UNIT I – INTRODUCTION

Site planning is the organization of an area of land to fit a program for its development which is efficient,
expresses the character of the site, and provides attractive spaces to use.

 To learn and practice a logical method of fitting design programs and sites harmoniously.

 To understand how natural factors (landscape), socio-economic forces (planning), and

technological functions (architecture & engineering) interact in the design process.

 To understand the importance of graphic and verbal communication skills.

Definition of Plot, Site, Land & Region

A lot or plot is a tract or parcel of land owned or meant to be owned by some owner(s). A lot is
essentially considered a parcel of real property in some countries or immovable property (meaning
practically the same thing) in other countries.
A plot plan is an architecture, engineering, and/or landscape architecture plan drawing—diagram which
shows the buildings, utility runs, and equipment layout, the position of roads, and other constructions of
an existing or proposed project site at a defined scale. Plot plans are also known more commonly as site
plans. The plot plan is a 'top-down' orientation.
The specific objects and relations shown are dependent on the purpose for creating the plot plan, but
typically contain: retained and proposed buildings, landscape elements, above ground features and
obstructions, major infrastructure routes, and critical legal considerations such as property boundaries,
setbacks, and rights of way.
 A small piece of ground marked out for a purpose such as building or gardening.
 A small piece of land for building or growing things on
A two acre plot of land
A vegetable plot
Site

Site is the place where something (such as a building) is, was, or will be located
 An area of ground on which a town, building, or monument is constructed.
 The spatial location of an actual or planned structure or set of structures (as a building, town, or
monuments)
 A space of ground occupied or to be occupied by a building
 The place, scene, or point of an occurrence or event
A site plan is an architectural plan, landscape architecture document, and a detailed engineering drawing
of proposed improvements to a given lot. A site plan usually shows a building footprint, travel ways,
parking, drainage facilities, sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and landscaping and garden
elements.
 Such a plan of a site is a "graphic representation of the arrangement of buildings, parking, drives,
landscaping and any other structure that is part of a development project".
 A site plan is a "set of construction drawings that a builder or contractor uses to make
improvements to a property. Counties can use the site plan to verify that development codes are
being met and as a historical resource. Site plans are often prepared by a design consultant who
must be either a licensed engineer, architect, landscape architect or land surveyor".

Region

An area, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed
boundaries.
A region is an area. A region can be geographic — like a part of a country.
A region is any space that is distinct from another area. The word region is from the Latin regionem
which means “direction, boundary, and district.”
In geography, regions are areas broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human-
impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and the environment
(environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their
imprecisely defined and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction
areas such as national borders are clearly defined in law.

Land

The part of the earth's surface that is not covered by water.

 The solid part of the surface of the Earth: an area of ground
 Ground or soil of a specified situation, nature, or quality
 The surface of the earth and all its natural resources
 The term 'land' includes all physical elements in the wealth of a nation bestowed by nature; such
as climate, environment, fields, forests, minerals, mountains, lakes, streams, seas, and animals.
As an asset, it includes anything,
(1) on the ground (such as buildings, crops, fences, trees, water),
(2) above the ground (air and space rights), and
(3) Under the ground (mineral rights), down to the center of the Earth. Perhaps the oldest form of
collateral, land is still very attractive to lenders because it cannot be destroyed, moved, stolen, or
wasted. All a lender needs is the borrower's clear title to it.
Land was sometimes defined in classical and neoclassical economics as the "original and indestructible
powers of the soil."

Survey

Examine and record the area and features of (an area of land) so as to construct a map, plan, or
description.
Surveying

Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of determining the terrestrial or
three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them.
A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor. These points are usually on the surface of the
Earth, and they are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership, locations like
building corners or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by government
or civil law, such as property sales.
Surveyors work with mathematics ( geometry and trigonometry ) , physics, engineering and the law. They
use equipment like total stations, robotic total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radios,
handheld tablets, digital levels, and surveying software.
Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of
recorded history. The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it. It is also used in
transport, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership.

Units of Measurements

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by

convention or by law that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity.
Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of
measurement.
For example,
 Length is a physical quantity.
 The meter is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length.
 When we say 10 meters (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined
length called "meter".

The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in
human endeavor from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common.
Now there is a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric
system.
A unit of measurement is a standardized quantity of a physical property, used as a factor to express
occurring quantities of that property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by
humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of
an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.

Surveying techniques

Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that can
affect the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create vectors,
bearings, co-ordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are often split into
horizontal and vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic measurements also
need measurement of a time component.
1. Distance measurement
Example of modern equipment for surveying (Field-Map technology): GPS, laser rangefinder and
field computer allows surveying as well as cartography (creation of map in real-time) and field data
collection.
Before EDM devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. These included chains
having links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain, or measuring tapes made of steel orinvar. To
measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack. The
distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold the measuring instrument level
would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to "break" (break chain)
the measurement- use an increment less than the total length of the chain. Perambulators, or
measuring wheels, were used to measure longer distances but not to a high level of accuracy.
Tachometry is the science of measuring distances by measuring the angle between two ends of an
object with a known size. It was sometimes used before to the invention of EDM where rough
ground made chain measurement impractical.

2. Angle measurement
Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing. The
deflection from the bearing was recorded. Later, more precise scribed discs later improved better
angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise sighting.
(See theodolite). Levels and calibrated circles allowed measurement of vertical angles. Vernier’s
allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-the-century transit.
The Plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced the
amount of mathematics required.
By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the figure.
The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180° difference.
This is called a close. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in the survey,
called the angular misclose. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the work meets the
expected standards.

Levelling
The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter using air pressure to find height.
When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as differential
leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken
using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added
and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between the two endpoints. With the
Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be measured with satellite receivers. Usually GPS is
somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances.
When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument. There
may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these situations, extra
setups are needed. Turning is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot
from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of
the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is
moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is taken from the new location of the
level and the height difference is used to find the new elevation of the level gun. This is repeated
until the series of measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid
measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is lower than the base of
the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised
up to 25 feet high, allowing the level to be set much higher than the base of the rod.

 The meter is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length.

 When we say 10 meters (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length
called "meter".

The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human
endeavor from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common. Now there is
a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system.
A unit of measurement is a standardized quantity of a physical property, used as a factor to express
occurring quantities of that property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by
humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of an
appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.
Surveying techniques
Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that can affect
the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create vectors, bearings,
co-ordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are often split into horizontal and
vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic measurements also need measurement
of a time component.

1. Distance measurement
Example of modern equipment for surveying (Field-Map technology): GPS, laser rangefinder and field
computer allows surveying as well as cartography (creation of map in real-time) and field data collection.
Before EDM devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. These included chains having
links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain, or measuring tapes made of steel orinvar. To measure
horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack. The distance had
to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold the measuring instrument level would also be made.
When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an
increment less than the total length of the chain. Perambulators, or measuring wheels, were used to
measure longer distances but not to a high level of accuracy. Tachometry is the science of measuring
distances by measuring the angle between two ends of an object with a known size. It was sometimes
used before to the invention of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical.

2. Angle measurement

Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing. The
deflection from the bearing was recorded. Later, more precise scribed discs later improved better angular
resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise sighting. (See
theodolite). Levels and calibrated circles allowed measurement of vertical angles. Vernier’s allowed
measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-the-century transit.

The Plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced the
amount of mathematics required.

By observing the bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the figure. The
final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180° difference. This is
called a close. If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in the survey, called the
angular misclose. The surveyor can use this information to prove that the work meets the expected
standards.

3. Leveling
The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter using air pressure to find height.
When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as differential
leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken
using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added
and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between the two endpoints. With the
Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be measured with satellite receivers. Usually GPS is
somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances.
When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument. There
may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these situations, extra
setups are needed. Turning is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot
from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of
the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is
moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is taken from the new location of the
level and the height difference is used to find the new elevation of the level gun. This is repeated
until the series of measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid
measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is lower than the base of
the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight the rod and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised
up to 25 feet high, allowing the level to be set much higher than the base of the rod.

4. Determining position
The primary way of determining one's position on the earth's surface when no known positions are
nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the sun, moon and stars could all be made
using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to a star is determined, the
bearing can be transferred to a reference point on the earth. The point can then be used as a base for
further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to observe and calculate
and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were made. Since the advent of the
GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows adequate positions to be determined
over most of the surface of the earth.

Few survey positions are derived from first principles. Instead, most surveys points are measured
relative to previous measured points. This forms a reference or control network where each point can
be used by a surveyor to determine their own position when beginning a new survey.
Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven
into the ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their
instruments on this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such
as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured
against.

Triangulation is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS
measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since the
early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for
topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two
of the objects, known as the baseline. Then the heights, distances and angular position of other
objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy
transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements repeated for increased accuracy. See also
Triangulation in three dimensions.

Offsetting is an alternate method of determining position of objects, and was often used to measure
imprecise features such as riverbanks. The surveyor would mark and measure two known positions
on the ground roughly parallel to the feature, and mark out a baseline between them. At regular
intervals, a distance was measured at right angles from the first line to the feature. The measurements
could then be plotted on a plan or map, and the points at the ends of the offset lines could be joined to
show the feature.

Traversing is a common method of surveying smaller areas. The surveyor starts from an old
reference mark or known position and places a network of reference marks covering the survey area.
They then measure bearings and distances between the reference marks, and to the target features.
Most traverses form a loop pattern or link between two prior reference marks to allow the surveyor to
check their measurements are correct.

Datum and coordinate systems

Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the earth, but instead measure the relative
positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items need to be compared to outside data, such as
boundary lines or previous surveys objects. The oldest way of describing a position is via latitude and
longitude, and often a height above sea level. As the surveying profession grew it created Cartesian
coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small parts of the earth. The
simplest coordinate systems assume that the earth is flat and measure from an arbitrary point, known
as a 'datum' (singular form of data). The coordinate system allows easy calculation of the distances
and direction between objects over small areas. Large areas distort due to the earth's curvature. North
is often defined as true north at the datum.

For larger regions, it is necessary to model the shape of the earth using an ellipsoid or a geoid. Many
countries have created coordinate-grids customized to lessen error in their area of the earth.

Types of surveys
 As-built survey: a survey that documents the location of recently constructed elements of a
construction project. As built surveys are done for record, completion evaluation and
payment purposes. An as-built survey is also known as a 'works as executed survey'. As built
surveys are often presented in red or redline and laid over existing plans for comparison with
design information.

 Cadastral or boundary surveying: a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a

parcel using a legal description. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or
markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel. These take the form of iron rods, pipes,
or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt. The ALTA/ACSM
Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the American Land Title Association and the
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. It incorporates elements of the boundary
survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.
 Control surveying: Control surveys establish reference points to use as starting positions for
future surveys. Most other forms of surveying will contain elements of control surveying.

 Construction surveying

 Deformation survey: a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or

moving. First the positions of points on an object are found. A period of time is allowed to
pass and the positions are then re-measured and calculated. Then a comparison between the
two sets of positions is made.
 Dimensional control survey: This is a type of survey conducted in or on an non-level surface.
Common in the oil and gas industry to replace old or damaged pipes on a like-for-like basis.
The advantage of dimensional control survey is that the instrument used to conduct the
survey does not need to be level. This is useful in the off-shore industry, as not all platforms
are fixed and are thus subject to movement.

 Engineering surveying: topographic, layout, and as-built surveys associated with engineering
design. They often need geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice.

 Foundation survey: a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been
poured and is cured. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the
location, and at the elevation, authorized in the plot plan, site plan, or subdivision plan.

 Hydrographic survey: a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the shoreline and bed
of a body of water. Used for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes.

 Leveling: either finds the elevation of a given point or establish a point at a given elevation.

 Measured survey: a building survey to produce plans of the building. Such a survey may be
conducted before renovation works, for commercial purpose, or at end of the construction
process.

 Mining surveying: Mining surveying includes directing the digging of mine shafts and
galleries and the calculation of volume of rock. It uses specialized techniques due to the
restraints to survey geometry such as vertical shafts and narrow passages.

 Mortgage survey: A mortgage survey or physical survey is a simple survey that delineates
land boundaries and building locations. It checks for encroachment, building setback
restrictions and shows nearby flood zones. In many places a mortgage survey is a
precondition for a mortgage loan.

 Photographic control survey: A survey that creates reference marks visible from the air to
allow aerial photographs to be rectified.

 Stakeout, Layout or Set out: an element of many other surveys where the calculated or
proposed position of an object is marked on the ground. This can be temporary or permanent.
This is an important component of engineering and cadastral surveying.

 Structural survey: a detailed inspection to report upon the physical condition and structural
stability of a building or structure. It highlights any work needed to maintain it in good repair.
  Subdivision: A boundary survey that splits a property into two or more smaller properties.

 Topographic survey: a survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of
land, and presents them as contour lines on a plot.

The surveying profession

The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by surveyors
have evolved. Engineering, especially civil, often needs surveyors.

Surveyors help determine the placement of roads, railways, reservoirs, dams, pipelines, retaining
walls, bridges, and buildings. They establish the boundaries of legal descriptions and political
divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information systems (GIS) that record
land features and boundaries.

Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry, and trigonometry.
They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, real property, and contracts.
Most jurisdictions recognize three different levels of qualification:

Survey assistants or chainmen are usually unskilled workers who help the surveyor. They place target
reflectors, find old reference marks, and mark points on the ground. The term 'chainman' derives
from past use of measuring chains. An assistant would move the far end of the chain under the
surveyor's direction.

Survey technicians often operate survey instruments, run surveys in the field, do survey calculations,
or draft plans. A technician usually has no legal authority and cannot certify his work. Not all
technicians are qualified, but qualifications at the certificate or diploma level are available.

Licensed, registered, or chartered surveyors usually hold a degree or higher qualification. They are
often required to pass further exams to join a professional association or to gain certifying status.
Surveyors are responsible for planning and management of surveys. They have to ensure that their
surveys, or surveys performed under their supervision, meet the legal standards. Many principals of
surveying firms hold this status.

Informal surveying
Not all surveys are carried out by professional surveyors. Depending on the jurisdiction and
circumstances, the builders of a structure may set it out themselves. Surveyors often set out the most
significant corners of a building. The builders then lay out the rest of the building themselves simple
survey techniques.
Methods of surveying
Tools and techniques for recording existing building structures have been transformed by
advancements in electronic technology. Whether fielding a team of architects or contracting with a
professional surveyor, architects will be better prepared if they are familiar with the broad range of
established and emerging digital building recording technologies.

Surveying instruments & their application

Surveying is defined as the science of determining the dimensions and contour of the earth’s surface
by the measurements of distance, directions and elevations.
It is impossible to determine when surveying was first used, but in its simplest form it is as old as
recorded civilization. As long as there has been property ownership, there has been a means of
measuring property.
Surveying has three different components,
 measuring distance,
 angles and
 elevation

Each piece of surveying equipment can be used to measure one or more of these components, but
determining the piece of equipment that best suit the application can sometimes be overwhelming for
a person with a limited surveying experience.

Listed are the Various Types of Surveying Equipment and Their Uses.

Level Rods are commonly made of three types of material; wood, typically hard maple, fiberglass or
aluminum. Aluminum can swell or contract in hot or cold weather, wood can expand or contract in
humid or wet conditions and can give inaccurate readings. Rods should be held by the edges and
without touching the numbers. Touching the numbers may wear down the face of the rod, giving
inaccurate readings. The bottom of the rod should never be dragged on the ground or through water,
grass or mud and its metal base should never be allowed to strike rocks, pavement or other hard
objects; which will gradually wear away the metal base and will cause leveling errors due to the
change in length of the rod itself.

Direct Reading Rods are rods that are read directly through the telescope of the person using the
instrument. Another name for these rods is self-reading rods. A Philadelphia Level Rod consists of
two sliding sections graduated in hundredths of a foot and joined by brass sleeves. Two sections
make it easier to transport. Can be used as a short rod for readings of 7' or less, to a long rod for
heights up to 13'. It has a rear section that slides on the front section. When a high rod is needed, the
rod must be fully extended, otherwise a serious mistake will result in the reading.

Graduations on the front faces of the two sections read continuously from 0–13'. A Philadelphia rod
can be read accurately with a level at distances up to 250'. A San Francisco Level Rod is similar to
the Philly rod; the San Francisco rod has three separate sections that slide past each other to extend or
compress its length, and is generally used on control, land and other surveys. A Direct Elevation Rod
or a “Lenker Rod” has numbers in reverse order on an endless graduated strip that revolves around
the rod on rollers. Figures run down the rod and can be brought to a desired reading—for example
the elevation of a point or benchmark. Rod readings are preset for the back sight, and then, due to the
reverse order of numbers, foresight readings give elevations directly without calculating backlights
and foresights.

Target Rod—a target is added to the rod that allows the person holding the rod to independently
check the readings taken by the person using the instrument by adding a target, making what is
commonly referred to as “target rod.”

Tripods—a sturdy tripod in good condition is essential for obtaining accurate measurements. The
legs of the tripod are adjustable and are made of wood, fiberglass or aluminum and are adjustable for
use with many different pieces of surveying equipment. Tripods made of wood or aluminum can
influence readings in certain weather conditions, fiberglass can be heavy to carry when surveying
over various terrains and distances. Tripods come with two different styles of heads: flat or dome.
Dome heads allow for more adjustment, flat head tripods have less play, but are sometimes easier to
fit. Tripods come in two different thread sizes: 3" x 8 and 5 ⁄8" x 11. 5 ⁄8" x 11 is standard for newer
equipment. Adapters are available to adapt older 3" x 8 tripod threads to 5 ⁄8" x 11.

A Hand Level is used for taping and rough determination of elevations. It consists of a metal
sighting tube with a bubble tube mounted on it. The bubble is located on the top of the instrument
and its image is reflected by means of a 45° mirror or prism inside the tube so that the user can see
the bubble at the same time as the terrain. If the bubble is centered between the horizontal lines in the
tube while sighting, the line of sight is horizontal.

An Abney Level functions as a hand level and also permits rough measurements of vertical angles
and slopes.

Automatic Levels are commonly used in today’s surveying or construction applications because of
their ease of use and quick set-up. They incorporate a self-leveling feature; the user rough levels the
instrument using a three-screw leveling head and centers a bull’s eye bubble. After the bubble is
manually centered, an automatic compensator takes over, levels the line of sight, and keeps it level so
that level horizontal measurements can be taken.

Electronic or Laser Levels transmit beams of either visible laser or invisible infrared light. These
levels are used for establishing a known reference elevation or a point where construction
measurements can be taken. Electronic or laser levels fall into two general classes: single-beam lasers
and rotating-beam lasers. A single beam laser projects a string line that can be projected in a vertical,
horizontal or inclined direction.

A rotating beam laser provides a plane of reference over open areas. The laser beam is self-leveling
and will not come on until the instrument is level. If it is bumped out of position, the beam shuts off
and will not come back on until it is level again.
Laser levels are precise up to 1000'. Common uses include grading and excavating, masonry work,
setting concrete forms, marking elevation, septic work and checking the depth of trenches.

A Laser Detector is necessary because not all laser levels incorporate a visible laser; and, lasers are
not typically visible to the human eye in bright sunlight. The detector can either be a small hand-held
or rod-mounted unit that may be moved up and down the level rod, alerting the user when it is level.
A Double Pentagonal Prism is hand-held instrument that determines right angles by the use of a
triangular-shaped prism.
Measuring Wheels can roughly measure distance by rolling a wheel along the line in question and
counting the number of revolutions. An attached odometer does the counting and from the
circumference of the wheel converts the number of revolutions to a distance. Measuring wheels
typically provide precision to 1 ⁄200 when the ground is smooth, such as along a highway, but results
are poorer when the surface is irregular.
Tapes or “Chains” measure distance by using steel tape typically 0–3 ⁄8" wide. Those graduated in
feet come in 100, 200, 300 and 500' length.

Metric tapes/chains have standard lengths of 30, 60, 100 and 150 meters. All tapes can be wound on
a reel (sold separately) or done up in loops. Tapes/chains are typically handled with tension handles
or clamp handles in order to apply tension and to prevent damage to the tape and the surveyor’s
hands. Tapes/chains used for surveying applications are required to be calibrated on an annual basis
to ensure accuracy. Taping or Chaining Pins are used to mark tape lengths.

Most chaining/taping pins are made of number 12 steel wire, sharply pointed at one end and have a
round loop at the other end. They are painted with alternate red and white bands. A steel ring with 11
pins is standard.

Range Poles are used in taping applications for sighting points, marking ground points and for lining
up surveyors in order to keep them working in the right direction. They are from 6–10'L and are
painted with alternate bands of red and white to make them more easily seen. Each band is 1'L and
the rods can be used for rough measurements. Poles can be wood, fiberglass or metal. Plumb Bobs
are typically made of brass (to limit interference with compass readings) and weigh from 6–18 oz.,
with a fine point. The point on all plumb bobs are standard, to make replacement easy. At least 6' of
good quality string or cord, free of knots, is necessary.

Bobs are used to get a “plumb” (straight) vertical line to a definite point, typically a tack in a wooden
stake or ground. Bigger/heavier plumb bobs should be used for higher or greater heights.

A Gammon Reel is the device used to connect to plumb bob and provide easy up-and-down
adjustment of the plumb bob and instant rewinding of the plumb bob string.
The gammon reel can also be used as a target when taping.

Transits/Theodolites are fundamentally the same. Their most important application is measuring
horizontal and vertical angles, but they can also be used to obtain horizontal distances and determine
elevations. Transits/theodolites can be used for surveying applications when used with a calibrated
taping chain or an electronic distance measurer.

Electronic Distance Measurers (EDMs) accurately measure distance by measuring the time it takes
a laser to travel from the EDM to a prism and back. Before the introduction of EDMs, taping or
chaining was used to make accurate distance measurements.

A Total Station is the most accurate surveying device because it incorporates an electronic or digital
theodolite, an electronic distance measuring (EDM) device and a microprocessor in the same unit.
Total stations can automatically measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as slope distances
from a single setup. From this data they can instantaneously compute horizontal and vertical distance
components, elevations and coordinates, and display the results on an LCD. They can also store the
data either on board or in external date collectors.
From the total station, data can be downloaded easily to a personal computer. Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) incorporate distance, direction and difference in height between survey points.

A GPS satellite surveying system simply using an electronic distance measurer that does not need
direct line of sight between survey points. Instead, a GPS receiver needs to have a direct line of sight
to a sufficient number of satellites.

Basic surveying equipments

 Chain and Tape
 Measuring Rod
 Plumb Bob
 Carpenter Level
 Ranging Poles
 Pegs

Chain and Tape Chains or tapes are used to measure distances

on the field. A chain is made up of connected steel segments, or
links, which each measure 20 cm.

Sometimes a special joint or a tally marker is attached every 5

metres. Usually, a chain has a total length of 20 metres,
including one handle at each end. Measuring tapes are
made of steel, coated linen, or synthetic material.

They are available in lengths of 20, 30 and 50 m.

Centimetres, decimetres and metres are usually indicated on the tape.
A measuring rod is a straight lath with a length varying from 2 m to 5 m. The rod is usually
marked in the same way as a measuring tape, indicating centimeters, decimeters and meters.
A plumb bob is used to check if objects are vertical. A plumb bob consists of a piece of
metal (called a bob) pointing downwards, which is attached to a cord hen the plumb bob is
hanging free and not moving, the cord is vertical.
Carpenter Level
A carpenter level is used to check if objects are horizontal or
vertical. Within a carpenter level there are one or more curved
glass tubes, called level tube
Each tube is sealed and partially filled with a liquid (water, oil or
paraffin). The remaining space is air, visible as a bubble. On the glass
tube there are two marks. Only when the carpenter level is horizontal
(or vertical) is the air bubble exactly between these two marks.
Ranging Poles
Ranging poles are used to mark areas and to set out straight lines on
the field. They are also used to mark points which must be seen from a
distance, in which case a flag may be attached to improve the
visibility. Ranging poles are straight round stalks, 3 to 4 cm thick and about 2 m long. They are made
of wood or metal. Ranging poles can also be home made from strong straight bamboo or tree
branches.

REMEMBER: Ranging poles may never be curved. Ranging poles are usually painted with alternate
redwhite or blackwhite bands. If possible, wooden ranging poles are reinforced at the bottom end by
metal points.

Pegs
 Pegs are used when certain points on
the field require more permanent
marking.
 Pegs are generally made of wood;
Sometimes pieces of tree branches,
properly sharpened, are good enough.
 The size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) de-
pends the type of survey work they are
used for and the type of soil they have
to be driven in. The pegs should be
driven verti-cally into the soil and the
top should be clearly visible.