Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol.

8, 2014 |55 56 | Madhusudan Subedi

derived from works of earlier anthropologists, such as Marcel Mauss,

Bronislaw Malinowski and Raymond Firth. The approach is thus very
Afno Manchhe: Unequal Access to Public dynamic and 'provides a convenient, efficient, and most importantly
Resources and Institutions in Nepal productive way of penetrating to the heart of various social orders'.
Here, I relate Bourdieu’s (1977) conceptualization of capital within
which they are utilized. Symbolic capital, for Bourdieu, consists of the
prestige, and renown attached to a family and a name. Symbolic
capital is the legitimate way to accumulate resources, and these
Madhusudan Subedi
symbolic resources can themselves be utilized for economic gain.
Social capital includes obligation, the advantages of connections or
social position, and trust. Economic capital is the most objective,
certain, and enforceable. This paper focuses on the interpersonal
Abstract
connections that people use in their day-to-day lives for understanding
and interacting with their social environment. People in different
This paper highlights the informal inner circle network approach to
sectors of life try to find out some secure inner circle, be it within the
maintaining relationships and reciprocating favors within a system
kin relationship, business deals or political networking. There are few
that significantly affect the performance of incumbents in formal
Nepalis who are willing to leave their own secure inner circle. People
bureaucratic organizations. While this is a general sociological
who don't belong to one's own inner circle are perceived as being
problem in any society, this article deals with how afno manchhe
marginal and there is no real concern over what happens to such
behavior is manifested in Nepal. Without afno manchhe relations, one
unrelated individuals.
risks marginalization, disappointments and failures in one’s struggle
Afno manchhe is a Nepali term that can be translated as 'one's
to realize important goals in life. In such a situation, the
own people'. It refers to relationships of reciprocal nature with an
malfunctioning of administration and dissatisfaction arise at every
implicit hierarchy. It may partly be based on ascribed principles
level. There is thus a significant relationship between one’s position
derived from kinship and marriage, but most significantly afno
in afno manchhe networks and inclusion-exclusion processes. This of
manchhe relationships have to be confirmed in symbolic practices
course has consequences for the widespread practice of corruption in
expressing the content of the relationship. Afno manchhe relations can
Nepal.
thus be strategically developed between people unconnected by
kinship and marriage, and afno manchhe ties between people who are
Keywords: Afno Manchhe, Guanxi, Corruption, Nepotism
connected by kinship and marriage may be weakened if not confirmed
by appropriate symbolic exchanges of gifts, information, and services.
1. Introduction
Such practices constitute a dominant strategy of human connectivity
in Nepal, the daily activities of people and their relationships with one
Interest in network studies among social scientists dates back to the
another (Bista 1991). It has the potential of being used to construct an
1950s, but this methodology only really gained prominence in the
informal personalized organization of activities that affect the
1970s, and did not evolve into a recognized approach until the 1980s
operation of formal structures of market and bureaucracy. In practice,
(Chang 2004). The notion of reciprocity and other relevant ideas are
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afno manchhe is not limited to familial relations. It may include addressed: with reference to universal standards of ethics or with
people working in the same profession or the same field, business reference to concepts of ethics particular to the society in question.
stakeholders or members of a particular organization. The way it has This paper aims to discuss the dimensions of such social
been used in Nepal indicates more than relationship; it may lead to the connections in performing roles and regards rights, expectations,
misuse of power and constitutes a unique path for corruption. obligations and responsibilities in a network of relationship. In such a
In this sense, it shows a kind of family relationship (in a situation, my argument is that the people in everyday day life try to
Wittgensteinian sense) to the Chinese concept of guanxi referring to develop afno manchhe relationship strategically to achieve something.
personal networks of social relations (Haaland 2010). It is a cultural It may be honor, material wealth or a special kind of power. In this
characteristic that has strong implications for interpersonal and inter- strategic game, some people would become success and many would
organizational dynamics in Chinese society. It refers to the concept of fail and get frustrated. Those who have specific knowledge , skilled
drawing on a web of connections to secure favors in personal and and qualification but without having such inner circle get frustrated
organizational relations (Park and Luo 2001). One's life chances in and make plan for brain drain. The sidelines of meritocracy lead to the
society are to a large extent related to the scale and power of guanxi malfunctioning of development administration and dissatisfaction
relations one can mobilize. Such relations are primarily ascribed by arises at every level and acquisition of corruption. The series of
birth and involve obligations to exchange gifts, cooperate in economic interactions were done with university teachers, students,
activities, and support each other in politico administrative activities development workers, bureaucrats and political cadres to understand
(Haaland 2010). It is a special relationship between a person who such social processes, many events are observed and the news and
needs something and a person who has the ability to give something views expressed by the media are also keenly read. The paper starts
(Fan 2002). with the concept and types of afno manchhe in Nepal, and elaborates
Both the terms afno manchhe and guanxi are different cultural the consequences of afno manchhe on individual and organizational
constructions for tackling a similar sociological problem, namely the spheres. Furthermore, Nepali concept of afno manchhe and Chinese
problem of personalization of formal impersonal relations. In both concept of guanxi are compared.
cases, personalization is embedded in cultural values like trust,
loyalty, and familism expressed in activities loaded with symbolic 2. Afno manchhe in Nepal and guanxi in China
meanings. These symbolic constructions differ and afno manchhe can
thus not be translated as guanxi, they are different concepts embedded From the time of Nepal's unification in 1769 to the advent of
in different cultural universes and with different politico-economic democracy in 1990, the King had a complex power in the country.
consequences, but are similar in the sense that they refer to a general This power was cultivated over several hundred years. The time of
organizational problem. To what extent afno manchhe in Nepal and monarchy until recently, all executive, legislative and judicial powers
guanxi in China are ethical is a particular issue largely ignored in the resided with the King and the country was ruled from the palace with
literature (Fan 2002, Subedi 2005). The favor and networking to the help of courtiers called 'Bhardars' (Pfaff-Czarnecka 1997). A
maintain the correct connection is not exclusive to Nepal but it has connection with anyone in the palace was almost as good as
been occurring at an alarming and distinctly defining rate. When connection within the social nexus in which the relationship of
many people relying on afno manchhe, then how can we refrain from patronage, reciprocity, and family connection was the basis for
doing the same? The problem is how this ethical issue should be privileges, protection, and all manner of rewards. Power in this system
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |59 60 | Madhusudan Subedi

was lodged in a multiple system of favoritism, each with its own logic Rather, having special relationship with monarchy and (mis)using
but shared sensitibilities of the family-like ties, reciprocity, and access power were a matter of pride. Bista (1991), describe the concept of
to privilege through social affiliation, preferably ascribed by birth but afno manchhe as:
possible even if acquired through clever procedures of social
endearment (Subedi 2001). Afno manchhe is the term to designate one’s inner circle of
The forms of favoritism include giving priority to close associates – it means ‘one’s own people’ and refers to those
relatives (natabad), to those already involved in reciprocal or family- who can be approached whenever need arises. The strength or
like relationship (kripabad), and to “one’s own people” (afno weakness of anyone is measured in terms of the quality and
manchhe), flattery or “currying favor” (chakari) and especially quantity of the circles of afno manchhe he is part of. Afno
cultivating reciprocal obligations with superiors. Chakari was manchhe is a critical Nepali institution…. The most important
officially introduced by Ranas as a way to keep rivals or opponents asset for anyone is not what you know, but who you know
from posing a threat. They had pajani system to sack disloyal public (1991:98).
servants. Chakari was a way to judge loyalty and reliability with
government employees required to perform it to keep their jobs and be Bista further gives an example of a bank and says that a
promoted. Land was allotted to public officials in return for special bankteller takes longer to cash a cheque if the customer is a non-
favors, the birta system (Regmi 2002). Chakari is constantly visible person, but makes a special effort if the customer is a member of his
in Nepal. The employees have to perform chakari to ensure job circle and therefore afno manchhe. The reputation of the bank
security and in order to be eligible for promotion, the junior politician becomes of secondary importance as the maintenance of the fence
have to perform chakari to be appointed in central committee around one’s own circle is primary. The same thing is true in all
member, and the national level politicians do chakari to the government and corporate offices (Bista 1991). If someone has to go
international community and power centre for getting favor in to hospital to consult the doctor, seek help from police, admit their
political, economic and ideological issues. This is a vertical children in schools, apply for jobs, the first thing in their mind is who
relationship. A strong distinction is made between 'us, 'who are is where and how to get properly connected to them. Sometimes a
trustworthy, loyal, to be helped, and 'them' to whom one has no telephone call from a higher authority or well connected people is
responsibilities, and who deceive and are to be deceived (Macfarlane enough to get better access to the consultant, responsible behavior of
1993). Chakari is institutionalized in bureaucracy, professional the police, admission and fee reduction in schools and priority for
association, business organizations and development organizations. employment.
Being able to take advantage of personal connections through
For most Nepalis, using these sort of connections is part of natabad, kripabad or afno manchhe to gain advantage over
what it means to be a Nepali, for these members of social affiliation competitors is called having pahuch or source-force, which involves
situated one in webs of relationship that ultimately tied one to the the exercise of control of power based on their jats, kinship, business
king-the symbol and body of nation-or to the palace, the place from or political affiliations. Adam (1998:39) writes, for example:
which most privileges came and which was thought ideally form a
microcosm for the ideal of nation (Adam 1998:37). The issues of If one needed any sort of privilege from a ministry, one would
fairness, equality and accountability were not discussed publicly. consider if one had afno manchhe in that ministry on whom
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one could rely for processing one’s request. If no family in economic activities and support each other in politico-
connection existed, one might consider chakari to create a administrative activities (Haaland 2010). This is essentially
basis for obtaining favors from a status superior. These family interpreted as relationships between persons without attention to their
relations were usually the most promising sort of afno contacts with institutions or to relationships between the institutions
manchhe, but beyond that person’s who were in one’s caste or themselves (Chang 2004). Perhaps the most important and common
ethnic group, and after them cultivated friends who could be characteristic of afno manchhe and guanxi is personal but a special
brought into a morally obliged sense of duty, as would be true relationship which demands a kind of reciprocal obligation. Failure to
in the family, were sought. Thus creating afno manchhe reciprocate may result in the loss of one’s social network and multiple
relationships through marriage, politics, and a multitude of resources embedded in it (Mallington, Eberhardt and Wilkinson 2005,
social events (worship events, parties, gambling, social clubs, Adams 1998, Subedi 2005). In the Nepali context, it can be said that a
sports, hobbies, etc) was a primary strategy for economic, network of afno manchhe and its (mis)use in various context are chief
political, and social mobility. features of feudal hierarchy which ignores meritocracy and
universalistic values.
Subedi (2001) mentioned that transfer of government officials According to Yang (1989), guanxi in China is built through the
has a strong link with afno manchhe. Quoting the view of a doctor, exchange of gifts, favor and banquets. The art of guanxi lies in the
who was transferred from one remote area to another for the last eight skillful mobilization of moral and cultural imperatives such as
years, Subedi (2001:139) writes; obligation and reciprocity in pursuit of both diffuse social ends and
calculated instrumental ends. The cultivation of guanxi involves more
Our appointments are based on a person’s connection with than the negotiation of a deal and usage of customary forms to
key decision makers. There is no way to evaluate a doctor disguise what might otherwise be recognized as a corrupt and illegal
who is working alone in a remote area. The doctors who are exchange. The exchanges are used to cultivate and strengthen
working in a remote area usually lack source force (political relationships that are expected to continue (Smart 1993).
power) and afno manchhe. Doctors with source force and
afno manchhe are better able to stay at Kathmandu where 3. Formation of Afno Manchhe in Nepal
they can take exams and give pressures to the high officials
for promotions. The distinction between ‘us’ and ‘them’ manifests itself in every walk
of social, cultural, political and economic life (Bista 1991).
Thus, afno manchhe is multifaceted and negotiated in different Everything inside one’s own circle is predictable and the rest is
contexts. Similarly, in China, the core idea of guanxi involves external and unpredictable. Therefore, there is a constant need to
relationships between or among individuals creating obligations for maintain this boundary. The maintenance of inner group is achieved
the continued exchange of favors. It is either a blood relationship or in a number of ways. Gathering people together for ritualistic festive
some social interconnections (Dunfee and Warren 2001). One’s life occasion is one. Birthday parties, marriage ceremonies, clan worships,
chances in society are to a large extent related to the scale and power feasts and funeral rites provide a platform for the formation of family
of the guanxi relations one can mobilize. Such relations are primarily or kinship ties. During major festivals like Dasain for Hindus, Buddha
ascribed by birth and involve obligation to exchange gifts, cooperate Jayanti and special ethnic festivals for Janajatis, people try to develop
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a wider network with people who can manipulate their political, Afno manchhe is formed strategically, says a young political
economic and social capital. Special gifts are offered to these scientist at Tribhuvan University (TU). He says:
powerful people to make the visit more memorable. Powerful people,
on the other hand, a more then likely to reciprocate these favors in the An educated person changes his/her political ideology;
future based on the needs and expectations of the giver. departs from one party to another. It is not a simple
Distributing greeting cards during major festivals is another phenomenon based on ideological understanding, trust and
means to not only define the consistency of one’s own circle but also commitment. It is related to his/her long term mission to gain
expand it circumferences. This also includes business groups and something from that network. To fulfill the mission and
professional members. Though not a recent phenomenon, it has a very acquire something, people change the political party in Nepal.
stronghold compared to others, is formation of politically afno
manchhe, an ideological value loaded inner circle. Participating in Another political scientist from the same department further
various programs organized by political parties and their sister added:
organizations is one of the main ways for people to try to form direct
links with national level political leaders and get into their inner The networks that you build with powerful people are far
circle. This trend has picked up after the establishment of multi-party more important than your political affiliation or your
democracy in Nepal. However, it is also to be noted that afno commitment towards a professional organization. You have to
manchhe can be formed in other ways like chakari 1, kin, business and have afno manchhe be it a nearest kin group, business
political. Thus, it is a strategy to create relations with those who are partners or committed followers of the affluent persons. If
more privileged, be it economically or politically, and can provide you have a strong association with a politically influential
access. person, you can be appointed in a lucrative position, promoted
without any hurdle and provided with good opportunities.
1
Chakari is an essential concept which means to wait upon, to serve, to
appease, and to seek favor from politically or administratively well off As a former university student and faculty member at the
people (Subedi 2005). According to Bista, “Chakari was officially department of sociology and anthropology, I have also seen many
introduced into secular life during the Rana period, mainly as a form of cases of promotion and progress of such people. Among others, a non-
control designed to keep potential rivals or opponents away from belligerent medical teacher with whom I had worked at the Institute of Medicine,
activities. These potential rivals were required to spend time generally in Medical College and Teaching Hospital, in the late 1990s had good
attendance at the Rana palaces, where at certain hours the Rana would be
able to observe them physically and know that they were not somewhere else
connections with the ruling party leaders. He was appointed vice
fomenting troubles. This was done very formally, usually in the afternoon, chancellor of the university and again promoted to the chair of same
and the hours set aside for this purpose were known as the chakari hours university service commission. Another teacher, with whom I had
(Bista 1991:90). Those seeking improvement in life via this practice are opportunity to work, managed all possible promotions and
called chakariwal, people practicing chakari. With the end of Rana rule, opportunities within the university system of Nepal for fifteen years.
chakari was formally abolished, but then it had firmly installed itself as an Senior and academically proficient professors who do not blindly
integral feature of Nepali social organization. Today, chakari remains an support any political party, however, still are just doing their teaching
integral part of social life and is evident at all levels of government (Subedi activities, and are waiting for bound retirement from university. If one
2005).
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evaluates the academic credentials and professional commitments, ethnicity, region, religion and specific cultural group. In many cases,
those who achieved and used their power to move up the university's multiple identities would work to form a strong link of afno manchhe.
hierarchy as were academically weak and poor performers.
Two examples, described below, suffice how an educated 4. Classification of Afno Manchhe
person develops his networks, changes political camps in search of
better opportunity. After the comprehensive peace agreement between Afno manchhe is a complex social construct with many variations. In
Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and United Communist Party of Nepal most existing studies, afno manchhe is discussed in general terms;
(Maoist), a professor of Economics from TU applied for party complexity and differences between different types of afno manchhe
member to UCPN (Maoist). He requested concerned authorities for are largely overlooked. Fan (2002) has described mainly three types
party membership. He was granted general membership of the UCPN of guanxi in China: family guanxi, helper guanxi and business guanxi.
(Maoist). He had thought that there were few educated person in the Quite similar categories can be created for afno manchhe in Nepal.
Maoist party and he would get political appointment after taking party These are: family afno manchhe, business afno manchhe, political
membership. The UCPN (Maoist) won the 2008 Constituent afno manchhe and afno manchhe in bureaucracy. An aafno manchhe
Assembly elections by a large margin and got to lead the government. entering the room is always appreciated.
Chairman Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) became the prime Family afno manchhe are expressive ties and instrumental ties
minister of Nepal. The professor requested to be appointed to a post based on kin relations. Business afno manchhe refers to the process of
like member of National Planning Commission or General Manager finding a solution to a business rather than personal problem by using
or executive chair of a state-run corporation, but was not successful in "personal" connections. Political afno manchhe is linked to the
his attempts. Later, he gave up party membership and started back particular political affiliation of a person and group, who benefits in
biting about the party for not honoring the people like him. the name of ‘political affiliation’. These four types of afno manchhe
Similarly, another economist who became a member of the are quite different in almost all aspects: nature, purpose, function and
National Planning Commission during the minority government of what is exchanged but at the same time overlap each other. If a person
CPN (UML) in 1994 and had been working as a think tank economist has a stronghold in all four types of afno manchhe, he would easily
for the party and remained a committed party member for more than cash the better opportunity due to multiple linkages and social
20 years, resigned and joined the UCPN (Maoist). He was a very relations.
critical to the economic policy of Maoist prior to join the party.
Currently, he is an economic advisor of UCPN (Maoist). The Family Afno Manchhe
economists mentioned above didn't care much for political
philosophies, they were far more concerned about building Family afno manchhe is emotionally driven, affection is exchanged, in
connections for personal gain and finding opportunities to be which immediate reciprocity is not always necessary. They are mainly
politically appointed to lucrative posts. related by blood or marriage. When a person is looking for help in
Generally, the afno manchhe is formed by developing social Nepal, the first person to be requested for support or favor is often a
connections mainly on contextual basis. It may be a network of relative or friend. Knowing influential people through kin or
families, political parties and their sister organizations, caste and friendship is valuable in Nepal, because such relations tend to be more
stable and reliable. The relations of kinship or friendship would
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impart a mutual obligation to help one another in times of need. The social and political activities, including formulation of
family afno manchhe is used for financial support, employment government plans and activities of various political parties.
opportunities, admission of children in relatively competitive schools, They can influence state policy. If one sees the history of
quick access to doctors, introducing family members to local and organizational structure of NGOs, more than 90 percent of
national level leaders, and communicating with the person about the these institutions are managed by few members and their
capacity of family members and relatives. Since this kind of afno nearest relatives. They give job opportunities to their own
manchhe is mainly blood or marriage based, its core values are afno manchhe, hire another afno manchhe as the auditor of
affection, obligation and empathy, and reciprocity is not always the organization, and fire unrelated employees on the pretext
necessary. The closeness of family afno manchhe would be strong, of poor performance. The ultimate objective of this network is
stable and permanent, unless there is misunderstanding or conflict to make stronghold in the organization by a handful of family
between two kin groups. A university teacher describes this obligation members. Such network of afno manchhe would also help
as: protect the privacy and weaknesses of the organizations.

The concept of family afno manchhe works very well in If one explores some positions like advisor(s), chairperson,
Nepal. This is a good link to get moral and financial support, executive director, treasurer and program coordinator of financially
job, or get promotion in public as well as private sound NGOs in Nepal, and their genealogical links and relations, a
organizations. This is a kind of reciprocal relationship. If one very clear picture of their relationship can be traced. In such a
is in difficult situation but does not get help from afno situation, family afno manchhe is not limited to emotional affection
manchhe, s/he is no more afno manchhe. If one has a and exchange, but also economic support and institutional favor.
politically powerful and economically strong family afno Andersen (2004) in a seminar paper entitled ‘What a Village
manchhe, he will have an easier time getting ahead in life. Can Tell - Democratization in Nepal’ mentions that peasants adopts
People take pride in having such familial connections. various strategies of survival in order to cope with resource scarcity
and vulnerability that they face. Included among these strategies are
There is a saying in Nepali that ‘afno manchhe vaneko afno the creation of relations with those who are more privileged and can
nai ho' (one’s inner circle remains own). If the person does not get provide access. When a poor villager is looking for help, the first
help from afno manchhe but gets an opportunity from the outer circle person he asks is often a relative or friend. Knowing influential people
then it is said that ‘tadako manchhe afno vayo tara afno manchhe afno through kin or friendship is valuable in a volatile environment,
huna sakina’ (a far away person become ours but the nearest one because such relations tend to be more stable and reliable than other
could not). People usually mention relatives as their closest afno types. Andersen (2004:6) further says:
manchhe. Kinship bonds would naturally create the stronger
obligation. Remarking on the situation of Nepali NGOs, a sociologist The relationship of Afno Manchhe was here described as an
mentioned: ‘inner circle’ in which members should protect the closed,
social relationship both by following the norms involved and
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Nepal have by protecting it against hostile outsiders. In the selected
strong influence from village level activities to national level villages there were several such ‘inner circles’. Villagers
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |69 70 | Madhusudan Subedi

would usually mention relatives as their closest Afno contract appointment in public institutions which becomes easier to
Manchhe. Kinship bonds would – naturally – create the legitimatize as a full time staff after few months or years. One can
stronger obligation. As one noted, ‘My relatives are closer to easily find both teaching and non-teaching staff at different
me, and then friends, then comes the Ward Chairman’. universities and colleges, people in different departments of private
Another villager explained, similarly, that ‘for me all [of organizations and public institutions who are closely linked to family
these] are Afno Manchhe, but our brothers are closer. In case afno manchhe.
the brothers are not there then friends are the closer, and if This sort of family afno manchhe is a social capital which
friends [are not there] then the neighbors… then comes the consists of prestige and renown attachment to a family and name
Ward Chairman’(emphasis is original). (Bourdieu 1977). This is often the only legitimate way to accumulate
resources and take advantage of connection or social position and
The closest family afno manchhe are immediate family trust. There is also a tendency to protect people whom you know
members, followed by closest extended family, close friends who are better, or have blood ties with. If kinship ties and affection exist, the
also treated as family and people with shared experiences such as person will not be fired even if the person commits a grave mistake.
playmates or classmates. Both the paternal and maternal kinfolk can
play an important role in developing a link of family afno manchhe. If Business Afno manchhe
one is successful in developing the network of afno manchhe within a
powerful kin group, it would not be difficult to land a job, to get a Business afno manchhe is the product of current political and socio-
promotion, or transfer to better locations or posts. Favors done by economic systems; utility-driven, a deal of money and power. In
family afno manchhe are expected to be returned by some means but terms of quality, family afno manchhe is stronger, more stable and
by no specific date. One can easily see the deep familial connections requires long term commitment. Business afno manchhe, on the other
in almost all political parties in Nepal, also termed as ‘the kitchen hand, is characterized as tactical, opportunistic and unstable. There is
cabinet’ where major appointments and decisions are informally little trust and commitment in the business afno manchhe relationship.
discussed and decided. In such situations, historical contribution of The only thing that matters to the parties is their own business 3. Thus,
many party cadres are ignored, meritocracy is sidelined 2. In Nepal, the it is the exchange or deal between money and power.
family afno machhe is also very strong in private job and part-time or

3
2
In October 2009, Prime Minister (PM) of Nepal, Madhav Kumar Nepal Padma Jyoti, an industrialist of Jyoti Group, was nominated as a
promoted Foreign Minister Sujata Koirala, the daughter of Girija Prasad Constituent Assembly (CA) member by the UCPN (Maoist). Binod
Koirala – Former Prime Minister of Nepal and the then President of Nepali Chaudhary, head of the Chaudhary Group was nominated by CPN (UML).
Congress (NC), as the Deputy Prime Minister, despite criticisms within Chaudhary, in an interaction program in a television program, argued that the
Koirala’s party. NC President had long been exerting pressure on the PM to CPN (UML) is pro-business with more socialist than communist leaning.
appoint his daughter as Deputy PM. Media quoted that sources close to PM Likewise, Rajendra Khetan from the Khetan Group was nominated by
office said the PM took decision under pressure from NC President.
Communist party of Nepal Marxist Leninists (CPN-ML). If one looks at the
Congress Spokesperson Arjun Nar Singh KC had said with the media as –
“This is not an institution decision of the party; the party is unaware about constitution of these three communist parties, a clear political difference can
the appointment.” be highlighted. On the other hand, the mission, vision and business strategies
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |71 72 | Madhusudan Subedi

In business afno manchhe, the main strategy is finding In a country like Nepal, which is characterized by ‘low
business solutions through personal connections and developing a professional morality’ and ‘social responsibility’ and a ‘weak legal
win-win situation. Its cultural and social root is weak legal system, system’, emphasis on afno manchhe and exchange of favors within
and base is social or through intermediary with core values of power relationships are characterized by obligation and indebtedness.
influence. The motivation for such network is to overcome Regarding the decision to allow India to print Machine Readable
bureaucratic obstacles and get special treatment/protection. The Passport (MRP), the then Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal told
exchange is basically for money and power with the condition of the Public Accounts Committee that the government awarded the
strictly reciprocal ‘gain and loss’ bargaining. 4 The quality of closeness contract due to “political reasons, diplomatic relations with India and
varies and depends on the existence of other factors which are more time constraint.” The cabinet decision was withdrawn after heavy
elastic and situational. criticism from opposition parties, civil society members and political
Some people may argue that experience is vital to the analysts.
potential family-member hire. They feel the family member should The business afno manchhe in Nepal supports for the
establish his or her own competence and professional sense of worth solutions to business rather than personal problem. Two types of
before assuming work responsibilities within the family's firm. connection can be seen in business relationship; business-business and
Testing and honing his or her skills and abilities allow one to bring business-government officials. Business-business afno manchhe helps
expertise to the enterprise and make the appointment a success. The mainly for expansion of business and creating trust with each other,
key is to have clear criteria for the job and to apply it consistently for whereas business-government official relations helps to bypass laws
all candidates, neither favoring nor discriminating against family and regulations through personal connection with government
members. Furthermore, people chitchat that families rely on multiple officials and/or to obtain special treatment. Commission, bonus and
incomes for their standard of living, the ethical and pragmatic share are some of the economic offers and special gifts are provided
considerations regarding nepotism must be carefully negotiated to for such undue advantages. Fan (2002:374) mentions that business
ensure the most effective overall business strategy. However, guanxi has a notorious reputation in China as it refers to the use of
nepotism in business afno manchhe in private sector can lead to someone’s authority to obtain political or economic benefits by
success if applied appropriately, or turn disastrous if applied without unethical persons.
careful consideration of all the variables involved. Though the business is transaction based, it is also
relationship-based. A successful Nepali business person would be
described as being well connected. Afno manchhe network is a
of these three industrialists are the same. The only difference is that they valuable source of information for the amount to be quoted and
were nominated in the political sphere from different political parties. documents to be submitted in various tenders, consultancy work, and
supply of equipments announced by the government as well as the
4
Everyone in Nepal can see the mechanism which people employ to get their private sector. These information are of strategic importance for
work done through the broker or middleman. They are confined to specific getting such contracts. Almost all major political parties of Nepal
location or sector and do not have enduring relations with the clients but are have developed a covert link through bureaucrats in ministries and
permanent channel to get things done. This can be seen, for example, mainly related line agencies, from the office of the Prime Ministers to the
in Office of Land Revenue and Management and Transport Management office of Village Development Committees (VDCs). The person who
Office.
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |73 74 | Madhusudan Subedi

has family, political and business links with the authority get larger Political Afno Manchhe
amount and accurate information compared to others. In many cases
concerned people do not inform and communicate properly about Politically afno manchhe is linked with the political ideology of an
ongoing activities of organizations. By monopolizing the information individual or the group where a special relationship is developed
one can influence by channeling favor to and from others. based on shared political attributes and network of social connections.
If one tries to analyze the relationship between the scholarship For a person looking for job, his party affiliation affects the selection
granted for higher education and higher administrative occupations of process. Connection with political parties and link with powerful afno
the parents or close relatives, a perfect correlation can be traced. manchhe within the party is crucial for exercising power in Nepal.
During my interaction with former high level bureaucrats they During an interaction with TU teachers, they said:
confessed that selection of scholarships provided to the government of
Nepal, selection of the training participants in developed countries, Party connection is very important to get political
and consultants to be hired for special work are not transparent in appointment. University teachers get best teaching award not
almost all ministries of Nepal. They also admitted that information are because they are the best teachers but because they have a
kept secret for their own benefit, and not disseminated to the targeted good networking with political parties in Nepal. The current
people. In an interaction of policy and implementation issue in Vice Chancellors of Tribhuvan University is afno manchhe of
Kathmandu, many respondents mentioned that Nepal has made good CPN-UML, Sanskrit University is afno manchhe of Ne CPN-
policies in many fields but these policies are implemented ‘only in UML and Purbanchal University is afno manchhe of Unified
papers’. Paper implementation is required for the donors because Maoist. Likewise, all the key posts in the university,
much of the monitoring and evaluation in Nepal are focused on the including, Campus Chief were allotted based on Bhagbanda
paper trail. The paper work in file cabinets plus manuals on shelves do (quota of major political parties) of afno manchhe of three
not equal with benefits to the ordinary people. major political parties.
Another example of business afno manchhe can also be
clearly seen in the doctor and pharmaceutical companies relationship After the political change in Nepal in 1990, and in the current
in Nepal. Bonus and special incentives are offered to the doctors who political transition phase, the concept of afno manchhe in various
prescribe the products of specific companies, be it Nepali, Indian or appointments has been very strong and influential. At the university
multi nationals. Gift items and financial support that are generally level, for example, Vice Chancellor, University Grant Commission,
offered include: carpets, pens, blankets, bed sheets, iron, calculator, Service Commission, Dean, Research Division Heads are appointed
TV, airfare for international conference, food expenses for national based on the quota of political parties. Within the political party, a
level conference. Some companies also provide surprise gift on person who implements the order of political leader is given fair
birthdays of family members of the doctors (Subedi 2009). The cost priority compared to other critical sympathizer. Thus the merit based
of undue expenses of the pharmaceutical companies has to be incurred ramro manchhe (good person) does not get place in proper position
by the poor and sick Nepalis. The business afno manchhe has a strong and politically affiliated hamro manchhe (our person) has been very
network power to mobilize opportunities and resources. strong in almost all political and social spheres. A written letter from
the powerful political would represent one of the most important
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introductions as the foundation for strong relationship within the advantages from these organizations 7. Most of the leaders who are in
party 5. power have little time or interest to the public. They are very much
Appointing a politically afno manchhe is crucial to provide concerned on political game, individual and party benefit issues and
various opportunities within the institution. The concept of hamro misuse of power. One the other hand, the audio, visual and printing
manchhe (person from the same party or even from the same faction media which are expected to provide impartial messages are very
of a political party) has been very strong in every sphere of life in weak and extremely biased because of their affiliation to one or
Nepal and the concept of ramro manchhe (good or competent person) another political party.
has been nonessential. There is hardly any ideological differences
between Sushil Koirala and Sher Bahadur Deuba in Nepali Congress, Afno Manchhe in Bureaucracy
between Jhalnath Khanal and Madhav Nepal in CPN (UML), and
between Puspa Kamal Dahal and Babu Ram Bhattarai in UCPN Max Weber argues that the modern organization of civil service
(Maoist). They are aware that the political linkage and appointment of separates the bureau from the private domicile of the officials, and in
afno manchhe may carry with its great advantages accessing scarce general, bureaucracy segregates official activity as something distinct
resources afterwards. Similarly, the government has not been able yet from the sphere of private life (Weber 1999 [1946]). In principle, the
to recommend 26 members to the constituent assembly (CA) and the executive office is separated from the household, business from
CA is incomplete almost six months after the election was held. private correspondence, and business assets from private fortunes.
Furthermore, political parties and their sister organizations engage to Bureaucracy is also called as a ‘permanent government’ 8. It is also
justify such appointment and to influence decisions in situations said that the success and failure of any government depends on the
defined by impersonal bureaucratic rules. quality, mechanism and the nature of support of bureaucracy. An
The constitutional 6 and other major political appointments are ‘ideal type rational legal’ bureaucratic model should have the
based on the affiliation of major political parties to get undue political

delegate authority to their afno manchhe from legally instituted powers.

5 7
I had an opportunity to talk with the former Dean of Institute of Medicine, In March 2012, the government headed by Dr Baburam Bhattarai, Deputy
Tribhuvan University. He mentioned that the hospital is being used as a 'job Chairman of UCPN (M), had decided to provide Rs. 20 million as financial
bank' by each successive government. He mentioned that none of the staff of assistance to the UCPN (Maoist) team including party Chairman Pushpa
the hospital are transferred out but new staff keep joining the hospitals Kamal Dahal's son Prakash to scale the Mount Everest. Maoist cadres had
mostly in the administration section. He further mentioned, “In university said that their journey from Lumbini to Mt Everest is aimed at exerting
system, Vice Chancellor, Rector and Registrar before the expiry of their pressure on the leaders to conclude the peace and write the constitution on
terms, bring in their own people to the hospital.” The hospital staff gets 50 time. It was a question of fairness. The decision followed heavy criticism
percent extra salary every month. They also get ninety percent discount in against Dahal’s son for fishing state money to climb the world’s highest
treatment for their family members in the hospital including the medicine. peak. The team, however, did not take the money from the government
6
Due to political interest of various political parties and unstable saying that the respect of sentiment of Nepali people.
8
government, the head and other members of the constitutional body become The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less
vacant for a long time in Nepal. The major political have their vested interest stable, more or less exhaustive, and which can be learned. Knowledge of
to influence major decision and activities from afno manchhe. They blame to these rules represents a special technical learning which the official possess
each other but all the political parties have the same vested interest, to (Weber 1999:106)
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |77 78 | Madhusudan Subedi

characteristics of political neutrality, hierarchical composition, to performance. Tiwari (2009:22), for example, quotes the civil
specialized task and knowledge, formal communication and record servants remarks as;
management, and objective standards and impersonal rules that ensure
organizational reliability and predictability. ....while at work if you take special care of the powerful clients,
Management in the bureaucracy is highly personalized in your performance in terms of quality of service, non-delivery
Nepal. Formal rules governing recruitment, promotion, transfer and of services and non-responsive behavior to the client common
dismissal of public officials are rarely followed. With the change in people does not matter, it is excused. It will not meet any
government or with the change in the minister, reshuffling of the punitive action.
bureaucracy is very common. There is a Nepali saying, 'hamro
manchhe' (our person) is preferred over 'ramro manchhe' (good The tendency to see what pleases the higher officials becomes the
person), and thulo manchhe (big person) is preferred over 'sano prime concern of civil servants rather doing their job honestly for
manchhe' (small person) (Dix 2011). benefiting the ordinary people. An informal practice in which an
In Nepal, however, public administration operates within a authority holder exhibit special preferences towards kinfolk and
particular administrative culture that directing and determining its family members, party cadres and secures substantial prerogative and
functioning. Almost all bureaucrats are under the umbrella of political profit for certain families, clans or some social subgroups is called
organizations in the name of professional organization 9. During the natabad, nepotism. Similarly, kirpabad, favoritism is a mechanism of
interaction with the people working in government offices, it was power abuse implying a highly biased distribution of state resources,
frequently stated by the participants that their confidential no matter how these resources have been accumulated. It is a
performance rating system have had created fear of undue tendency to favor anybody those who are supposed to be close and
discrimination among civil them. It has been depriving the civil trusted; be it based on familial, ethnic and geographical- origin or a
servants of knowing the rating of their performance on the job by their friend or just a particular group10. These are seen in the form of
supervisor, and also have not been getting the opportunities to know natabad and kripabad' in the Nepali public administration (Poudyal
the way improving their performance. It was also mentioned that the 2009). Interference from political leader administration has
phenomena of confidential rating has encouraged sycophancy and
chakari. In such a situation rewards and punishments are not related
10
Media quotes many times that Nepotism, favoritism, and corruption are
common especially in the transfer and promotion processes in Nepal Police
9
Report of the parliamentary committee comprising the top leaders of major (NP) and many police officers believe that they personally have been ‘denied
political parties has shown that employees’ associations are functioning like professional opportunities because they did not pay bribe or lacked family or
sister organizations of the political parties. The leaders of the employees friend connections. During the interaction with university students,
unions have a decisive say in matters such as placement in lucrative jobs, participants frequently mentioned that lack of accountability, political
selection of heads of the key Ministries and departments. Many civil servants interference, and corruption are the factors contributing to an ineffective
say that the top leadership in the civil service is found more keen and chain of command in the NP. On the interaction¸ police officials attributed
receptive to please the unions leaders than the general public. These political pressure as the main reason for their inability to provide satisfactory
bureaucrats do not hesitate to fulfill their irrational and non-professional security to the public.
demands (Tiwari 2009:20-21).
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |79 80 | Madhusudan Subedi

undermined the impartiality, neutrality and accountability, the core sports, hobbies, etc) was a primary strategy for economic,
values of bureaucracy. political, and social mobility.

5. Multiple Connections Nepali people remember for a long time a favor that was given to
them when especially was needed. They share such happy events with
As a single process, afno manchhe refers to the personal interactions their afno manchhe. When a favor is returned, it is highly valued. A
between two individuals. However, this is not the case all the time. A person connected as family afno manchhe also tries for business and
person searches as many as afno manchhe to get favor. S/he tries to political afno manchhe. This can be seen very openly in family and
maintain as much as connection in order to get favor. For example, a politics in different parties. Some family members strategically join
person tries to get favor from a person who is powerful as a another political party to take advantages from other political parties
opposition party leader from kin relationship. On the other hand, s/he and for social security.
tries to get favor from ruling party as an active member of ruling party Much goodwill can be generated if a person has all four types of
professional organization. This is exactly what afno manchhe works, connection- family, business’ politics and bureaucracy. This would
as a multi-path process. Relationships, strong or weak, exist all the become strong, permanent and influential. Social networks and trusts
time. Thirdly, afno manchhe involves a series of activities mostly pre- are considered the key markers for upward social mobility. One has to
planned and carried out between two or more parties in the afno be politically and economically influential to utilize the afno manchhe
manchhe network. Such activities can include anything from having a network. If a person does not have even a single connection would be
meal together, to gift giving or doing a favor. But usually it is just a frustrated, fell inferior due to unfair evaluation mainly in the job
circle of mutually supporting associates, whose personal ties cut market and try to search for alternative livelihood strategy. Unable to
across and through the supposed impersonalities of bureaucracy. develop a social connection for better job is one of the main causes of
Adam (1998:39) writes, for example: brain drain from Nepal.

If one needed any sort of privilege from a ministry, one would 6. The Relationship between Afno manchhe and Corruption
consider if one had afno manchhe in that ministry on whom
one could rely for processing one’s request. If no family From head of the state to a person waiting on a queue to get a liter
connection existed, one might consider chakari to create a petrol for his motor bike, and a farmer who waits long hours to get
basis for obtaining favors from a status superior. These family few kilogram of chemical fertilizer recognize that corruption is a
relations were usually the most promising sort of afno serious problem in Nepal.
manchhe, but beyond that person’s who were in one’s caste or As stated earlier, afno manchhe is a network of connections
ethnic group, and after them cultivated friends who could be between or among family and kinship ties, business linkages and party
brought into a morally obliged sense of duty, as would be true affiliation. This is similar in case of guanxi. In a society with a long
in the family, were sought. Thus creating afno manchhe tradition of rule by a group of people instead of rule by law, having
relationships through marriage, politics, and a multitude of good guanxi with officials has always been vital. Corrupted guanxi
social events (worship events, parties, gambling, social clubs, and guanxi-based corruption are like conjoined twins that cannot be
separated (Fan 2002). It is safe to say that there is no business afno
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |81 82 | Madhusudan Subedi

manchhe in Nepal and guanxi in China network that is not tinted by based on long term social relationships allow individuals to deal with
corruption and there is no corruption without using afno manchhe or inadequate formal institutions, the imperfections of state or market-
guanxi. Thus, there are both legal and social aspects to the concept of dominated socioeconomic systems.
the corruption. The legal analysis of corruption is not sufficient to Corruption in Nepal has become so prevalent that it becomes
understand the nature and processes of corruption. the way of life of the society. Afno manchhe meant to obtain scarce
People in bureaucracy and business enterprises feel compelled consumer goods or to find a better job for one's children through the
to honor moral obligations that contradict the legal rules for proper "back door". Today, afno manchhe is implicated in all big corruption
behavior in these organizations, or even worse be tempted to gain cases and organized crimes. One particular feature is that corruption
private individual benefits by giving benefits to those who offer has evolved from individual wrong doings into institutionalized
attractive gifts. It is when this occurs that we enter into the muddy corruption that often involve a complicated afno manchhe network
waters between gunanxi and fubai, corruption (Haaland 2010:15). In between high-ranking officials, businessmen, army or police and
Nepali, it is called ghush, a fixed sum, a certain percentage of a mafia. The recent case in Sudan Ghotala (scam) is an example.
contract, or any other favors in money or kind, usually paid to a state Corruption can be found in any country or economic system, but it is
official who can make contracts on behalf of the state or otherwise afno manchhe that provides a fertile soil in Nepal for corruption to
distribute benefits to companies or individuals, businessmen and flourish. Each government has waged and lost every anticorruption
clients (Subedi 2005). In this sense fubai and ghush are comparable campaign 11 as new "worst" cases are constantly emerging.
words.
Research based on analyses of corruption indices across Money ↔ Afno manchhe ↔ Power → Money → Corruption
countries suggest that increased economic competition and economic
growth are negatively related to corruption. Structural factors and Corruption → Money ↔ Afno manchhe ↔ Power → Money
corruption may also mutually reinforce each other (Jancsics 2014). In
contrast to the findings that economic competition reduces corruption
at the country level, the literature in organization studies emphasizes
11
that an intensely competitive environment can drive organizational On 2 August 2011, to support the good work of Commission of
members to engage in misconduct, rule-breaking, and corrupt Investigation of Abuse of Authority (CIAA), around 300 activists gathered
activities (Jancsics 2014). Here, the competition for customers, outside CIAA with different message and slogan in their t-shirts and banners
contracts, and other limited resources lures organizations to pressure including the senior and popular comedy duo Maha Jodi, Madan Krishna
Shrestha and Hari Bansa Acharya, Rabindra Mishra (Senior Journalist of
their employees to behave illegally by setting unrealistic financial and BBC Nepali Service), Rameshwor Khanal (Former Finance Secretary) and
sales goals. Sadichha Shrestha (Miss Nepal 2011). After silent standing gather for half an
Relational models examine illegal activities by focusing on hour outside the CIAA building, the Secretary of CIAA Bhagwati Kafle and
interpersonal connections such as non-monetary forms of exchange, other officials welcomed and joined the group where they were presented a
reciprocity, favors, and other interactions between corrupt actors at T-Shirt printed ‘Bhrastachari Lai Kira Paros’ (May the corrupt rot). The
the small group level. The main premise of the relational perspective team also handed over the T-Shirt to the Prime Minister Dr Babu ram
on corruption is that individuals associate with one another because Bhattarai. Talking to the team, Dr. Bhattarai reiterated his zero-tolerance to
they profit from their associations. Personal social networks that are corruption policy and pledged to prioritize and tackle corruption while also
encouraging such civic movements to continue.
Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 8, 2014 |83 84 | Madhusudan Subedi

The concept of afno manchhe is unfair to the people who are Acknowledgements:
more qualified. On the other hand, issues against corrupt people have
been started at expose their activities and cases are filled in Supreme A slightly different version of this paper was presented in the
Court. People have started to say that it is not only the job of International Symposium on “Guanxi in Symbolic and Interactional
government to be accountable, as a citizen we have to fulfill our Contexts”, jointly organized by the School of Social Development and
responsibility. Furthermore, they have been saying that it is better to Public Policy at Fudan University and the Nordic Center at Fudan
live simple life than to own a big house or a car by corruption. (October 25-26, 2011), Shanghai, China. I am indebted to Professor
This will lose the competent human resources and promote Gunnar Haaland for his academic input. This paper would not have
frauds, dissatisfaction among the employees and lower morals of been in this form without his support and encouragement. I am
employees, create problems in maintaining disciplines and breach grateful to Fan Lizhu, Professor of Sociology and Associate Dean,
confidentiality. If highly qualified people are deprived of what they Fudan University for inviting me in the symposium.
deserve they feel very bad and that may cause increment in brain
drain. The afno manchhe supports the ‘back door’ process to involve
less competent person. References

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