Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Solar cooker realizations in actual use: An overview

F. Yettou a,n, B. Azoui b, A. Malek c, A. Gama a, N.L. Panwar d
a
Unité de Recherche Appliquée en Energies Renouvelables, URAER, Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, 47133 Ghardaïa, Algeŕ ie
b
Laboratoire de Recherche LEB, Département d’Electrotechnique, Université Hadj Lakhdar, Boukhlouf Med ElHadi, Batna, Algeria
c
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, 16340 Algiers, Algeria
d
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan 313001, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Presently fossil sources still dominate the domestic sector, which is the largest primary energy-
Received 15 December 2013 consuming sector across the globe. Energy for cooking is considered to be the most important end
Received in revised form use in the sector, and its demand is continuously increasing [11]. Cooking with solar energy is one of the
28 April 2014
promising solutions for meeting energy demands. However, its large-scale dissemination and popular-
Accepted 11 May 2014
Available online 2 June 2014
ization still remain limited. A number of solar energy-based cooking technologies exist all over
the world, but a very few are actually in use. Major work on this subject is intended for research
Keywords: purposes only.
Solar cooker This paper deals with the recent advances in developments and the performance analysis of a solar
Thermal performance
cooker's technologies. The meticulous review on such technologies provides an overview on existing
Energy and exergy assessment
solar cookers developed during the past two decades, especially major geometry components that affect
Sun tracking system
Recent realizations their performances such as the booster mirror, absorber tray, insulation, glazing system, cooking vessel,
and thermal energy storage materials. The thermal performance parameters, such as figures of merit and
cooking power used for testing and evaluating the performance of solar cooking, energy and exergy
analysis, have also been addressed. The performance of both single- and double-axis tracking
mechanisms applied in the cooker structure is also discussed. Attempt has also been made to summarize
the CO2 mitigation potential through such devices.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
2. Solar cookers: principle and types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
3. Thermal performance analysis and test procedures of solar cookers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.1. Mullick method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.2. Funk's international standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
3.3. Energy and exergy analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4. Recent studies and development in solar cooking system designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.1. Box-type cookers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.2. Concentrating-type cookers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.3. Exergetic assessment of solar cookers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5. Tracking devices applied in solar cooker systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
5.1. Solar systems with tracking devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.2. Solar cookers with sun tracking systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6. Contribution of solar cookers in mitigation potential of carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

n
Corresponding author. Fax: þ213 29 87 01 46.
E-mail address: yettou.t@gmail.com (F. Yettou).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.05.018
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 289

Nomenclature Δt time interval (s)

Twi initial temperature of water (K)
F1 first figure of merit (m²K/W) Twf final temperature of water (K)
F2 second figure of merit (dimensionless) ΔTw temperature difference of water (K)
Ps standard cooking power (W) Tps maximum absorber plate temperature (K)
P cooking power (W) Tas ambient air temperature at stagnation (K)
τboil standard boiling time (min m²/kg) Ta average ambient air temperature (K)
η energy efficiency of the solar cooker (%) Tra reference ambient temperature (K)
ψ exergy efficiency of the solar cooker (%) Ts surface temperature of the sun (K)
Eo energy output of the solar cooker (W) Ac absorber plat area (m²)
Ei energy input of the solar cooker (W) Asc intercept area of solar cooker (m²)
Exo exergy output of the solar cooker (W) M mass of water (kg)
Exi exergy input of the solar cooker (W) C heat capacity of water (J/kg k)
IG insulation on a horizontal surface at stagnation F0 heat exchange efficiency factor (dimensionless)
(W/m²) ηo optical efficiency (dimensionless)
IG average solar radiation on horizontal surfaces (W/m²) CR heat capacity ratio (dimensionless)

1. Introduction Saussure; his work was introduced in 1767 [6]. In 1945, Sri M.K.
Ghosh constructed the first commercial box-type solar cooker
The greatest amount of energy consumed worldwide comes from [7,8]. In 1961; the United Nations Conference on New Sources of
fossil fuels. Energy consumption in developed countries is growing at Energy included many authorities on solar cooking technology
a rate of approximately 1% per year, and at a rate of 5% per year in was held [8]. During 1976; Arizona in the United States, Barbara
developing countries [1,2]. The global energy demand is expected to Kerr and Sherry Cole developed box solar cookers that are easy to
increase, and fossil fuels are not projected to compensate that construct and use. The first U.S. solar cookbook, Solar Cooking
growing demand, mainly because of the decline in world oil produc- Naturally, was written by M.H. Gurley Larson, in 1983 [6]. Since the
tion and environmental issues (i.e., atmospheric pollution, green- 1950s, Indian scientists have also been interested in solar cookers;
house effect and global warming). Due to increasing cost of fossil-fuel as an option for avoiding deforestation, they have designed and
cost, renewable energy technologies have received remarkable atten- commercialized a number of solar ovens. Actually, India operates
tion at the international level over the last few years. Renewable several programs to promote solar energy as a cooking fuel in rural
sources play important role in sustainable development and they are areas and, to an extent; they have been successful [9]. Today's solar
environmentally friendly energy sources [2]. Among the renewable cooker technologies demonstrate a considerable development in
energy sources, solar energy is considered the most abundant and a terms of design and performance parameter.
viable option for thermal energy applications. As Thirugnanasamban- The development of solar cooking systems in the near future
dam et al. [3] highlighted, the total annual solar radiation falling on will also help to resolve the existing problems with the technology
the earth is more than 7500 times of the world's total annual primary like long duration cooking, uncontrolled temperatures, tracking
energy consumption. The annual solar radiations are reaching on the strategies, and thermal storage techniques, etc. and thereby, over-
earth's surface, approximately 3.4  106 EJ, is an order of magnitude come the barriers to the dissemination of the solar cookers. Many
greater than all the estimated non-renewable energy resources, opportunities exist to promote the future potential of solar
including fossil fuels and nuclear. cookers, so more research attempts must be carried out to increase
When considering thermal applications of solar energy, solar their efficiency and thus enhance their current performance.
cooking presents the best option and the most promising appli- In this paper, recent advances in research and development of
ance for solar thermal energy [4]. Solar cookers provide many solar cooking technology are presented. Thermal performance,
advantages, including fuel economy, reduction in greenhouse gas energetic and exergetic analysis, and new understanding through-
emission, firewood utilization saving, lower cost and high dur- out the world are analyzed. Solar cooker systems equipped with
ability, among others [4]. However, in many parts of the world, tracking devices are discussed. Mitigation potential of carbon
especially in developing countries wood and fossil fuel-based dioxide using solar cookers is also presented.
cooking energy resources still predominate with the highest share
of global energy consumption in the residential sector. This
situation creates serious ecological problems, such as deforesta- 2. Solar cookers: principle and types
tion [5]; economical and health problems are also consequences of
firewood use. On the other hand, the global demand for cooking A solar cooker converts solar energy into heat, which is used to
energy is expected to increase with the increasing human popula- cook food kept in the cooking utensil. Solar cookers also enable
tion over in the upcoming years. some significant processes such as pasteurization and steriliza-
Currently, renewable energy sources supply about 14% of the tion [8]. Different types of solar cookers have been designed and
total world energy demand, and their potential will play an developed around the world in the past and are still being
important role in the world's future [10,11]. The share of solar improved by scientists and researchers. Therefore, the classifica-
thermal applications is likely to grow, especially to meet domestic tion of solar cookers is a complicated task. In the present review,
energy requirements. Thus, solar energy is a promising option, and solar cookers are classified into three main categories based on the
having capability to becoming a leading energy source for cooking type of collector and temperature order: box-type cookers,
[11–13]. Actually, Solar cooking International claims that solar concentrating-type cookers and non-focusing type cookers.
cooking has been or is being introduced in 107 countries [6]. Within these three, main categories are included cookers with
Solar cooking technology began with the invention of the first direct or indirect heat-transferring modes, cookers with or with-
solar box cooker by a French–Swiss physicist named Horace de out storage, and cookers with tracking or non-tracking systems.
290 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

researchers [37–39]. The glazing is another component that is

also important for maximizing the energy output of the solar box
cooker [40–42]. Other researchers carried out a great deal of
research and investigations concerning cooking vessel and focused
on his geometry; they found that cylindrical and rectangular-
shaped cooking vessels made of aluminum or copper and coated
black on their outsides are generally good for box cookers [43–48].
Concentrating-type cookers utilize multifaceted mirrors, Fres-
nel lens, parabolic or spherical collectors to attain higher tem-
peratures [49] that are suitable for all types of food cooking. These
cookers are typically designed with a one- or two-axis tracking
system allowing for the following of the course of the sun.
Concentrating-type cookers exhibit a high degree of reflector
Fig. 1. Components of a box solar cooker.
clearness for a maximum optical reflection and minimum possible
heat losses in the receiver. The best-known design in this category
is the point focusing paraboloid solar cooker (Fig. 2). It consists
simply of a parabolic reflector with a cooking pot that is located on
the focus point of the cooker and a stand to support the cooking
system [8]. Concentrating-type cookers attracted more attention,
and several conceptual ideas are becoming reality around the
world. We cite, for example, the portable solar cooker of
Arenas [50], the conical solar cooker of Sharaf [51], the Fresnel-
type domestic SPRERI concentrating cooker of Sonune and
Philip [52], the multiple-use communal solar cooker of Franco
et al. [53] and the three solar concentrating-type cookers for
domestic direct use of Patel and Philip [54].
The category of non-focusing type cookers includes flat-plate
and vacuum-tube type cookers, these cookers using heat transfer
fluid to carry thermal energy. They have the advantage of being
Fig. 2. Components of a parabolic solar cooker. suitable for indoor cooking applications, but are more expensive to
produce than the other types [49]. One of the such cookers
Direct-type solar cookers use solar radiation directly in the realized by Mehmet Esen [55] having a vacuum-tube collector
cooking process, while the indirect cookers use a heat transfer with heat pipes containing different refrigerants, and the cooker
fluid to transfer the heat from the collector to the cooking realized by Sharma et al. [56] was based on the evacuated tube
unit [14]. The thermal energy storage option must be provided solar collector with a thermal energy storage system. Another
with solar cookers in order to allow late evening/night cooking example is the cooker employing flat-plate collectors with the
and overcome the limitations of solar cookers during off-sunshine possibility of indoor cooking [57,58].
hours. Sometimes, these cookers are equipped with one- or two- Solar cookers cannot work when there is insufficient or
axis tracking systems to follow the sun. no-sunshine. To enable late evening cooking, the cookers should
A solar box cooker consists of an insulated box with a transparent be used with thermal energy storage. This subject interested many
glass cover. The box is usually equipped with reflective surfaces researchers in past years, and intensive efforts have been made to
(booster mirrors) to reflect sunlight into the box [6]. A description of study and analyze this viable option. Phase change materials
solar box cooker is shown in Fig. 1. In order to increase sunlight (PCMs) were considered the best solution [59–70].
absorption, the inner part (absorber) of the box is painted black.
It often accommodates more than one pot, and up to four cooking
vessels filled with food can be placed inside the box loaded with food 3. Thermal performance analysis and test procedures
[15,16]. With this type of cooker, a temperature of around 100 1C can of solar cookers
be achieved, which makes it possible to cook the food by boiling.
Many researchers and manufacturers around the world are Solar energy is a generously available and environmentally
interested by developing box solar cookers. Hence, different clean source of energy, cooking with such energy has numbers of
designs and prototypes were recognized, especially in the years advantages. More people can be attracted towards the solar
1990s and early 2000s [17–25]. As underlined by Erdem Cuce and cooking by improving the performance of solar cookers [49].
Pinar Mert Cuce in their comprehensive review, each component These performances can be determined by an elaborate analysis
of the box cooker has a significant influence on cooking power [8]. of the optical and thermal characteristics of the cooker materials
For example, booster mirrors can provide a great deal of solar and the cooker design or by experimental performance testing
radiation intensities, which enhances the efficiency of the box under different operating conditions [6]. There are some perfor-
solar cooker and reduces the cooking time. Therefore, some mance parameters that have been adopted all over the world such
researchers became highly intrigued by this important element as standard cooking power (Ps), first figure of merit (F1), second
and performed several research study and analyses [26–30]. figure of merit (F2), energy (η) and exergy efficiency (ψ) etc. These
An absorber tray (plate) painted black with high absorptivity must parameters have been widely analyzed by many researchers and
be chosen to improve the performance of a solar box cooker. This are used for evaluating the performance of solar cooking devices.
subject has attracted investigations from the beginning, until now
[31–36]. For the energy efficient box solar cooker output, heat 3.1. Mullick method
loss from inside the box to the outer environment should be
minimized. Therefore, transparent insulation materials for the Mullick et al. [71] presented a method to analyze the thermal
insulation of glazing are greatly recommended by several performance of solar cookers. According to this method, two
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 291

figures of merit can be calculated. The first figure of merit F1 is Panwar et al. [10] also mentioned in their review, that the term
determined by stagnation test at no-load conditions using follow- exergy is defined as the maximum amount of useful works that
ing expression: can be obtained from a system [74–76]. The rational efficiency
based on the concept of exergy is a true measure of the perfor-
T ps  T as
F1 ¼ ð1Þ mance of a thermal system. This is based on the second law of
IG
thermodynamics and the concept of irreversible entropy produc-
where Tps is maximum absorber plate temperature, Tas is ambient tion [77,78]. It is a useful tool for improving the performance of
air temperature (at stagnation) and IG is insulation on a horizontal the system by determining the magnitude of energy waste and
surface at the stagnation time (in W/m²). losses in the system.
The second figure of merit F2, is obtained from the full load The energy efficiency η of a solar cooker is defined as the ratio
water heating test as follows: of cooker output energy Eo (increase of energy of water due to
" #
temperature rise) to the energy input Ei (energy of solar radiation)
F 1 ðMCÞw 1  ð1=F 1 ÞðT wi  T a Þ=IG
F 2 ¼ F 0 ηO C R ¼ ln ð2Þ and is calculated as follows [79]:
A c Δt 1  ð1=F 1 ÞðT wf  T a Þ=IG
Εo ðMCÞw ðT wf T wi Þ
where F0 is heat exchange efficiency factor, ηO is optical efficiency, η¼ ¼ ð6Þ
Εi IGΔtAsc
CR is heat capacity ratio, M is the mass of water, C is the heat
capacity of water, Ac is absorber plat area, Δt is time interval, Twi is where Eo is the energy output of the solar cooker, Ei is the energy
initial temperature of water, Twf is final temperature of water, T a is input of the solar cooker, M and C are the mass and specific heat
average ambient air temperature and IG is the average solar capacity of the water, respectively. Twf and Twi are the initial and
radiation on horizontal surfaces. final temperatures of water in the time interval Δt, Asc is the
The standard boiling τboil which is the time that cooker needs intercept area of solar cooker, IG is the total instantaneous solar
to heat an amount of water from ambient temperature to 100 1C as radiation.
suggested by Mullick et al. [71] is expressed as follows: The exergy efficiency ψ is defined as the ratio of cooker output
" !# exergy Exo (increase of exergy of water due to temperature rise)
F ðMCÞw 1 100  T a to the exergy input Exi (exergy of solar radiation). Thus, the
τboil ¼ 1 ln 1  ð3Þ
F 2 Ac F1 IG exergy efficiency for a solar cooker was obtained by the following
relation [79]:
A high value of F1 indicates good optical efficiency and low heat
Ε xo ðMCÞw ½ðT wf  T wi Þ T ra lnðT wf =T wi Þ
loss factor. A high value of F2 indicates good heat exchange ψ¼ ¼ ð7Þ
efficiency factor F0 , good optical efficiency ηo, and low heat Ε xi IGΔt½1  ð4T a =3T s ÞAsc
capacity of the cooker interiors and vessels compared to a full It is necessary to determine the exergy of incoming solar
load of water. Their study reveals that F1 to be in the range 0.12– radiation for conducting second law analysis of solar cookers.
0.16 whereas F2 should be in the range of 0.254–0.490. In this context, the Petela [80] expression, which has the widest
acceptability, can be used to calculate the exergy of solar radiation
3.2. Funk's international standard as the exergy input to the solar cooker, and is expressible through
Eq. (8).
Funk [72] proposed an international standard for testing solar   
4T a
cookers to estimate cooking power (P) as follows: Εxi ¼ IGΔt 1  Asc ð8Þ
3T s
ðMCÞw ΔT w
P¼ ð4Þ The sun's black body temperature of 5762 K results in a solar
Δt
spectrum concentrated primarily in the 0.3–3.0 μm wavelength
where (MC)w is product of the mass of water and its specific heat band [81]. Although the surface temperature of the sun Ts can be
capacity, ΔTw is temperature difference of water and Δt is the varied on the earth' surface due to the spectral distribution, the
time interval. value of 5800 K must be considered for Ts.
A standard cooking power expression Ps was also developed by Ozturk [82] also suggested the instantaneous exergy efficiency
Funk [72] and is given as follows: for solar cookers and is given by the following expression:
700ðMCÞw ΔT Ε xo ðMCÞw ½ðT wf T wi Þ  T ra lnðT wf =T wi Þ
Ps ¼ ð5Þ ψ¼ ¼ ð9Þ
600IG Ε xi IGΔt½1 þ 1=3ðT a =T s Þ4  4=3ðT a =T s ÞAsc
It is clear that the reference illumination intensity level should
be 700 W/m² for calculating the standard cooking power [72].
From Funk's results, it was observed that the cooking power curve 4. Recent studies and development in solar cooking system
found by using the international test standard is a useful device for designs
interpreting the capacity and heat storage ability of a solar cooker.
4.1. Box-type cookers
3.3. Energy and exergy analysis
In 2000s, researchers demonstrated interest in developing new
Analysis of energy and exergy is another way to evaluate the designs of solar box cookers in order to optimize their thermal
performance and comparing solar cookers. As reported by Panwar performance and efficiency. In, the early 2012, Mahavar et al. [83]
et al. [11], energy analysis based on the first law of thermody- presented the design development and thermal and cooking
namics, i.e., net heat supplied converted in order to work. Energy performance studies of the novel Single Family Solar Cooker
analysis thus ignores reductions of energy potential. Its analysis (SFSC). Complete theoretical consideration for the fabrication of
can provide sound management guidance in those applications in the SFSC was also presented. During testing, the highest plate
which usage effectiveness depends solely on energy quantities. stagnation temperature under no-load condition was approxi-
Thus, energy analysis is suitable for the sizing and analyzing of the mately 144 1C. The values of two calculated figures of merits F1
systems using only one form of energy [73]. (0.116 1C m²/W) and F2 (0.466) indicate that the cooker can be used
292 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Fig. 5. New box-type solar cooker realized by Harmim et al. [85,86]: (a) a
photograph of the prototype; (b) schematic sketch showing the box cooker
employing an asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator.

for consecutive cooking on a sunny day. The values of the initial

cooking power and heat loss coefficient at a temperature differ-
ence of 50 1C are within the range of these parameters obtained by
Funk [72] for small-sized well-insulation solar cookers. In con-
tinuation of his work, Mahavar et al. [84] fabricated a Solar Rice
Cooker (SRC) based on a theoretical model, and testing has been
performed on various days under different weather conditions.
The Schematic diagram of the SRC is illustrated in Fig. 3a. The
value of the available solar power varies from 82 to 120 W, and its
average value is about 107.8 W for the duration of 10:00 to 15:00
solar time. The rice-cooking time for the first and second meal is
found to be 2 h and 2 h 20 min respectively. The fabricated Solar
Rice Cooker as shown in Fig. 3b was found to be able to cook 0.4 kg
rice twice during the solar hours on a clear day.
Cooking vessel is one of the most important components of a
solar box cooker. In this context, Harmim et al. [44] conducted a
Fig. 3. Solar rice cooker [84]: (a) schematic diagram; (b) experimental arrangement.
comparative experimental study of a box-type solar cooker with
two different cooking vessels: the first one conventional and the
second one identical to the first in shape and volume but its
external lateral surface augmented with fins. Adding fins improve
the heat transfer from the internal hot air of the cooker towards
the interior of the vessel. The vessels were made of aluminum and
painted black. They found that cooking time can be reduced by
using a finned cooking vessel. In the year 2011, Saxena et al. [6]
proposed in their thermodynamic review a new modified cooking
vessel as shown in Fig. 4 to reduce the cooking time taken by a
solar box cooker. The modified cooking vessel was equipped with a
series of lugs in a curvature form at the bottom of the vessel for
better heat transfer. The lid becomes hot and generates a current
of hot air, which circulates inside the box cooker. A heat transfer
between food and the lid takes place by convection in the air layer
between the food and the lid. During testing and in order to
measure the temperature of cooking fluid stored in the modified
cooking vessel, a lid holder removable knob has been provided on
the top of cooking vessel. It was observed from the tests that the
modified cooking vessel was able to achieve good cooking tem-
Fig. 4. Schematic view of a modified cooking vessel for a solar box cooker [6]. perature in less timing and to reduce the cooking time
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 293

Fig. 6. Truncated pyramid cooker constructed by Kumar et al. [90,91]: (a) the schematic diagram; (b) the photographic view.

considerably than a conventional cooking vessel. The cooking

power has been also improved from 70.60 W (conventional vessel)
to 79.80 W for the new vessel of solar cooker.
In 2012, Harmim et al. [85,86] designed and constructed a new
box-type solar cooker as shown in Fig. 5a. The new box cooker is
equipped with an asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator
(CPC) as the booster reflector cooker. A detailed description of the
realized cooker is illustrated in Fig. 5b. A mathematical model was
developed and the effects of various parameters; such as solar
radiation, load of water and clouds on the dynamic behavior of the
cooker were studied. The experimental study, conducted in winter
and summer seasons, shows that the proposed cooker presents
successful thermal performance without having recourse to track-
ing towards the sun. For the experimental stagnation test, the first
figure of merit F1 was calculated as 0.1681 m² kW  1 with values of
Tps ¼140.5 1C, Tas ¼ 16.5 1C and IG¼737.5 W/m². The corresponding
value for F2, when heating of 1 kg of water was calculated as
0.3295, with values of Twi ¼ 60 1C; Twf ¼ 90 1C; T a ¼ 17.20 1C and
IG ¼725.54 W/m². In their next work and in order to improve the
cooker effectiveness, the authors suggested to make some changes
to the internal geometry of the cooker box and the shape of the
absorber plate [86].
During the same year, Joshi et al. [87,88] described a metho-
dology of optimization of cooking systems to enhance the effi-
ciency from the conventional level of 15–20% to 65–75%. For this
purpose, they developed an efficient novel design of cooking Fig. 7. Concentrating cookers with dish and Umbrella design reflectors (a) experi-
systems with cooking equipment, which gained energy from mental setup scheme and photograph view of coffeemaker system realized by
condensing steam on the outside surface, and the cooking load Sosa-Montemayor et al. [92]; (b) solar fryer diagram and photo of the prototype
received heat by the mode of natural convection. The CFD results setup with pan cover removed developed by Gallagher [93].

indicated that the optimum heat flux depends upon the balance
between the rate of heat supply and rate of heat uptake by the late evening. It was also found that the initial temperature of PCM
cooker contents. The heat flux values were found to be in the does not have very important effects on the melting time. In the
range of 83,680–104,600 kJ/h m². following year, Sharma et al. [67,89] discussed the thermal storage
Solar cookers should be used with thermal energy storage technology for box solar cooker based on their reviews. They
materials to allow late evening cooking PCM is the best solution to concluded that with the help of the heat energy storage unit, food
store the solar energy during sunshine hours. Chen et al. [62] could be cooked late in the evening. The use of a latent heat
investigated phase change materials (PCMs) used as the heat storage system with phase change materials (PCMs) has been also
storage medium for solar box cookers. The selected PCMs were analyzed.
magnesium nitrate hexahydrate, stearic acid, acetamide, acetani- The ranges of solar devices with multipurpose applications
lide, and erythritol. They also presented a two-dimensional model have also been widely investigated. Kumar et al. [90] designed,
based on the enthalpy approach for predicting the thermal fabricated, and tested a multipurpose domestic solar cooker cum
performance of the storage system. As a result, stearic acid and dryer based on truncated pyramid geometry at the Sardar Patel
acetamide were found to have a good compatibility with the latent Renewable Energy Research Institute of India. This concept
heat storage system; thus, they should be used as storage media in (Fig. 6a) concentrates the incident light radiations towards the
a box-type solar cooker to cook and/or to keep food warm in the bottom. The glazing glass surface on the top facilitates the
294 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

brewing system takes 30–50 min to brew coffee. This time is too
long, but that detail is not critical because the theoretical model
was good at predicting the temperature evolution of the thermo-
dynamic system. The suggested system modifications by the
authors will permit achieving a useful solar coffee maker. In early
2011, Gallagher [93] designed, developed, and tested a prototype
for a solar fryer with the goal of producing an effective, robust,
safe, and affordable solar fryer for solar cooking of injera bread.
A mirror below the pan directs the radiation to the pan bottom,
which is coated black (Fig. 7b). The mirror uses flat, hexagonal
panels of aluminized-mylar to provide uniform illumination across
the majority of the pan bottom. The mirror mount allows 8 h/day
operation with a single mirror-angle adjustment, plus a seasonal
mounting adjustment for full-year use. The proposed design is also
scalable to any desired pan size. The prototype provides approxi-
mately 640 W of heating power, which allows the cooking of about
Fig. 8. Concentrating solar cooker and water heater operating in the cooking mode, 30 kg of injera bread per clear day for 150 people.
built and tested by Badran et al. [94]. In 2010, Badran et al. [94] designed, built and tested a portable
solar cooker and water heater. A normal satellite dish 150 cm
diameter in size was used as a concentrator for solar radiation. The
surface of the dish was covered with reflective aluminum foil used
to concentrate the solar energy on a cooking pot in two operating
modes (cooking food and heating water). The device operated in
the cooking mode is shown in Fig. 8. It was concluded from their
experimental results that in the cooking mode, a 7 kg of water at
20 1C was brought to a boil in 1 h. Putting the pot inside a glass
box reduced the time required for boiling temperature to 40 min
and cooking power increased by 275%. The efficiency for the
cooking process using the glass box cover was almost twice that
of using the process without the cover. In the water heating mode,
the device was able to heat 30 kg of water from 20 1C to 50 1C in
2½ h in November. The highest efficiency obtained for this mode
was 77%, and the uncertainty of measuring the cooking power and
the efficiency in both modes range between 71.4% and 71.7%.
Grupp et al. [95] designed and developed a metering device for
the determination of a solar cooker use rate by a novel metering
device (Fig. 9). The device allowed the recording of food tempera-
ture, ambient temperature and irradiance. A solar cooker use
Fig. 9. Testing of the K-10 concentrating cooker developed by Grupp et al. [95].
meter records actual cooking history in terms of quantity of food
successfully cooked, allowing for the appraisal of fuel savings and
GHG emission reduction, when compared with other cooking
trapping of energy inside the cooker. The authors recommended options. Metering results were compared with actual conditions
minor modifications to achieve higher temperatures and to reduce for two types of solar cookers and found to be in agreement.
cooking times. Later, Kumar et al. [91] designed, constructed and Purohit and Purohit [96–98] experimentally investigated a box-
tested a truncated pyramid geometry-based multipurpose solar type and parabolic concentrating-type solar cookers with the aim
device (Fig. 6b) which could be used for domestic cooking as well to estimate the instrumentation error for an effective quality
as water heating. Cooking tests were performed across different control which is essential for a large-scale dissemination of these
seasons. The maximum absorber plate stagnation temperature devices. For the characterization, they carried out a large number
was determined to be 140 1C. The figure of merits F1 and F2 were of experiments using various test procedures in the climatic
calculated about 0.117 1C m²/W and 0.467, respectively, meeting conditions of New Delhi, India, under different climatic and
the standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for operating conditions around the year. The technical specifications
solar box-type cookers. of the instrumentation used in measurements are summarized in
Table 1. The effect of instrumentation error has been evaluated the
4.2. Concentrating-type cookers maximum on second figure of merit, optical efficiency factor, and
standardized cooking power. It has been estimated that instru-
In the past decades, concentrating-type solar cookers have also mentation cause 1.0–5.5% error on the thermal performance
been a subject of investigations conducted by many researchers. parameters of solar cookers. Based on this study and in order to
Sosa-Montemayor et al. [92] presented, realized, and also tested a ensure the technological appropriateness of the solar cookers the
solar coffee maker. It is a novel solar concentrating application that test methods are critically important. It is recommended that
consists of a satellite TV mini-dish concentrator coupled to a appropriate ranges of the performance indicators and accuracies of
stovetop espresso coffee maker. The experimental setup scheme the measuring instruments must be defined in test standards of
and photographic view of this coffee system are illustrated in solar cookers [98].
Fig. 7a. The authors presented a theoretical model for the evolu- Hybridization of solar cooking systems is also a possible option
tion of the water temperature inside the coffee brewing system. for cooking. Prasanna and Umanand [99,100] proposed and
That model was validated via a comparison with actual experi- developed a hybrid solar cooking system where solar energy was
mental results and underlined by results that indicate the coffee brought to the kitchen. The energy sources were combination of
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 295

Table 1
Details of instrumentation used for testing of box and paraboloid concentrator-type solar cookers [98].

Parameter measured Instrument used Type/make Range Least count

Total solar radiation Eppley radiometer Model PSP 24319F-3 0–1200 W/m² 1.0 W/m²
Diffuse solar radiation Eppley radiometer Model PSP 24319F-3 0–1200 W/m² 1.0 W/m²
Ambient air temperature Thermocouple Copper-constantan 0–600 1C 0.05 1C
Cooker tray temperature Thermocouple k-type 0–600 1C 0.05 1C
Water temperature Thermocouple Copper-constantan 0–600 1C 0.05 1C
Weight (water and cooking pots) Electric balance – 0–30 kg 0.001 kg
Cooking time Data-acquisition system – – 1.0 s
Dimensions Meter scale – 0–2.0 m 0.001 m

Fig. 10. Block diagram of experimental setup for the hybrid solar cooking system developed by Prasanna and Umanand [99,100].

Fig. 11. Conceptual diagram of the indirect solar thermal energy storage and cooking system proposed and tested by Mawire et al. [104].

the solar thermal energy and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). Solar validated through simulation and experimental results. These
energy is transferred to the kitchen via a circulating fluid. The results show that cooking can be carried out at any time of the
block diagram of this experimental setup is shown in Fig. 10. day with time needed very comparable to that for conventional
Energy collected from the solar thermal collector was optimized systems.
by dynamically varying the flow rate using the maximum power In recent years, PCM has enhanced the performance of solar
point tracking (MPPT) techniques. The concept of MPPT was energy collectors within the limitations of thermodynamics [101].
296 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Fig. 12. Temperature (TL) profiles obtained for 1 l of olive oil (a) at different constant discharging flow rates. TL falls to 60 1C for all cases; (b) at different controlled load
powers [104].

undesirable for the cooking process. The second method changed

the flow rate in order to obtain the desired power at a constant
load inlet temperature. The controlled load power discharging
method has a slower initial rate of heat utilization, but the
maximum cooking temperature was maintained for most of the
discharging process, this method of discharging proved more
beneficial to the cooking process [104].
Recently, Lecuona et al. [105] developed 1-D model for an
innovative portable solar cooker of the concentrating parabolic-
type with PCM based heat storage as shown in Fig. 13. The utensil
is formed by two cylindrical cooking pots, filled between them
with a phase change material (technical-grade paraffin or erythri-
tol). An example of results is illustrated in Fig. 14. The obtained
results for climatic conditions of Madrid indicate that it is possible
to cook lunch and dinner for a family during sunny summer and
winter days. Using the retained heat it is also possible to cook the
breakfast of the next day. It is also found that 100 1C phase change
paraffin seems better adapted for the defined duty than a PCM like
erythritol.

4.3. Exergetic assessment of solar cookers

Several theoretical and experimental studies were carried out

concerning energy and exergy efficiencies of solar cookers. Kumar
et al. [106] investigated the time variation of instantaneous exergy
output and energy output as a function of its temperature and also
Fig. 13. Cooker view in operation with focused sun on utensil realized by Lecuona
et al. [105]. of the instantaneous ambient temperature for truncated pyramid
type solar box cooker. The water temperature inside the vessels
reached 90.6 1C from 60 1C in 70 min whereas the initial water and
El-Sebaii et al. [61,102] used acetanilide and magnesium chloride ambient temperatures were 43.18 1C and 33.43 1C, respectively.
hexahydrate as PCM storage media integrated indirect solar The maximum and minimum energy gained from water inside the
cooker. On the basis of the obtained results, it can be inferred, solar cooker was 20.8 kJ and 7.5 kJ, corresponding to maximum
that, acetanilide is a promising PCM for cooking indoors, and and minimum values of insulation 929 W/m² and 376 W/m²,
during low intensity solar radiation periods, they achieved a respectively. Recently, Kumar et al. [107] developed a uniform test
stagnation temperature of 134 1C [61]. At Northwest University standard for evaluating the thermal performance of the cookers
of South Africa in the early 2010, Mawire et al. [103,104,66] irrespective of their geometrical construction. They plotted graphs
presented a mathematical model for an oil/pebble-bed thermal between exergy output and temperature difference for solar
energy storage system (TES) to perform discharging simulations in cookers of different designs resembling a parabolic curve. The
an indirect solar cooker. The model was validated with experi- proposed parameters can lead to development of unified test
mental results, and good agreement was found between the protocol for solar cookers of diversified designs.
simulation and the experiment. The schematic diagram of experi- Panwar et al. [108] experimentally evaluate the energy and
mental setup for the indirect solar TES system is illustrated in exergy efficiencies of the animal feed solar cooker. The cooker was
Fig. 11. Results of the TES system were presented using two made of cement, bricks, glass covers, and a mild steel absorber
methods (Figs. 12a and b). The first method discharged the TES plate. The overall dimensions of the hot box were 900 mm 
system at a constant flow rate. Using such a method, the experi- 900 mm  190 mm. A schematic of a solar cooker for animal feed
mental results indicate a higher rate of heat utilization, which is is illustrated in Fig. 15a, and its side view is presented in Fig. 15b.
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 297

Fig. 14. Time evolution of temperatures versus solar time for July the 15th, PCM is paraffin [105].

Fig. 15. Animal feed solar cooker proposed by Panwar et al. [108]: (a) dimensions; (b) side view of the cooker.

Table 2
Results of the energy and exergy analysis for the animal feed solar cooker proposed
by Panwar et al. [108].

Variables Values

Minimum Maximum

Water temperature (1C) 38.9 72.2

Temperature difference (1C) 2 29.8
Energy input (kJ) 161.52 196.81
Energy output (kJ) 1.89 49.4
Exergy input (kJ) 148.52 184.44
Exergy output (kJ) 0.11 2.72
Energy efficiency (%) 1.12 29.78
Exergy efficiency (%) 0.07 1.52

Fig. 16. Experimental and predicted water temperature for animal feed solar
The energy output of this cooker ranges from 1.89 to 49.4 kJ, cooker in May month, investigated by Panwar [109].
whereas the exergy output ranges from 0.11 to 2.72 kJ during the
same time interval. The energy efficiency of the cooker varies
between 1.12% and 29.78% while the exergy efficiency varies than the experimental values. An example of cooker performance
between 0.07% and 1.52% during the identical period. The results is illustrated for May month in Fig. 16. It is noted that considerable
of energy and exergy analyses are presented in Table 2. temperature gain by vessel fluid is observed during this month;
More recently, in the year 2013, Panwar [109] developed a hence, the cooking of feed can be faster than in other months.
thermal model of an animal feed solar cooker (AFSC), and its Energy and exergy assessment of the cooker was also carried out.
results were validated experimentally. The experiment was con- The experimental energy and exergy efficiency varied in the range
ducted for 9 months and found that the developed model is of 23.19–28.25% and 1.79–2.47%, respectively. The corresponding
capable of predicting the reasonable values of temperature. The theoretical efficiency varies in the range of 24.22–28.33% and 1.97–
value of the correlation coefficients for all months was 0.999. The 2.88%, respectively. The results of energy and exergy analyses for
theoretical values of vessel fluid temperature are 2–3 1C higher AFSC are presented in Table 3.
298 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Table 3
Performance of animal feed solar cooker [109].

Month Input (kJ/day) Output (predicted) (kJ/day) Output (experimental) (kJ/day) Efficiency (predicted) (%) Efficiency (experimental) (%)

Energy Exergy Energy Exergy Energy Exergy Energy Exergy Energy Exergy

October 2011 588.23 549.03 144.15 13.77 141.89 12.24 24.51 2.51 24.12 2.23
November 2011 477.15 445.81 125.96 9.20 122.12 8.03 26.40 2.06 25.59 1.80
December 2011 461.13 431.52 120.88 7.66 117.00 7.72 26.21 2.01 25.37 1.79
January 2012 414.98 388.11 117.55 7.66 117.24 6.97 28.33 1.97 28.25 1.80
February 2012 501.73 468.78 137.33 10.48 133.75 9.40 27.37 2.24 26.66 2.00
March 2012 621.64 580.33 157.04 15.36 153.76 13.64 25.26 2.65 24.73 2.35
April 2012 655.75 611.23 164.18 16.85 157.94 14.74 25.04 2.76 24.09 2.41
May 2012 706.20 657.56 171.01 18.93 163.76 16.27 24.22 2.88 23.19 2.47
June 2012 585.61 545.23 142.92 13.74 143.99 12.67 24.41 2.52 24.59 2.32

Fig. 17. The dimensions of the solar box (a) and parabolic (b) cookers experimentally studied and compared by Ozturk [79].

Mawire et al. [110] discussed about an oil-pebble bed thermal and SPC, respectively. From the results of this study, it was seen
energy storage system for an indirect solar cooker using energy that the difference between the results of energy and exergy
balance equations. A dish-type solar concentrator was used for this analyses is significant. It was also found that, during the experi-
purpose. Energy and exergy analyses were carried out using two mental period, the energy and exergy efficiencies of the box-type
different charging methods to predict the performance of the and the parabolic-type cookers were in the range of 3.05–35.2%,
system. The first method had a constant flow rate of heat transfer 0.58–3.52% and 2.79–15.65%, 0.4–1.25%, respectively.
fluid, and the second method carried out a constant charging In, the early 2011, Pandey et al. [115] presented a comparative
temperature. It was determined that higher exergy rates were experimental study of a box-type and a paraboloid-type solar cooker
obtained with the constant temperature method with higher based on the exergy analysis. The experiments have been carried out
levels of the solar radiation. with cookers filled with different volumes of water and rice. Data on
In the end of 2009, Shukla [111] compared the energy and exergy temperatures and solar radiation have been measured for different
efficiencies of community size and domestic size paraboloidal solar food stuffs on clear sky day. Comparative results are shown in Fig. 18.
cookers. From the results, it was observed that the energy output of Fig. 18a and b illustrates the variation of efficiency and solar radiation
the community solar cooker varied between 2.73 to 43.3 W and with respect to time for one and two liters of water in the paraboloid
7.77 W to 33.4 W for the domestic solar cooker. The exergy output for solar cooker. On the other hand, Fig. 18c and d illustrates the variation
community solar cooker was in the range of 1.92 to 2.58 W, whereas of exergy efficiency, i.e., second law efficiency and solar radiation for
for the domestic solar cooker, it varied from 0.65 to 1.45 W. The one and two liters of water in box-type solar cooker. It was found
energy efficiency of the community, solar cooker varied from 8.3% to from the results that the exergy efficiency increases as the volume of
10.5% and for the domestic solar cooker, it varied from 7.1% to 14.0%. water increases, however, the exergy efficiency of a paraboloid solar
In Turkey, Ozturk [82,112–114] conducted several experimental cooker is found to be higher than that of the box-type solar cooker.
research projects on solar cookers and analyzed the performance It was also found that the exergy efficiency varied with the cooking
parameters in terms of thermodynamic laws. Petela [80] inspired stuff and water which is due to the fact that the requirement of
by Ozturk's study, investigated a solar parabolic cooker, of the heating varied with the food stuff.
cylindrical trough shape, from the perspective of exergy. It was
shown that the exergy efficiency of the parabolic cooker was found
to be relatively very low (approximately 1%) while the energy 5. Tracking devices applied in solar cooker systems
efficiency ranged from 6% to 19%. Later, an experimental compara-
tive study on energy and exergy efficiencies for solar boxes and The radiation intensity falling on the solar systems is affected
parabolic cookers (Figs. 17a and b) was conducted by Oztruk [79]. by the diurnal and seasonal movement of earth. Consequently, the
It was found that the average daily water temperature difference amount of power produced by these systems is directly dependent
from 10:00 to 14:00 solar time was 42.97 and 31.56 K in the SBC on the quantity of solar radiation. Therefore, it is necessary to
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 299

Fig. 18. Time versus exergy efficiency and solar radiation: (a) one liter of water in the paraboloid solar cooker; (b) two liters of loaded water in the PSC; (c) one liter of water
in the box solar cooker; (d) two liters of loaded water in the BSC, experimented by Pandey et al. [115].

adopt solar systems based tracking devices to improve the solar developed a new method to improve the efficiency of PV panels,
energy utilization. The sun tracker is a device that moves solar which was applied on two-axis tracker. In this method, instead of
systems in the best orientation possible in order to minimize the using optical sensors, an adaptive algorithm is used to calculate
incidence angle, with the aim to keep an optimum position azimuth and elevation angles of the sun via micro-controller.
throughout the daylight hours. A sun tracker would allow sun By comparing the results of this method with respect to method
following in a north–south direction (for seasonal tracking) as well of optical sensors, higher PV output efficiency was achieved by
as in an east–west direction (for diurnal tracking) by moving the using the new adaptive algorithm.
solar system with the correct angles so that it points towards the Sun tracking systems destined to concentrating applications
sun continuously. As underlined by Mousazadeh et al., the use of a were also deeply investigated in recent years. In 2010, a prototype
solar tracking system can increase the collected energy 10–100% in of toroidal heliostat with receiver oriented dual-axis tracking was
different periods of time and geographical conditions. Further designed, modeled and realized by Guo et al. [120] as shown in
studies show that, the solar energy gained by the sun tracking Fig. 19a. A new tracking formula was presented and the accuracy of
system (biaxial) is 35% higher than that of the fixed system [116]. applying a simplifying approximation was analyzed. The tracking
system has two rotation axis (Fig. 19b), so that the heliostat can
5.1. Solar systems with tracking devices track the sun in E–W and N–S direction. A series of dual-axis
tracking formulas has been derived for the heliostat. The authors
It is well-known in literature that, sun tracking systems are underlined that, exact tracking formulas provide a good founda-
usually categorized in one-axis or two-axis trackers, including tion for further analysis of the heliostat tracking error. In addition,
mechanical or electrical devices, which are continually improved the exact tracking angles are useful for analysis and assessment of
by researchers over the world. As noted by Abu-Malouh et al. [117], concentrated solar images on a receiver aperture [120]. In the
single axis tracking systems are considerably cheaper and easier to following year, the tracking and ray tracing equations for the
construct, but their efficiency is lower than that of two-axis sun target-aligned heliostat for solar tower power plants was derived
tracking systems. On the other hand, some solar systems; such as by Wei et al. [121].
point focus concentrators, require only two-axis tracking, the main In the Laboratory of Energy Economics at Democritus Univer-
advantage of two-axis tracking collectors is their higher efficiency. sity of Thrace in Greece, Bakos [122] designed and constructed a
A large number of investigations concerning the uses of sun parabolic-trough collector with the two-axis sun tracking system,
tracking systems (single and dual-axis) for solar applications have which is based on the combined use of the conventional photo-
been performed within the past years by several researchers based resistors and the programming method of control. A working
on the diverse type of collectors, like photovoltaic (PV) panels principle of sensors system (photoresistors) and a proposed
[118,119], heliostat field collector (HFC) [120,121], parabolic-trough prototype are illustrated in Fig. 20a and b, respectively. It is
collector (PTC) [122,123], parabolic dish reflector (PDR) [124,125], concluded that the gain of the two-axis tracking system is
compound parabolic collector (CPC) [126,127] and linear Fresnel considerable (up to 46.46%) compared with the fixed surface for
reflector (LFR) [128,129] around the globe. operation in all weather conditions.
During previous years, most sun trackings study concern In early 2013, Gama et al. [130] presented an innovative work
photovoltaic systems. In the year 2011, Parvaresh et al. [118] (Figs. 21a and b) which consists of a novel sun tracking system
300 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Fig. 19. Photo of the toroidal heliostat on a rooftop at Xi'an Jiaotong University in China: (a) front view showing mirror and (b) two-axis tracking system [120,121].

Fig. 20. Parabolic-trough collector in the Laboratory of Energy Economics at Thrace Democritus University in Greece: (a) photoresistors principle and (b) view of the
prototype [122].

Fig. 21. Novel sun tracking system with absorber displacement for parabolic trough collectors realized by Gama et al. [130]: (a) a photograph of the prototype;
(b) presentation of the movable absorber for the PTC prototype.

based on absorber displacement in order to minimize the optical tracking system is realized and tested in Ghardaîa region (32.481N,
losses caused by the cosine effect in parabolic troughs (PTC). 3.661E, 502 m) located at Southern of Algeria. The new concept
A prototype of parabolic trough collector equipped with the novel was validated through simulation using TRNSYS software and
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 301

to solar cooking technologies, the designs of solar cooker systems

are more oriented to be equipped with sun tracking devices
permitting to follow sun courses, even box types.
In 2010, Al-Soud et al. [131] designed, constructed, operated and
tested a parabolic solar cooker (PSC) with automatic sun tracking
system using a programmable logic controller as shown in Fig. 23a.
The Variation of water temperature inside the collecting tube is
shown in Fig. 24a. The experimental results reveals that using
parabolic solar cooker with automatic tracking, the water tempera-
ture inside the cooker's tube reached 90 1C in a typical summer day,
when the maximum registered ambient temperature was 36 1C. One
Fig. 22. Experiment result of power output from realized dish solar thermal energy
[124]. year later, Abu-Malouh et al. [117] designed, realized and analyzed a
spherical-type solar cooker with the automatic two-axis sun tracking
system as illustrated in Fig. 23b. For this purpose, a dish was built to
experimental results. Tests on the system have proven a quite concentrate solar radiation on a pan that is fixed at the focus of the
good effectiveness regarding the hard climate conditions in the dish. The spherical dish tracks the sun using the sun tracking system,
south of Algeria. Comparing the obtained experimental results collects the solar energy incident on it and concentrates it using 256
with simulation one, it was found that the efficiency of the new concentrating mirrors. The sun tracking system is composed of the
sun tracking system with reflector displacement is in between the two motors; the rotation of the motors is controlled by the two-axis
efficiency of one and two axes sun tracking. Efficiencies close to sun tracking system with programmable logic controllers (PLC). The
50% were obtained. inside pan temperature variation is a function of time is shown in
In the year 2012, an experimental realization was performed by Fig. 24b. It was observed from the results for three different days, that
Kuang and Zhang [124] to investigate the effect of using a tracking the temperature inside the pan reached more than 93 1C in a day
system on the solar energy output. For this purpose, a tracking where the maximum ambient temperature was 32 1C, which is
system for dish solar thermal energy based on an embedded suitable for cooking purposes.
system that mixes active and passive tracking was designed and Concentrating system using Fresnel lens is one of the methods able
implemented. This new design uses more stability sensors so that to increase the amount of absorbed solar energy. Valmiki et al. [132]
can improve both accuracy and stability. The experiments show designed, realized and tested a novel design solar cooking stove which
that the design was effective and reliable. An example of average uses large Fresnel lens for the concentration of sunlight (Fig. 25). The
daily power output curves is shown in Fig. 22. stove has a fixed heat-receiving area located at the focal point of the
Khalifa and Al-Mutawalli investigated the improvement in the lens. The sunlight tracking system rotates the Fresnel lens about its
performance of a compound parabolic concentrator when used focal point in both zenith and azimuth angles using two rotation arms.
with a two-axis sun tracking system. A sun tracking system of Since the solar tracking allows the Fresnel lens to concentrate sunlight,
photo-transistors separated by a partition from one another and solar stove based Fresnel lens demonstrated high safety and efficiency
two identical CPC collector was designed, constructed and tested with relatively low heat loss. The outdoor solar stovetop could reach a
at Solar Energy Research Center of Baghdad. It was concluded from temperature of 300 1C for cooking application; solar heat collected on
the tests that a two-axis tracking system may increase the energy the outdoor stovetop could be circulated through a mineral oil loop to
gain of a CPC collector by up to 75% [127]. AL-Jumaily and AL-Kaysi an indoor stovetop which reaches a temperature of 150 1C. Tempera-
[129] studied the performance of flat linear Fresnel lens concen- tures of the outdoor stovetop, the mineral oil inside the aluminum
trating solar radiation on two absorbers connected in series. The chamber, as well as the indoor stovetop are given in Fig. 26. Based on
tracking system was constructed so that it tracks the sun in two the realized prototype, some technical improvements are proposed to
directions. Tests were carried out to evaluate thermal and optical advance the technology in the future.
efficiency of the system. It was found by authors that, to get higher Recently, Farooqui [133] presented a new type of improved
efficiency the collector should run with higher flow rate but the vacuum tube based solar cooker (Fig. 27). The proposed cooker
water outlet temperature will be less. It was concluded, for two utilizes a solar collector consisting of parallel plane rectangular
directional tracking optical efficiency is constant and about 0.64%. glass mirror strips mounted inside a wooden frame and requiring
one-dimensional solar tracking through a common driver. Thus,
5.2. Solar cookers with sun tracking systems the greatest advantage of this cooker is that it offers fast cooking
and does not require frequent manual solar tracking. Temperatures
From the review it is seen that the temperature around 100 1C as high as 250 1C are attainable, making it suitable for water based
is achieved in box-type solar cooker. As underlined by Lahkar and as well as oil based cooking and frying of food. The proposed
Samdarshi, this range of temperature is suitable for cooking by design can be either installed over the roof top of a house or near a
boiling. Such type of cookers may either fail to cook or take longer south facing window (in countries of the northern hemisphere).
time to cook full load of food because of its inability to attain Due to larger collector area, the design offers substantially higher
desirable temperature or to transfer heat to the content of pot at a cooking power compared to other conventional solar cookers.
fast rate in a given climate [49]. On the other hand, parabolic solar Experiments performed during various months of the year show
cookers have a concentration ratio up to 50 and therefore able to substantially improved performance of the cooker all year round.
attain higher temperatures (up to 200 1C) in a short time. They do In early 2013, Farooqui [134] presented an innovative work
not need a special cooking vessel, unlike the box-type and are (Fig. 28) which consists of a novel mechanism for one-dimensional
suitable for boiling and food cooking. However, parabolic cookers tracking of box-type solar cookers along the azimuth that does not
are not well insulated and need frequent adjust to tracking the sun require any unavailable external power source, as the external
and to maintain the point focus. They are usually equipped with power source is simple water. The required tracking energy is
the two-axis sun tracking system which makes the whole system drawn from the potential energy stored in a spring attached to a
complex to manufacture. Parabolic cookers also include risk of water container. The requirement for tracking along the second
burning food because of the uncontrolled concentrated power. dimension (altitude) has been eliminated through an optimized
In last recent years, and in order to resolve some problems related extended booster mirror. Experimental results and performance
302 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

Fig. 23. Concentrating-type cookers with sun tracker systems (a) parabolic solar cooker constructed by Al-Soud et al. [131]; (b) spherical-type solar cooker realized by
Abu-Malouh et al. [117].

6. Contribution of solar cookers in mitigation potential

of carbon dioxide

Many scientific studies reveals that overall CO2 levels have

increased 31% in the past 200 years, 20 Gt of Carbon added to the
environment since 1800 only due to deforestation and the con-
centration of methane gas, which is responsible for ozone layer
depletion has more than doubled since then. The global mean
surface temperature has increased by 0.4–0.8 1C in the last century
above the baseline of 14 1C [135]. The promotion of renewable and
clean technology to produce energy is becoming a necessity to
reduce greenhouse-gas emissions [136–142].
Panwar et al. [11], underlined in their review that, over the
period from 1971 to 1995, as indicated by Table 4, CO2 emissions
grew at an average rate of 1.7% per year [143]. The outlook projects
a faster growth rate of CO2 emissions for the period to 2020, at
2.2% per year. By 2020, the developing countries could account for
half of global CO2 emissions.
Solar cooking technology may be one of the attractive options
in developing countries capable to meet energy cooking demand
with minimizing the CO2 emission all over the world. Nandwani
[144] conducted a study on the ecological benefits of solar cookers
in Costa Rica and in the world as a whole, and then compared the
advantages and limitations of solar ovens with conventional fire-
wood and electric stoves. The payback period of a common hot
box typed solar oven, even if used 6–8 months a year, is around
Fig. 24. Obtained results for concentrating solar cookers with sun tracking systems 12–14 months; roughly 16.8 million tons of firewood can be saved
(a) variation of water temperature inside the collecting tube for the parabolic-type and the emission of 38.4 million tons of CO2 per annum can also be
solar cooker constructed by Al-Soud et al. [131]; (b) variation of temperature inside
pan for the spherical-type solar cooker realized by Abu-Malouh et al. [117].
prevented according to the results. Hernandez and Huelsz [24]
presented the optimization of optogeometrical design of a solar
analysis of a prototype have been included. The results indicate oven for the intertropical zone. The cooking test demonstrated
that if the system is set for 3 h at a time, it tracks the sun more that the oven prototype, which needs only four simple movements
accurately. throughout the year, is suitable to cook three basic Mexican meals.
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 303

Fig. 25. Schematic view of solar thermal loop for the solar stove based Fresnel lens realized and tested by Valmiki et al. [132].

Fig. 26. Test results of temperature variation for the solar stove in operation, on
April 9th, 2009, at Tucson, Arizona, USA [132].

Fig. 28. The complete gravity based sun tracking system for box-type solar cooker
[134].

Table 4
CO2 emission by region (million tons of CO2) [143].

1971 1995 2010 2020

OECD 9031 10.763 13.427 14.476

Transition economic 3029 3135 3852 4465
China 875 3051 5322 7081
Rest of the world 1436 4791 8034 11.163
World 14.732 22.150 31.189 37.848

year. The use of the non-tracking solar cooker would result in a

reduced release of CO2 to the environment. Renewable energy
resources will play an important role in the world's future [11]; the
Fig. 27. Complete single vacuum tube based solar cooker realized by Farooqui development of solar cooker systems will permit to meet the
[133]. cooking energy demands and to resolve some serious problems
related to traditional cooking, especially in developing countries.

It was estimated that the constructed oven can save a potential

quantity of wood of 850 kg per annum. 7. Conclusion
Further, studies were conducted by Nahar for several years
[145–147] on different designs of solar cookers in Indian climatic The present study explored recent advances in solar cooking
conditions and CO2 emission potential. It was estimated that the technology were performed. Based on research conducted worldwide,
payback periods varied between 1.28 and 4.82 years depending various solar cooker type realizations and their thermal performance,
upon the cooking fuel replaces. For different cookers, the saved and energetic and exergetic analysis are presented. This comprehen-
energy was also estimated maximum of 5175 MJ of energy per sive review, suggested that cooking vessel, absorber plates should be
304 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

black painted for better thermal performance. Double glazing is also [30] Narasimha Rao AV, Chalam RV, Subramanyam S, Sitharama Rao TL. Energy
recommended to reduce heat losses. contribution by booster mirrors. Energy Convers Manag 1993;34:309–26.
[31] Agami Reddy T. Solar thermal energy conversion. Handbook of energy
The Solar cooking technologies can play a key role to reduce or efficiency and renewable energy. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis Group, LLC;
substitute energy consumption from other sources in the near 2007.
future. Effectively, solar cooking is a best option which offers a [32] Garg HP, Prakash J. Solar energy fundamentals and applications. New Delhi,
promising appliance for solar energy. In addition to its several India: Tata McGraw Hill Publications; 2004.
[33] Anderson T, Duke M, Carson J. Performance of colored solar collectors. In:
advantages (i.e., fuel economy, CO2 reduction, firewood conserva- Proceedings of the first international conference on applied energy, Hong
tion, and electricity saver, etc.), the large-scale diffusion of solar Kong; 5–7 January 2009.
cookers is still limited because of diverse problems. To overcome [34] Tripanagnostopoulos Y, Souliotis M, Nousia Th. Solar collectors with colored
absorbers. Sol Energy 2000;68:343–56.
this limitation and to apprehend more benefits of these systems,
[35] Kumar S. Natural convective heat transfer in trapezoidal enclosure of box
more research attempts must be done in future all over the world, type solar cooker. Renew Energy 2004;29:211–22.
to increase their efficiency and enhance their current performance. [36] Amer EH. Theoretical and experimental assessment of a double exposure
solar cooker. Energy Convers Manag 2003;44:2651–63.
[37] Nahar NM, Marshall RH, Brinkworth BJ. Studies on a hot box solar cooker with
transparent insulation materials. Energy Convers Manag 1994;35:787–91.
References [38] Nahar NM. Design, development and testing of a double reflector hot box
solar cooker with a transparent insulation material. Renew Energy
2001;23:167–79.
[1] Fanchi JR. Energy: technology and directions for the future. London: Elsevier [39] Bjork F, Enochsson T. Properties of thermal insulation materials during
Academic Press; 2004. extreme environment changes. Constr Build Mater 2009;23:2189–95.
[2] Boudghene Stambouli A, Koinuma H. A primary study on a long-term vision [40] Panwar NL, Kothari S, Kaushik SC. Energetic and exergetic analysis of three
and strategy for the realisation and the development of the Sahara Solar different solar cookers. J Renew Sustain Energy 2013;5:023102.
Breeder project in Algeria. Renew Sust Energy Rev 2012;16:591–8. [41] Mullick SC, Kandpal TC, Kumar S. Top heat-loss factor of double-glazed box
[3] Thirugnanasambandam M, Iniyan S, Goic R. A review of solar thermal
type solar cooker from indoor experiments. Energy 1997;22:559–65.
technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:312–22.
[42] Deubener J, Helsch G, Moiseev A, Bornhö ft H. Glasses for solar energy
[4] Hager TJ, Morawicki R. Energy consumption during cooking in the residential
conversion systems. J Eur Ceram Soc 2009;29:1203–10.
sector of developed nations: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
[43] Srinivasan Rao KVN. Innovative solar cooking vessel design. In: Proceedings
2013;40:54–63.
of the fifth international energy conversion engineering conference and
[5] Toonen HM. Adapting to an innovation: solar cooking in the urban house-
exhibit. St. Louis, Missouri, USA; 25–27 June 2007.
holds of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Phys Chem Earth 2009;34:65–71.
[44] Harmim A, Boukar M, Amar M. Experimental study of a double exposure
[6] Saxena A, Varun, Pandey SP, Srivastav G. A thermodynamic review on solar
box type cookers. Renew Sust Energy Rev 2011;15:3301–18. solar cooker with finned cooking vessel. Sol Energy 2008;82:287–9.
[7] Panwar NL, Reddy VS, Ranjan KR, Seepana MM, Totlani P. Sustainable [45] Narasimha Rao AV, Subramanyam S. Solar cookers – part I: cooking vessel on
development with renewable energy resources: a review. Int J World Rev lugs. Sol Energy 2003;75:181–5.
Sci, Technol Sustain Dev 2013;10:163–84. [46] Narasimha Rao AV, Subramanyam S. Solar cookers – part II: cooking vessel
[8] Cuce E, Cuce PM. A comprehensive review on solar cookers. Appl Energy with central annular cavity. Sol Energy 2005;78:19–22.
2013;87:1399–421. [47] Reddy AR, Narasimha Rao AV. Prediction and experimental verification of
[9] Bansal M, Saini RP, Khatod DK. Development of cooking sector in rural areas performance of box type solar cooker – Part I. Cooking vessel with central
in India – a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;17:44–53. cylindrical cavity. Energy Convers Manag 2007;48:2034–43.
[10] UNDP. World energy assessment 2000 – energy and the challenge of [48] Gaur A, Singh OP, Singh SK, Pandey GN. Performance study of solar cooker
sustainability. New York: UNDP; 9211261260. with modified utensil. Renew Energy 1999;18:121–9.
[11] Panwar NL, Kaushik SC, Kothari S. Role of renewable energy sources in [49] Lahkar PJ, Samdarshi SK. A review of the thermal performance parameters of
environmental protection: a review. Renew Sust Energy Rev 2011;15:1513–24. box type solar cookers and identification of their correlations. Renew Sustain
[12] Biermann E, Grupp M, Palmer R. Solar cooker acceptance in South Africa: Energy Rev 2010;14:1615–21.
results of a comparative field-test. Sol Energy 1999;66:401–7. [50] Arenas JM. Design, development and testing of a portable parabolic solar
[13] Wentzel M, Pouris A. The development impact of solar cookers: a review of kitchen. Renew Energy 2007;32:257–66.
solar cooking impact research in South Africa. Energy Policy 2007;35:1909–19. [51] Sharaf E. A new design for an economical, highly efficient, conical solar
[14] Muthusivagami RM, Velraj R, Sethumadhavan R. Solar cookers with and cooker. Renew Energy 2002;27:599–619.
without thermal storage: a review. Renew Sust Energy Rev 2010;14:691–701. [52] Sonune AV, Philip SK. Development of a domestic concentrating cooker.
[15] Khan BH. Non-conventional energy resources. New Delhi, India: Tata Renew Energy 2003;28:1225–34.
McGraw Hill Publications; 2008. [53] Franco J, Cadena C, Saravia L. Multiple use communal solar cookers. Sol
[16] Kothari DP, Singal KC, Ranjan R. Renewable energy resources and emerging Energy 2004;77:217–23.
technologies. New Delhi, India: Prentice-Hall; 2008. [54] Patel NV, Philip SK. Performance evaluation of three solar concentrating
[17] Panwar NL, Kothari S, Kaushik SC. Techno-economic evaluation of masonry cookers. Renew Energy 2000;20:347–55.
type animal feed solar cooker in rural areas of an Indian state Rajasthan. [55] Esen M. Thermal performance of a solar cooker integrated vacuum-tube
Energy Policy 2013;52:583–6. collector with heat pipes containing different refrigerants. Sol Energy
[18] Suharta H, Sayigh AM, Abdullah K, Mathew K. The comparison of three types 2004;76:751–7.
of Indonesian solar box cookers. Renew Energy 2001;22:379–87. [56] Sharma SD, Iwata T, Kitano H, Sagara K. Thermal performance of a solar
[19] Abou-Ziyan HZ. Experimental investigation of tracking paraboloid and box cooker based on an evacuated tube solar collector with a PCM storage unit.
solar cookers under Egyptian environment. Appl Therm Eng 1998;18: Sol Energy 2005;78:416–26.
1375–1394. [57] Schwarzer K, Silva MEV. Solar cooking system with or without heat storage
[20] Hussain M, Khan MSI. Fabrication of and performance studies on a low cost
for families and institutions. Sol Energy 2003;75:35–41.
solar cooker having an inclined aperture plane. Renew Energy 1996;9:762–5.
[58] Hussein HMS, El-Ghetany HH, Nada SA. Experimental investigation of novel
[21] Nahar NM, Gupta JP, Sharma P. A novel solar cooker for animal feed. Energy
indirect solar cooker with indoor PCM thermal storage and cooking unit.
Convers Manag 1996;37:77–80.
Energy Convers Manag 2008;49:2237–46.
[22] Nahar NM. Performance and testing of an improved hot box solar cooker.
[59] Kreith F, Goswami DY. Industrial energy efficiency and energy management.
Energy Convers Manag 1990;30:9–16.
In: Proceedings of the energy management and conservation handbook. CRC
[23] Jaramillo OA, Huelsz G, Hernandez-Luna G, del Rio JA, Acosta R, Arriaga LG.
Solar oven for intertropical zones: optogeometrical design. Energy Convers Press, Taylor and Francis Group; 2008.
Manag 2007;48:2649–56. [60] Nahar NM. Performance and testing of a hot box storage solar cooker. Energy
[24] Hernandez-Luna G, Huelsz G. A solar oven for intertropical zones: evaluation Convers Manag 2003;44:1323–31.
of the cooking process. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49:3622–6. [61] El-Sebaii AA, Al-Amir S, Al-Marzouki FM, Faidah Adel S, Al-Ghamdi AA, Al-Heniti
[25] Negi BS, Purohit I. Experimental investigation of a box type solar cooker employ- S. Fast thermal cycling of acetanilide and magnesium chloride hexahydrate for
ing a non-tracking concentrator. Energy Convers Manag 2005;46:577–604. indoor solar cooking. Energy Convers Manag 2009;50:3104–11.
[26] Mirdha US, Dhariwal SR. Design optimization of solar cooker. Renew Energy [62] Chen CR, Sharma A, Tyagi SK, Buddhi D. Numerical heat transfer studies of
2008;33:530–44. PCMs used in a box-type solar cooker. Renew Energy 2008;33:1121–9.
[27] Buddhi D, Sharma SD, Sharma A. Thermal performance evaluation of a latent [63] Sharma SD, Buddhi D, Sawhney RL, Sharma A. Design, development and
heat storage unit for late evening cooking in a solar cooker having three performance evaluation of a latent heat storage unit for evening cooking in a
reflectors. Energy Convers Manag 2003;44:809–17. solar cooker. Energy Convers Manag 2000;41:1497–508.
[28] Algifri AH, Al-Towaie HA. Efficient orientation impacts of box-type solar [64] Domanski R, El-Sebaii AA, Jaworski M. Cooking during off-sunshine hours
cooker on the cooker performance. Sol Energy 2001;70:165–70. using PCMs as storage media. Energy 1995;20:607–16.
[29] El-Sebaii AA, Aboul-Enein S. A box-type solar cooker with one-step outer [65] Mukao R, Tinarwo D. Performance evaluation of a hot box solar cooker using a
reflector. Energy 1997;22:515–24. micro-controller base measurement system. Int J Energy Res 2008;32:1339–48.
 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306 305

[66] Mawire A, McPherson M. Experimental and simulated temperature distribu- [101] Koca A, Oztop HF, Koyun T, Varol Y. Energy and exergy analysis of a latent
tion of an oil-pebble bed thermal energy storage system with a variable heat heat storage system with phase change material for a solar collector. Renew
source. Appl Therm Eng 2009;29:1086–95. Energy 2008;33:567–74.
[67] Sharma A, Tyagi VV, Chen CR, Buddhi D. Review on thermal energy storage [102] El-Sebaii AA, Al-Heniti S, Al-Agel F, Al-Ghamdi AA, Al-Marzouki F. One
with phase change materials and applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev thousand thermal cycles of magnesium chloride hexahydrate as a promising
2009;13:318–45. PCM for indoor solar cooking. Energy Convers Manag 2011;52:1771–7.
[68] Kenisarin M, Mahkamov K. Solar energy storage using phase change [103] Mawire A, Taole SH, van den Heetkamp RRJ. Experimental investigation on
materials. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2007;11:1913–65. simultaneous charging and discharging of an oil storage tank. Energy
[69] Farid MM, Khudhair AM, Siddique AKR, Said AH. A review on phase change Convers Manag 2013;65:245–54.
energy storage: materials and applications. Energy Convers Manag [104] Mawire A, McPherson M, van den Heetkamp RRJ. Discharging simulations of
2004;45:1597–615. a thermal energy storage (TES) system for an indirect solar cooker. Sol
[70] Zalba B, Marin JM, Cabeza LF, Mehling H. Review on thermal storage with Energy Mater Sol Cells 2010;94:1100–6.
phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications. Appl Therm [105] Lecuona A, Nogueira JI, Ventas R, Rodríguez-Hidalgo MC, Legrand M. Solar
Eng 2003;23:251–83. cooker of the portable parabolic type incorporating heat storage based on
[71] Mullick SC, Kandpal TC, Saxena AK. Thermal test procedure for box type solar PCM. Appl Energy 2013;111:1136–46.
[106] Kumar N, Vishwanath G, Gupta A. An exergy based test protocol for truncated
cooker. Sol Energy 1987;39:353–60.
pyramid type solar box cooker. Energy 2011;36:5710–5.
[72] Funk PA. Evaluating the international standard procedure for testing solar
[107] Kumar N, Vishwanath G, Gupta A. An exergy based unified test protocol for
cookers and reporting performance. Sol Energy 2000;68:1–7.
solar cookers of different geometries. Renew Energy 2012;44:457–62.
[73] Larson DL, Cortez LAB. Exergy analysis: essential to effective energy manage-
[108] Panwar NL, Kothari S, Kaushik SC. Experimental investigation of energy and
ment. Trans ASAE 1995;38:1173–8.
exergy efficiency of masonry-type solar cooker for animal feed. Int J Sustain
[74] Li Yang, Shanying HU, Dingjiang C, Dawei Z. Exergy analysis on eco-industrial
Energy 2010;29:178–84.
system. Sci China Ser B – Chem 2006;49:281–8.
[109] Panwar NL. Thermal modeling, energy and exergy analysis of animal feed
[75] Panwar NL, Kaushik SC, Kothari S. State of the art of solar cooking: an
solar cooker. J Renew Sustain Energy 2013;5:043105.
overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:3776–85.
[110] Mawire A, McPherson M, van den Heetkamp RRJ. Simulated energy and
[76] Rosen MA, Hooper FC, Barbaris LN. Exergy analysis for the evaluation of the
exergy analyses of the charging of an oil-pebble bed thermal energy storage
performance of closed thermal energy storage systems. Trans ASME – J Sol system for a solar cooker. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 2008;92:1668–76.
Energy Eng 1998;110:255–61. [111] Shukla SK. Comparison of energy and exergy efficiency of community and
[77] Kaushik SC, Mishra RD, Singh N. Second law analysis of a solar thermal domestic type parabolic solar cookers. Int J Green Energy 2009;6:437–49.
power system. Int J Sol Energy 2000;20:239–53. [112] Ozturk HH, Oztekin S, Bascetincelik A. Evaluation of efficiency for solar
[78] Kaushik SC, Gupta MK. Energy and exergy efficiency comparison of cooker using energy and exergy analyses. Int J Energy 2003.
community-size and domestic-size paraboloidal solar cooker performance. [113] Ozturk HH. Experimental determination of energy and exergy efficiency of
Energy Sustain Dev 2008;9:60–4. the solar parabolic-cooker. Sol Energy 2004;77:67–71.
[79] Ozturk HH. Comparison of energy and exergy efficiency for solar box and [114] Ozturk HH. Energy and exergy efficiency of solar box cooker. Int J Exergy
parabolic cookers. J Energy Eng 2007;133:53–62. 2004;1:202–14.
[80] Petela R. Exergy analysis of the solar cylindrical–parabolic cooker. Sol Energy [115] Pandey AK, Tyagi VV, Park SR, Tyagi SK. Comparative experimental study of
2005;79:221–33. solar cookers using exergy analysis. J Therm Anal Calorim 2012;109:425–31.
[81] Kreith F, Kreider J. Principles of solar engineering. New York: Hemisphere- [116] Mousazadeh H, Keyhani A, Javadi A, Mobli H, Abrinia K, Sarifi A. A review of
McGraw-Hill; 1978. principle and sun-tracking methods for maximizing solar systems output.
[82] Ozturk HH. Second law analysis for solar cookers. Int J Green Energy Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1800–18.
2004;1:227–39. [117] Abu-Malouh R, Abdallah S, Muslih IM. Design, construction and operation of
[83] Mahavar S, Sengar N, Rajawat P, Verma M, Dashora P. Design development spherical solar cooker with automatic sun tracking system. Energy Convers
and performance studies of a novel single family solar cooker. Renew Energy Manag 2011;52:615–20.
2012;47:67–76. [118] Parvaresh A, Mohammadi SMA, Azimi MM. A new adaptive algorithm for two-
[84] Mahavar S, Rajawat P, Marwal VK, Punia RC, Dashora P. Modeling and on- axis sun tracker without sensor. Commun Comput Inf Sci 2011;250:30–7.
field testing of a solar rice cooker. Energy 2013;49:404–12. [119] Koussa M, Cheknane A, Hadji S, Haddadi M, Noureddine S. Measured and
[85] Harmim A, Merzouk M, Boukar M, Amar M. Mathematical modeling of a modelled improvement in solar energy yield from flat plate photovoltaic
box-type solar cooker employing an asymmetric compound parabolic con- systems utilizing different tracking systems and under a range of environ-
centrator. Sol Energy 2012;86:1673–82. mental conditions. Appl Energy 2011;88:1756–71.
[86] Harmim A, Merzouk M, Boukar M, Amar M. Performance study of a box-type [120] Guo M, Wang Z, Liang W, Zhang X, Zang C, Lu Z, et al. Tracking formulas and
solar cooker employing an asymmetric compound parabolic concentrator. strategies for a receiver oriented dual-axis tracking toroidal heliostat. Sol
Energy 2012;47:471–80. Energy 2010;84:939–47.
[87] Joshi JB, Pandit AB, Patel SB, Singhal RS, Bhide GK, Mariwala KV, et al. [121] Wei X, Lu Z, Yu W, Zhang H, Wang Z. Tracking and ray tracing equations for
Development of efficient designs of cooking systems. I – experimental. Ind the target-aligned heliostat for solar tower power plants. Renew Energy
Eng Chem Res 2012;51(4):1878–96. 2011;36:2687–93.
[88] Joshi JB, Pandit AB, Patel SB, Singhal RS, Bhide GK, Mariwala KV, et al. [122] Bakos GC. Design and construction of a two-axis sun tracking system for
Development of efficient designs of cooking systems. II – computational fluid parabolic trough collector (PTC) efficiency improvement. Renew Energy
dynamics and optimization. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012;51:1897–922. 2006;31:2411–21.
[89] Sharma A, Chen CR, Murty VVS, Shukla A. Solar cooker with latent heat [123] Grass C, Schoelkopf W, Staudacher L, Hacker Z. Comparison of the optics of
non-tracking and novel types of tracking solar thermal collectors for process
storage systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1599–605.
heat applications up to 300 1C. Sol Energy 2004;76:207–15.
[90] Kumar N, Agravat S, Chavda T, Mistry HN. Design and development of
[124] Kuang J, Zhang W. Design and implementation of tracking system for dish
efficient multipurpose domestic solar cookers/dryers. Renew Energy
solar thermal energy based on embedded system. Adv Intell Soft Comput
2008;33:2207–11.
2012;135:31–8.
[91] Kumar N, Chavda T, Mistry HN. A truncated pyramid non-tracking type
[125] Arbab H, Jazi B, Rezagholizadeh M. A computer tracking system of solar dish
multipurpose domestic solar cooker/hot water system. Appl Energy
with two-axis degree freedoms based on picture processing of bar shadow.
2010;87:471–7. Renew Energy 2009;34:1114–8.
[92] Sosa-Montemayor F, Jaramillo OA, Del Rio JA. Thermodynamic analysis of a
[126] Tang R, Yu Y. Feasibility and optical performance of one axis three positions
solar coffee maker. Energy Convers Manag 2009;50:2407–12. sun-tracking polar-axis aligned CPCs for photovoltaic applications. Sol
[93] Gallagher A. A solar fryer. Sol Energy 2011;85:496–505. Energy 2010;84:1666–75.
[94] Badran AA, Yousef IA, Joudeh NK, Al Hamad R, Halawa H, Hassouneh HK. [127] Khalifa A-JN, Al-Mutawalli SS. Effect of two-axis sun tracking on the
Portable solar cooker and water heater. Energy Convers Manag 2010;51:1605–9. performance of compound parabolic concentrators. Energy Convers Manag
[95] Grupp M, Balmer M, Beall B, Bergler H, Cieslok J, Hancock D, et al. On-line 1998;39:1073–9.
recording of solar cooker use rate by a novel metering device. Prototype [128] Xie WT, Dai YJ, Wang RZ, Sumath K. Concentrated solar energy applications
description and experimental verification of output data. Sol Energy using Fresnel lenses: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:2588–606.
2009;83:276–9. [129] AL-Jumaily KEJ, AL-Kaysi MKA. The study of the performance and efficiency
[96] Purohit I, Purohit P. Instrumentation error analysis of a box-type solar of flat linear Fresnel lens collector with sun tracking system in Iraq. Renew
cooker. Energy Convers Manag 2009;50:365–75. Energy 1998;14:41–8.
[97] Purohit I, Purohit P. Instrumentation error analysis of a paraboloid concen- [130] Gama A, Larbes C, Malek A, Yettou F, Adouane B. J Renew Sustain Energy
trator type solar cooker. Energy Sustain Dev 2009;13:255–64. 2013;5:033108.
[98] Purohit I. Testing of solar cookers and evaluation of instrumentation error. [131] Al-Soud MS, Abdallah E, Akayleh A, Abdallah S, Hrayshat ES. A parabolic solar
Renew Energy 2010;35:2053–64. cooker with automatic two axes sun tracking system. Appl Energy
[99] Prasanna UR, Umanand L. Optimization and design of energy transport 2010;87:463–70.
system for solar cooking application. Appl Energy 2011;88:242–51. [132] Valmiki MM, Li P, Heyer J, Morgan M, Albinali A, Alhamidi K, et al. A novel
[100] Prasanna UR, Umanand L. Modeling and design of a solar thermal system for application of a Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heating. Renew Energy
hybrid cooking application. Appl Energy 2011;88:1740–55. 2011;36:1614–20.
306 F. Yettou et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 37 (2014) 288–306

[133] Farooqui SZ. A vacuum tube based improved solar cooker. Sustain Energy [140] Yang Q, Chen GQ. Nonrenewable energy cost of corn-ethanol in China.
Technol Assess 2013;3:33–9. Energy Policy 2012;41:340–7.
[134] Farooqui SZ. A gravity based tracking system for box type solar cookers. Sol [141] Yang Q, Chen GQ. Greenhouse gas emissions of corn-ethanol production in
Energy 2013;92:62–8. China. Ecol Model 2013;252:176–84.
[135] Sims REH. Renewable energy: a response to climate change. Sol Energy [142] Yang Q, Chen GQ, Liao S, Zhao YH, Peng HW, Chen HP. Environmental
2004;76:9–17. sustainability of wind power: an emergy analysis of a Chinese wind farm.
[136] Yang Q, Chen B, Ji X, He YF, Chen GQ. Exergetic evaluation of corn-ethanol Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;25:229–39.
production in China. Commun Nonlinear Sci Numer Simul 2009;14:2450–61. [143] IEA. World Energy Outlook. 1998 ed. Paris: IEA/OECD.
[137] Chen GQ, Yang Q, Zhao YH. Renewability of wind power in China: a case [144] Nandwani SS. Solar cookers – cheap technology with high ecological benefits.
study of nonrenewable energy cost and greenhouse gas emission by a plant Ecol Econ 1996;17:73–81.
in Guangxi. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:2322–9. [145] Nahar NM. Design, development and testing of a novel non-tracking solar
[138] Chen GQ, Yang Q, Zhao YH, Wang ZF. Nonrenewable energy cost and cooker. Int J Energy Res 1998;22:1191–8.
greenhouse gas emissions of a 1.5 MW solar power tower plant in China. [146] Nahar NM. Solar cooking – an appropriate technology for development
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1961–7. countries. World Renew Energy Cong VI 2000:2245–8.
[139] Chen H, Chen GQ. Energy cost of rapeseed-based biodiesel as alternative [147] Nahar NM. Design and development of a large size non-tracking solar cooker.
energy in China. Renew Energy 2011;36:1374–8. J Eng Sci Technol 2009;4:264–71.