Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Country report

Municipal solid waste management challenges in

developing countries – Kenyan case study
Rotich K. Henry, Zhao Yongsheng *, Dong Jun
College of Environment and Resources, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China

Accepted 4 March 2005

Available online 11 July 2005

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of the state of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) by local authorities in Kenya as a
case study of a low-income developing country. Approaches of possible solutions that can be undertaken to improve municipal solid
waste (MSW) services are discussed. Poor economic growth (1.1% in 1993) has resulted in an increase in the poverty level which
presently stands at 56%. Migration from the rural areas to the urban areas has resulted in unplanned settlements in suburban areas
accommodating about 60% of the urban population on only 5% urban land area. Political interference also hampers smooth run-
ning of local authorities. Vulnerability of pollution of surface and groundwater is high because local authorities rarely considered
environmental impact in siting MSW disposal sites. Illegal dumping of MSW on the river banks or on the roadside poses environ-
mental and economic threats on nearby properties. Poor servicing of MSW collection vehicles, poor state of infrastructure and the
lack of adequate funding militate against optimization of MSW disposal service. The rural economy needs to be improved if rural–
urban migration is to be managed. Involvement of stakeholders is important to achieve any meaningful and sustainable MSWM.
The role of the informal sector through community-based organizations (CBOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and
the private sector in offering solutions towards improvement of MSWM also is explored.
Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Kenya is a developing country, with a land area of

about 569,137 km2 and a population of about 33.4 mil-
Kenya is located in the eastern part of Africa. It lies lion. The urban population constitutes about 34% of the
between latitudes 4°N and 4°S and between longitudes total population and is mainly concentrated in three ma-
34°E and 41°E. The country is bordered by the Indian jor cities and two towns as shown in Table 1. There are
Ocean, Somali, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. 194 urban centers distributed across the country. Each
The climate is tropical along the coast, temperate in the urban center is managed by a local council made up of
interior and semi-arid to arid in the eastern and north- elected or nominated councilors and a town clerk nom-
ern parts of the country. The topography is character- inated by the Ministry of Local Government to which
ized by a plateau which gradually rises from sea level all local authorities are answerable. The Ministry of Lo-
at the coast and peaks at Mount Kenya (5199 m) in cal Government drafts laws governing the administra-
the central part of the country. The rift valley splits tion of local authorities and has the power to dissolve
the country into two parts: the western area which is the local authorityÕs management and call for new may-
more agriculturally fertile and the eastern part which re- oral elections.
ceives low rainfall and is mainly inhabited by shepherds. Kenya is administratively divided into the following
eight provinces: Nairobi area, Eastern, Northeastern,
*
Corresponding author. Fax: +86 431 8502608. Coast, Rift Valley, Western, Central and Nyanza. Each
E-mail address: zhaoyongsheng@jlu.edu.cn (Z. Yongsheng). province has a provincial administrative headquarters

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007
 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100 93

Table 1
Urban population distribution and composition in some selected regions
City/town Population Population density Population living Absolute poverty Unemployment rates Rainfall
(persons/sq. km.) in slums (%) (%) (%) (mm/year)
Nairobi 2,312,000 3079 57 52.24 48 800–1500
Mombasa 695,000 2896 80 38.32 45 1250–1650
Kisumu 500,734 1560 70 63.75 60 1740–1940
Nakuru 317,000 1000 65 40.58 35 950
Eldoret 167,016 855 60 35.76 30 1270–1790

that is answerable to the central government. About estimated at 42.58%, while those living at poverty levels
80% of the land is arid to semi-arid and supports only (<1 US$/day) is 9.29% (Mukui, 1994). Per capita income
20% of the population, while 20% of the land is arable was as low as 239 US$ in 2002 in Kenya, and those liv-
and supports 80% of the population. According to re- ing at poverty level stands at 56% nationally (Waithaka
ports by the Ministry of Finance and Planning and the et al., 2003).
Japan International Cooperation Agency, (GOK, Life expectancy has also been on the decline. In the
2001; JICA, 2002), the rate of urbanization stands at 1980s, it was 57.9 and 65.9 years for males and females,
10% per annum compared to the countryÕs overall pop- respectively, while in 2002 the figures had dropped to
ulation growth rate of 2.6%. This shows that there is a 52.8 and 60.4. This is because of the rise in poverty
significant rural–urban migration rate. The composition and the dwindling provision of health services by the
of the urban population shows that about 60% live in government. The rate of unemployment stands at 23%
suburban areas, concentrated in 5% of the total urban of the total population.
land area. The data in Table 2 provides the population
distribution of selected areas in Nairobi (GOK, 1999). 1.1. Municipal solid waste management
The trend is similar is most urban areas in Kenya.
The suburban areas generally are densely populated Municipal solid waste management (MSWM)
and lack good infrastructure, basic social services and encompasses the functions of collection, transfer, re-
amenities. The suburban population is mainly consti- source recovery, recycling, and treatment. The primary
tuted by rural–urban migrants, poor unemployed per- target of MSWM is to protect the health of the pop-
sons and low-income workers who live in poor ulation, promote environmental quality, develop
accommodation structures. Like many developing coun- sustainability, and provide support to economic pro-
tries, Kenya has continued to experience socio-economic ductivity. To meet these goals, sustainable solid waste
pressures, which have led to a decline in economic management systems must be embraced fully by local
growth, from 4.8% in 1995, to 1.8% in 1998 to an esti- authorities in collaboration with both the public and
mated 1.1% for 2003 (GOK, 2002; JICA, 2002). This private sectors. Although in developing countries the
has had adverse effects on both rural and urban dwell- quantity of solid waste generated in urban areas is
ers. In urban areas, the households with a prevalent lack low compared to industrialized countries, the MSWM
of adequate food as a percentage of total population is still remains inadequate.

Table 2
Population sizes and densities in selected areas in Nairobi (1999)
Residential area Population Number of Area (hectares) Density
households (persons/hectare)
High income areas
Karen 9764 3381 2730 4
Muthaiga 6786 1681 1410 5
Lavington 18,966 5815 1100 17
Loresho 15,784 5131 950 17
Middle income areas
Langata 16,118 5051 4450 4
Highridge 46,642 13,019 4230 11
Parkland 11,456 3369 460 25
Kitisuru 27,459 8603 2090 13
Low income areas
Kibera Silanga 16,518 6281 20 826
Korogocho Gitathuru 22,899 7415 30 763
Mukuru Nyayo 36,232 10,224 230 158
Mathare 69,003 24,525 150 460
94 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100

In Kenya local authorities are charged with the were tailored to derive information on: (1)
responsibility of collecting and disposing of solid and li- MSW collection and disposal status and
quid municipal wastes within their areas of jurisdiction. problems; (2) environmental fate of uncol-
Centralized MSW management systems are used by lected MSW; and (3) ways to alleviate
most local authorities in Kenya. According to estimates MSWM problems.
from the World Resources Institute and USAID, many
local authorities in developing countries spend over 30%
of their budgets on refuse collection and disposal but
can only collect at most 50–70% MSW (Matrix, 1993). 3. Results
Most do not meet environmentally safe MSW disposal
levels because of a lack of sanitary landfills. In Kenya In cases where data were insufficient or not available
plans are underway to shift towards sanitary landfilling. from other local authorities studied, data from Nairobi
At present, MSW is disposed in open dumps which lack city were used as a reference because its data and records
of proper environmental pollution control and monitor- on MSW were much more complete and available.
ing. An economic survey by the Ministry of Finance and
Planning, 2001 showed that most local industries oper- 3.1. Status of MSW collection and disposal in Kenya
ate their own solid and liquid industrial waste handling
services independent from the local authority. Poor dis- The growth in MSW generation has been rapid,
posal of MSW in Nairobi forced the Minister for Local while the capacity to collect and safely dispose of the
Government on the May 29, 2003 to order the reloca- material has been on a general decline. The informa-
tion of the Dandora dumpsite, the only landfill in Nai- tion presented in Fig. 1, for Nairobi, gives a typical sit-
robi, to Ruai citing that it had become an eyesore, a uation in most local authorities in Kenya over the
recipe for diseases and that the large swarms of birds years. The capacity to provide disposal services by Nai-
at the dumpsites could cause plane accidents any time robi city declined due to their inability to keep all
(www.nation.co.ke, March 29th, 2003). MSW collection trucks at full operational capacity.
The data in Table 3, interestingly, show that in 1999,
a large portion (>1/3) of the MSW collection vehicles
2. Methodology were out of service in each of the five local authorities
studied. Most of the trucks were old considering that
In this study, five local authorities (Nairobi, Mom- they had been in use for more than 10 years. In Kisumu
basa, Kisumu, Nakuru and Eldoret, town) were chosen and in Mombasa, for example, a punctured tire was en-
as a representative sample of the current and future ough to take a collection truck out of service for weeks
urbanization trend in the country. The first four are pro- awaiting funds for replacement to be processed, while
vincial administration headquarters, while the last is the drivers earned their normal pay.
fastest growing town in Kenya. Uncollected MSW at the upper and middle income
This study was carried out in three stages: zones tends to increase in the rainy seasons when road
conditions are worsened by rains. The situation in the
Stage 1: This stage involved a desk study in which doc- low income suburban zones is worse because of inappro-
uments and records relating to municipal priate disposal of MSW. A survey of road infrastructure
solid waste management in Kenya, as well in the five local authorities studied showed that most of
as, census and economic planning, were stud- the dumpsites are not served by all-weather roads which
ied to obtain background information as well make their access during rainy seasons difficult if not
as data to enable construction of a conceptual impossible. The suburban areas, which are mainly occu-
model on MSW management in Kenya. pied by the urban poor rural migrants and the jobless,
Stage 2: This stage involved interviews with depart- are characterized by high population densities and un-
ment heads from: Social Services and Housing, planned poor residential structures which are hardly
Inspectorate, Water and Sewage, Planning and accessible. Local authorities tend to concentrate their
Environment. Information obtained was used limited services mainly in the central business districts
to update the data collected during the desk (CBDs) and the more affluent communities, which have
study. better access. Local residents that were interviewed
Stage 3: A site visit was conducted to the Dandora blamed the inappropriate disposal of MSW in paths,
dumpsite in Nairobi where a few people riversides, road reserves on the failure of local authori-
involved in scavenging were interviewed at ties to provide prompt collection services. From Table
random. Local residents and a private MSW 2, it is evident that the local authorities were not operat-
handling company were also interviewed. ing at full capacity in providing collection and disposal
The questions asked during the interviews of MSW. The collection efficiency (E) of MSW can be
 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100 95

600

500

MSW volume tonnes (000)

400

300

200

100

0
78

82

86

90

94

98

00
96
Year
19

19

19

19

19

19

20
19
MSW generated MSW collected
MSW uncollected MSW truck capacity

Fig. 1. Comparison of MSW generation and disposal in Nairobi.

Table 3
Status of MSW collection trucks in the local authorities in 1999
Local authority Total number Number of Average age of No. of trucks % Waste
MSW trucks breakdowns trucks (years) in demand collection
Nairobi 66 34 12 100 30–45
Mombasa 34 14 9 50 34–50
Kisumu 28 14 12 40 28–48
Nakuru 25 10 15 40 35–58
Eldoret 28 11 15 40 36–54

obtained by comparison of maximum capacity of local 3.2. Environmental impacts of MSW disposal
authorityÕs trucks (assuming all trucks are operational),
with the actual amount of waste collected. The relation- In all the five local authorities studied, it was found
ship is given by expression below that little or no consideration of environmental impacts
was paid in the selection of dumpsites, including those
TW
E¼ ð%Þ; currently in use. Convenience took priority in the siting
TC
of dumpsites. An example was in Eldoret where an
where E is the MSW collection efficiency, TW is total abandoned sand quarry at Mwenderi was used for the
MSW collected, and TC is total capacity under normal disposal of MSW, yet it was clear that the site was a
conditions where there are no breakdowns. water catchment area for small streams that drain into
A high value of E indicates that there are few MSW the Sosiani River. Inspection and monitoring of the
collection truck breakdowns and operation is at opti- dumpsite was not consistent, except for Nairobi which
mized capacity. If, under such conditions, the percent- had started occasional inspection of MSW waste in
age of MSW collected is low, then the purchase of 2001. No sanitary practices such as application of daily
more trucks is needed to increase MSW collection. If, soil cover or fencing were practiced in any of the five lo-
on the other hand, the value of E is low, then that is cal authorities studied. None of the dumpsites in Nai-
an indication that the operation is under capacity, that robi or the other four local authorities meet the basic
possibly there may be breakdowns, and that the man- requirements in protecting ground water from pollution
agement needs to release funds for servicing or replace- by leachate as they have no liners.
ment of collection trucks. A plot of the percentage of In the poor suburban zones, indiscriminate disposal
MSW collected and the efficiency of collection is shown of MSW at the river sides, road reserves, and roadsides
in Fig. 2. The data in Fig. 2 show that in 1986, Nairobi was common. Fig. 3 shows such a scenario in the Kibera
city had been operating under capacity in providing slum area (Nairobi).
MSW. In addition, the information in Table 3 indicates In Nakuru an outbreak of diarrhoea was traced to a
that more than 50% of its MSW collection trucks were vegetable farm which was being irrigated by surface
out of service due to breakdowns in 1999. water contaminated by MSW dumped upstream. In
96 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100

100

80

Percentage (%)
60

40

20

0
78

80

82

84

86

88

98

02
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20
Year
MSW collected MSW collection efficiency

Fig. 2. Comparison of percentage of MSW collected and the efficiency of collection.

Lake Victoria, accelerated growth of water hyacinth is nominated by the Ministry of Local Government. The
(Eichhornia crassipes) is partly attributable to illegal dis- councillors chair various committees which approve
posal of solid and liquid municipal wastes in rivers (for funding of various departments in the local authority,
example Kisat river) which drain into the lake (Ecofo- while the town clerk is the chief executive responsible
rum, 2001; World Bank, 1995; UNEP/ACTS, 2001; for the day-to-day operation of the local authority.
Obera and Oyier, 2002). The town clerk is answerable to the Ministry of Local
Government.
3.3. Local authorities and MSW management Local authorities especially Mombasa, Nairobi and
Kisumu are overstaffed with poorly trained workers.
A centralized solid waste management approach still The local authorities often are faced with financial diffi-
is used in most local authorities in Kenya. Decisions culties in meeting the large payment of wages. Hardly a
have to await approval from the senior management in year goes by without threats of strikes by workers
every department. This has resulted in delays in the dis- demanding past due wages.
charge of services. Involvement of the private sector is Most local authorities have become economically
minimal although Mombasa City has privatized all of constrained in offering efficient management of MSW,
its MSW services in the island zone. The management and are now more willing to embrace new ideas that
of local authorities is comprised of a council of elected can improve the management of MSW. Although there
and nominated councillors headed by a mayor and town is sufficient legislation covering waste management, lo-
clerk, who wields a considerable amount of power, and cal authorities lack the capacity to implement them.

Fig. 3. An illegal MSW dumpsite at Kibera slums in Nairobi.

 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100 97

Many local authorities are now more willing to seek sion making delays in disbursement of funds causes
partnership with the private sector as well as embrace unnecessary delays in the provision of services in most
decentralization of MSWM. local authorities. Decentralization of services would im-
prove efficiency and save time.
Laws governing MSW disposal, revenue collection
4. Discussion and project implementation and management often are
not enforce. This is worsened by financial mismanage-
4.1. MSW collection and problems facing local authorities ment which results in a persistent lack of funds to ex-
pand and improve municipal solid waste handling
In this study, it was found that local authorities in capacities as well as capacity-building.
Kenya are faced with a myriad of problems that have Rural–urban migration needs to be reduced by eco-
greatly constrained provision of services. In this section nomic diversification in order to boost rural incomes,
a look at some of the problems and possible solutions which would act as an incentive to remain in the rural
shall be discussed. areas rather than end up in slums in the urban areas.
Subsidized housing projects in the slum areas need to
4.1.1. Political interference and economic constraints be initiated to replace the unplanned shanties. This
The introduction of political pluralism in Kenya has will enable proper planning in suburban areas and
led to political jostling for power across the country thus enhance MSW service provision. Initiatives such
which peaks at the local authorities. The councillors as the Mathare 4 slum upgrading project sponsored
get elected or nominated to local authorities through by the Catholic Church and which failed due to polit-
their affiliated political parties and will usually pursue ical interference should be given full government
the interests of their parties when voting or decision support.
making in the committee they chair.
The local authorities maintain an inflated work- 4.2. MSW disposal and environmental pollution
force, most of whom are redundant but keep the jobs
for political reasons. Planned retrenchment by local The use of open dumps for MSW in Kenya makes
authorities of the workforce in Nairobi and in Mom- environmental pollution highly probable. Both surface
basa cities had to be shelved because of political fall- water and groundwater remain vulnerable to MSW pol-
out pitting different political parties and the local lution because disposal dumps were chosen for conve-
authorities. The upgrading of Nairobi slums has not nience rather than based on environmental safety
been implemented because some councillors incite considerations. The extent of groundwater pollution in
their constituents to reject such a move out of an un- and around the dumpsites still is unknown because ade-
founded fear of voters who might be moved out once quate pollution assessment studies have not been done
slum upgrading efforts get underway. There are in- conducted on the groundwater. Based on the degree of
stances when some councillors hinder particular pro- surface water pollution, it is possible to identify when
jects for political reasons only. pollution is taking place in the groundwater. An investi-
The rapid population growth especially in urban gation into the extent of pollution of groundwater ur-
areas has overstretched the capacity of local authorities gently needs to be carried out within the vicinities of
to adequately provide services often provided in most the MSW dumpsites.
developing countries. Most local authorities maintain From Fig. 3, it can be seen that MSW and leachate
inflated numbers of workers which exhausts most of from the site can easily find their way into the nearby
the revenue in the form of wages leaving very little to water bodies. The Nairobi Dam, commissioned in
cover for other services. This explains why collection 1953 as a reservoir of potable water supply, has been
and disposal of MSW is given low priority by the local heavily contaminated by MSW washed downstream
authorities. Table 3 shows that the provision of MSW from the adjacent Kibera slums by storm water.
collection and disposal is under utilized due to a lack The state of the Nairobi Dam has greatly compro-
of capacity to keep all of the trucks running which mised the quality of the environment in the surround-
would have increased the capacity for collection up to ing residential areas and poses considerable health
about 70% of the total MSW generated. risks even to the very people generating the waste. It
The improvement of MSW collection and disposal was found that despite the poor quality of the damÕs
capacity needs a broader approach to address the water, some slum residents irrigate their food crops
improvement of local infrastructure; including the need with it downstream. Nairobi River and Nairobi
to upgrade roads leading to dumpsites to all weather Dam have been victims of MSW pollution from the
roads. Many local authorities blame breakdowns of slums surrounding them. Kibera slums have contrib-
their MSW collection trucks on the poor condition of uted greatly to pollution of the once potable water
the roads and on vandalism. Poor coordination, deci- reservoir of Nairobi Dam (Mwangi, 2000). The mal
98 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100

odors from the dam have impacted residential proper- 4.3. Strategies towards improvement of MSWM
ties in the vicinity. A comparison of accommodation
rents between two similar residential estates, Nyayo The problems facing developing countries in handling
Highrise and Komorock, shows that although Nyayo of municipal solid and liquid wastes are not impossible
Highrise is close to downtown and has better security, to solve but they need concerted effort from all sectors
its rental apartments go for two thirds the price of of society. MSW management is the responsibility of
those in Komorock. High and middle income people every resident. An all inclusive approach should be
shun Nyayo Highrise apartments for Komorock be- adopted in order to achieve any meaningful and lasting
cause of the mal odors from the Nairobi Dam which solution. Important areas which might bring about this
is adjacent to Nyayo Highrise. are discussed below.
The presence of toxic chemicals in MSW is highly
probable because of a lack of strict monitoring of the 4.3.1. Source reduction and reuse
MSW entering the dumpsites and the presence of many Local authorities should undertake management re-
illegal dumpsites. When people scavenging at the dump forms to bring an end to unsightly areas of uncollected
sites were asked where they wash the wares they scav- or illegally dumped solid wastes. This would involve
enged, most responded that they do it in the streams minimization of waste reaching the drop off points.
or wells. This practice can become a major source of The 3Rs approach – Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of
pollution. Strict inspection of the waste received at the wastes – is gaining acceptance. Source reduction of
dumpsite should be in place to safeguard against illegal MSW involves measures such as: (a) product design
dumping of toxic chemicals and to protect the health of and packaging to make them easy to reuse; (b) use of
people scavenging for recyclable materials. existing packaging materials as opposed to producing
Mombasa is a gateway to Kenya from the Indian new ones; (c) lengthening usage life of products to min-
Ocean and a tourist destination in winter; tourism plays imize the frequency of replacement; and (c) developing
a very important role in its economy. Thus any degrada- alternatives to disposal such as composting of grass
tion in the environment could negatively impact its frag- and food wastes and other compostable solid wastes
ile economy. Polluted rivers feeding into the ocean are from farms or markets. Reuse has worked well with
threatening coastal recreational beaches and sites such packaging of drinks where reusable glass bottles and
as coral reefs (Rakodi et al., 2000). Strict supervision cans instead of non-reusable plastic or paper packaging
of solid and liquid municipal waste disposal needs to are being used for bottling. This strategy, however, may
be put into place to ensure that the beaches remain clean need changes in industrial technology and in consumer
to safeguard the tourism industry. Other sources of pol- choice and preferences, as well as taste. The Ministry
lution may include shipping activities at Mombasa port of Local Government should consider offering a tax
and the Changamwe oil refinery; however, the impact is concession to industries involved in developing reusable
not significant since they operate their own liquid and products that will reduce solid wastes intended for
solid waste treatment and disposal facilities. disposal.
Lake Nakuru, a home to 78% of the worldÕs lesser fla- In Kenya, local artisan groups such as ‘‘Jua Kali’’
mingo birds, has witnessed a drastic decline in flamingo (private artisan groups) provide another avenue for re-
population due to pollution of the lake. The birds have use of old and disposable items. These groups work in
been a major source of tourist attraction in Nakuru. The government built shades where they purchase and resell
decline has hurt the local tourism industry as well as the old office equipment, household wares and used indus-
ecology of the area. In Eldoret town, the operation of an trial wares. They are also involved in producing inexe-
open dumpsite near Mwenderi has greatly polluted the pensive farm tools such as sprays and watering cans.
Sosiani River; this is because the dumpsite, formerly a These products are low in cost and have a big market
sand quarry, has small streams draining into the Sosiani among the low income population. Their contribution
River (UNEP, 1998; Kimani, 2001). in reducing waste, although low, is not to be ignored.
The Ministries of Local Government, Environment As an example, in Nairobi they contribute about a
and Natural Resources, and Health have to work to- 0.25% reduction of MSW reaching drop off points.
gether to ensure that sanitary disposal of MSW in the
country is achieved. Nairobi is to relocate its only dump- 4.3.2. Recycling of municipal solid wastes
site to Ruai which will be developed to meet sanitary With the increasing cost of raw materials, recycling
standards. Mombasa has embarked on a beautification provides a cheaper source of raw materials for manufac-
program, aimed at making it a beautiful city. Disposal turing industries. This has given value to the otherwise
or discharge of waste into lakes, rivers and seas has been worthless MSW and has encouraged a second look at
banned in Kisumu and Mombasa. Strict inspection and it before making a decision to dispose. Sorting and sep-
surveillance should be put in place for meaningful re- aration of municipal solid waste is gaining importance in
sults to be achieved. various sectors. A visit to a MSW dumpsite reveals
 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100 99

Table 4 training and hiring of qualified personnel. To improve

Composition of MSW disposed by three groups in Nairobi (1999) management of MSW collection and disposal, the Min-
MSW component % Composition istry of Local Government has approved the involve-
High income Middle income Low income ment of the private sector through privatization of
Food 52 50 57 some of the services. Private MSW collection and dis-
Paper 17.3 17 16 posal services have successfully worked in the Central
Textiles 2.7 3 2 Business Districts (CBDs) and in upper class residential
Plastic 11.8 14 12 areas in Nairobi. In Nairobi, the Kenya Refuse Han-
Grass/wood 6.7 8 2
Leather 0.9 1 1
dlers Limited (KRHL), Domestic Refuse Disposal Ser-
Rubber 1.5 1 2 vices Limited (DRDSL), and Bins (Kenya) Limited
Glass 2.3 2 2 have been licensed to clean the CBD and some residen-
Cans 1.7 2 1 tial areas; the result has been improved efficiency. Pri-
Other metals 0.9 1 0 vate MSW handling may be an expensive venture
Others 2.7 7 4 which can only be sustained by high monthly charges
(10 times those charged by the City council). For the
more affluent communities this is a welcome relief. A
intense scavenging for recyclables in the disposed waste. survey of residents of Nairobi has shown that 47% of
Scavenging initially was driven by poverty and a desire those paying US$1.25/month or less would be prepared
to earn a living, but the emergence of recycling industries to pay more than US$2.5/month for good waste man-
has given a boost to search for recyclable materials in the agement services. Similarly 50% of those paying
dumpsites. In Nairobi, a number of non-governmental US$4–5/month indicated a willingness to pay up to 10
organizations (NGOs) and community based organiza- US$/month (Esho, 1997). This shows the eagerness of
tions (CBOs) such as the Undugu Society among others the residents to have a cleaner environment. This is,
have gotten involved in projects aimed at improving the however, not practical in suburban areas where incomes
livelihood of unemployed street children through mobi- are too low. With privatization of MSW services in the
lization towards self-employment groups (Gathuru, upper to middle income areas, local authorities can then
1994). These groups are engaged in collecting recyclable divert some of the services to the poor suburban areas
materials such as paper, metal scraps and plastics, which communities where private services may not be
are sold to generate some income. Other groups are in- affordable.
volved in composting of organic solid wastes (food
wastes), which are sold to urban farmers or landscapers.
Some of these groups include the City Garbage 5. Conclusions
Recyclers (CGR) – Nairobi – Kenya, Mbolea Meupe
(white fertilizers). From Table 4, it can be concluded Developing countries, though poor, should develop
that since MSW is comprised mostly of solid food area-specific solutions to their problems in the manage-
wastes (50%), strengthening groups involved in compo- ment of municipal solid waste. Consideration of the
sting can reduce the amount of MSW reaching the land- composition of MSW can help developing countries
fills considerably. make the correct choices in importing MSW handling
In Kisumu one self-help group is now making mat- equipment. For example, there is no need to import
tresses from recycled polyethylene. This group and other compactor trucks which are suitable to less dense
affiliated groups have successfully engaged large num- MSW; dense MSW which needs no compaction but just
bers of unemployed poor in gainful self-employment. needs hauling trucks which might be cheaper. Other
Such projects, which are poverty alleviating, appeal to management issues that need be taken into consider-
donors and hence attract funding support; however, ation include decentralization through subdivision of ur-
they are often hindered by poor infrastructure and facil- ban areas into small units (boroughs) in order to
ities. A Dagoretti based group, which was making glue enhance management and service provision.
from bones and hooves disposed by a nearby Dagoretti Community involvement through neighbourhood
slaughter house, had to close down due frequent lack of groups of people from middle and higher income groups
water and electricity. The government need to create en- and business individuals can provide the needed solution
abling conditions for such upcoming self-help groups in mobilization of community-based efforts. Clean
which will not only create employment but also make neighbourhood groups can mobilize financial resources
the city cleaner. and engage private groups or hire private trucks to occa-
sionally collect and dispose MSW from their neighbour-
4.3.3. Privatization and community involvement hoods. Other measures include cultivation of a sense of
Some local authorities such Nairobi, Eldoret and clean environment through clean community awareness
Mombasa have embarked on providing services through programmes. These can go a long way in sensitising
100 R.K. Henry et al. / Waste Management 26 (2006) 92–100

people to keep the environment clean. Regular activities Gathuru, P.K., 1994. Affordable water supply and sanitation: Nairobi.
such as clean up of the neighbourhoods, schools, parks Waste recycling in Nairobi slums. In: 20th WEDC Conference
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
and roadsides can be effective in changing the ‘‘NIM- Government of Kenya, 2001, 2001. Population and Housing Census
BY’’ attitudes even among the poor communities. Spon- Volume I. Central Bureau of Statistics, Nairobi.
sors can be drawn from UNEP (United Nation Government of Kenya, 2002. Economic Survey Government Printers,
Environmental Programme which has its headquarters Nairobi.
in Nairobi), Ministry of Environment Conservation, JICA, 2002. Kenya Planning and Evaluation Department. A country
profile on Environment.
Ministry of Health and private organizations. In gen- Kimani, I.M., 2001. Environment-Development Profile for Nakuru
eral, the proper management of municipal solid waste Town (A Situational Analysis), JBIC Workshop, Nakuru.
is determined by the attitudes of people towards waste, Matrix Development Consultants, 1993. NairobiÕs Informal Settle-
such as the ability to refrain from indiscriminate dump- ments: An Inventory, Office of Housing and Urban Development
ing. Socio-economic characteristics may determine atti- Programmes, USAID.
Ministry of Finance and Planning-Government of Kenya, 1999.
tudes such as the ability/willingness to recycle MSW. Population and Housing Census.
These attitudes, however, may be positively influenced Ministry of Finance and Planning-Government of Kenya, 2001.
by awareness-building campaigns and educational mea- Economic Survey.
sures. In a word, it is the desire of the people that can Mukui, J.T., 1994. Kenya: Poverty Profiles 1982–92, Consultant
keep the city clean. Report Prepared for the Office of the Vice President and Ministry
of Planning and National Development, Nairobi.
Mwangi, M.S., 2000. Analysis of Nairobi Dam Water. Research
Project, University of Nairobi.
Acknowledgments Obera, B., Oyier, M., 2002. Sustainable Solid Waste Management for
Kisumu, Kenya. In: 28th WEDC Conference Kolkata (Calcutta),
The authors highly acknowledge the support of the India.
Kenyan Ministries of Local Government and Environ- Rakodi, C., Gatabaki-Kamau, R., Devas, N., 2000. Poverty and
Political Conflict in Mombasa. Environment and Urbanization 12
ment and Natural Resources for allowing the use of
(1).
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Affecting the Marine, Coastal and Associated Fresh Environ-
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