http://www.sarasuati.

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Tema 1: 
  Evolución de la 
didáctica de las 
lenguas. Tendencias 
actuales de la 
didáctica del Inglés 
como Lg extr. Los 
enfoques 
comunicativos.   

Madhatter Wylder 
19/06/2010 
 
 TOPIC 1: 2
Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del Inglés como Lg extr. Los enfoques comunicativos.

TOPIC 1:
Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del
inglés como lengua extranjera. Los enfoques comunicativos.

Table of contents
1. Introduction. _______________________________________________________ 3
2. Focus on Message (Part 1) ____________________________________________ 5
3. Focus on Form______________________________________________________ 5
3.1. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) -1840 to 1940- ____________________ 5
3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues. _____________________________________________________ 5
3.2. The direct Method (DM) -1860 to 1940- ____________________________________ 6
3.2.1. Drawbacks & virtues _______________________________________________________ 7
3.2.2. Berlitz School. ____________________________________________________________ 7
3.3. The audio-lingual Method (ALM)-1940 to 1970- ____________________________ 8
3.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues. ______________________________________________________ 9
4. Focus on message (part 2) ____________________________________________ 10
4.1. The Psycho-pedagogical approach. -1970s- ________________________________ 10
4.1.1. Community Language learning (CLL) -1970s- __________________________________ 10
4.1.2. Suggestopedia (Sug) –late 1970s- ____________________________________________ 11
4.2. The communicative approach (CA) –early 1970s to 2000s- ___________________ 12
4.2.1. Drawbacks and virtues. _____________________________________________________ 13
4.2.2. Task based learning (TBL) – late 1980s to 2000s - _______________________________ 13
4.2.3. Co-operative learning (CL) -1990s to 2000s- ___________________________________ 16
4.3. The Natural approach (NA) -1980s to 2000s- ______________________________ 17
4.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues _____________________________________________________ 19
5. Educational technology (CALL) – 1950s to ?- ____________________________ 19
5.1. Three Phases of CALL _________________________________________________ 19
5.1.1. Behaviouristic CALL ______________________________________________________ 20
5.1.2. Communicative CALL _____________________________________________________ 21
5.1.3. Steps toward Integrative CALL: Multimedia ____________________________________ 21
5.2. Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet _____________________________ 23
6. Brief summary: ____________________________________________________ 24

Appendix 1 __________________________________________________________ 26
Appendix2___________________________________________________________ 28
Appendix 3 __________________________________________________________ 33

Symbols used:
TL: Target Lg MT: Mother Tongue CLL: Community Lg learning
FL: Foreign Lg DM: Direct Method GTM: Grammar translation Method
ALM: Audio-lingual Method SL: 2nd Lg CA: Communicative approach
Sug: Suggestopedia NA: Natural approach TBL: Task based learning
CL: Co-operative learning St(s): Student(s)

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

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1. Introduction.
It’s very well known that Lg is a purely a human activity, as it was stated
by Jean Aitchkinson in her work The articulated mammal. David S. Palermo
added that an act of verbal communication is only possible between humans
who transfer their ideas from the mind of the speaker to the mind of the
listener. But, what is the purpose of learning languages? They have always
been the means of communication among peoples of different cultures. This is
probably the main reason why the study of different languages has been of
great importance from the very first stages of human race.
There are more than 3000 languages in the world, since the 17th C, all
the efforts to create an artificial & universal language have failed. The problem
is that we don’t know how languages are acquired, and there is no We don’t know how
Lgs are acquired.
correct model to explain that. The psycholinguistic field is gaining importance in
the study of Lg learning, but there are also good pieces of advice from
experienced teachers. One good example can be one from Mary Finochiaro,
who stated that there are no universal & magic solutions, but just diff methods
that will or won’t work w/our students, in our schools & in our environments.
Each pupil and each classroom, she added, is a world in itself.
Let’s travel back now to have a look at the teaching methods used
through history and how they developed. As hinted before, Lgs have been
studied from the most ancient times:
- The Egyptian & Babylonian used to send bilingual representatives for Egyptian &
Babylonian
commercial pacts among different foreign countries. In fact, there were
more than 350 documents that proved the existence of a bureau for
foreign affairs, in the kingdom of Amenopolis III.
- The Greek did not pay much attention to the learning of Lgs, as they Greek
thought that there was nothing worth reading abroad.
- However, the Romans learnt Greek through their teachers-slaves, in Romans: Classical
rhetorical order.
order to be able to read Aristotle and Plato’s works. Their learning was
probably based on the classical order: lectio, disputatio, … (Texts were
read and then discussed).

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- Later on, the first Christian missionaries had to learn the Lgs of the Christian
missionaries
people they were trying to convert. All through the Middle Ages, the only
Lgs considered worth learning were Latin & Greek, which were studied
by mainly by monks.
- During the Middle Ages Latin was the most important second Language Middle Ages: Latin
as lingua Franca.
(SL). It was the dominant Lg of education, government & commerce. It
was taught in the monastic schools through rote (=rutinario) learning of
grammar rules (declension) and translations.
- The greatest milestone (=echo memorable) in FL Learning was the Discovery of USA:
1st time used DM
discovery of America, where the Direct Method was used for the first
time. Six Indians were taken by Columbus to Spain in order to learn
Spanish separately & totally deprived from their mother tongue (MT).
- In the Renaissance, the vernacular Lgs displaced Latin, even though it Discovery of USA:
vernacular Lgs
maintained certain importance. Latin grammar & rhetoric became the gained certain
importance.
model for FL study. Latin was studied as a mental gymnastic & was the
basis of all forms of higher education.
- Not until the 18th C that other Lgs entered the curriculum of European th
18 C: SL entered
the curriculum of
schools1. These Lgs were taught according to traditional methodology: European schools

Firstly, the teaching procedures were based on Latin learning tradition.

Secondly, the textbooks were mainly a collection of abstract grammar
rules, list of vocabulary and sentence for translation. Finally, the oral
practice was limited to reading aloud written texts.
- During this century, and particularly since World War II (WWII), the
Lg teaching theory
teaching of SLs has undergone numerous changes, some profound, has a short memory.
(…) we have tended
other just cosmetic. To quote H.H. Stern: “Lg teaching theory has a to ignore the past
and to re-enact old
short memory. (…) we have tended to ignore the past and to re- battles over & over
again
enact old battles over & over again”. The fact that some old
methods are still with us and certain newer ones consist mostly of
recycled ideas justifies an historical approach to the problem.

1
In 1779, at the collage of William & Mary (Virginia), the study of French substituted that of
Hebrew.

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2. Focus on Message (Part 1)

Before the 18th C, the most common means of acquiring a non-classical
SL was by contact with native speakers of that Lg through travel, trade, Efficient
communication
war or hiring a foreign tutor. The need for efficient communication was sufficient to
ensure learning
was sufficient to ensure learning, and systematic study was left to the
writers and grammarians of the time. It is interesting to note that current
methodology favors a return to this approach in SL classes.

3. Focus on Form FORM

3.1. The Grammar-Translation Method2 (GTM) -1840 to 1940-3 1.GTM: teaching
Although non-classical Lgs eventually took over Lain in nearly all SL through Latin
based grammar.
aspects of communication in the Western Europe (religion being the most
notable exception), they still, in the 18th C, lack prestige and respectability
as an object of study. It was felt that teaching them through Latin based
grammar would enrich their status. After all, grammar had player an
essential part in the intellectual development of the elite ever since Antiquity.
The traditional method, as it is still applied today (mainly at the
university, in Classical studies), can be summarized as follows:
a) Study & application of grammar rules: deductive approach. Stress on 1. Grammar → deductive

morphology.
b) Concentration on the written code through the study of the “great 2. Emphasis written code

authors”. The level of Lg taught is therefore mostly literary, with little

attention to speech. Lg is seen as a mainly access to Culture, not
communication.
c) Use of translation in vocabulary lists and exercises. 3. Translation of Voc list

d) Class often conducted in the student’s MT. 4. Class conducted in Sts’

MT

3.1.1. Drawbacks and Virtues.

It is remarkable that this method became so popular and spread. It did BUT …
- Nothing to enrich
virtually nothing to enrich a student’s communicative ability in the Lg. st’s communicative
ability.
It was a tedious experience for the students, in which they have to memorize - Memorization of voc
lists & grammar rules.

2
Also known as the traditional method, or the Prussian Method (USA only)
3
See example of activity in Appendix1

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endless lists of unusable grammar rules & vocabulary in an attempt to produce

perfect translations. However, the virtues of the method, especially from the
instructors’ point of view, took over the drawbacks.
The virtues of the traditional method can be found foremost in its Virtues …
- Intellectual appeal
intellectual appeal. It is satisfying to master unfamiliar rules & their
application, as well as to have access to great works of FL. Also, from the point
of view of the instructor, this method is extremely easy to use. There is a - Instructor point of view
(easy & objective)
little need for the instructor to keep up to date with current Lg evolution (books
are unalterable and grammar changes are not really often). Furthermore, there
is no need for equipment in an essentially written approach (books,
workbooks & blackboards are always available and simple to use). Finally, the
evaluation of the written work (fill-in-the-blanks and translation exercises)
is relatively easy and objective. So, in that time of general confusion as to
which methodology to adopt, many teacher got the most comfortable view of
Lg teaching, which after all has a long-standing tradition.

3.2. The direct Method (DM) -1860 to 1940-4 2.DM: prepare

students for real
Although strong on literature and intellect, the GTM was challenged in conditions of FL use.

the late 19th C, mostly in France, for its inability to prepare students for
the real conditions of FL use, in a world of expanding industry, international
trade and travel. This movement coincided with the creation of the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) & let to the so called Direct Method. It
can be characterized as follows:
a) Classes conducted entirely in the SL. Vocabulary is thus taught 1. Class conducted in the SL

through context.
b) Focus on everyday spoken Lg and correct oral expressions. Emphasis 2. Focus on spoken Lg.
st
on phonetics. SL learning must be an imitation of 1 Lg Acquisition.
c) Establishment of direct associations btw words & objects, notions or 3. Voc taught through
demonstration

actions, through the practice of mime, Qs and answers. Thus,

vocabulary was taught through demonstration.
4. Grammar → Inductive
d) Grammar taught through practice: Inductively.

4
See example of activity in Appendix1

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3.2.1. Drawbacks & virtues

This revolutionary approach did not survive WWI, with the exception of Virtues …
- Focus on spoken Lg
the Berlitz Method, which has been commercially successful up to this day, but - Use of SL in class.
- Active St participation
almost any “method” can succeed when clients are willing to pay high prices for
small classes, individual attention and intensive study. It does, however, remain
with us in some of its major aspects: the focus on spoken Lg, on the
constant use of the SL in class and on active learner participation.
It was widely accepted in private schools where students were BUT …

highly motivated and where native speaking teachers could be employed. On

the contrary, it did not take well in public education, where the constraints - Failure in public
education.
of budget, classroom size, time and teacher background made such a method
diff to use. DM was also criticized by its weak theoretical foundations. - Weak theories of Lg

Furthermore, the DM was not a single “method” as we now understand the

term. It was viewed more as an approach5 than a method. That is to say, it
lacked theoretical basis in linguistics. DM demanded a high involvement of - High involvement of
teachers.
the teachers in the classes and they also found diff to transmit meaning - Diff to transmit meaning
w/out using MT.
w/out using the MT.

3.2.2. Berlitz School. BERLITZ School:

The eye is
One of the best known of DM popularizes was Charles Berlitz (who the enemy of the ear

labeled his method as the Berlitz Method). In 1878, Max Berlitz founded the
Berlitz School in Rhode Island, with the slogan: “The eye is the enemy of
the ear”. That is, if a pupil does not see the text, but s/he can only listens to it,
he will not associate the letters in his own Lg to those in the FL. It was the
most outstanding school which, gradually, began to recognize that the
students may be interested in speaking the Lg, rather than reading and
writing it. By 1914, he had nearly 200 schools around the world. He was not
academic methodologists, but an excellent systematizer of basic materials on
the DM line. Nowadays, they still have hundreds of Lg schools in every country
of the world.

5
Theoretical principles of Lg and learning.

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Teachers were all native speakers, must of them young and rarely
trained in linguistics. Their directions were very clear:
1. No translation under no circumstance. 1. No translation.

2. The use of the MT was forbidden in class 2. Use of MT forbidden.

3. Strong emphasis in oral work 3. Emphasis on oral

4. Avoidance of grammar explanations until late in the course 4. Avoid grammar explanations

5. Qs-Answer techniques
5. Maximum use of Qs-Answer techniques.

3.3. The audio-lingual Method (ALM)6-1940 to 1970-7

In the post-WWII, an attempt was made to build a new method with the 3. ALM: Lg teaching
basis of the DM, avoiding its most obvious drawbacks (See 3.2.1.). Moved by a specialists adopted a
structural linguists and a
behavioral psychology
desire to take advantage to the recent advances in the sciences related to the as a background of ALM
field of this their field, Lg teaching specialists adopted a structural linguists
and a behavioral psychology as a background of their work. They also
encouraged maximal use of technological devices, such as tape recorders,
Lg labs.
The initial spark (=chispa) for this new revolutionary method come from
the SL needs of the USA army & its very successful “Army method”8, based
on the structuralist linguistics. Impressed by its initial success and its underlying
scientific basis, teachers all over the world applied the new methodology in
an atmosphere of confidence and euphoria. The ALM can be summarized as
follows:
a) Procedures derived from Structural linguistics (Sapir & Bloomfield): Structural Linguists:
1. Oral comprehension &
a. Lg is essentially an oral means of communication (oral expression precede writing

comprehension & expression precede writing)

2. Emphasis on syntax
b. Lg is a sys of structures (words are introduced in phrases or
sentences; emphasis on syntax)
3. Preference
c. Lg is defined by the majority of its speakers (preference for contemporary
vocabulary &
contemporary vocabulary and commonly used structures) commonly used
structures

6
Also known as Audio-visual Method in Europe. It is used on the same general principles as its
counterpart, but uses visual aids and corresponding oral dialogues.
7
See example of activity in Appendix1
8
Need for USA soldiers to become orally proficient in the Lgs of both the halléis and their
enemies.

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d. Lgs have their own structures (stress on the diff btw the MT 4. Stress on the diff btw
the MT and the SL
and the SL) 5. Grammar → Inductively

e. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy.

b) Procedures derived from behaviorists psychology (Skinner): Behaviorists psychology:
1. Lg is behavior

a. Lg is behavior (Structure practice in spoken SL)

b. Behavior can be conditioned by a process of stimulus, 2. Process of stimulus,
response and reinforcement.
response and reinforcement (Lg drills, minimal step
Successful responses are
immediately reinforced.

progression to avoid errors and thereby encourage students)

i. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
c. Lg learning is essentially a habit formation (memorization of 3. Lg learning is habit
formation. Avoid bad habits
structures and dialogues through repetition and imitation, pattern (mistakes)

drills to ensure the automatic control of linguistic structures,

grammar taught through implicit analogy)
i. Mistakes should be avoided, as they create bad habits.
c) Use of Lg labs for collective drills practice and of tape recorders in class. 4. Use of Lg labs for
collective drills practice

3.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues.

Despite their promise, the ALM proved no better than their predecessors. BUT …
- Linguistic and
First, on theoretical grounds, their linguistic and psychological bases were psychological bases were
challenged (N. Chomsky)
challenged by several researchers, particularly by Noam Chomsky. It is now
commonly accepted that Lg is first and foremost an innate, creative, meaningful
and conscious activity, and not a mechanical process of stimulus-response and
reinforcement, as assumed skinner. The boredom inherent in most lab pattern
drills amply illustrates this point. Secondly, ALM simply did not yield the - ALM did not yield the
expected results.
expected results. The slow step-by-step progression did not cover much
material and students found themselves laboring through repetition and
memorization again and again over the same dull dialogues. Furthermore, the
condemnation of writing lead many students to frustrations: They could not - Condemnation of writing

understand why writing was not offered to them as well as the oral skills.
Finally, the material covered and drilled proved to be less useful when - Bad method for actual
communication.
students had to use their SL for actual communication with Native
speakers of that Lg.

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4. Focus on message (part 2)

While some despaired, others looked for alternative ways of making SL
learning interesting and closer to reality. The methods of the 70s and 80s
MESSAGE
reflect this constant preoccupation. Major new trends have emerged and they
all had in common the belief that, after two centuries of focusing on
correct form, the time has come to focus on communication: It is
important for learners to get their message across first and to worry about
perfection later on.

4.1. The Psycho-pedagogical approach. -1970s-

This approach was directed towards the personalization of the
student-teacher contact and the creation of a pleasant learning
environment in the SL classroom. This trend is best represented by the
Community Lg learning (CLL) and Suggestopedia (Sug).

4.1.1. Community Language learning (CLL) -1970s-9 1.CLL: self-trust

low anxiety
CLL is essentially a form of task-oriented therapy applied to the learning warm personal
contacts
of SL. It fosters (=fomentar) self-trust, low anxiety and warm personal main conditions for
effective learning
contacts as the main conditions for effective learning. The principal activity
consists of:
a) Free conversations in the SL btw a small group of students (clients) 1. Free conversations
in the SL btw a small
seated in a circle. group of students.

b) At first, students communicate through their teacher by speaking in 2. At first, sts communicate
through their teacher.
the MT & obtaining from him an immediate friendly translation.
c) Then, they move from an exchange of banalities dependent on the
presence of the interpreter, to a teacher-free (w/out the help of 3. Sts move to a teacher-free
meaningful conversation
the counselor) meaningful conversation in the SL with their peers.
d) The correction of errors is seen as an inhibiting factor. 4. Correct errors is
an inhibiting factor

This approach is very strong on motivation, because of its relaxing

BUT …
atmosphere of human empathy and its student-chosen content, and it - Unstructured approach

may perfectly work with compassionate teachers. The rest of us, however, may

9
See example of activity in Appendix2

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find it hard to accept an unstructured approach, where empathy and

translation skills are the dominant features.

4.1.2. Suggestopedia (Sug) –late 1970s- 10

Sug is highly structured and strongly teacher-centered. While empathy 2.Sug: attention to
the physical aspects
plays an important role, it is reinforced by special attention to the physical of the learning
environment
aspects of the learning environment. Thus, the presence of flowers,
decorations, beautiful carpets and classical music is very common in
Suggestopedia classrooms. The principles and procedures can be described as
follows:
a) Learning can be accelerated by suggestive factors at the 1. Accelerate learning by
suggestive factors
unconscious level (“suggestology”).
b) Because of our negative social norms, we use a small fraction of our 2. Appropriate relaxation
techniques can improve
learning capacities. Appropriate relaxation techniques can put the learning

rest to active use (Yoga, deep breathing exercises, …)

c) The prestige and authority of the source of information (teacher) is a 3. Teacher is a source of
confidence, calm.
source of confidence, calm & enjoyment.
4. Xtra-linguistic
d) Extra-linguistic communication should not be overlooked (=pasar por alto). communication is also imp.

e) Inhibition blocks learning. 5. Error correction

blocks learning.

a. Error correction is inhibitive. 6. Oral skill more

emphasized.
f) Oral skill slightly more emphasized than reading and writing.
7. Procedure reminiscent
g) Procedure reminiscent of the DM, but more rigid, w/a presentation phase of the DM.

(summary, …) and an acting phase (role-plays, games, …). Drilling is

avoided in favor of communication.

Sug was widely used in the 70s behind the iron curtain, particularly in its
native Bulgaria, but this is no longer the case. Superlearning11 was massively
introduced in the Canadian Public service Language classes in Ottawa, but just
as massively abandoned a few years later.

10
See example of activity in Appendix2
11
As it came to be known in USA

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4.2. The communicative approach (CA) –early 1970s to 2000s-12 3. CA: Importance of
communication over
Initiated in the USA & Europe in the early seventies, the CA constitutes a accuracy.

major challenge to establish practices in the field of SL pedagogy. It is

prominent in most European curriculums (English, French, and Spanish) in
elementary schools, although implementations leaves a lot to be desired. Its
main characteristics are:
a) Communication involves not only linguistic skills, but also 1. Communication involves
also “communicative” skills.
Speech acts become imp.
“communicative” skills (use of Lg in its appropriate context). The
notion of “sentence” is dealt with in the wider framework of “speech
acts”, which take into account the speaker’s intentions and the
context of his utterances.
b) The CA is called… 2. Notional, Functional &
situational CA. Study of
a. Notional if the curriculum is organized around notions of time, forms is secondary.

quantity, …
b. Functional if focus is on functions such as accepting, refusing, …
c. Situational if the situation is cntrl to learning (place, channel…)
d. In all three cases, the study of forms is secondary. Students
may be early exposed to diff grammatical items because the
situation/notion/function under study calls for it.
3. Focus on learning &
c) Focus on learning and the learner, as opposed to teaching and the the learner.

teacher. Teacher often becomes the resource person.

d) Focus on message to be transmitted (linguistic form is 4. Focus on message to
be transmitted. Errors
supplemented by intonation, body Lg or anything else that helps are normal. Fluency +
imp than accuracy.
communication)
a. Errors are seen as a normal part of learning.
b. Fluency has more importance than accuracy.
5. Use of authentic material.
e) Use of authentic materials whenever possible to sustain interest.
f) Rejection of pattern drills as too mechanical and uninteresting. 6. Rejection of drills

g) Focus on communicative strategies: How to get the native speaker 7. Focus on communicative
strategies.
to slow down, to repeat, …

12
See example of activity in Appendix2 and a comparison btw ALM & CA in Appendix3

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4.2.1. Drawbacks and virtues.

As can be seen, the CA attempts to prepare students for real
BUT …
communication. Ideally, students are only learning what they need or what
they want to know, in the most realistic way possible and through interesting
- Teachers and sts are
materials and experiences. In practice, however, teachers and students alike frustrated by a lack of
grammatical and lexical
are often frustrated by a lack of grammatical and lexical progression. progression.

The CA has also been criticized for its attention to socio-linguistic detail at - Too much attention to
socio-linguistic details.
the expense of basic structures. Finally, this approach requires far more
competence and flexibility from teachers than previous methodologies:
knowledge of available resources, a higher level of competence in the SL, - Far more competence
and flexibility from
awareness of the student’s needs, the ability to teach sub-groups teachers
simultaneously and to improvise on student-centered interests.

4.2.2. Task based learning (TBL) – late 1980s to 2000s -13

In recent years increasing numbers of teachers, in all subjects, have
4. TBL: make the
been looking for ways to change the traditional forms of instruction in which classroom more “st-
centred” & sts play a
knowledge is transmitted, in a one-way process, from a dominant teacher to a more active role. Involve
sts in interaction with
class of silent, obedient, “passive” learners. They have sought ways to make inf, objects and/or ideas.

the classroom more “student-centred” and have investigated the different

ways in which students can play more active roles in discovering and processing
knowledge.
This desire to make learning more student-centred is reflected in
widespread attempts, in different areas of the curriculum, to introduce
approaches which engage students actively in the learning process. These
approaches have been described under a variety of labels: “experiential
learning”, “discovery learning”, “problem-based learning”, “co-
operative learning”, the “activity-based approach”, and others.
Underlying all of these approaches is a desire to involve students in some kind
of purposeful interaction with information, objects and/or ideas, often in
groups, in order to develop their skills and knowledge. In the field of language
teaching, the approach which is currently best known in this respect is “task-
based learning”.

13
See example of activity in Appendix2

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Task-based learning can be regarded as one particular approach to

implementing the broader “communicative approach” and, as with the
communicative approach in general, one of the features of task-based
learning that often worries teachers is that it seems to have no place for the
teaching of grammar. The aim of task-based learning is to develop
students’ ability to communicate and communication (except in its most
simple forms) takes place through using the grammatical system of the
language. Or in other words: ‘communicative competence’ can only exist on a
foundation of ‘grammatical competence’.
Confusion often arises in discussions of task-based learning because
Definition of the term task:
different teachers and writers use different definitions of the term task. Most
people would probably agree, however, on the following basic characteristics of
tasks:
- Tasks are activities in which students work towards an objective. 1. Sts work towards an objtv.

- The objective may be one that they have set for themselves or one 2. Objective set by
themselves or by the teacher
which has been set by the teacher.
3. Individual or group work.
- Tasks may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups.
- Tasks may be carried out in competition with others or (more often) in 4. Competition
or collaboration.
collaboration.
- The outcome may be something concrete (e.g. a report or 5. There must be an
outcome, a final product.
presentation) or something intangible (e.g. agreement or the solution to
a problem).
The area of disagreement revolves around the relationship between tasks
Disagreement in the
and communication. Some teachers and writers do not see this relationship definition of the term
task (relation btw task &
as crucial. They define a language-learning task as including almost anything communication)

that students are asked (or choose) to do in the classroom, including formal a) A task is any
activity that
learning activities such as grammar exercises and controlled practice activities, learners engage in
to further the
provided the objective of the activity is related to learning the language. This is process of learning
a language
the view, for example, of Williams and Burden (1997, p. 168): “A task is any
b) Tasks are activities
activity that learners engage in to further the process of learning a in which the goal is
related to the
language”. Many other teachers and writers use a more restricted definition. communication of
meaning. Nunan calls
They exclude activities where the learners are focusing on formal aspects of the them “communicative
task”.

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language (such as grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary) and reserve the term

‘task’ for activities in which the purpose is related to the communication
of meanings, i.e. for what Nunan, 1989, p. 10, calls a “communicative
task”. Willis (1996, p. 23) is one writer who adopts this definition: “Tasks are
always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a
communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”

Tasks are usually organised in the following way: Tasks organization:

- Pre-task stage: The teacher will introduce the topic and the
students will do a similar task so that the task requirements are
made clear. Different tasks will place different processing loads on 1. Pre-task stage:
- Introduction of the topic.
learners, therefore careful planning will ease the burden during the task - Make the task clear to Sts
- Task has comprehensive
input.
and attention may be directed to the detail of the language. The teacher
has ensured that the text structure and vocabulary are just
beyond the students’ current knowledge, so that redundancy can
be activated to fill in for partial comprehension of certain parts of the
text. The density of information is controlled either by the choice of text
(authentic texts are used) or the choice of activities.
- During-task stage: The area of communicative stress is concerned 2. During the task:
- Teacher manipulates
pressure (time, …)
with how the task is negotiated. The teacher will need to manipulate - Focus on communication.

pressure: he/she carefully considers the time limits for the task (time
pressure) in relation to the length of text, type of response and number
of participants, so that learners use language at a comfortable speed. If
a task is transacted in pressure conditions and without careful planning
there is the danger that students will by-pass syntax in the attempt to
process meaning and will use fossilized language (language they have
rehearsed/memorized).
- Post-task stage: Students will have the incentive to focus attention 3. Post-task stage:
- Focus on form.
more clearly to language itself. Feedback by part of the teacher will - Teacher gives feedback.

be wise.

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5. CL: involves students

4.2.3. Co-operative learning (CL) -1990s to 2000s- 14 working in teams to
accomplish a common
CL is instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish a goal.
common goal, under conditions that include the following elements:
1. Positive interdependence. Team members are obliged to rely on one
1. Positive interdependence:
another to achieve the goal. If any team members fail to do their part, Members of the group rely in
each other to do the task.

everyone suffers consequences.

2. Individual responsibility. All students in a group are responsible for 2. Individual responsibility.

doing their share of the work and for mastery of all of the material to be
learned.
3. Face-to-face promotive (=fomentada) interaction. Although some of 3. Face-to-face work
promotes interaction:
the group work may be parcelled out and done individually, some must
be done interactively, with group members providing one another with
feedback, challenging one another's conclusions and reasoning, and
perhaps most importantly, teaching and encouraging one another.
4. Use of collaborative skills. Students are encouraged and helped to 4. Use of collaborative
skills.

develop and practice trust-building, leadership, decision-making,

communication, and conflict management skills.
5. Feedback. Team members set group goals, periodically assess what 5. Feedback.

they are doing well as a team, and identify changes they will make to
function more effectively in the future.
Cooperative learning is not simply a synonym for students working in
groups. A learning exercise only qualifies as CL to the extent that the listed
elements are present.
Cooperative learning may occur in or out of class. In-class exercises,
which may take anywhere from 30 seconds to an entire class period, may
involve answering or generating questions, explaining observations, working
through derivations, solving problems, summarizing lecture material, trouble-
shooting, and brainstorming. Out-of-class activities include carrying out
experiments or research studies, completing problem sets or design projects,
writing reports, and preparing class presentations.

14
See example of activity in Appendix2

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There are several reasons why cooperative learning may work. The idea
VIRTUES …
that students learn more by doing something active than by simply - Sts learn more by doing
smthing active.
watching and listening has long been known to both cognitive psychologists
and effective teachers and cooperative learning is by its nature an active
method. Beyond that, cooperation enhances learning in several ways.
Weak students working individually are likely to give up when they get stuck;
working cooperatively, they keep going. Strong students faced with the - Strong sts must explain
and clarify material to
weaker sts.
task of explaining and clarifying material to weaker students often find
gaps in their own understanding and fill them in. Students working alone may
tend to delay completing assignments or skip them altogether, but when they
know that others are counting on them, they are often driven to do the work in
- Sts are responsible for
a timely manner. Students working competitively have incentives not to help their work in a group. That
often encourages them.
one another; working cooperatively, they are rewarded for helping.
The proven benefits of cooperative learning notwithstanding, instructors
who attempt it frequently encounter resistance and sometimes open
BUT …
hostility from the students. Bright students complain about begin held - Bright students complain
about begin held back by
back by their slower team-mates, weaker or less assertive students their slower team-mates.
- Weaker sts complain
complain about being discounted or ignored in group sessions, and resentments about being discounted or
ignored in group sessions.
build when some team members fail to pull their weight. Furthermore, not all
students are fond of the idea of working in groups. Many of them like to work
- Some sts prefer to work
individually and too much work-group does not motivate them at all. individually than in group.

Instructors with sufficient patience generally find ways to deal with these
problems, but others become discouraged and revert to the traditional teacher-
centred instructional paradigm, which is a loss both for them and for their
students.

4.3. The Natural approach (NA) -1980s to 2000s- 6. NA: It rejects the
notion that Lgs must be
It is best represented by J.Asher and S. Krashen. The NA rejects with taught in class to be
learned.
supportive data the notion that Lgs must be taught in class to be learned,
especially if teaching revolves around the explanation and application of
grammar rules. It challenges, therefore, the very essence of SL teaching as we
know it and brings us back to Montaigne’s Latin teacher and to the DM,
although with important surface modifications.
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The first principle is that reception should precede production.

1. Reception should
Like children in the MT situation, SL learners should listen actively for a while precede production
(Silent Period)

before attempting to speak (silent period). Students are only exposed to

correct SL, as provided by their instructor or recorded sources. Class activities
are similar to the DM ones, except that students respond first with actions and
gestures.
Krashen’s theory of Lg learning is based in the following principles:
2. Natural order Acq.
a) Linguistic structures are acquired in a relatively fixed natural order,
which may or may not coincide with the textbook classification.
b) One only learns by receiving comprehensible input (exposure to a 3. Comprehensible input.

level of Lg just above one’s own – i+1-)

4. Affective filter.
c) Students only learn when their affective filter (resistance to learning)
is down.
d) Learning, a conscious and analytic process, should be distinguished 5. Distinguish learning
from Acquisition.

from subconscious acquisition, which alone can be lead to fluency.

Although it may precede it, learning does not turn into acquisition,
which can only come from natural, communicative situations.
e) Learning is only useful when one can use one’s monitor (Lg control 6. Monitor theory

device) i.e., when one knows the rules to be applied and one has the
time to concentrate on their application, as in writing or very careful
speech. People who manage to control their speech at all times are rare
and usually speak in an unnatural manner.

The teacher is the source of the learner’s input and the creator of the
interesting and stimulating variety of classrooms activities. Learner will
presumably move through what Krashen define as three stages:
1. Preproduction stage: Development of listening comprehension skills
2. The early production stage: It is usually marked with errors, as the
student fights with the Lg. Teachers focused on meaning here, not
on form and therefore the teacher does not correct errors during this
stage (unless they block comprehension).
3. Last stage: It is one of extending production into longer stretches of
discourse.

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4.3.1. Drawbacks and virtues

Although the above principles are presented as hypothesis, they have BUT …
- The learning/Acq and
already received considerable support from recent research. The Monitor hypothesis are too
weak in supportive
learning/Acquisition and Monitor hypothesis have, however, given rise to evidence.
- Teachers are merely
controversy, mainly because the supportive evidence is often considered viewed by krashen as the
equivalent of the native
too weak and practical classroom application too diff. it should also be pointed speaker

that, if validated, they would completely redefine the Lg teaching profession:

teachers would no longer “teach”, since they are merely viewed by
Krashen as the equivalent of the native speaker, with perhaps the
advantage of being better able to make their Lg comprehensible to the learner.

5. Educational technology (CALL) – 1950s to ?-

Ever since the WWII, SL educators have been using available technology
to expose students to Lg experiences which teachers could not provide
themselves. First, with ALMs, teachers equipped themselves with films, tape
recorders and Lg labs to bring the outside world right into the classroom. With
The old ALM Labs
the global failure of the ALM new ways were sought to make use of all that progressively developed
into audio-visual
expensive technology. The old Labs progressively developed into audio- learning centers, where
students could come
visual learning centers, where students could come and work on their and work on their own.

own.
The development and availability of computer technology has given
prominence to a new subfield of education called Computer assisted Lg
The development and
learning (CALL). Until quite recently, CALL was a topic of relevance mostly to availability of computer
technology has given
birth to a new subfield of
those with a special interest in that area. Recently, though, computers have education called
Computer assisted Lg
become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so learning (CALL).

dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think
about the implications of computers for language learning.

5.1. Three Phases of CALL

Three Phases of CALL
Though CALL has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this
development can be categorized in terms of three distinct phases which I
will refer to as behaviouristic, communicative, and integrative CALL. As
we will see, the introduction of a new phase does not necessarily entail

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rejecting the programs and methods of a previous phase; rather the old is
subsumed within the new.

5.1.1. Behaviouristic CALL 1. Behaviouristic CAL

The first phase of CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the (1950)

1960s and '70s, was based on the then-dominant behaviourist theories of Programs entailed
repetitive language drills
learning (ALM). Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and and can be referred to
as drill and practice.
can be referred to as drill and practice (or, more pejoratively, as "drill and
kill").
Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as
tutor. In other words the computer serves as a vehicle for delivering
instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice Rationale behind drill
and practice was:
was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still
used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows:
- Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even a. Repeated exposure to
the same material is
beneficial to learning
essential to learning.
- A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the b Computer is ideal for
carrying out repeated
machine does not get bored with presenting the same materials. drills, as it does not get
bored.
- A computer can present such material on an individualized basis,
allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class c. Free up class time for
other activities.
time for other activities.
Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were
developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of
b-CALL PROGRAM:
the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own PALTO sys

special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behaviouristic CALL was
undermined by two important factors. First, behaviouristic approaches
to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the
pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer
allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new
phase of CALL.

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5.1.2. Communicative CALL 2. Communicative CALL:

(1970s-80s)
The second phase of CALL was based on the communicative
approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s.
Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the
previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much Some premises for
communicative CALL:
value.
Here there are some Premises for Communicative CALL:
- Focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. a. Focus on using forms

- Teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly. b. Grammar taught implicitly

- Allows and encourages students to generate original utterances. c. Allows & encourages sts to
generate original utterances
- Does not judge and/or evaluate the students.
d. Does not judge sts
- Avoids telling students they are wrong. e. avoid telling the Sts if they are wrong

- Uses the Target Lg (TL) exclusively f. Uses TL exclusively

On the face of things communicative CALL seems like a significant

advance over its predecessor. But by the end of the 1980s, many educators felt
that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the
computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion.
These critiques of CALL dovetailed with broader reassessments of the
communicative approach to language teaching. No longer satisfied with
teaching compartmentalized skills or structures (even if taught in a
communicative manner), a number of educators were seeking ways to
teach in a more integrative manner, for example using task-based
approaches.

5.1.3. Steps toward Integrative CALL: Multimedia 3. Integrative CALL:

Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important (1990s to ?)
Based on two important
technological developments of the last decade: Multimedia computers and technological
developments of the last
decade: Multimedia
the Internet. Multimedia technology (exemplified today by the CD-ROM) computers (Hypermedia)
and the Internet
allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be
accessed on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is
that it also entails hypermedia. That means that the multimedia resources are
all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by
pointing and clicking a mouse.

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Evolución de la didáctica de las lenguas. Tendencias actuales de la didáctica del Inglés como Lg extr. Los enfoques comunicativos.

Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language Hypermedia advantages:

learning:
- A more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is a. A more authentic
learning environment is
combined with seeing, just like in the real world. created since listening is
combined with seeing.

- Skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural b. Skills are easily integrated

to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity.

c. Students can go at their
own pace
- Students have great control over their learning, since they can not
only go at their own pace but even on their own individual path.
- A major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle d. Facilitates focus on the
content w/out sacrificing form.

focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on

language form or learning strategies.
An example of how hypermedia can be used for language learning is the i-CALL PROGRAM:
DUSTIN
program Dustin which is being developed by the Institute for Learning
Sciences at North-western University. The program is a simulation of a
student arriving at a U.S. airport. The student must go through customs,
find transportation to the city, and check in at a hotel. The language learner
using the program assumes the role of the arriving student by interacting with
simulated people who appear in video clips and responding to what they say by
typing in responses. If the responses are correct, the student is sent off to do
other things, such as meeting a roommate. If the responses are incorrect, the
program takes remedial action by showing examples or breaking down the task
into smaller parts. At any time the student can control the situation by asking
what to do, asking what to say, asking to hear again what was just said,
requesting for a translation, or controlling the level of difficulty of the lesson.
Yet in spite of the apparent advantages of hypermedia for language
learning, multimedia software has so far failed to make a major impact. Several
major problems have surfaced in regarding to exploiting multimedia for
language teaching:

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- There is the question of quality of available programs.

- Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly BUT …
- Question of quality of
available programs.
interactive. A program like Dustin should ideally be able to understand a - Today's computer cannot
be truly interactive yet.
user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also or
appropriateness.

5.2. Steps toward Integrative CALL: The Internet The Internet: Lg learners
The World Wide Web is probably the single computer application to date can communicate directly
with other St or speakers
with the greatest impact on language teaching. For the first time, language of the TL 24 hours a day.

learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other

learners or speakers of the TL 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. This Asynchronic
communication
communication can be asynchronous (not simultaneous) through tools such (not simultaneous:
mail, forums)
as electronic mail (e-mail or forums), which allows each participant to compose Synnchronic
communication
messages at their time and pace, or it can be synchronous (synchronous, (Simultaneous:
chats)
"real time"), using programs such as chats or MSN, which allow people all
around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their
keyboards. It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also
one-to-many, allowing a teacher or student to share a message with a small
group, the whole class, a partner class, or an international discussion list of
hundreds or thousands of people.
Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through
Through the WWW Sts
millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access can locate and access
authentic TL materials.
authentic materials (e.g., newspaper and magazine articles, radio
broadcasts, short videos, movie reviews, and book excerpts) exactly tailored to
their own personal interests. They can also use the Web to publish their texts
or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1987. Principles of Language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ (USA): Prentice-hall, Inc.
Editorial MAD (Vol. I)
Thomas, Alain. 1988. “Current trends in second-language teaching methodology”.
Queen’s Quartely, 95, 2 (Summer), Pags 365-83
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLearning/TheAudioLingualMethod.htm
“Computer-Assisted Language Learning: An Introduction” by Mark Warschauer in:
http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/call.html
TBL methodology:
http://cd.ed.gov.hk/eng/references/all_levels/task_based.pdf
http://www.tesolgreece.com/dinou01.html#_ftn2
CL:
http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/Coopreport.html

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 TOPIC 1: Brief Summary
24

6. Brief summary:
- Introduction:
Teaching methods used through history:
- Egyptian & Babylonian used bilingual representatives.
- Romans learnt Greek through the teacher-slaves by the classical method of reading & discussing.
st
- The 1 Christian missionaries learnt the Lgs of the people they were trying to convert.
- Middle Ages: Latin as the lingua franca only taught in the monastic schools.
- 6 Indians were brought by C. Colon to learn Spanish completely deprived of their MT (1st DM use)
- In the Renaissance, the vernacular Lgs displaced Latin. Ancient Latin methodology used to teach FL.
- In the 18th C, non-classical Lgs entered the curriculum of European schools.

- Focus on MESSAGE (part1):

Before the 18th C, the most common mean of acq a non-classical SL was by contact woth Native speakers
(travels, trade, war, foreign tutor). The need for efficient communication was sufficient to ensure learning.

15
- Focus on FORM :
Drawbacks:
GTM: Teaching a non-classical SL through Latin based grammar. - It did nothing to enrich the St’s
communicative abilities. Just memorizing
and endless list of voc.
Characteristics:
a. Grammar is taught deductively.
b. Concentration on the written code through the study
of the “great authors”. Little attention to speech. Virtues:
c. Use of translation in vocabulary lists. - Intellectual appeal.
d. Class often conducted in the St’s MT. - From the instructor point of view, it’s the easier
methodology: No need for equipment, objective
evaluation…

DM: Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning: Total immersion technique.

Characteristics: Drawbacks:
a. Class conducted in the SL. - It was widely accepted in private schools (high
b. Focus on everyday spoken UK. Emphasis on phonetics. motivated Sts, small groups, almost individual
c. Establishment of direct associations btw word & obj. attention). Did not work on public schools.
d. Grammar is taught inductively. - Weak theoretical foundations.
- High demand of involvement of the teacher.

Virtues:
- Focus on Lg & the use of SL in class. - Active learner participation.
th
- Berlitz School (uo to the 20 C)

ALM: Based on behaviourist theories & structuralism linguistic hypothesis. From the Army Method.
3 Characteristics

Drawbacks:
Behaviourism

a. Lg is behaviour
b. behaviour can be conditioned by process of - Linguistic & psychological basis were challenged.
stimulus, response & reinforcement. (+response → - Condemnation of writing.
quick reinforcement) - too repetitive and useless in terms of communicative
c. Lg is essentially habit formation. (No errors → abilities.
creationof bad habits) - Did not arrive to the high expectative it created at 1st

a. Lg is essentially an oral means of communication (Oral precede writin) a. Use of Lg Labs

Structuralism

b. Lg is a system of structures (emphasis on syntax) for collective drills

c. Lg is defined by the majority of speakers (preference for contemporary vocabulary)
d. Lg have their own structures (Stress on the diff btw the MT & the TL)
e. Grammar is taught inductively.

15
See example of activity in Appendix1

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25

- Focus on MESSAGE (part2)16:

CCL & Sug: based mostly in low anxiety & warm personal conditions for effective learning.

Characteristics CLL: Characteristics Sug:

a. Free conversation a. suggesting factors may accelerate learning.
b. communication through teacher translations. b. relaxation techniques can improve learning.
c. move to a teacher free conversation. c. Teacher as a source of confidence & calm.
d. NO correction of errors. d. NO correction of errors.
e. Procedure reminiscent of the DM, but w/out drills

Drawbacks:
- Unstructured approaches. Characteristics:
a. Communication involves also how to use the Lg in
context (speech acts).
CA: Importance of communication over accuracy b. Study of forms is secondary: Notion, Function, Situation.
c. Focus on the learner & learning.
Drawbacks: d. Errors are seen as normal part of learning.
- frustration by the lack of grammar. e. Fluency is more important than accuracy.
- Too much attention to socio-linguistics f. Usage of authentic materials
- teachers need to be more involved. g. Focus on communicative strategies.

TBL: learning is interaction with inf, objs & people. CL: Sts working in teams to accomplish a goal
Towards a Student-centred approach
Characteristics:
Characteristics: a. Positive interdependence.
a. Students work towards objectives (objs). b. Individual responsibility.
b. The objs are set by themselves or the teachers. c. Face-to-face promotive interaction.
c. Tasks can be carried out in group or d. Use of collaborative skills.
individually. e. Feedback.
d. Tasks can be carried out in competition or f. In/Out class exercises.
collaboration. BUT … there is resistance from some sts to
TASK is an activity with a set goal related to the work in group, as they prefer to work
communication of meaning. individually.
TASK organization: Pre-task, during, post-task.

NA: rejects the idea that Lgs must be taught in class to be learnt.

Characteristics: Drawbacks:
a. reception precede production (silent period) - The learning/Acq & Monitor theories are
b. Natural order Acq. weak in supportive evidence.
c. Comprehensible input. - Teachers are the equivalent to native
d. Affective filter. speakers.
e. Distingish learning from Acq.
f. Monitor theory.
Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial

- Educational Technology (CALL): Three Phases of CALL A computer is ideal for carrying out drills

Behaviouristic CALL: Software programs entailed repetitive Lg drills. –PLATO- Sts do the exercises individually & at
their own pace.

Communicative CALL: Software programs more focused on using forms than in forms themselves.
They allow Sts to generate original utterances. It also does not judge & evaluate sts.

Integrative CALL: Multimedia & Internet

Multimedia → Hypermedia: -DUSTIN - Internet:

- Diff skills are integrated (oral, reading, writing) - Synchronic & asynchronic communicative
- St can go at their pace. means. One2one & one2many communications
- It does not sacrifices form over content. - Locate and access authentic FL materials
(video, newpappers, …)
16
See example of activity in Appendix2

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26

Appendix 1

GTM Activity:

GRAMMAR

DEFINITIVE ARTICLE VERB ENDINGS

Masc Fem Neut PL 1 -en

Nominative Me Men Mas Len Sing 2 -a

Idiotive Det Def Dof Ten 3 -o

Imaginative Jeb Kin Los Fen

Illogitive Tal Sib Pen Ken 1 -ens

Plural 2 -ato

3 -unt

VOCCABULARY

sabla (m) chair abro under list put

maldi (f) table lef on cord throw

labro (f) book parti against nu to be

gardi (m) Boy

randos (n) floor

borden (n) ceiling

Notes
If an object. is under 2 ft high from ground level, the Idiotive case is used.
If an object is 2 t over from ground level, the Imaginative case is used
A chair is always considered to be less than 2 ft high, no matter what its actual height may be.
Direct = object Illogitive

Example: The chair is under the table / Det sabla nmabro kin maldi
Translate the sentences:-
1) The book is under the chair.
2) The boy puts the book on the table.
3) The boy puts the book on the floor.
4) The boy throws the book against the ceiling.
5) The boy throws the books against the ceiling

SOURCE:
http://www.aber.ac.uk/education-odl/seclangacq/langteach3.htm

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27

DM:
In the class based on Direct Method the mother tongue is never, ever used. Usually, lessons begin with a
brief dialogue in the target language and it is presented orally. The most often employed exercise
in this method is a series of quetions and answers in the target language based on the
dialogue. No traslation of mother tongue is included during the class. Grammar is taught inductively rather
than deductively and literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.

ALM:
Sally : Good morning, Bill.
Bill : Good morning, Sally.
Sally : How are you?
Bill : Fine, thanks. And you?
Sally : Fine. Where are you going?
Bill : I'm going to the post office.
Sally : I'm too. Shall we go together?
Bill : Sure. Let's go.

Steps
1. The teacher gives a model of the dialogue (introduction).
2. Have the students listen to the dialogue again (motivation)
3. Listen and repeat (practice)
4. Use a backward build-up drill (expansion drill)
Ex: I'm going to the post office.
T: post office
S: post office
T: to the post office
S: to the post office
T: going to the post office
S: going to the post office
T: I'm going to the post office.
S: I'm going to the post office.
5. Repeat the target pattern several times ( practice more)
6. Role play: (Using the same dialogue mentioned above):
a. Teacher <--> Students
b. Half group <--> Half group
c. Girls group <--> Boys group
7. Chain drill: (Simple communication drill)
T: Good morning, Jose.S1: Good morning, teacher.T: How are you?S1: Fine, thanks. And you? T: Fine. ( S1
to S2 , S2 to S3, ¡K)
8. Select two students to perform the entire dialogue.

Substitution drill
1. A single-slot substitution:
a. Basic drill
Ex. I'm going to the post office. (give a cue as: the bank, the drugstore, the supermaket¡K)
b. Each cue is accompanied by pictures
Ex. I'm going to the post office. (show the pictures of the post office, the bank, the drugstore,¡K)
c. Point to a boy or a girl
Ex. How are you?(Point to a boy and the student has to change the sentence into "How is he?")
2. Multiple-slot substitution
Ex. I'm going to the park. (cue: He)
He's going to the park. (cue: library)
He's going to the library.

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28

Transformation drill
1. Affirmative a Negative
Ex: She's a student. -> She is not a teacher.
2. Active a Passive
Ex: Tom wrote the book. -> The book was written.
3. Statement a Yes-no question
Ex: He's going to the park. -> Is he going to the park?
4. Yes-no question a Answer yes-no question
Ex: Is he going to the park? -> Yes / No (It depends on the situation.)
5. Use the yes-no question and show the pictures
Ex: Is he going to the park? -> Yes / No (It depends on the pictures.)

Appendix2
CLL:
Topic: Fruits
Class period: 20 minutes
Aids: chairs, a board and a tape recorder
Number of students: 10 (or less)
Objectives:
1. To learn the names of fruits
2. To participate willingly in class and enjoy asking questions
3. To pronounce the names of fruits correctly

Presentation:
Teacher’s activities Students’activities Aids Time
Teacher greets with students and Students sit in a circle, listen and 1
introduces herself. greet in Chinese.
Teacher gives directions about what Listen. 2
students will be doing later:
1. Teacher tells students to speak
Chinese to ask what fruits they
want to learn.
2. Teacher will translate the words
into English.
3. Teacher will record the words
when students can pronounce
them well.

Student A puts up her hand. 1

Teacher goes up to student A and stands Student A speaks Chinese to ask
behind her. how to say the fruit apple
Teacher helps her to say the fruit apple Student A asks the teacher to
in English. repeat the word.
Teacher repeats it. Student B asks the teacher to 2
Teacher repeats it again. repeat it again.
All the students repeat the word
together.
Teacher records it. Other students ask some other A tape recorder 6
names of fruits, like tangerine,
Buddha head, pomelo, &
grapefruit.
Teacher listens to the students and helps Students ask the teacher to repeat
them. the words until they feel they are

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 TOPIC 1: Appendixes
29

Teacher repeats as many times as able to pronounce them well.

students want and records the words
when students can pronounce the words A tape recorder
correctly.
After students ask all the words they Listen. A tape recorder 1
want to learn, teacher starts to play the
tape.
Teacher plays the tape again and writes
the words on the board. Students just listen without writing
down anything. A board
Teacher waits for volunteers to give her Students try to respond. 3
the Chinese meanings of the words.
Teacher writes down the Chinese 2
translation.
Teacher asks students to relax and just Listen. 2
listen while teacher reads the words on
the board three times.

Sugg:
Using music to introduce an exercise is a great way to activate vocabulary and get students thinking
in the right direction. Take a piece of music or song which you associate with a certain activity or place
("New York, New York" sung by Frank Sinatra) and play the first 30 seconds of the piece. You will be
surprised at how quickly associations come to students' minds - many more than if you introduced the
lesson by saying, "Today we are going to talk about New York City".

http://esl.about.com/library/lessons/blbrainmusic.htm

CA:
Teaching Material Mrs. Armitage on Wheels
Analysis of Teaching Material 1. Knows the functions of adjustments in connected speech
2. Knows how to pronounce appropriately
3. Knows how to communicate fluently and accurately

Time 1period,40minutes Teacher Li-yen Jan Teaching Method CA

Teaching Aids pictures, chalks, blackboard
Instructional Objects
Unit Objects Specific Objects
I. The Cognitive Domain: 1.1 Discriminates the minimal pair of /s/ /z/
1. Knows the usage of 1.2 Discriminates the minimal pair of/t/ /d/
"assimilation" 2.1 Uses the linking words in a sentence naturally
2. Acquainted with the rule of 3.1 Perceives the meanings of the whole material
"linking" 3.2 Answers the given questions related to the article
3. Understands the joke of this 4.1 Answers the questions referred to the article willingly
article 5.1 Responds aggressively
II. The Affective Domain: 6.1 Takes interest in the classroom activities
4. Responds willingly 7.1 Reads the assimilative and linking words with natural connection
5. Enjoys the classroom activities 8.1 Reads the article fluently
6. Intrigued by the short rhymed 9.1 Remodels the story correctly
prose 9.2 Participates in the situational dialogue properly

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30

III. The Psychomotor Domain:

7. Pronounces the critical word
correctly
8. Reads the material naturally
9. Communicates competently

TBL:
This was based on a coursebook exercise. The exercise was a major task at the end of a lesson. The
provided information consisted of descriptions of four vacation packages. Five holidaymaker groups were
briefly described (family, age, interests) and should be matched to the packages. Thereafter students could
discuss their wishes and fill out a table with details.

Person or Group Package

a family with young children Jamaica, sporting

a retired couple Zell am See, wandering

a single professional Paris, city

a group of teenagers Orlando, Disneyworld

a sporting club Ibiza, beach resort

We propose several improvements to the task - see following the table of details:

Your holiday plans Improvements

• The package information was minimal and
Group 1 Group 2 old-fashioned (limitations of the book). It would be
better to get current brochures from a travel bureau.
• The table to be filled out gave little room for
who is going
thinking, since questions were already defined.
Students could gain much more by figuring out for
when and for how long themselves what they needed to decide.
Brainstorming to produce a mind-map is an ideal
interested method for doing this.
• A report based on the table will make a boring
presentation. We decided that each group should try
location and accomodation to sell their holiday package to the class.
Similar Exercises
• Plan an excursion for your school class
• Plan a party or a menu
• Plan to build a tree hut
• Design halloween outfits

http://www.nknu.edu.tw/~eng/etweb/

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31

CL:
Exercise: Assessing process effectively

Tracy Crossley Tom Maguire

Salford University University of Ulster
t.l.crossley@salford.ac.uk tj.maguire@ulster.ac.uk

Rationale:
This second session to a half-day event is to allow participants to work in small groups on real scenarios
from their institutions. By the end of the session participants should have a strategy (supported by guidance
tools) for how they will initiate the assessment of process or change the assessment practices they currently
use in their own institution.

Suitable for:
Staff and students with maximum numbers dictated by size of room.

Timings:
90 minutes total
10 minutes Recap. From introductory session on the problems of assessing process
25 mins. Group Problem-Based Learning Exercise on major problems recorded on flipcharts.
25 mins. Sharing Successful Practice (whole group including time to wander round and read flipcharts)
25 mins. Towards a realistic strategy to take home to colleagues (small groups)
5 mins. Conclusion and distribute Notes on Implementing PA.
Facilitators:
One facilitator should be able to manage up to 36 people. If the group is much larger, it is helpful to have
two facilitators, to help discussion groups and if necessary note-take.
This session is quite intense and the activities need to run very smoothly from whole group into small group
and back with a minimum of disruption. To minimise the time spent on giving instructions, you could
prepare a handout with the different activities explained.

Resources needed:
Chairs
Marker perns
Flip chart and stand
Blue tack or drawing pins to pin up flip chart sheets /or 3 flip chart stands

Materials provided here:

PPT Presentation and Handout (word document) (R3)
The presentation can be used intermittently at each stage of the workshop. The handout should be drip-fed
so that it doesn’t pre-empt the participants responses.

Running the workshop:

Stage 1: Recap. On the major difficulties in assessing process (15 minutes)
Remind the group (either using a flip chart or OHP with the challenges arranged in three categories Staff;
Students and Institutional challenges) of the major barriers they identified in the first session. Alternatively
use PPT slides 5,6, 7. Encourage participants to check the list and add any barriers or challenges which may
have been omitted. Ensure that the list is visible to all (or alternatively, distribute a handout with the
challenges listed under the three categories Staff; Students and Institutional) before dividing into groups.
Stage 2: Group work to problem-solve issues raised in Introductory Session (25 minutes)
Divide participants into three groups explaining that each group will work from a different perspective on
how to assess process:
• Group 1 will look at the challenges from the perspective of the Students;
• Group 2 from the perspective of Staff
• Group 3 from an Institutional perspective.
Ask for a member of each group to record the main points of the discussion on a flip chart.

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Stage 3: Beginning to share successful practice (25 minutes)

Display the three groups' flip chart sheets for all to see. Allow 10 minutes for participants to wander around
and read the bullet points. Reassemble as a whole group and use PPT slides 8-11 which outline principles
and practices. These should be contextualised with effective examples from the individual groups where
possible. Allow for brief Q & A or discussion as this is the final part where they will be working together as a
whole group. Explain that there will be no plenary at the end of the session.
Stage 4: Small groups working towards a realistic strategy (25 minutes)
Divide the group into small groups of 4 or 5 maximum and ask them to discuss and record for themselves,
how they might either revise their assessment of process or introduce the assessment of process within their
own institutional context. Remind them that it is more effective to start with small but realistic goals, i.e.
areas over which they have some control or where it is known the staff are sympathetic to student
involvement in the assessment process.
Conclusion: (5 minutes) Stop the groups. Use slide 11 to provide some pointers and distribute the
handout if you have not already done so. Simply conclude by thanking the participants.

Guidance notes and recommendations:

It would assist the facilitator's credibility if s/he could include a few other examples of successful practice
drawn from his/her own experience. These can easily be added to the final slides of the PPT presentation.
Be careful that individuals stay on task and don’t get distracted. For stage 4 it might be desirable that staff
that work together work on real solutions together.

SOURCE:
http://assessing-groupwork.ulst.ac.uk/exercise6.htm

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Appendix 3
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive characteristics of Audiolingual
Method and Communicative Approach:

Audio-lingual Communicative Approach

1. Attends to structure and form 1. Meaning is paramount.

more than meaning. 2. Dialogues center around
2. Demands memorization of communicative functions are not
structure-based dialogues. normally memorized.
3. Learning items are not necessary 3. Contextualization is a basic
contextualized. premise.
4. Language learning is learning 4. Language learning is learning to
structures, sounds, or words. communicate.
5. Drilling is a center technique. 5. Drilling may occur, but
6. Native-speaker-like pronunciation peripherally.
is sought. 6. Comprehensible pronunciation is
7. Communicative activities only sought.
come after a long process of rigid 7. Attempts to communicate may be
drills and exercises. encouraged from the very
8. The use of students' native beginning.
language is forbidden. 8. Judicious use of native language is
9. Teacher controls the learners and accepted where feasible.
prevents them from doing 9. Teacher help learners in any way
anything that conflicts with the that motivates them to work with
theory. the language.
10. "Language is habit" so errors must 10. Language is created by the
be prevented at all costs. individual often through trial and
Accuracy is a primary goal. error. Fluency and acceptable
language is the primary goal.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes