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Full Paper
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FLOOD RISK ASSESSMENT: A REVIEW OF FLOOD Article history
Received
DAMAGE ESTIMATION MODEL FOR MALAYSIA 3 August 2017
Received in revised form
Noor Suraya Romalia,b, Zulkifli Yusopa,c*, Muhammad Sulaimanb, 19 October 2017
Accepted
Zulhilmi Ismaila
15 January 2018
Published online
aFaculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM 1 April 2018
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
bFaculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia
*Corresponding author
Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Malaysia zulyusop@utm.my
cCentre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

Graphical abstract Abstract

Flood damage assessment is important in flood risk management for the
assessment of flood vulnerability, development of flood risk map and flood
management financial appraisal. In Malaysia, there is a lack of studies on flood
damages estimation. In addition, the needed data for the assessment of flood
damages is scarce. This review identified the approaches and problems in flood
damage assessment. For Malaysia, the combination of four elements namely;
flood characteristics (flood depth and flood duration), characteristic of
exposed elements, value of exposed element and flood damage function
curve are recommended. The scarcity of data for developing flood damage
curve could partly be overcome by applying synthetic method to generate
additional data from the existing flood damage data.

Keywords: Flood risk assessment, flood damage assessment, flood damage

function curve, synthetic method, developing country

Abstrak
Anggaran kerosakan akibat banjir adalah penting dalam pengurusan risiko
banjir, iaitu bagi tujuan mengukur tahap keterdedahan terhadap banjir,
pembangunan peta risiko banjir dan penilaian peruntukan pengurusan banjir.
Di Malaysia, kajian penganggaran kerosakan akibat banjir adalah sangat
sedikit. Selain itu, data yang diperlukan untuk menilai kerosakan banjir juga
sangat terhad. Manuskrip ini mengenalpasti pendekatan dan masalah dalam
melakukan penganggaran kerosakan akibat banjir. Berdasarkan penelitian
yang dibuat, disyorkan bahawa gabungan empat unsur iaitu; ciri-ciri banjir
(aras banjir dan tempoh banjir), ciri-ciri dan nilai elemen terdedah kepada
banjir, dan lengkung kerosakan banjir digunakan dalam permodelan anggaran
kerosakan banjir untuk kajian kes di Malaysia. Keterbatasan data untuk
membina lengkung kerosakan banjir boleh dikurangkan dengan penjanaan
data secara sintetik dari data sedia ada.

Kata kunci: Penilaian risiko banjir, anggaran kerosakan banjir, lengkung

kerosakan banjir, kaedah sintetik, negara membangun

© 2018 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved

80:3 (2018) 145–153 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 |

146 Zulkifli Yusop et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 80:3 (2018) 145–153

1.0 INTRODUCTION damage estimation is also crucial in insurance sector,

in order to estimate potential losses and insurance
Flood is one of natural disasters that causes great pricing [12]. Flood characteristics, such as the
harm to human being, causing major damage to expected water level for the respective annual
properties and impact severely on socio-economic recurrence interval (ARI) and flood damage function
activities [3]. Even worse, flood may also lead to curve are the elements in flood damage estimates
losses of human life and decreases the quality of that are needed for flood insurance pricing [21].
human health [4]. It is believed that flood disaster Quite huge body of literatures have been
had caused about 100,000 deaths and affected 1.4 published on flood risk and damage estimation [e.g.
billion people worldwide during the end of 20th 14, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
century [4]. In Malaysia, flood occurs frequently with However, most of the works are from developed
average annual physical damage of 915 million and countries and still very few from developing countries
affecting almost 29,800 km2 area and 4.82 million including Malaysia. To date, the published
people [5, 6]. The figures tend to increase nowadays information on this subject are those by Muradi and
as the occurrence of large floods is expected to Abdullah [34], Tam et al. [35], Ahamad [36], and KTA
increase periodically [1] as the result of the climate Tenaga Sdn Bhd [37]. Unfortunately, most of the
change phenomenon [2]. Unless sustainable flood studies have adopted methodologies from
management plan is in place, flood will affect more developed countries which have limited applicability
population and at greater socio-economic and in the Malaysian context [38].
environmental losses [7, 8]. Furthermore, more flood Among challenges in conducting flood damage
events tend to occur abruptly due widespread land assessment studies in a developing country are the
developments and more intense rainfall [9]. In an scarcity of flood damage data and limited access to
attempts to deal with this problems, various efforts related information [39, 40]. For a developing country
have been done by engineers, researchers and like Malaysia which is still at the early stage of
policy makers to minimize the risk of flooding i.e. by adopting the flood risk management practice,
constructing flood mitigation structures such as having a flood damage assessment framework that
detention dam, dyke, and levees [10]. On the other reflects her own scenario of flood and socio-
hand, the implementation of non-structural measures economic conditions is crucial for a better flood
such as flood mapping, flood modeling and flood management system. This manuscript presents a
forecasting are equally important flood mitigation general overview on the following issues; types of
options [11]. flood damages, elements considered in the flood
In recent years, a risk-based flood mitigation damage estimation approaches, methodology
concept has received more attention compared to adopted, and problems in the assessment of flood
the conventional flood control approach that give damages. The focus is limited to tangible direct flood
much focus on structural flood mitigation measures damage assessment. At the end, a
[12, 13, 14]. For example, in the end of 2007, countries recommendation for the development of flood
in Europe had adopted a flood risk management damage estimation model for Malaysia is proposed.
concept that led to a requirement for each member
country to carry out flood hazard and risk map to
support their flood risk management plans [15]. In 2.0 FLOOD RISK ASSESSMENT
Malaysia, the management and implementation of
flood control measure is under the jurisdiction of the Flood risk basically revolved around two main
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). In the elements; hazard and vulnerability [14, 15, 29, 41].
current practice, the mitigation works put a lot of The risk is generally defined as the probability of a
emphasis on structural measures [16], as compared flood event to occur (hazard) and the potential of
to non-structural measures [17]. The laws and flooding impacts to the community and assets
regulations regarding the flood management in (vulnerability) [41, 43]. In economic circumstances,
Malaysia is inadequate [18] especially in the expected annual damage is commonly used to
management of flood risk where the approach is still represent flood risk [14] which can be obtained by
new and lack of legislative framework [9]. the multiplication of flood hazard (probability of an
Flood damage assessment is crucial in flood risk event) with the flood vulnerability (flood damage)
management and is an important element for the [12, 15, 44].
flood risk vulnerability assessment i.e. in the The flood extent and magnitude are the flood
development of flood risk mapping, risk analysis variables that are usually used for the assessment of
comparison and financial appraisals for budget hazard, whereas the vulnerability part assesses the
allocation during and after flood disaster [11] and potential consequences of the flooding to the
also in cost benefit analysis (CBA) such as in financial exposed elements such as properties, human beings,
judgement for flood mitigation measures [19, 20]. goods, and environment [15, 42, 45]. The vulnerability
CBA is a useful decision making tool in choosing the assessment is normally associated with the
appropriate flood control options and to evaluate assessment of property damages [41].
the effectiveness of the selected options [15]. Flood
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According to Apel et al. [46] in their attempt to of flood damage due to different characteristics
develop a probabilistic modelling system for the concerning assets and susceptibility [12]. Hence the
assessment of flood risks in river Rhine, Germany, assessment of flood damage can also be classified
hazard alone is not enough for developing a flood according to different types of business/company,
defence system. Hence, a more comprehensive risk- private households and infrastructure [12].
based design that takes into consideration the flood
hazard and the consequences of flooding is Table 1 Types of flood damages (adapted from [12, 26])
preferred. Besides hazard and vulnerability, another
element that has been given attention in the recent Tangible Intangible
risk assessment measures is exposure. The term Direct Building and contents Loss of life, injuries,
damage, infrastructure psychological
exposure refers to “the presence of people,
damage (e.g. roads), distress, cultural
livelihoods, environmental services and resources, agricultural soil erosion, heritage damage,
infrastructure or economic, social or cultural assets in harvest destruction; negative effects on
places that could be adversely affected” [47]. De livestock damage, ecosystems.
Moel and Aerts [13] and Gain et al. [47] in their flood evacuation and rescue
risk assessment study in Netherlands and the city of measures, business
Dhaka respectively, considered the elements of interruption, clean-up
hazard, exposure and vulnerability, where the costs, land and
environment recovery.
combination of these provides a better estimate of
Indirect Public services Trauma, loss of trust
expected damages related to flood risk.
interruption (e.g. in authorities and
communication system), health and
induced production psychological
3.0 FLOOD DAMAGE ESTIMATION MODEL losses to companies damage.
outside the flooded area
(e.g. suppliers of flooded
3.1 Classification of Flood Damages companies), traffic
disruption cost, tax
Flood damages can be generally divided into two revenue loss due to
main types; tangible and intangible damages [26, 32, migration of companies
48]. Tangible damage is the damage that can be in the aftermath of flood,
measured directly in monetary term [23] while business interruption.
intangible damage is not. Intangible damage such
as losses of ecosystem functions is difficult to translate Table 2 Classes of flood damages (adapted from [12, 31])
because the monetary value is not readily assessed
[11]. Flood damages can also be experienced in a Micro-scale - Single exposed elements assessment
- Local studies analysis (use a per building
direct or indirect way [45]. Hence, the tangible and
approach)
intangible damage can be further divided into two
Meso-scale - Spatial aggregations assessment
sub types, i.e. direct and indirect damage. Direct - Regional studies analysis (consider
damages are the damage that occurred due to the aggregated land use units)
physical contact of flood water with humans, Macro-scale - Large-scale spatial units assessment
property or any other asset [12], such as building and - National and/or international studies
inventory items [48]. The indirect damage is the analysis
damage that is induced by the flood impacts and
occurs in space and time, outside the flooded area
[12]. Some illustrations of indirect damage are the 3.2 The Flood Damage Assessment Concept
interruption of traffic flows, income loss, and losses
due to business shut down [48]. More examples of Flood damage assessment is generally based on two
different types of damage are listed in Table 1. approaches. In the first approach, flood damage is
In addition, flood damages can be classified into evaluated from existing flood damage data base,
three levels; micro-scale, meso-scale, and macro- collected from interview survey or from secondary
scale (Table 2). The classification into micro-, meso- sources such as local authorities, newspaper, and
and macro-scale is related to the spatial extent of internet [e.g. 51, 52]. The second approach of
damage assessment [12], the size of study area and damage estimation uses model that relates the flood
differentiation of land use categories [31, 49, 50]. damages with other related factors such as
In general, flood damage can be estimated economic, the nature of damage, and flood
based on land use as the degree of damages varies variables [19, 26, 48]. Penning-Rowsell and
with different types of land use, though the flood Chatterton [22], Smith [53] and UNSW [54] are
characteristics, such as flood depth and peak flow examples of studies that had successfully established
are the same [48]. Based on this, damage can be detailed methodologies of tangible flood damage
categorized into residential, commercial, industrial, estimation in the United Kingdom and Australia
agricultural and infrastructure. Meanwhile, different respectively [26].
economic sectors may contribute to different levels
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Although various different approaches had been depths serve as the input to the damage assessment
used to estimate flood damages, the estimation model.
concept is basically the same, which consider the Dutta et al. [26] developed a physically based
economic value of the element at risk, together with distributed hydrologic model to simulate flood
the hydrological characteristics [49, 13]. In summary, inundation parameters as part of their flood loss
the necessary elements are flood hazard estimation model. The hydrologic model [53]
(hydrological characteristics), exposure, value of considers five major processes of hydrologic cycle,
elements at risk, and the susceptibility of the which are interception and evapotranspiration, river
elements at risk to particular hydrologic conditions flow, overland flow, unsaturated zone flow and
which can be represented by a flood damage saturated zone flow. The model introduced by Dutta
function curve. The combination of these four et al. [26] is an integrated model combining a flood
elements are needed in the development of flood inundation simulation and a generalized loss
risk/damage assessment works. estimation model.
In evaluating the adopted approaches and Oliveri and Santoro [19] applied a numerical
elements considered in flood damage estimation model that was previously developed by Oliveri et al.
model, a total of 25 articles were reviewed and [59] which used the Saint Venant equation to assess
summarized in Table 3. The selection of the articles the inundation depth for their flood damage
was limited to ISI and Scopus indexed journals. Out of estimation study in the city of Palermo, Italy. The 1D
25 articles reviewed, 71% are from developed De Saint Venant’s equations in conservation law form
countries especially Netherlands, Japan, and Italy. It that was solved by a parabolic approximation for
was found that 83.3% of the studies employed the each channel was used in their study. In the model,
similar concept outlined by Meyer and Messner [49] the urban area was approximated with a network of
and De Moel and Aerts [13], where the combination rectangular channels, representing the streets. The
of flood hazard, exposure, value of elements at risk, flood simulation provides spatial distribution of the
and flood damage function curve were applied. For maximum water depths for 50, 100, 300, 500 and 1000
example, Ward et al. [14] used the combination of year return periods by interpolating the
flood hazard, characteristics and the value of corresponding maximum water depths using the
exposed assets, and information about the geostatistical Kriging method.
susceptibility of exposed assets to a particular hazard Ward et al. [14] applied a raster based model,
to estimate expected annual damage in their Floodscanner to derive inundation maps of the
study.In addition, the damage estimates consider the Meuse in Dutch Limburg. The model was developed
same elements, although the components, methods using zero-dimensioning planar-based approach. The
and techniques used are difference. For example, in water level at each river grid-cell for different
flood hazard analysis, some studies applied discharges were estimated using a stage-discharge
hydrologic-hydraulic modeling [e.g. 19, 55] while relationship. A planar surface representing the water
other studies obtain flood characteristics information level per grid-cell was created when the water levels
from secondary data [e.g. 29, 56, 32]. at each river grid-cell are assigned to the nearest
In summary, the elaborated concept had been non-river grid-cells. The inundation depth is the
successfully used by many researchers to assess flood difference between the cell values of water level
damage in various countries, either in developed or and elevation. The outputs from Floodscanner i.e
developing countries. inundation parameters, together with land use map
were subsequently used as inputs into the
3.3 Hydrological Characteristics Damagescanner to generate flood damage
estimates. Damagescanner is a flood damage
Flood depth and flood extent are two variables model originally developed by De Brujin [60] and
needed in the estimation of flood damages [13, 19]. used by De Moel et al. [61] to assess the uncertainty
These can be obtained from a probabilistic or and sensitivity of coastal flood damage estimation.
deterministic analysis in a flood hazard model [57]. In another study by Lekuthai and Vongviseeomjai
Thus far, numerous flood models have been used in [48], the MIKE-11 hydrodynamic model was used to
flood damage estimation studies to provide the total generate flood characteristics for estimating
extend of flooded area and to identify the spatial damage. The model produced flood depth and
distribution of flood depth [19]. duration for every cell, while the flood depth and
Delft Hydraulics Institute has developed a flood duration for all areas were derived from
hazard assessment model (FHAM) to quantify the topographical map. The values of flood depth and
consequences of flooding, which focus on the socio- duration were applied in the damage curve
economic impact [55]. Within the flood hazard equation by Kanchanarat [62]. The damage is then
assessment model, a flood model is used to calculate calculated using the direct damage equation
the extent of flooding while a damage assessment proposed by Lekuthai and Vongviseeomjai [48].
model calculates the expected yearly damage. The Vonizaki et al. [33] applied similar flood modeling
GIS based flood model is a one-dimensional method using MIKE FLOOD that consists of one-
hydraulic model of a river. The calculated flood dimensional hydraulic model MIKE 11 and two-
dimensional MIKE 21 model. These models were
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applied to estimate losses during the Koiliaris basin

2003 flash flood for agricultural category.

Table 3 Summary of adopted approaches and elements considered in flood damage assessment

Authors Exposed elements Approach

(Damage category) Direct estimation Flood damage estimation model
Secondary Interview Values of Flood parameters Flood
data Survey exposed Hydrologic- Secondary damage
element hydraulic data function
modeling
[14] Residential, X X X
commercial,
infrastructural,
mines/construction,
recreation, nature,
arable, nature
[19] Urban X X X
[26] Urban, rural, X X X
infrastructure
[27] Land use, infrastructure, X X X
households,
companies, others
[28] Building (Direct X X X
damage)
[29] Commercial X X X
[32] Commercial, X X X
residential, public
building, cultural and
historical building
[33] Agricultural X X X
[34] Agricultural X X
[35] Physical element X X X
[36] Agricultural, residential, X X X
industrial
[37] Urban and rural X X X
(agriculture)
[39] Residential X X X
[48] Residential, X X X
commercial,
agricultural, industrial
[51] Agriculture X
[52] Residential X
[55] Public authorities, X X X
private persons,
industry, agriculture
[56] Agricultural, residential, X X X
golf courses, traffic
zone
[57] Residential, agricultural, X X X
commercial, industrial
[66] Residential, X X X
infrastructure (road),
agricultural (winter
wheat), industrial
[69] Agricultural, residential X X X
[45] X X X
[67] Residential, agricultural, X X X
industrial
[71] Residential, public X X X
utility, industrial,
agricultural
[72] Coastal area X X
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3.4 Flood Damage Function Curve Japanese Ministry of Construction. The stage-
damage functions by Jonkman et al. [27] were
The relationship between flood damage to flood established based on empirical flood damage data
parameters in flood damage assessment can be from the historical events such as the 1953
presented by a flood damage function curve. The catastrophic flood in Netherlands, local flooding in
level of flood damage is influenced by hydrological the river Meuse in 1993, in addition to information
factors such as flood depth, flood duration, velocity, from literature and expert judgment.
and frequency of flooding [12, 26]. Thieken et al. [63] Meanwhile, in the countries with limited flood
affirmed that for the case of building and its damage data, synthetic approach can be used.
contents, the rate of damage are also influenced by There are two types of synthetic flood damage
contamination, along with flood depth and flood curves, i.e. either based on the existing historical
duration. Besides hydrological factors, the severity of databases, or using data based on interview surveys
flood damages is also caused by other factors such [22], as illustrated in Figure 1. Vonazaki et al. [33]
as during which time of the year the flooding occur, applied a weighted Monte Carlo simulation to
warning time, sediment load of floodwaters, type of construct synthetic flow velocity-flood depth-crop
buildings, family income, and the preparedness level damage curves. The loss information was collected
before the disaster [3]. from questionnaire survey involving practising and
Flood depth is the most commonly used research agronomists. Logistic regression analysis was
parameters in flood damage function curve. used to develop synthetic flow velocity-flood depth-
According to Notaro et al. [8], inundation depth is crop damage surface for the selected crops in the
considered as the principle factor for assessing direct study.
tangible damages. Shaw et al. [64] also found flood
depth as the major variable in the flood damage
function, while Chang et al. [3] suggested that the
flood depth alone is sufficient for flood damage
estimation without considering other factors. The use
of flood depth – damage curve has been explored
by many researchers all over the world [e.g. 3, 14, 19,
23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 55, 65, 66, 67, 68].
The flood depth–damage curve can be
Figure 1 Flood damage function curve approach [73]
represented in the form of depth-damage or depth-
percent damage curve [23]. In depth-damage
approach, the depth-damage relationships are
developed directly from historical data while depth- 4.0 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR MALAYSIA
percent damage curve is determined as
percentages of damage to the total value of In producing a flood damage estimation model that
damaged property according to the corresponding is applicable to a developing country, the general
flood depth. To obtain the depth-damage methodologies from previous studies [e.g. 13, 19, 26,
relationship, the percentages of damage value 31, 49] can be adopted. The estimation of flood
obtained from the depth-percent damage curve is damages may consider the elements of flood
multiplied with a replacement property value. In this characteristics, characteristic of exposed element,
way, for a similar site, a depth-percent damage value of exposed element and the relationship of
function can be applied to any flood condition and flood damages with the respective flood parameters
not restricted to any fixed time [19, 23, 73]. (flood damage function curve). Flood damage
Compared to depth-percent damage approach, a function curve is a combination of exposed property
depth-damage curve is costlier and time consuming and the flood influencing factors, as predictors of
to prepare especially in getting reliable data. event damages from which average annual
Furthermore, the useful life of the relationship is short damage can be calculated [25].
as the type of curve is normally developed The available literatures on flood damage
separately for many types of structures [23]. estimation in Malaysia (such as [35], [34], [36])
Flood damage function curve can be developed considered the four elements suggested i.e. flood
either based on damage data of historical floods or characteristics, characteristic of exposed element,
from hypothetical analysis known as synthetic stage- value of exposed element and flood damage
damage function. The latter approach is based on function curve. However, the damage function used
land cover, land use patterns, type of assets, and is adopted from other countries such as United State,
information from questionnaire survey [26]. In Netherland and Australia. The study by Muhadi and
developed countries, the development of flood Abdullah [34] for agricultural area does not apply
damage function curve is normally based on flood damage curve. The flood damages were
historical data [e.g. 26, 27, 56, 67, 69]. Dutta et al. [29] estimated from Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) price data
developed a flood stage-damage curve for urban from the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) and
and rural categories using the averaged and vegetables and fruit price data from Department of
normalized damaged data published by the Agricultural (DOA). For future flood damage
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estimation works in Malaysia, it is suggested that a synthetic and cross sectional data collection could
local flood damage function curve be developed to provide a reliable option for the construction of flood
ensure the reliability of damage estimates and to stage-damage function curve.
reflect Malaysian own flood scenario.
The scarcity of flood damage data and information
are major obstacles faced in conducting flood Acknowledgement
damages assessment studies [39], especially for
developing countries. In Malaysia, the historical flood The authors are greatful to Universiti Malaysia Pahang
damage data is not well documented and not easily and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the support and
accessible. The damage data for certain flood event encouragement. This study was funded through
can be obtained from the respective District Office in research grant Institut Inovasi Strategik Johor (IISJ) vot
the forms of replacement cost or compensation from 15H00.
the government. However, the available damage
data are not suitable enough for flood damage
assessment studies as they are too general and
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