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THE NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY,

BHOPAL

History I Project
‘Gendered Bhakti- The Woman Experience during the Bhakti
Movement’
Academic Year 2015-16

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Prof. Uday Pratap Singh Manasvi Tewari
2014BALLB75

Vth Trimester

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................3
GENESIS OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT.........................................................................3
MIRABAI THE DEVOTEE PRINCESS...................................................................................4
Contribution............................................................................................................................4
Excerpts from work................................................................................................................5
The challenge to Mira’s Bhakti..............................................................................................5
AKKA MAHADEVI THE LOVER OF SHIVA.......................................................................7
Excerpt from work..................................................................................................................7
Struggles.................................................................................................................................8
PLACING WOMEN IN THE BHAKTI NARRATIVE............................................................9
Personal Comments..............................................................................................................10
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................11
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................12
Books....................................................................................................................................12
Online sources......................................................................................................................12

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INTRODUCTION

One of the major events which helped shape India’s narrative was the Bhakti movement. It is
believed to owe its genesis in the South of India in the 6 th century CE.It can be attributed to
two processes at work. One was the process of disseminating Brahmancial ideas. This is
exemplified by composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit
verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to Shudras and women who were generally denied
access. At the same time there was a second process at work. That of the Brahmanas
accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and many categories. . There was
an overall rejection of any institionalised religion and there was stress on an individual
relation with the divine. It also led to more egalitarian treatment of women and Shudras who
were supposed to be at the bottom of the hierarchy ladder. Female poet-saints also played a
significant role in the bhakti movement at large. Nonetheless, many of these women had to
struggle for acceptance within the largely male dominated movement. Their struggle attests
to the strength of patriarchal values within both society and within religious and social
movements.

GENESIS OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Devotional worship had a long history of almost a thousand years before around 8 th century
AD where we see the actual rise of the Bhakti movement. Forms of worship such as singing
and chanting of devotional compositions became part of such modes of worship. In this
course the evolution of forms of worship poet saints emerged as leaders and developed a
community of devotees. Further we see that while the Brahamans remained important links
between gods and devotees in several forms of bhakti and these traditions also allowed and
acknowledged lower castes as well as women. These categories were considered as ineligible
for liberation within the orthodox Brahmanical framework,. Some of the earliest bhakti
movement of around 6th century were led by the Alvars(those immersed in the bhakti of
Vishnu) and by the Nayanars(those immersed in the bhakti of Shiv). They travelled from
place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods. Later we saw the emergence of

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the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka and Sufism as an opposition to orthodox Islam. We also
the rise the of poet saints such as Kabir Das. The birth of Sikhism can also be traced back to
this period. Perhaps one of the most striking feature of this time was the presence of women.

MIRABAI THE DEVOTEE PRINCESS

Mirabai(15th-16th centuries) is perhaps the best known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
At an early age, Mirabai became attached to an idol of Krishna, given to her (legend says) by
a traveling beggar.

At age 13 or 18 (sources vary), Mirabai was married to a Ranjputi prince of Mewar. Her
husband died only a few years later.His family was shocked that, first, she did not
commit sati, burning herself alive on her husband's funeral pyre, as was considered proper for
a Rajputi princess (rani). Then they expected her to remain secluded as a widow, and to
worship his family's deity, the goddess Durga or Kali.

Instead of following these traditional norms for a widowed Rajputi princess, Mirabai took up
enthusiastic worship of Krishna as part of the Bhakti movement. She identified herself as the
spouse of Krishna. Like many in the Bhakti movement, she ignored gender, class, caste, and
religious boundaries, and spent time caring for the poor.Mirabai's father and father-in-law
were both killed as a result of a battle to turn away invading Muslims. Her practice of Bhakti
worship horrified her in-laws and the new ruler of Mewar. The legends tell of multiple
attempts on her life by Mirabai's late husband's family. In all of these attempts, she
miraculously survived: a poisonous snake, a poisoned drink, and drowning.

Contribution
Mirabai's contribution to the Bhakti movement was primarily in her music: she wrote
hundreds of songs and initiated a mode of singing the songs, a raga. About 200-400 songs are
accepted by scholars as being written by Mirabai; another 800-1000 have been attributed to
her. Mirabai did not credit herself as the author of the songs -- as an expression of
selflessness -- so her authorship is uncertain. The songs were preserved orally, not written
down until long after their composition, which complicates the task of assigning authorship.

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Mirabai's songs express her love and devotion to Krishna, almost always as Krishna's wife.
The songs speak of both the joy and the pain of love. Metaphorically, Mirabai points to the
longing of the personal self,atman, to be one with the universal self, or paramatma, which is
a poet's representation of Krishna.

Excerpts from work

“I am mad with love 

And no one understands my plight. 
Only the wounded 
Understand the agonies of the wounded, 
When the fire rages in the heart. 
Only the jeweller knows the value of the jewel, 
Not the one who lets it go. 
In pain I wander from door to door, 
But could not find a doctor. 
Says Mira: Harken, my Master, 
Mira's pain will subside 
When Shyam comes as the doctor”1

“What can Mewar’s ruler do to me?

If God is angry,all is lost,

But what can the Rana do?”2

The challenge to Mira’s Bhakti

1
Can be accessed at Poem Hunter(http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/i-am-pale-with-longing-for-my-
beloved/#content)
2
Refer to Class 12th NCERT ‘Themes in Indian History’ Part II Page164, Source 11

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Mirabai) wasn’t seen as a saintly figure in the dominant culture of Rajshthan instead she was
a figure that deserved to be excoriated for her veneration as she had directly challenged their
authority. Mira was a term of abuse leveled at woman as charge of promiscuity.. There was a
deep social conflict engendered around the figure of Mirabai .There are three main strands
which essentially emerge out of the community of Mirabai. The first being the attack on
Rajput political authority =, the defiance of patriarchical norms of marriage and the direct
attack on the caste system. Mira’s Bhajans clearly highlight some of her struggles. Her fear of
losing the patronage, her feeling of repression. Since she did not accept her Rajput dharma
and spurned the power of the ruler and husband she tore apart the social and political fabric
of the society at that time. Her main challenge was not simply in her clear enunciation of
Krishna bhakti but more importantly the stand she took in pursuance of that bhakti. She not
only refused to consummate her relationshio with her ‘earthly husband’ but also refused to
commit the act of sati. Her private love for him could have been tolerated but her very public
affirmation of this went gainst the very code of conduct expected of owmen of her stature.

Thus we see that Mirabai broke the loyalty to kul, to prince and the husband and created a
new life based on love3.

3
Mukta,Parita, Upholding the common life: The community of Mirabai, Pg66

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AKKA MAHADEVI THE LOVER OF SHIVA

Akka Mahadevi’s (around 12th-13th centuries) parents ,were great devotees of Shiva. Akka
Mahadevi, even when a young child, displayed her religious proclivities which she probably
inherited from her parents. She was an ideal of beauty and princess of lyrical poetry. Her
vachanas or sayings are a poetic testament of her mind’s reaction to the wonder and awe of
existence. Though the same wonder and poetry are there in her sayings, yet they are deepened
and widened by the calm of meditation. Keen spiritual longing shifts the emphasis from the
wonder of the outside universe to the significance of the self within.  She instinctively felt
that man can never be fully and wholly fulfilled through self-discipline and knowledge,
though self-discipline is arduous and knowledge superior. A more human approach to God
lies through pure and unselfish love which withdraws most of the obstacles that the ego
interposes between the divine and the devotee. The divinity already inherent in her began to
manifest all its radiance while she was yet in her teens, i.e., at the age of eight she was
initiated into the secrets of Linga. At the age of 16 this concept ripened into full resolve and
she could state with firm conviction.

Excerpt from work

“I am no helpless woman
I utter no futile threats
I am nothing daunted
I shall dare hunger and pain
I shall steal out of withered leaves
A wholesome meal
And on pointed sword
Shall make my bed.
I am ready for your sake
To dare the worst

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To die this instant

The readiness is all
Oh! my Channamallikarjuna”.

“Listen Oh! mother, I love him

He is the one, the only one
He knows no birth and death
He is uncabined by caste or clime
He is boundless, changeless, formless
He is beautiful beyond comparison
All other fade away and die at last
I will have none of them
My Lord shall forever be
The One Channamallikarjuna.”4

Struggles
She got married to the local prince who had promised her that he would let her worship Shiva
and would himself convert to Shaivism but he didn’t which angered her and she felt betrayed.
Her entire woman’s life with many a harrowing experience is a testimony to the Power of
Indelible Courage and Faith. She proved that a woman has every right and has all the
wherewithal to pursue a life solely engaged in the exploration of the divine, while being
deeply involved in none other the seeker herself!. Mahadevi was an extraordinarily beautiful
girl with long tresses. This bodily beauty that she was blessed with was a liability for a long
time in her short life. She calls this body as the site of dirt, lust, greed and rage. Her spirit
belonged to space and not to her individual equipment. When she leaves her palatial home of
her husband Koushika, with only her hair to cover her, she reasons that when the Lord is
omnipresent though hidden what then is there to conceal? She decided to break all social
norms, she disobeyed the basic need of wearing clothes as well. Her devotional bhakti and
her love for Shiva was boundless.

4
Can be accessed at http://lingayatreligion.com/Sharanaru/Akkamahadevi.htm

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PLACING WOMEN IN THE BHAKTI NARRATIVE

Many of the bhakti poet-saints rejected asceticism as the crucial means toward liberation;
some bhaktas were instead householders. As well, themes of universalism, a general rejection
of institutionalized religion, and a central focus on inner devotion laid the groundwork for
more egalitarian attitudes toward women and lower caste devotees. Women and shudras, both
at the bottom of the traditional hierarchy ordering society, became the examples of true
humility and devotion. Female poet-saints also played a significant role in the bhakti
movement at large. Nonetheless, many of these women had to struggle for acceptance within
the largely male dominated movement. Only through demonstrations of their utter devotion
to the Divine, their outstanding poetry and stubborn insistence of their spiritual equality with
their contemporaries were these women reluctantly acknowledged and accepted within their
ranks. Their struggle attests to the strength of patriarchal values within both society and
within religious and social movements attempting to pave the way for more egalitarian access
to the Divine. The imagery of bhakti poetry is grounded in the everyday, familiar language of
ordinary people. Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family tensions, the absent
husband, meaningless household chores, and restrictions of married life, including their status
as married women. In many cases, they rejected traditional women’s roles and societal norms
by leaving husbands and homes altogether, choosing to become wandering bhaktas; in some
instances they formed communities with other poet-saints. Their new focus was utter
devotion and worship of their Divine Husbands. Caste status and even masculinity were
understood as barriers to liberation, in essence a rejection of the hierarchy laid out by the Law
Books of the Classical Period. Male bhaktas often took on the female voice calling to her
Beloved, utterly submissive to His desires. However, while male bhaktas could engage in this
role playing on a temporary basis, returning at will to their privileged social status as males,
women bhaktas faced overwhelming challenges through their rejection of societal norms and
values, without having the ability to revert back to their normative roles as wives, mothers
and in some cases, the privileges of their original high caste status. While it is tempting to see
women’s participation within the bhakti movement as a revolt against the patriarchal norms

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of the time, there is little evidence to support this perspective. Injustices and the patriarchal
order itself were not a major focus of these poet-saints. Women bhaktas were simply
individuals attempting to lead lives of devotion. Staying largely within the patriarchal
ideology that upheld the chaste and dutiful wife as ideal, these women transferred the object
of their devotion and their duties as the “lovers” or “wives” to their Divine Lover or
Husband. Nonetheless, that their poetry became an integral aspect of the bhakti movement at
large is highly significant and inspirational for many who look to these extraordinary women
as ideal examples of lives intoxicated by love for the Divine. Further, it would appear that
with the movement’s northward advancement (15th through 17th centuries), its radical edge
as it pertained to women’s inclusion, was tempered. Greater numbers of women took part in
the movement’s earlier development (6th to 13th centuries); it is largely male bhaktas and
saints that are today perceived as the spokespersons for the movement in its later
manifestations. The poetry of women bhaktas from this latter time period is generally not
indicative of a rejection of societal norms in terms of leaving family and homes in pursuit of
divine love. Instead, some of the later poet-saints stayed within the confines of the household
while expounding on their souls’ journeys, their eternal love for the Divine, as well as their
never-ending search for truth

Thus we see that the Bhakti provided for a rationale for the acceptance of unequal relations
and posits and alternative which was pure and free from societal norms of women. While it
did not attempt to challenge the patriarchical notions directly in most cases it did bolster the
oppressed and helped her to continue surviving in her existing social norms at times. For the
women at that time liberation was bleak and the concept of Bhakti gave them hope. It acted
as source of comfort.

Ramanujan in his essay managed to brilliantly analyze the life of women during the bhakti
movement. He says that women were able to be a part of the Bhakti movement while still
sticking to their biological norms. After a woman’s marriage she would lose all identity and
adopt the identity of her husband and completely submerge herself in him. During the bhakti
movement women would accept God as their husband and submerge themselves in him.
Women were not allowed to renounce their life and were supposed to perform their martial
duties.

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Personal Comments
From the excerpts as well as the writing of the two women saints we see that they broke the
social fabric of society. These were women who not only refused to adhere to the
patriarchical notions of society but were also determined to live their own life. From
Mirabai’s poetry we see her ardent love for Krishna. But we also see that she questions the
power of the Rana. In a time where the king as supposed to be all mighty and God like she
defied him and believed in her own true devotion. Similarly from the works of Akka
Mahadevi we see that she has accepted Shiva as her lover and friend. We also see that she has
gone against all norms of the society and decided to give up clothes as well. It is an absolute
submission to God. In both these cases we see these women not adhere to their gender
defined roles as well as their caste defined roles. Instead they establish their own link with
God and break away from societal oppressions

CONCLUSION

The introduction of the bhakti movement paved a new way for women. The woman saints
composed poems that articulated common experiences faced by all women, a common harsh
imposition and lack of freedom. From the community of Mirabai we see women who have
endured incompatible relationships, all those who have suffered the violence of a forced
intimacy and who dream of better fulfilling relationships. The bhakti movement helped carve
out a path for personal liberties of women. The bhajans and lifestyle helped point to a life
where one was free to fulfill one’s unfulfilled aspirations. The Bhakti movement not only
helped change the attitudes towards caste but also acknowledged women into its wide ambit.
The Bhakti movement in the long run disrupted the social fabric which in turn also helped
bring a change in the polity as well as economy.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books
1. Upholding the Common Life: The Community of Mirabai by Parita Mukta
2. Walking naked: Women, Society, Spirituality in South India by Vijaya Ramaswamy
3. Essay “On Women Saints.” In The Divine Consort Radha and the Goddesses of India
by A.K Ramanuja
4. Themes In Indian History: Part II NCERT Class XII History book

Online sources
1. http://lingayatreligion.com/Sharanaru/Akkamahadevi.htm
2. http://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/58569
3. https://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson1/pdfs/introductoryessay.pdf
4. http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/akka-mahadevi-shiva-in-her-
soul/article5722583.ece

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