1. Which of these is NOT a fungus?

A. Mold
B. Mushroom
C. Algae
D. Yeast
Answer to Question #1

2. What is a mycorrhiza?
A. A network of hyphae
B. A fungus that has hyphae without septa
C. A symbiotic association of plant roots and fungi
D. A symbiotic association of bacteria and fungi
Answer to Question #2

3. Which fungi have greatly reduced populations of harlequin frogs?

A. Chytrids
B. Ascomycetes
C. Basidiomycetes
D. Zygomycetes
Characteristics of Fungi
Now, we will look at the various characteristics of fungi kingdom.

Thallus Organisation

The plant body of true fungi is a thallus. It may be non-mycelial or

mycelial. The non-mycelial forms are unicellular. However, they may
form a pseudomycelium by budding. In mycelial forms, the plant body
is made up of thread-like structures called hyphae(sing. hypha).

Cell Organisation

The cell wall of fungi is mainly made up of chitin and cellulose. Chitin
is a polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine. On the other hand, the cellulose
is nothing but a polymer of d-glucose. Besides, the cell wall may be
made up of cellulose-glycogen, cellulose-chitin or polygalactosamine-
galactan.

Nutrition

The fungi are achlorophyllous organisms. Hence, they cannot prepare

their food. They live as heterotrophs i.e., as parasites and saprophytes.
Some forms live symbiotically with other green forms.

 Parasites: They usually obtain their food from a living host. A

parasite could be facultative or obligate. The obligate parasites
survive and settle on a living host throughout their life. The
facultative parasites are saprophytes that have turned parasitic.
 Saprophytes: These organisms procure their nutrition from dead
and decaying organic matter. The saprophytes are either obligate or
facultative. An obligate saprophyte remains saprophytic during its
entire lifetime. While a facultative saprophyte is nothing but a
parasite that has secondarily become saprophytic.
 Symbionts: Some fungi develop in symbiotic association with the
green or blue-green algae. These constitute the lichen. Here the algal
component is photosynthetic. While the fungal component plays the
reproductive part.
Reproduction

The fungi either reproduces vegetatively, asexually or sexually:

 Vegetative Reproduction
o Fragmentation: Some forms belonging to Ascomycotina and
Basidiomycotina multiply by breakage of the mycelium.
o Budding: Some unicelled forms multiply by budding. A bud
arises as a papilla on the parent cell and then after its enlargement
separates into a completely independent entity.
o Fission: A few unicelled forms like yeasts and slime moulds
multiply by this process.
 Asexual Reproduction
o Sporangiospores: These are thin-walled, non-motile spores
formed in a sporangium. They may be uni-or multinucleate. On
account of their structure, they are also called as aplanospores.
o Zoospores: They are thin-walled, motile spores formed in a
zoosporangium.
o Conidia: In some fungi, the spores are not formed inside a
sporangium. They are born freely on the tips of special branches
called conidiophores. Thus, these spores are conidia.
 Sexual reproduction: With the exception of Deuteromycotina
(Fungi imperfecti), we find sexual reproduction in all groups of fungi.
During sexual reproduction, the compatible nuclei show a specific
behaviour which is responsible for the onset of three distinct mycelial
phases. The three phases of nuclear behaviour are as under:
 o Plasmogamy: Fusion of two protoplasts.
o Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei.
o Meiosis: The reduction division.

Classification of Fungi

Phycomycetes

We can find these in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist

and damp places. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual
reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-
motile).

Rhizopus/Mucor

They are the cosmopolitan and saprophytic fungus, living on the dead
organic matter. Rhizopus stolonifera occurs very frequently on moist
bread. Hence, they are black bread mould.
Albugo

Albugo is a member of Phycomycetes. It is an obligate parasite and

grows in the intercellular spaces of host tissues. It is parasitic mainly on
the members of families Cruciferae, Compositae, Amaranthaceae and
Convolvulaceae. The disease caused by this fungus is white rust or
white blisters. The most common and well-known species is Albugo
candida. It attacks the embers of the mustard family (Cruciferae).

Ascomycetes

They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing

on dung). Some examples are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.

Yeast

Antony Von Leeuwenhoek in 1680 first described yeast. Yeast is

nonmycelial or unicellular, which is very small and either spherical or
oval in shape. Individual cells are colourless but the colonies may
appear white, red, brown, creamy or yellow. Yeast reproduces by
vegetative or asexual and sexual methods.

Basidiomycetes

The most common forms of basidiomycetes are puffballs, mushrooms

and bracket fungi. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in
living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. They
have branched and septate mycelium. These organisms do not have sex
organs. But, plasmogamy takes place by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.

Solved Examples for You

Question: Write a note on Deuteromycetes.
Answer: They are imperfect fungi because we only know about the
asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi. The Deuteromycetes
reproduce only by asexual spores. These spores are conidia. Some
members are saprophytes or parasites. However, a large number of
them are decomposers of litter. They are very helpful in mineral
cycling. Examples: Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

General characteristics of fungi are as follows:

 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.

 They are non-vascular organisms. 
 They reproduce by means of spores. 
 Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be produced. 
 They are typically non-motile.
 Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.
 The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads called
hyphae.
  The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall are composed of
chitin.
 Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.
 They fungi digest the food first and then ingest the food, to accomplish this the fungi produce
exoenzymes. 
 Fungi store their food as starch.
 Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
 The nuclei of the fungi is very small.
 During mitosis the nuclear envelope is not dissolved.
 Nutrition in fungi - they are saprophytes, or parasites or symbionts.
 Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is referred to as
teleomorph, asexual state is referred to as anamorph.

Kingdom Fungi Examples

Back to Top

Some of the examples of kingdom fungi are as follows:

Sac-fungi : Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).

Zygote-forming fungi : Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo. 

Club fungi: Agaricus  (mushroom), Ustilago  (smut), and Puccinia  (rust fungus). 

Imperfect fungi: Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

Members of the Kingdom Fungi

Back to Top

Mycorrhizae - More than 90% of the plants are symbionts of mycorrhizae. Myco means fungus and rhiza
means root. Mycorrhizae are of two types ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae. 

Ectomycorrhizae - These are fungus forms sheath outside the root. 

Endomycorrhizae - They are also known as vesicular-arbuscular-mycorrhizae (VAM). Fungus does not

form sheath around the roots. 

Lichens - They are symbionts. They have a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a alga. Neither
of the organisms can survive on their own. 

Economic Importance of Fungi

Fungi are important in a variety of ways:

Recycling - Together with bacteria the fungi form a major role in recycling the dead and decayed matter. 

Food - Many mushrooms are used as food by humans. Mushrooms species are edible and are cultured in
many parts of the world for sale.

Medicines - Penicillin antibiotic is derived from a common fungi Penicillium. Many other fungi also
produces antibiotics, which are used to control diseases in humans and animals.

Bio-control Agents - Fungi are used to parasitise insects which help control pests. Spores of fungi are
sprayed on crops, this method is cheaper and environmentally friendly.

Plant and Animal Diseases - Many fungi live on and in plants and animals causing diseases. They also
co-exist harmoniously with plants and animals.

Food spoilage - Fungi play a major role in recycling organic material. Fungal damage is responsible for
large losses of stored food usually when the food contains moisture. 

What are some examples of harmful fungi?

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9 Answers

Prodeep Karmakar, Bio Obsessed_writter_Adventure Freak_Table Tennis Lover

Updated Apr 19 · Author has 55 answers and 84.5k answer views

Below I have Listed some “ most harmful” fungus that is poisonous according
to me:

1. Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria): It looks really nice but highly toxic for us.
It will be harmful even if you just touch it. The main toxic agents in Fly
Agaric are muscimol and ibotenic acid which act on the central nervous system
causing loss of coordination,

alternating agitation and sleep, nausea and in some cases hallucinations.

The effects kick in after around one hour but are rarely fatal.

One of the biggest risks is due to the crazy behaviour exhibited when intoxicated.

2) Podostroma Cornu-damae
this fungus looks like young Ganoderma lucidum and is only eaten in error though.

The main toxins in these fungi are trichothecene mycotoxins which have

particularly unpleasant effects and may cause death within a matter of days.

The symptoms are system wide and can affect all organs, primarily liver, kidneys and
brain. There is also a depletion of blood cells, peeling of skin off the face and hair loss
making it look like the victim is suffering from radiation poisoning (or leukemia).

3) Conocybe Filaris
this is also known as magic mushrooms.

This mushroom is commonly found on lawns and is native to the Pacific Northwest region
of the US.

The accidental poisoning with this mushroom shows allergic response. . However, taking
one of these could lead to the mother of all bad trips.

This fungus is known to contain the particularly deadly amatoxin which if ingested

can cause irreparable liver damage.

4) Deadly Dapperling (Lepiota brunneoincarnata):

This deadly mushroom known to contain amatoxins.

I mentioned that amantoxins cause liver damage. So this fungus is also dengerous if you
accidentally consume this.

5) Death Cap (Amanita phalloides):

Perhaps it is the deadliest of all mushrooms, the death cap is found throughout Europe .
It closely resembles to edible straw mushrooms and caesar’s mushrooms. So
people mistakenly get it and cook for lunch.

Its also contain heat-stable amatoxins( like previous one) withstand cooking temperatures
and quickly damage cells throughout the body.

Within 6 to 12 hours after consumption, violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody
diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the tissues and intense thirst.

Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system soon follow,
including a decrease in urinary output and a lowering of blood sugar.

This condition leads to coma and death in more than 50 percent of the incidents.

6) Conocybe filaris blickwinkel:

Conocybe filaris is an innocent-looking lawn mushroom that is especially common in the

Pacific Northwest.

Featuring the same mycotoxins as the death cap mushroom, C. filaris is potentially fatal if
eaten.

The onset of gastrointestinal symptoms often occurs 6-24 hours after the mushrooms were
consumed, frequently leading to an initial misdiagnosis of food poisoning or the stomach
flu.

7) Webcaps (Cortinarius species)©
Kesu/FotoliaThe two species of webcap, the deadly webcap (Cortinarius rubellus) and the
fool’s webcap (Cortinarius orellanus), are very similar in appearance to both each other and
to a number of edible varieties.

These mushrooms feature a poison known as orellanin, which initially causes symptoms
similar to the common flu.

Orellanin has an insidiously long latency period and may take 2 days to 3 weeks to cause
symptoms, often leading to a misdiagnosis.

The toxin ultimately causes kidney failure and death if left untreated.

8) Autumn Skullcap (Galerina marginata)

The autumn skullcap grow on dead wood and are found throughout the world.

The skullcaps also look similar to other edible species. So the message here is if you do not
know exactly what you are doing, there is a good chance you will die :) !

The active ingredient here is yet again the infamous amatoxin. So if you value your liver
function steer clear of the autumn skullcap.

9) Podostroma cornu-damae

This rare fungus is native to Asia and has been responsible for a number of fatalities in
Japan and Korea.

Its red fruiting bodies contain potent toxins known as trichothecene mycotoxins.

It can cause multiple organ failure in those unlucky enough to consume them.

Symptoms of poisoning include stomach pain, peeling skin, hair loss, low blood pressure,
liver necrosis, acute kidney failure, and result in death if left untreated.

10) Deadly Webcap (Cortinarius rubellus)

It is another deadly fungus. The webcap is a particularly innocuous looking mushroom

similar in appearance to many edible species.

In fact it is incredibly poisonous as it contain Orellaine and eating it will possibly kill you;

if not within weeks at a later date when your kidneys pack in.

The toxin orellanine is very potent, up there with arsenic and with no known antidote.
It is said that you can be poisoned just by tasting and spitting out a small piece of this
mushroom.

11) False Morel (Gyromitra esculenta)

Dont know why its named as “false morel” but actually you can see that it looks like Human
brain.

But isn’t it deadly poisonous? Well yes, but no. If eaten raw there is a good chance you will
die horribly. If not cooked properly there is also a chance you will die. However, cook it right
and I’m sure it tastes great.

The toxin here is gyromitrin which becomes monomethylhydrazine (MMH) after heating
while cooking.

This toxin will primarily affect the liver but also the nervous system and sometimes the
kidneys.

Symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting will appear within hours and are followed by
dizziness, lethargy and headache.

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Related QuestionsMore Answers Below

 What are some examples of harmful fungi and beneficial fungi?

 What are some examples of useful fungi?
 What are some fungi examples?
 What are some beneficial fungi?
 How is fungi harmful to humans?
Ask New Question

Becky McKivigan Richardson, works at Cochise College

Answered Jun 7
Originally Answered: can you give examples of harmful fungi?

Fungi include the yeasts, molds & mushrooms. There are a number of fungi that produce
toxins that are extremely dangerous.

Black molds growing on grains, and on damp surfaces in homes produce toxins that inhibit
protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. Ingestion of these grains can cause vomiting, nausea,
and even death. Inhalation of the mold spores causes chronic infection and lifelong illness.
Black molds include Stachybotrys (“sick building syndrome”) and Fusarium.

Aflatoxin, produced by a mold called Aspergillus flavus, is carcinogenic (that’s right, it

causes cancer), and it is mutagenic if ingested. Aflatoxin is sometimes found in peanut
butter.

Ergot is also produced by some molds growing on grains. Ergot is a hallucinogen, in fact, it
is the active agent of LSD. Some believe ergot hallucinations caused the young girls of Salem
to accuse the women of witchcraft! Ergot also causes vasoconstriction leading to gangrene.

Yeast infections, commonly caused by Candida, are frequent in the mouth and vagina.
Typically the normal microbiome (bacteria) found in these areas keep the pH too low for the
yeast to grow. Sometimes when we take an antibiotic however, it kills off these friendly
bacteria and the pH rises, allowing the opportunistic yeasts to grow.
And of course we’ve all heard of poisonous mushrooms. You definitely don’t want to ingest a
mushroom that has not been identified by an expert.

697 Views

Ahmed Ibrahim, studied at Faculty of Science, Alexandria University

Answered Jan 23 2017

1-Pityrosporum ovale, a part of normal skin flora can be converted to a pathogenic form
Malassezia furfur and cause tinea versicolor or ringworm infection of the skin.

2-Candida albicans is normally present in the mouth, esophagus, bowel and vagina; if it
overgrows, it may cause oral thrush, esophageal, bowel or vaginal yeast infection; usually
only in persons with lowered immune system. If candida invades the blood, it may cause life
threatening systemic candidiasis.

3-Cryptococcus neoformans can cause cryptococcosis or cryptococcal meningitis (an

infection of the brain membrane)

4-Aspergilus may cause aspergilloma (fungus ball) in lungs or paranasal sinuses, and
localized or systemic aspergillosis

5-Mucor causes a rare mucormycosis

6-Rhizopus molds appear on old bread, decaying fruit and vegetables, feces, etc.

2.9k Views · View Upvoters

Swaroop Mishra, MSc Plant Pathology & Plant Virology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi (2019)
Answered Apr 14

Plant Pathogenic fungi like Magnaporthe, Rhizoctonia, Phytopthora, Fusarium , Botrytis etc

Poisonous mushrooms include Amanita group.