Glossary of Key Terms

Accuracy A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the
target population and the sample.
ANCOVA (Analysis of Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences between
Co-Variance) dependent variables.
ANOVA (Analysis of A method of statistical analysis broadly applicable to a number of
Variance) research designs, used to determine differences among the means of
two or more groups on a variable. The independent variables are
usually nominal, and the dependent variable is usual an interval.
Apparency Clear, understandable representation of the data
Bell curve A frequency distribution statistics. Normal distribution is shaped like
a bell.
Case Study The collection and presentation of detailed information about a
particular participant or small group, frequently including the
accounts of subjects themselves.
Causal Model A model which represents a causal relationship between two
variables.
Causal Relationship The relationship established that shows that an independent variable,
and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable.
Establishes, also, how much of a change is shown in the dependent
variable.
Causality The relation between cause and effect.
Central Tendency These measures indicate the middle or center of a distribution.
Confirmability Objectivity; the findings of the study could be confirmed by another
person conducting the same study
Confidence Interval The range around a numeric statistical value obtained from a sample,
within which the actual, corresponding value for the population is
likely to fall, at a given level of probability (Alreck, 444).
Confidence Level The specific probability of obtaining some result from a sample if it
did not exist in the population as a whole, at or below which the
relationship will be regarded as statistically significant (Alreck,
444).
Confidence Limits (Same as confidence interval, but is terminology used by Lauer and
Asher.) "The range of scores or percentages within which a
population percentage is likely to be found on variables that describe
that population" (Lauer and Asher, 58). Confidence limits are
expressed in a "plus or minus" fashion according to sample size,
 then corrected according to formulas based on variables connected
to population size in relation to sample size and the relationship of
the variable to the population size--the larger the sample, the smaller
the variability or confidence limits.
Confounding Variable An unforeseen, and unaccounted-for variable that jeopardizes
reliability and validity of an experiment's outcome.
Construct Validity Seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific
measuring device, such as observation.
Content Validity The extent to which a measurement reflects the specific intended
domain of content (Carmines & Zeller, 1991, p.20).
Context sensitivity Awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors such as values and
beliefs that influence cultural behaviors
Continuous Variable A variable that may have fractional values, e.g., height, weight and
time.
Control Group A group in an experiment that receives not treatment in order to
compare the treated group against a norm.
Convergent Validity The general agreement among ratings, gathered independently of
one another, where measures should be theoretically related.
Correlation 1) A common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that
measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval
variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero
to +1.00. 2) A non-cause and effect relationship between two
variables.
Covariate A product of the correlation of two related variables times their
standard deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the
difference of treatment between them.
Credibility A researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is
accurately identified and described, based on the way in which the
study was conducted
Criterion Related Used to demonstrate the accuracy of a measuring procedure by
Validity comparing it with another procedure which has been demonstrated
to be valid; also referred to as instrumental validity.
Data Recorded observations, usually in numeric or textual form
Deductive A form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about
particulars from general or universal premises
Dependability Being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the
changing conditions surrounding what was studied.
Dependent Variable A variable that receives stimulus and measured for the effect the
treatment has had upon it.
Design flexibility A quality of an observational study that allows researchers to pursue
inquiries on new topics or questions that emerge from initial
research
Deviation The distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given
distribution.
Discourse Community A community of scholars and researchers in a given field who
respond to and communicate to each other through published articles
in the community's journals and presentations at conventions. All
members of the discourse community adhere to certain conventions
for the presentation of their theories and research.
Discrete Variable A variable that is measured solely in whole units, e.g., gender and
siblings
Discriminate Validity The lack of a relationship among measures which theoretically
should not be related.
Distribution The range of values of a particular variable.
Dynamic systems Qualitative observational research is not concerned with having
straight-forward, right or wrong answers. Change in a study is
common because the researcher is not concerned with finding only
one answer.
Electronic Text A "paper" or linear text that has been essentially "copied" into an
electronic medium.
Empathic neutrality A quality of qualitative researchers who strive to be non-judgmental
when compiling findings
Empirical Research "…the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from
observations that are formulated to support insights and
generalizations about the phenomena under study" (Lauer and
Asher, 1988, p. 7)
Equivalency The extent to which two items measure identical concepts at an
Reliability identical level of difficulty.
Ethnography Ethnographies study groups and/or cultures over a period of time.
The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular
group/culture through observer immersion into the culture or group.
Research is completed through various methods, which are similar to
those of case studies, but since the researcher is immersed within the
group for an extended period of time more detailed information is
usually collected during the research.
Ethnomethodology A form of ethnography that studies activities of group members to
 see how they make sense of their surroundings
Existence or This is a key question in the coding process. The researcher must
Frequency decide if he/she is going to count a concept only once, for existence,
no matter how many times it appears, or if he/she will count it each
time it occurs. For example, "damn" could be counted once, even
though it appears 50 times, or it could be counted all 50 times. The
latter measurement may be interested in how many times it occurs
and what that indicates, whereas the former may simply looking for
existence, period.
Experiment Experimental Research A researcher working within this
methodology creates an environment in which to observe and
interpret the results of a research question. A key element in
experimental research is that participants in a study are randomly
assigned to groups. In an attempt to create a causal model (i.e., to
discover the causal origin of a particular phenomenon), groups are
treated differently and measurements are conducted to determine if
different treatments appear to lead to different effects.
External Validity The extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or
transferable. See also validity
Face Validity How a measure or procedure appears.
Factor Analysis A statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test
explores which variables in a data set are most related to each other.
In a carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can
yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a
single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted,
indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific
questions.
Generalizability The extent to which research findings and conclusions from a study
conducted on a sample population can be applied to the population
at large.
Grounded theory Practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a
group. Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences,
but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences
exist.
Holistic perspective Taking almost every action or communication of the whole
phenomenon of a certain community or culture into account in
research
Hypertext A nonsequential text composed of links and nodes
Hypothesis A tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal
 relationship between variables.
Independent Variable A variable that is part of the situation that exist from which
originates the stimulus given to a dependent variable. Includes
treatment, state of variable, such as age, size, weight, etc.
Inductive A form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated
from particular instances
Inductive analysis A form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using
inductive analysis starts with answers, but forms questions
throughout the research process.
Internal Consistency The extent to which all questions or items assess the same
characteristic, skill, or quality.
Internal Validity (1) The rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g., the study's
design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions
concerning what was and wasn't measured) and (2) the extent to
which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative
explanations for any causal relationships they explore (Huitt, 1998).
In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of
these definitions should be considered when assessing internal
validity. See also validity.
Interrater Reliability The extent to which two or more individuals agree. It addresses the
consistency of the implementation of a rating system.
Interval Variable A variable in which both order of data points and distance between
data points can be determined, e.g., percentage scores and distances
Interviews A research tool in which a researcher asks questions of participants;
interviews are often audio- or video-taped for later transcription and
analysis.
Irrelevant Information One must decide what to do with the information in the text that is
not coded. One's options include either deleting or skipping over
unwanted material, or viewing all information as relevant and
important and using it to reexamine, reassess and perhaps even alter
the one's coding scheme.
Kinesics Kinesic analysis examines what is communicated through body
movement
Level of Analysis Chosen by determining which word, set of words, or phrases will
constitute a concept. According to Carley, 100-500 concepts is
generally sufficient when coding for a specific topic, but this number
of course varies on a case by case basis.
Level of A researcher must decide whether concepts are to be coded exactly
Generalization as they appear, or if they can be recorded in some altered or
collapsed form. Using Horton as an example again, she could code
profanity individually and code "damn" and "dammit" as two
separate concepts. Or, by generalizing their meaning, i.e. they both
express the same idea, she could group them together as one item,
i.e. "damn words."
Level of Implication One must determine whether to code simply for explicit appearances
of concepts, or for implied concepts, as well. For example, consider
a hypothetical piece of text about skiing, written by an expert. The
expert might refer several times to "???," as well as various other
kinds of turns. One must decide whether to code "???" as an entity in
and of itself, or, if coding for "turn" references in general, to code
"???" as implicitly meaning "turn." Thus, by determining that the
meaning "turn" is implicit in the words "???," anytime the words
"???" or "turn" appear in the text, they will be coded under the same
category of "turn."
Link In hypertext, a pointer from one node to another
Matched T-Test A statistical test used to compare two sets of scores for the same
subject. A matched pairs T-test can be used to determine if the
scores of the same participants in a study differ under different
conditions. For instance, this sort of t-test could be used to determine
if people write better essays after taking a writing class than they did
before taking the writing class.
Matching Process of corresponding variables in experimental groups equally
feature for feature.
Mean The average score within a distribution.
Mean Deviation A measure of variation that indicates the average deviation of scores
in a distribution from themean: It is determined by averaging the
absolute values of the deviations.
Median The center score in a distribution.
Mental Models A group or network of interrelated concepts that reflect conscious or
subconscious perceptions of reality. These internal mental networks
of meaning are constructed as people draw inferences and gather
information about the world.
Mode The most frequent score in a distribution.
Multi-Modal Methods A research approach that employs a variety of methods; see also
triangulation
Narrative Inquiry A qualitative research approach based on a researcher's narrative
account of the investigation, not to be confused with a narrative
examined by the researcher as data
Naturalistic Inquiry Observational research of a group in its natural setting
Node In hypertext, each unit of information, connected by links
Nominal Variable A variable determined by categories which cannot be ordered, e.g.,
gender and color
Normal distribution A normal frequency distribution representing the probability that a
majority of randomly selected members of a population will fall
within the middle of the distribution. Represented by the bell curve.
Ordinal Variable A variable in which the order of data points can be determined but
not the distance between data points, e.g., letter grades
Parameter A coefficient or value for the population that corresponds to a
particular statistic from a sample and is often inferred from the
sample.
Phenomenology A qualitative research approach concerned with understanding
certain group behaviors from that group's point of view
Population The target group under investigation, as in all students enrolled in
first-year composition courses taught in traditional classrooms. The
population is the entire set under consideration. Samples are drawn
from populations.
Precision In survey research, the tightness of the confidence limits.
Pre-defined or One must determine whether to code only from a pre-defined set of
Interactive Concept concepts and categories, or if one will develop some or all of these
Choice during the coding process. For example, using a predefined set,
Horton would code only for profane language. But, if Horton coded
interactively, she may have decided to half-way through the process
that the text warranted coding for profane gestures, as well.
Probability The chance that a phenomenon has a of occurring randomly. As a
statistical measure, it shown as p (the "p" factor).
Qualitative Research Empirical research in which the researcher explores relationships
using textual, rather than quantitative data. Case study, observation,
and ethnography are considered forms of qualitative research.
Results are not usually considered generalizable, but are often
transferable.
Quantitative Research Empirical research in which the researcher explores relationships
using numeric data. Survey is generally considered a form of
quantitative research. Results can often be generalized, though this is
not always the case.
Quasi-experiment Similar to true experiments. Have subjects, treatment, etc., but uses
nonrandomized groups. Incorporates interpretation and
transferability in order to compensate for lack of control of
 variables.
Quixotic Reliability Refers to the situation where a single manner of observation
consistently, yet erroneously, yields the same result.
Random sampling Process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by
chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random
sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population,
then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers or
using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to
be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order.
Random sample selection is used under the assumption that
sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a
distribution comparable to that of the population from which the
sample is drawn.
Randomization Used to allocate subjects to experimental and control groups. The
subjects are initially considered not unequal because they were
randomly selected.
Range The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a
distribution.
Reliability The extent to which a measure, procedure or instrument yields the
same result on repeated trials.
Response Rate In survey research, the actual percentage of questionnaires
completed and returned.
Rhetorical Inquiry "entails…1) identifying a motivational concern, 2) posing questions,
3) engaging in a heuristic search (which in composition studies has
often occurred by probing other fields), 4) creating a new theory or
hypotheses, and 5) justifying the theory" (Lauer and Asher, 1988, p.
5)
Rigor Degree to which research methods are scrupulously and
meticulously carried out in order to recognize important influences
occurring in a experiment.
Sampling Error The degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those
that would be obtained from the entire population, because of
random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding
reduction in reliability (Alreck, 454).
Sampling Frame A listing that should include all those in the population to be
sampled and exclude all those who are not in the population (Alreck,
454).
Sample The population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts
are made to select a "sample population" that is considered
 representative of groups of people to whom results will be
generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to
analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample
size is critical--generally the larger the number in the sample, the
higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the
population.
Selective Reduction The central idea of content analysis. Text is reduced to categories
consisting of a word, set of words or phrases, on which the
researcher can focus. Specific words or patterns are indicative of the
research question and determine levels of analysis and
generalization.
Serial Effect In survey research, a situation where questions may "lead"
participant responses through establishing a certain tone early in the
questionnaire. The serial effect may accrue as several questions
establish a pattern of response in the participant, biasing results.
Short-term Studies that list or present findings of short-term qualitative study
observation based on recorded observation
Skewed Distribution Any distribution which is not normal, that is not symmetrical along
the x-axis
Stability Reliability The agreement of measuring instruments over time.
Standard Deviation A term used in statistical analysis. A measure of variation that
indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and
the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of
the squared deviations in a given distribution.It can be used to
indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values
when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.
Standard Error (S.E.) A term used in statistical analysis. A computed value based on the
of the Mean size of the sample and the standard deviation of the distribution,
indicating the range within which the mean of the population is
likely to be from the mean of the sample at a given level of
probability (Alreck, 456).
Survey A research tool that includes at least one question which is either
open-ended or close-ended and employs an oral or written method
for asking these questions. The goal of a survey is to gain specific
information about either a specific group or a representative sample
of a particular group. Results are typically used to understand the
attitudes, beliefs, or knowledge of a particular group.
Synchronic Reliability The similarity of observations within the same time frame; it is not
about the similarity of things observed.
T-Test A statistical test. A t-test is used to determine if the scores of two
 groups differ on a single variable. For instance, to determine whether
writing ability differs among students in two classrooms, a t-test
could be used.
Thick Description A rich and extensive set of details concerning methodology and
context provided in a research report.
Transferability The ability to apply the results of research in one context to another
similar context. Also, the extent to which a study invites readers to
make connections between elements of the study and their own
experiences.
Translation Rules If one decides to generalize concepts during coding, then one must
develop a set of rules by which less general concepts will be
translated into more general ones. This doesn't involve simple
generalization, for example, as with "damn" and "dammit," but
requires one to determine, from a given set of concepts, what
concepts are missing. When dealing with the idea of profanity, one
must decide what to do with the concept "dang it," which is
generally thought to imply "damn it." The researcher must make this
distinction, i.e. make this implicit concept explicit, and then code for
the frequency of its occurrence. This decision results in the
construction of a translation rule, which instructs the researcher to
code for the concept "dang it" in a certain way.
Treatment The stimulus given to a dependent variable.
Triangulation The use of a combination of research methods in a study. An
example of triangulation would be a study that incorporated surveys,
interviews, and observations. See also multi-modal methods
Unique case A perspective adopted by many researchers conducting qualitative
orientation observational studies; researchers adopting this orientation
remember every study is special and deserves in-depth attention.
This is especially necessary for doing cultural comparisons.
Validity The degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the
specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A
method can be reliable, consistently measuring the same thing, but
not valid. See also internal validity and external validity
Variable Observable characteristics that vary among individuals. See also
ordinal variable, nominal variable, interval variable, continuous
variable, discrete variable, dependent variable, independent variable.
Variance A measure of variation within a distribution, determined by
averaging the squared deviations from the mean of a distribution.
Variation The dispersion of data points around the mean of a distribution.
Verisimilitude Having the semblance of truth; in research, it refers to the
 probability that the research findings are consistent with occurrences
in the "real world."
Source: http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/glossary/index.cfm#mental
%20models