khobar Towers, August 1996, Washington, DC
http://www.house.gov/hasc/Publications/104thCongress/
Reports/saudi.pdf

E-8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
U.S. Air Force
ESL-TR-87-57, Protective Construction Design Manual, November
1989; Contact Airbase Technologies Division (AFRL/MLQ) at
Tyndall Air Force Base, FL, via e-mail to techinfo@afrl.af.mil.
[Superceded by Army Technical Manual TM 5-855-1 (Air Force
Pamphlet AFPAM 32-1147(I), Navy Manual NAVFAC P-1080,
DSWA Manual DAHSCWEMAN-97), December 1997]

Expedient Hardening Methods for Structures Subjected to the Effect of

Nonnuclear Munitions, October 1990, Wright Laboratory Report
(not available on Internet)

Installation Entry Control Facilities Design Guide, October 2002, Air

Force Center for Environmental Excellence
http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil/dc/dcd/gate/index.html

Installation Force Protection Guide, 1997, Air Force Center for

Environmental Excellence
http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil/dc/dcd/arch/force.pdf

Vehicle Bomb Mitigation Guide, July 1, 1999, Force Protection

Battlelab [For Official Use Only] Contact the USAF Force Protection
Battlelab, Lackland Air Force Base, TX, Telephone: (210)671-0058

U.S. Army
Field Manuals (FM)

FM 3-19.30, Physical Security, January 8, 2001, Washington, DC

http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/3-19.30/fm3-19.30.pdf
or
http://www.wood.army.mil/mpdoctrine/PDF_Files/FM_3-19.30.pdf

FM 5-114, Engineer Operations Short of War, July 13, 1992

http://155.217.58.58/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/5-114/toc.htm

Technical Instruction 853-01 (Draft), Protecting Buildings and Their

Occupants from Airborne Hazards, October 2001
http://buildingprotection.sbccom.army.mil/basic/airborne_hazards

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-9
 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Engineer Technical Letters (ETL)

ETL 1110-3-494, Airblast Protection Retrofit for Unreinforced

Concrete Masonry Walls, July 14, 1999 [Restricted Access]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-tech-ltrs

ETL 1110-3-495, Estimating Damage to Structures from Terrorist

Bombs Field Operations Guide, July 14, 1999 [Restricted Access]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-tech-ltrs

ETL 1110-3-498, Design of Collective Protection Shelters to

Resist Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR) Agents,
February 24, 1999
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-tech-ltrs

ETL 1110-3-501, Window Retrofit Using Fragment Retention

Film with Catcher Bar System, July 14, 1999 [Restricted Access]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-tech-ltrs

Protective Design – Mandatory Center of Expertise –

Technical Reports

PDC-TR-91-6, Blast Analysis Manual, Part 1 – Level of

Protection Assessment Guide, July 1991 [For Official Use Only]
Contact U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Protective Design
Center, ATTN: CENWO-ED-ST, 215 N. 17th Street, Omaha,
NE 68102-4978, Telephone: (402)221-4918

Technical Manuals (TM)

TM 5-853-1, Security Engineering Project Development, May 12,

1994, also Air Force Manual 32-1071, Volume 1
[For Official Use Only]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm

TM 5-853-2, Security Engineering Concept Design, May 12,

1994, also Air Force Manual 32-1071, Volume 2
[For Official Use Only]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm

TM 5-853-3, Security Engineering Final Design, May 12, 1994,

also Air Force Manual 32-1071, Volume 3

E-10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 [For Official Use Only]
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm

TM 5-853-4, Security Engineering Electronic Security Systems,

May 12, 1994
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm

TM 5-855-4, Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning of

Hardened Installations, November 28, 1986
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/armytm/tm5-
855-4/toc.htm

TM 5-1300, Structures to Resist Accidental Explosions,

November 19, 1990, (also Navy NAVFAC (Naval Facilities)
P-397, Air Force Regulation 88-2); Contact David Hyde,
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center,
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180 or via e-mail
to hyded@ex1.wes.army.mil

U.S. Department of Commerce

Administrative Orders (DAO)

DAO 206-5, Occasional Use of Public Areas in Public Buildings,

December 9, 1986
http://www.osec.doc.gov/bmi/daos/206-5.htm

DAO 207-1, Security Programs, June 24, 1991, Amended

September 6, 1991
http://www.osec.doc.gov/bmi/daos/207-1.htm

Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office

Vulnerability Assessment Framework 1.1, October 1998

http://www.ciao.gov/resource/vulassessframework.pdf

Practices For Securing Critical Information Assets, January 2000

http://www.ciao.gov/resource/Practices_For_Securing_
Critical_Information_Assets.pdf

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-11
 U.S. Department of Defense
DoD Security Engineering Manual [Expected to have a major portion
for public distribution once published as Unified Facilities Criteria
and a smaller portion For Official Use Only similar to the UFC
for AT Standards for Buildings listed below. This publication will
replace Army Technical Manual 5-853 (Air Force Joint Manual 32-
1071), Volumes 1, 2, and 3 and Navy Military Handbook 1013/1A]

DoD O-2000.12-H, Protection of DoD Personnel and Activities Against

Acts of Terrorism and Political Turbulence: Mandatory Standards and
Implementing Guidance, with Changes 1 and 2, February 1993,
Change 1 — May 21, 1993, Change 2 – October 3, 1997
[For Official Use Only]
http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pub1.html

Force Protection Equipment Demonstration IV, 6-8 May 2003

http://www.fped4.org

Interim Antiterrorism/Force Protection Construction Standards, December

16, 1999 [For Official Use Only] Contact U.S. Army Engineer
District, Omaha, NE ATTN: CENWO-ED-ST, 215 North 17th Street,
Omaha, NE 68102-4978, Telephone: (402)221-4918.

Interim Antiterrorism/Force Protection Construction Standards–

Progressive Collapse Guidance, April 4, 2000 (not available on
Internet) Contact U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Protective
Design Center, ATTN: CENWO-ED-ST, 215 N. 17th Street,
Omaha, NE 68102-4978, Telephone: (402)221-4918

Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC)

UFC 3-340-01, Design and Analysis of Hardened Structures to

Conventional Weapons Effects, June 30, 2002
[For Official Use Only] [Formerly Army TM 5-855-1]
http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/techinfo/ufc/UFC3-340-
01 WEB.PDF

UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Antiterrorism Standards for

Buildings, July 31, 2002
http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=ufc&
docid=106&ref=1

E-12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS)

UFGS-02821A, Fencing, February 2002

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/02821A.pdf

UFGS-02840A, Active Vehicle Barriers, February 2002

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/02840A.pdf

UFGS-02841N, Traffic Barriers, August 2001

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/02841N.pdf

UFGS-08390A, Blast Resistant Doors, April 2001

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/08390.pdf

UFGS-08581, Blast Resistant Tempered Glass Windows,

August 2001
http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/08581.pdf

UFGS-08840A, Plastic Glazing, July 1995

https://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/08840A.pdf

UFGS-08850, Fragment Retention Film for Glass, July 1992

https://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/08850.pdf

UFGS-11020, Security Vault Door, August 2002

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/11020.pdf

UFGS-11025, Forced Entry Resistant Components, August 2001

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/11025.pdf

UFGS-11035, Bullet-Resistant Components, April 2000

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/11035.pdf

UFGS-13095A, Electromagnetic (EM) Shielding, July 2001

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/13095A.pdf

UFGS-13420A, Self-Acting Blast Valves, November 1997

http://www.ccb.org/ufgs/pdf/13420A.pdf

U.S. Department of Energy

DOE/TIC 11268, A Manual for the Prediction of Blast and Fragment
Loadings on Structures, February 1992, Albuquerque. NM, Southwest
Research Institute [not available on Internet]

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-13
 U.S. Department of Homeland Security
National Strategy for Homeland Security, July 2002
http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/nat_strat_hls.pdf

The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures

and Key Assets, February 2003
http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/Physical_Strategy.pdf

National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace, February 2003

http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/National_Cyberspace_
Strategy.pdf

President's Homeland Security Advisory Council - Statewide Template

Initiative, March 2003
http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/Statewide_Template_
Initiative.pdf

State and Local Actions for Homeland Security, July 2002

http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/stateandlocal/State_and_
Local_Actions_for_Homeland_Security.pdf

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development
The Avoidance of Progressive Collapse, Regulatory approaches to the
problem, PB-248 781, October 1975, Division of Energy, Building
Technology and Standards, Office of Policy Development and
Research, Washington, DC 20410 (not available on Internet)

Creating Defensible Space, April 1996, Oscar Newman, Washington, DC

http://www.huduser.org

U.S. Department of Justice

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Terrorism in the United States, 1999, Washington, DC,

Counterterrorism Division
http://www.fbi.gov/publications.htm

E-14 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Office of Domestic Preparedness (ODP)

Fiscal Year 1999 State Domestic Preparedness Equipment

Program, Assessment and Strategy Development Tool Kit,
NCJ181200, May 15, 2000, [For Official Use Only]
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/odp/docs/assessment.txt

National Institute of Justice (NIJ)

The Appropriate and Effective Use of Security Technologies in

U.S. Schools: A Guide for Schools and Law Enforcement Agencies,
September 1999, with U.S. Department of Education, Safe
and Drug-Free Schools Program; and U.S. Department of
Energy, Sandia National Laboratories
http://www.ncjrs.org/school/home.html

NIJ Guide 100-00, Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and
Toxic Industrial Material Detection Equipment for Emergency First
Responders, June 2000
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/184449.pdf

NIJ Guide 101-00, An Introduction to Biological Agent Detection

Equipment for Emergency First Responders, December 2001
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/190747.pdf

NIJ Guide 102-00, Guide for the Selection of Personal Protective

Equipment for Emergency First Responders, Volumes I-IV,
November 2002
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/191518.pdf

NIJ Guide 602-00, Guide to the Technologies of Concealed

Weapon and Contraband Imaging and Detection,
February 2001
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/184432.pdf

NIJ Standard 0108.01, Blast Resistant Protective Materials,

September 1985 [Subscription Required]
http://www.ccb.org

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-15
 Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design and
Community Policing, August 1996, Dan Fleissner and Fred
Heinzelmann, Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/crimepre.pdf

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Parking

Facilities, April 1996, Mary S. Smith, Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/cptedpkg.pdf

“Designing Out” Gang Homicides and Street Assaults,

November 1998, James Lasley, Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/173398.pdf

The Expanding Role of Crime Prevention Through

Environmental Design in Premises Liability, April 1996, Corey
L. Gordon and William Brill Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/cptedlia.pdf

Physical Environment and Crime, January 1996, Ralph B.

Taylor and Adele V. Harrell, Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/physenv.pdf

Visibility and Vigilance: Metro’s Situational Approach to

Preventing Subway Crime, November 1997, Nancy G La
Vigne, Washington, DC
http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/166372.pdf

U.S. Marshals Service

Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities, June 28, 1995

[Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic

Security
Architectural Engineering Design Guidelines (5 Volumes), March 1998
[For Official Use Only] (not available on Internet)

Certification Standard SD-STD-01.01, Revision G (Amended),

Forced Entry and Ballistic Resistance of Structural Systems, Amended

E-16 BIBLIOGRAPHY
April 30, 1993 [Subscription Required]
http://www.ccb.org

Patterns of Global Terrorism, 2002, April 2002, Washington, DC

http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2002/pdf/

Physical Security Standards Handbook, January 7, 1998 [For Official Use

Only] (not available on Internet)

Structural Engineering Guidelines for New Embassy Office Buildings,

August 1995 [For Official Use Only] (not available on Internet)

The Report of the Accountability Review Board on the Embassy Bombings

in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam on August 7, 1998, January 1999,
Washington, DC
http://www.state.gov/www/regions/africa/accountability_report.html

U.S. Department of the Treasury/Bureau of

Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
Vehicle Bomb Explosion Hazard And Evacuation Distance Tables, 1999,
request in writing, address information available at
http://www.atf.treas.gov/pub/fire-explo_pub/i54001.htm

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

Physical Security Assessment of Veterans Affairs Facilities,
Recommendations of the National Institute of Building Sciences Task
Group to the Department of Veterans Affairs, 6 September 2002
http://www.va.gov/facmgt/standard/etc/vaphysicalsecurityreport.pdf

U.S. Fire Administration (USFA of FEMA)

The Critical Infrastructure Protection Process Job Aid, May 1, 2002
http://www.usfa.fema.gov/dhtml/fire-service/cipc-jobaid.cfm

U.S. Navy
Design Manuals (DM) NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Command)

NAVFAC DM 2.08, Blast Resistant Structures, December 1986

http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=nav&
docid=46&ref=1

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-17
 NAVFAC DM 13.02, Commercial Intrusion Detection Systems
(IDS), September 1986
http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=nav&
docid=47&ref=1

Interim Technical Guidance (ITG) 03-03, Entry Control

Facilities, 20 February 2003
http://www.lantdiv.navfac.navy.mil/servlet page?pageid=
8609,8611 &_dad= lantdiv&_schema=LANTDIV&11435_
ACTIVE_1777132.p_ subid= 60007&11435_ACTIVE_1777
132.p_sub_siteid=51 &11435_ ACTIVE_1777132.p_edit=0

Military Handbooks (MIL-HDBK)

MIL-HDBK-1002/1, Structural Engineering General

Requirements, November 30, 1987
http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=nav&
docid=48&ref=1

MIL-HDBK-1004/4, Electrical Utilization Systems,

October 13, 1987
http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=nav&
docid=49&ref=1

MIL-HDBK-1012/3, Telecommunications Premises Distribution

Planning, Design, and Estimating, May 31, 1996
http://www.wbdg.org/ccbref/ccbdoc.php?category=nav&
docid=50&ref=1

MIL-HDBK-1013/1A, Design Guidelines for Physical Security

of Fixed Land-Based Facilities, December 15, 1993. For
copies, contact Defense Printing Service, Building 40, 700
Robbins Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Telephone:
(215)697-2179, Fax: (215)697-1462 or available on the
National Institute of Building Sciences’ Construction
Criteria Base

MIL-HDBK-1013/10, Design Guidelines for Security Fencing,

Gates, Barriers, and Guard Facilities, May 14, 1993. For
copies, contact Defense Printing Service, Building 40, 700

E-18 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Robbins Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Telephone:
(215)697-2179, Fax: (215) 697-1462 or available on the
National Institute of Building Sciences’ Construction
Criteria Base

MIL-HDBK-1013/12, Evaluation of Security Glazing for

Ballistic, Bomb, and Forced Entry Tactics, March 10, 1997. For
copies, contact Defense Printing Service, Building 40, 700
Robbins Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Telephone:
(215)697-2179, Fax: (215) 697-1462 or available on the
National Institute of Building Sciences’ Construction
Criteria Base

MIL-HDBK-1013/14, Selection and Application of Vehicle

Barriers, February 1, 1999. For copies, contact Defense
Printing Service, Building 40, 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Telephone: (215)697-2179,
Fax: (215)697-1462 or available on the National Institute of
Building Sciences’ Construction Criteria Base

TechData Sheets – Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center

(NFESC)

TDS-2062-SHR, Estimating Damage to Structures from Terrorist

Bombs, September 1998 [For Official Use Only] Requests for
publication can be made to Naval Facilities Engineering
Service Center, Security Engineering Division (ESC66),
1100 23rd Ave, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4370, Telephone
(805)982-1582 (Primary), (805)982-4817 (Alternate); Fax:
(805)982-1253

TDS-2063-SHR, Blast Shielding Walls, September 1998 [For

Official Use Only] Requests for publication can be made
to Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, Security
Engineering Division (ESC66), 1100 23rd Ave., Port
Hueneme, CA 93043-4370, Telephone: (805)982-1582
(Primary), (805)982-4817 (Alternate); Fax: (805)982-1253

TDS-2079-SHR, Planning and Design Considerations for

Incorporating Blast Mitigation in Mailrooms, May 2000. For
copies, contact Defense Printing Service, Building 40, 700

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-19
 Robbins Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094, Telephone:
(215)697-2179, Fax: (215) 697-1462

TDS-2090-SHR, Design Parametesr for a Controlled Entry Point.

For copies, contact Defense Printing Service, Building
40, 700 Robbins Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094,
Telephone: (215)697-2179, Fax: (215)697-1462

User Guides — Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center

(NFESC)

UG-2030-SHR, Security Glazing Applications, May 1998,

distributed June 25, 1998. [For Official Use Only] Requests
for publication can be made to Naval Facilities Engineering
Service Center, Security Engineering Division (ESC66),
1100 23rd Ave., Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4370, Telephone:
(805)982-1582 (Primary), (805) 982-4817 (Alternate); Fax:
(805)982-1253

UG-2031-SHR, Protection Against Terrorist Vehicle Bombs, May

1998, distributed June 25, 1998. [For Official Use Only]
Requests for publication can be made to Naval Facilities
Engineering Service Center, Security Engineering Division
(ESC66), 1100 23rd Ave, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4370,
Telephone: (805)982-15.82 (Primary), (805) 982-4817
(Alternate); Fax: (805)982-1253

Other Books, Magazines, Magazine Articles, and

Newspaper Articles
Archibald, Rae W., et al., 2002, Security and Safety in Los Angeles
High-Rise Buildings after 9/11. RAND, Santa Monica, CA,
ISBN: 0-8330-3184-8
http://www.rand.org/publications/DB/DB381

Atlas, Randall I., June 1998, Designing for Crime and Terrorism, Security
and Technology Design, Security Technology and Design Magazine
Reprint Services, Jim Benesh, Telephone: (800)547-7377 x324, Fax:
(920)568-2244, e-mail: jim.benesh@cygnuspub.com

E-20 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Broder, James F., December 15, 1999, Risk Analysis and the Security
Survey, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA,
ISBN: 0750670894

Craighead, Geoff, December 2002, High-Rise Security and Fire Life

Safety, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, ISBN: 0750674555

Crowe, Timothy D., 2000, Crime Prevention Through Environmental

Design: Applications Of Architectural Design And Space Management
Concepts (2nd Edition), Stoneham, MA, Butterworth-Heinemann,
ISBN: 075067198X

Fehr, Stephen C., July 1996, Parking Under Siege in D.C.: U.S.
Anti-Terrorism Plan Threatens 360 Spaces, The Washington Post,
July 13, 1996
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/archives/advanced.htm

Fenelly, Lawrence J, June 1997, Effective Physical Security, 2nd Edition,

Stoneham, MA, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN: 0-75-069873-X

Garcia, Mary Lynn, February 23, 2001, The Design and Evaluation
of Physical Protection Systems, Stoneham, MA, Butterworth-
Heinemann, ISBN: 0750673672

Gonchar, Joann, March 2002, Building for a Secure Future:

Government Facilities under way incorporate already tough
standards, Engineering News-Record, March 25, 2002
http://www.construction.com/NewsCenter/Headlines/ENR/
20020325e.asp

Greene, R.W., October 2002, Confronting Catastrophe: A GIS

Handbook, ESRI Press, ISBN: 1589480406

Hart, Sara, March 2002, In the aftermath of September 11, the

urban landscape appears vulnerable and random: Architects and
consultants focus on risk assessment and security through design,
Architectural Record, March 2002
http://archrecord.construction.com/CONTEDUC/ARTICLES/
03_02_1.asp

Kowalski, Wladyslaw Jan, P.E., Ph.D., September 26, 2002, Immune

Building Systems Technology, McGraw-Hill Professional,
ISBN: 0-07-140246-2

BIBLIOGRAPHY E-21
 Nadel, Barbara A, March 1998, Designing for Security, Architectural
Record, March 1998
http://www.archrecord.com/CONTEDUC/ARTICLES/3_98_1.asp

Owen, David D. and R.S.Means Engineering Staff, Building Security:

Strategies and Costs, Construction Publishers & Consultants,
ISBN: 0-87629-698-3, 2003

Pearson, Robert, September 1997, Security through Environmental

Design, Security and Technology Design, Security Technology
and Design Magazine Reprint Services, Jim Benesh,
Telephone: (800) 547-7377 x324; Fax: (920) 568-2244; e-mail:
jim.benesh@cygnuspub.com

Rochon, Donald M., June 1998, Architectural Design for Security,

Security and Technology Design, Security Technology and Design
Magazine Reprint Services, Jim Benesh, Telephone: (800)547-7377
x324; Fax: (920)568-2244; e-mail: jim.benesh@cygnuspub.com

Security Magazine [on-line magazine]

http://www.securitymagazine.com

Security Solutions Online: Access Control and Security Systems

[on-line magazine] http://securitysolutions.com/

Security Technology and Design [on-line and print magazine]

http://www.st-and-d.com

Sidell, Frederick R., et al, 1998, Jane’s Chem-Bio Handbook, Jane’s

Information Group, Alexandria, VA, ISBN 0-7106 2568-5
http://www.janes.com/company/catalog/chem_bio_hand.shtml

Smith, Keith, November 2000, Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk

and Reducing Disaster, Routledge, New York, NY, ISBN 0415224632
http://www.routledge-ny.com/books.cfm?isbn=0415224632

E-22 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F

❍ American Lifelines Alliance

http://www.americanlifelinesalliance.org

❍ Applied Technology Council

http://www.atcouncil.org

❍ Battelle Memorial Institute, National Security Program

http://www.battelle.org/natsecurity/default.stm

❍ Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)

http://www.csis.org

❍ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh

❍ Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

http://www.cia.gov

❍ Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH)

http://www.ctbuh.org

❍ Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

http://www.faa.gov

❍ Healthy Buildings International, Inc.

http://www.healthybuildings.com

❍ Institute of Transportation Engineers

http://www.ite.org

❍ Interagency Security Committee (ISC) led by the U.S. General

Services Administration [Restricted Access]
http://www.oca.gsa.gov

❍ International CPTED [Crime Prevention Through

Environmental Design] Association (ICA)
http://new.cpted.net/home.amt

❍ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)

http://securebuildings.lbl.gov

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-1

 ❍ National Academy of Sciences
http://www4.nationalacademies.org/nas/nashome.nsf

• Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Standing Committee on

Physical Security and Hazard Mitigation
http://www7.nationalacademies.org/ffc/Physical_
Security_ Hazard_Mitigation.html

• National Research Council

http://www.nationalacademies.org/nrc

❍ National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA)

http://www.ndia.org

❍ Public Entity Risk Institute

http://www.riskinstitute.org

❍ Security Design Coalition

http://www.designingforsecurity.org

❍ Security Industry Association (SIA)

http://www.siaonline.org/

❍ Technical Support Working Group

(Departments of Defense and State)
http://www.tswg.gov

❍ U.S. Air Force Electronic System Center (ESC),

Hanscom Air Force Base
http://eschq.hanscom.af.mil/

❍ U.S. Army Soldiers and Biological Chemical Command

(SBCCOM): Basic Information on Building Protection
http://buildingprotection.sbccom.army.mil

❍ U.S. Department of Justice

http://www.usdoj.gov

• Federal Bureau of Investigation: Terrorism in the United

States reports
http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terroris.htm

• National Institute of Justice (NIJ)

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij

F-2 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

 • Office of Domestic Preparedness (ODP)
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/odp

• U.S. Marshals Service (USMS)

http://www.usdoj.gov/marshals

The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP)

http://www.tisp.org

Founding Organizations

❍ American Council of Engineering Companies (ACEC)

http://www.acec.org

❍ The American Institute of Architects (AIA), Security Resource

Center
http://www.aia.org/security

❍ American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

http://www.asce.org

• Architectural Engineering Institute (AEI) of ASCE

http://www.asce.org/instfound/aei.cfm

• Civil Engineering Research Foundation (CERF) of ASCE

http://www.cerf.org

• Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) of ASCE

http://www.seinstitute.org

❍ Associated General Contractors of America

http://www.agc.org

❍ Construction Industry Institute

http://construction-institute.org

❍ Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

http://www.fema.gov

• Building Performance Assessment Team

http://www.fema.gov/mit/bpat

• Human Caused Hazards

http://www.fema.gov/hazards

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-3

 • Mitigation Planning
http://www.fema.gov/fima/planning.shtm

❍ Federal Facilities Council – See National Academy of Sciences

❍ National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),

Building and Fire Research Laboratory
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov

❍ Naval Facilities Engineering Command

http://www.navfac.navy.mil

• Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center (NFESC),

Security Engineering Center of Expertise ESC66
http://atfp.nfesc.navy.mil

❍ Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)

http://www.same.org

❍ U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

http://www.usace.army.mil

• Blast Mitigation Action Group, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers Center of Expertise for Protective Design
http://bmag.nwo.usace.army.mil

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Electronic Security Center

http://www.hnd.usace.army.mil/esc

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Protective Design Center

http://pdc.nwo.usace.army.mil

Selected Member Organizations

❍ Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Inc.

http://www.ari.org

❍ Air Conditioning Contractors of America

http://www.acca.org

❍ Airport Consultants Council

http://www.acconline.org

❍ Alliance for Fire & Smoke Containment & Control

http://www.afscconline.org

F-4 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

❍ American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO)
http://www.transportation.org

❍ American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Center for

Chemical Process Safety
http://www.aiche.org/ccps

❍ American Planning Association

http://www.planning.org

❍ American Portland Cement Alliance

http://www.portcement.org/apca

❍ American Public Works Association

http://www.apwa.net

❍ American Railway Engineering & Maintenance of Way

Association
http://www.arema.org

❍ American Society for Industrial Security International (ASIS)

http://www.asisonline.org

❍ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
http://www.ashrae.org

❍ American Society of Interior Designers

http://www.asid.org

❍ American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)

http://www.asla.org

❍ American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

http://www.asme.org

❍ American Underground Construction Association (AUA)

http://www.auca.org or http://www.auaonline.org

❍ American Water Resources Association (AWRA)

http://www.awra.org

❍ Associated Locksmiths of America

http://www.aloa.org

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-5

 ❍ Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies
http://www.amwa.net

❍ Association of State Dam Safety Officials

http://www.damsafety.org

❍ Building Futures Council

http://www.thebfc.com

❍ Building Owners and Managers Association International

(BOMA), Emergency Resource Center
http://www.boma.org/emergency

❍ California Department of Health Services, Division of

Drinking Water & Environmental Management
http://www.dhs.cahwnet.gov/ps/ddwem

❍ Construction Industry Roundtable

http://www.cirt.org

❍ Construction Innovation Forum

http://www.cif.org

❍ Construction Specifications Institute

http://www.csinet.org

❍ Construction Users Roundtable

http://www.curt.org

❍ Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA)

http://www.dtra.mil

❍ Design-Build Institute of America

http://www.dbia.org

❍ Drexel (University) Intelligent Infrastructure &

Transportation Safety Institute
http://www.di3.drexel.edu

❍ Federal Highway Administration

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov

❍ Florida Department of Transportation, Emergency

Management Office
http://www11.myflorida.com/safety/Emp/emp.htm

F-6 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

 or
Florida Department of Community Affairs, Division of
Emergency Management
http://www.floridadisaster.org/bpr/EMTOOLS/Severe/
terrorism.htm
or
http://www.dca.state.fl.us/bpr/EMTOOLS/CIP/critical_
infrastructure_protecti.htm

❍ George Washington University, Institute for Crisis, Disaster,

and Risk Management
http://www.cee.seas.gwu.edu
or
http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~icdm

❍ Homeland Protection Institute, Ltd.

http://www.hpi-tech.org

❍ Inland Rivers Ports and Terminals

http://www.irpt.net

❍ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. - USA

http://www.ieeeusa.org or http://www.ieee.org/portal/
index.jsp

❍ International Association of Foundation Drilling

http://www.adsc-iafd.com

❍ International Code Council (ICC)

http://www.intlcode.org
Consolidates services, products, and operations of BOCA
(Building Officials and Code Administrators), ICBO
(International Conference of Building Officials) and SBCCI
(Southern Building Code Congress International) into one
member service organization — the International Code Council
(ICC) in January 2003.

❍ International Facility Management Association (IFMA)

http://www.ifma.org

❍ Market Development Alliance of the FRP Composites Industry

http://www.mdacomposites.org

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-7

 ❍ Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering
Research
http://mceer.buffalo.edu

❍ National Aeronautics and Space Administration

http://www.nasa.gov

❍ National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC)

http://www.ncpc.gov

• Security and Urban Design

http://www.ncpc.gov/planning_init/security.html

❍ National Center for Manufacturing Sciences

http://www.ncms.org

❍ National Concrete Masonry Association

http://www.ncma.org

❍ National Conference of States on Building Codes and

Standards
http://www.ncsbcs.org

❍ National Council of Structural Engineers Associations

(NCSEA) http://www.ncsea.com or
http://dwp.bigplanet.com/engineers/homepage

❍ National Crime Prevention Institute

http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/ja/ncpi/courses.htm

❍ National Fire Protection Association

http://www.nfpa.org

❍ National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS)

http://www.nibs.org and http://www.wbdg.org

❍ National Park Service, Denver Service Center

http://www.nps.gov/dsc

❍ National Precast Concrete Association

http://www.precast.org

❍ National Wilderness Training Center, Inc.

http://www.wildernesstraining.net

F-8 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

❍ New York City Office of Emergency Preparedness
http://www.nyc.gov/html/oem

❍ Ohio State University

http://www.osu.edu/homelandsecurity

❍ Pentagon Renovation Program

http://renovation.pentagon.mil

❍ Portland Cement Association (PCA)

http://www.portcement.org

❍ Primary Glass Manufacturers Council

http://www.primaryglass.org

❍ Protective Glazing Council

http://www.protectiveglazing.org

❍ Protective Technology Center at Penn State University

http://www.ptc.psu.edu

❍ SAVE International
http://www.value-eng.org

❍ Society of Fire Protection Engineers

http://www.sfpe.org

❍ Southern Building Code Congress, International

http://www.sbcci.org

❍ Sustainable Buildings Industry Council

http://www.sbicouncil.org

❍ Transit Standards Consortium

http://www.tsconsortium.org

❍ Transportation Research Board/Marine Board

http://www.trb.org

❍ Transportation Security Administration - Maritime and Land

http://www.tsa.dot.gov

❍ U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency

http://www.afcesa.af.mil

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-9

 ❍ U.S. Coast Guard
http://www.uscg.mil

❍ U.S. Department of Energy

http://www.energy.gov

• Sandia National Laboratories (SNL)

http://www.sandia.gov

• Architectural Surety Program

http://www.sandia.gov/archsur

• Critical Infrastructure Protection Initiative

http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/LN02-11-00/
steam_story.html

❍ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

http://www.hhs.gov

❍ U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)

http://www.va.gov/facmgt

❍ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Chemical

Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office (CEPPO)–
Counter-terrorism
http://www.epa.gov/swercepp/cntr-ter.html

❍ U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)

http://www.gsa.gov

• Office of Federal Protective Service (FPS) of GSA

http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/content/orgs_content.jsp?
contentOID=117945&contentType=1005&P=1&S=1

• Office of Public Building Service (PBS) of GSA

http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/content/orgs_content.jsp?
contentOID=22883&contentType=1005&PPzz=1&S=1

• Office of the Chief Architect of GSA

http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/content/orgs_content.jsp?
contentOID=22899&contentType=1005
and
http://www.oca.gsa.gov

F-10 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

❍ U.S. Green Building Council
http://www.usgbc.org

❍ U.S. Marine Corps Headquarters

http://www.usmc.mil

❍ U.S. Society on Dams

http://www.ussdams.org

❍ University of Missouri, Department of Civil & Environmental

Engineering, National Center for Explosion Resistant Design
http://www.engineering.missouri.edu/explosion.htm

❍ Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

http://www.ce.vt.edu

❍ Water and Wastewater Equipment Manufacturers Association

http://www.wwema.org

The Partnership for Critical Infrastructure (PCIS)

http://www.pcis.org

Note: Involved mainly with information systems and not building

real property.

Government
❍ Department of Commerce Critical Infrastructure Assurance
Office (CIAO)
http://www.ciao.gov

❍ Department of Energy (DOE)

http://www.energy.gov

❍ Department of Homeland Security

http://www.whitehouse.gov/deptofhomeland

❍ National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC)

http://www.nipc.gov

Private Sector
❍ Anser Institute for Homeland Security (ANSER)
http://www.homelandsecurity.org

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-11

 ❍ CERT® Coordination Center (CERT/CC)
http://www.cert.org

❍ Electronic Warfare Associates (EWA)

http://www.ewa.com

❍ Information Technology Association of America (ITAA)

http://www.itaa.org

❍ The Institute for Internal Auditors (IIA)

http://www.theiia.org

❍ National Cyber Security Alliance (Alliance)

http://www.staysafeonline.info

❍ North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC)

http://www.nerc.com

❍ SANS Institute (SANS - SysAdmin, Audit, Network, Security)

http://www.sans.org

❍ The Financial Services Roundtable Technology Group (BITS)

http://www.bitsinfo.org

❍ The U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Center for Corporate

Citizenship (CCC)
http://www.uschamber.com/ccc

Selected States and Local Organizations

❍ Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies
http://www.amwa.net

❍ The Council of State Governments (CSG)

http://www.csg.org

❍ International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM)

http://www.iaem.com

❍ National Association of State CIOs (NASCIO)

http://www.nascio.org

❍ National Emergency Managers Association (NEMA)

http://www.nemaweb.org

F-12 ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

❍ National Governor’s Association (NGA)
http://www.nga.org

❍ The National League of Cities (NLC)

http://www.nlc.org

ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS F-13