Power Cable Testing
Power Cable Testing
2018
1. Introduction
Visual inspection of the cable installations, conduit, manholes, and so on, and
electrical maintenance testing are the major maintenance routines for cable
systems.
2. Visual Inspection
Visual inspection can be completed on energized installations. However, if
cables are touched or moved they should be de‐energized. Cables in vaults,
substations rooms, manholes, and at other areas need to be inspected on a
yearly basis. This inspection needs to include:
1. Oil leaks, soft spots, and insulation swelling
2. Physical damage, sharp bends, and excessive and prolonged tension
3. Cracked jackets of nonleaded cables
4. Poor earth connections, metallic‐sheath bonding deterioration, corroded
cable supports, and continuity of main earthing system
5. Soft spots in terminations and splices
6. Corona tracking
7. Potheads should be inspected for oil or compound leaks
8. Inspect the manhole for spalling concrete and standing water
Aerial cables need to be inspected for mechanical damage that is made by
vibration or deterioration of support and suspension mechanism. Inspection
needs to be made of cables for insulation abrasion and cable being bent or
pinched.
4. Mechanical Issues
Mechanical issues can happen due to breaks and problems of sheath
material, mechanical punctures by people or heavy machines, or cracks due
to sharp bending or vibration. Regardless of the mechanical damage that
happens in the cable sheath, the entrance of moisture will start slow
deterioration of insulation material which will finally end in cable failure.
Hence, it is important to protect the cable either from direct or indirect
mechanical damage. This can be eliminated or minimized by proper
selection, installation, and maintenance of power cable systems.
5. Sheath Corrosion
Sheath corrosion can happen due to the following factors:
‐ Acidity and alkali in conduits
‐ Dissimilar soil issues
‐ Soil chemical contamination
‐ Galvanic issues
Sheath corrosion will allow moisture to enter the insulation system and
cause an eventual damage. Sheath corrosion can be avoided by proper usage
7. Cable Heating
Increased heat rise in the cable will cause insulation degradation. Heat can
be caused by overloading, increased ambient temperatures, insufficient
ventilation, manual heating due to cables being installed too close to each
other, or external heat sources. Attention needs to be taken not to surpass
cable insulation system temperature. This can be accomplished by first
identifying the different environmental and operating factors that will affect
the proper selection of the cable insulation and conductor size. Once correct
selection and installation are done, routine cable maintenance and
inspection will ensure safe and long service.
9. Electrical Puncture
Once the insulation is weakened due to any of the presented reasons, it may
electrically fail. At the point, the insulation system cannot confine the
electrical current flow to the conductor inside the insulation system. Failure
may be line‐to‐earth or three line‐to‐earth or line‐to‐line faults. Apparently,
if the failure is caused by a short circuit, it will be cleared by the circuit
protective device. Some of the not‐so‐easy‐to discover electrical failures can
be:
‐ Lack of compound in the insulation
‐ Sheath bulging
‐ Polymerized compound wax
‐ Tree design marking
The cable failures can be further grouped into two classes as follows:
‐ Inherent causes
‐ Non‐inherent causes.
‐ Incomplete saturation. These can be detected by the following:
‐ Paper is void of the compound
‐ Scarcity of the compound in spaces between adjacent tape edges and
surfaces
‐ Unstable compound. These can be detected by the following:
‐ Apparent change in the compound
‐ Wax, in case of mineral oil Ionization: These can be detected by the
following:
‐ Strings or flakes of darkened wax containing carbon
‐ Carbonized paths tree design
can happen due to:
‐ Negative potential cathodic , shown by heavy deposit of lead oxides
coloured red, yellow, or orange
‐ Positive potential anodic , shown by rough, pitted surface and very
thin white crystal deposits
‐ Chemical action
‐ Local galvanic action
18. Overheating
This mainly happens due to cable heating. Most likely that it is overloaded or
exposed to external heat and high temperature.
Type 1 field tests: These tests are typically done at elevated voltages and are
a pass/fail type test. The typical high‐potential hi‐pot test is an example of
a Type 1 field test. The cable either passes or fails the test. However, it
provides limited knowledge of the cable condition other than whether the
cable system withstood the voltage for the duration of the test or not. This
test is useful in that it is normally able to root out severe cable issues.
Nevertheless, many defects may pass unnoticed during a pure voltage‐
withstand test.
Type 2 field tests: These cable diagnostic tests are done at test voltages
above and/or below the normal operating cable voltage. These tests verify
cable system condition and try to establish the remaining service life. Two
categories of Type 2 cable diagnostic are available:
‐ Tests that discover and locate discrete defect areas in a cable system
‐ Tests that check the complete integral cable condition
Recently, a number of research projects have focused on field cable
diagnostic tests. This was done due to the fact that many of the new PE and
XLPE cable systems installed in the late 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s were
failing. Typical DC hi‐pot testing was not only found to be ineffective in trying
to discover the failure issues before cable failure happened, but the presence
of these elevated DC test voltages was also found to be damaging to PE and
XLPE service‐aged cables. Therefore, focused effort to understand and
diagnose the root cause of these cable failures in was undertaken. To check
which cable diagnostic technique to apply to a specific cable system, the type
of cable insulation is an important criterion. Cables are organized into two
main cable insulation groups:
‐ Extruded/solid dielectric cable: These cables are whose insulation is
extruded on the conductor and include cables, such as PE, XLPE, and EPR
cables.
‐ Laminated cable: These are cables whose insulation is made up of
laminated layers, such as PILC cable.
crucial degradation form that may afflict older XLPE and high‐molecular
weight PE‐extruded cables. Water treeing is self‐propagating dendritic
pattern of electro‐oxidation, which decreases extruded insulation AC and
impulse breakdown strengths. It is the main degradation mechanism of
extruded medium‐voltage power cables. Even though carefully studied, the
initiation and growth mechanisms of water treeing are not yet clear. Water
treeing is not a single mechanism but complex interaction of chemical,
electrical, and mechanical processes that depend on the material and applied
stresses.
The visible manifestation of water treeing is strings of water‐filled micro‐
cavities. Water trees do not create partial discharges PD by themselves.
Nevertheless, water trees can lead to electrical trees as a result of a lightning
impulse, or used AC voltage, or during fault locating activities, or during DC
high‐voltage HV testing. Generally, electrical trees are more difficult to
begin than to develop, so that an electrical tree, once started, tends to
develop to failure by PDs. Hence, it can be concluded that growing water
trees do not create PD signals, unless they give rise to an electrical tree. Any
PDs at a water tree suggest the existence of one or more electrical trees at
that water tree. In order for water trees to develop in extruded insulated
cables, four factors need to exist in extruded cable insulation. These factors
are water in void cavity, time, electrical field and entry point into the power
cable.
Water trees slowly migrate across the insulation, finally bridging adjacent
voids across the cable insulation. Thousands of trees develop to make
electro‐oxidized channels which are very small in diameter. Intuitively, as
water tree channels start to bridge the insulation, the losses dissipated
through the insulation rise and lead to cable failure. This loss can be
understood by measuring the dissipation factor DF . Even though other
techniques are available to understand the degree of water treeing in cables,
the most typically used technique is the measurement of DF or PF of the
cable insulation. A perfect cable can be electrically modelled as a single
capacitor. Longer cable means the bigger the capacitance of this capacitor. As
water trees begin to bridge the cable insulation, this capacitor now starts to
have some resistive water tree paths in parallel with it. Finally, the
resistive loss component in‐phase component of the total current loss
increases and it can be detected by measuring the DF or the PF of the cable.
The DF measurements can be cross compared with previous test
measurements and trended to understand the cable health. In completing a
DF test, the applied voltage is typically stepped up from below operating
voltage to slightly above operating voltage. Cables with improper insulation
have bigger DF tan δ values than normal, and will show bigger changes in
the tangent delta values with changes in applied voltage levels. Healthy
cables have low individual DF tan δ values and small changes in DF tan δ
values with higher applied voltages levels. Typically, a very low‐frequency
VLF HV test is used as the voltage excitation source to complete the DF tan
δ tests. VLF as an energizer source is done for two reasons:
‐ The increased load capacity in field applications in which 60 Hz is too
bulky and costly
‐ The increased sensitivity and effectiveness of measuring DF in the low
frequency range for extruded cable.
DF tan δ testing is also independent of the cable length, as it is a ratio of
resistive losses to capacitive losses the cable itself . Since XLPE and certain
EPR cables have very low DF tan δ values when in proper condition, the DF
tan δ value resolution of the measurement equipment needs to be at least
1 10 4 to obtain correct results. Also, a guard circuit to drain off surface
leakage currents at the terminations needs to be used to provide true DF tan
δ results during a measurement. Typically, this requires VLF test equipment
with a virtual ground return, instead of a solidly earthed VLF generator.
PD is known as a localized electrical discharge that partially bridges the
insulation between two electrodes/conductors. It is important to note that
this is a partial breakdown in the cable insulation. Hence, it would not be
detectable using conventional fault location instruments. PD can happen
from a number of areas within a cable installation, such as within electrical
tree channel, gas voids, along an interface and between the concentric
neutral to outer semiconducting layer. When PDs happen within the XLPE
insulation section, total cable failure is imminent. During cable off‐line field
testing with PD instruments, it is possible to increase the applied voltage to
discover one or multiple PD sites that may only discharge above certain
voltage levels. The voltage at which a site begins to partially discharge is
known as the PD inception voltage PDIV . If the PDIV values reach close to
system‐operating voltage levels, the cable will most probably break down.
The insulation erosion by PD activity leads to what is known as an electrical
tree. The PD and subsequent electrical trees quickly lead to total cable failure
within XLPE cables. Nevertheless, it needs to be clear that certain materials
are more resistant to PD than others. For instance, joints and terminations
have a big ability, at least for a while, to fend off PDs in their insulation.
Hence, the location of the PD site is an important aspect to understand
whether that site will lead to imminent failure or not. Typically, PD
measurements on cables are done by cable manufacturers as a final quality
control test. Typically, PD tests are done in a shielded PD free test room. It is
only within the last years that technology developments have allowed this
diagnostic method to be used in the very noisy field environments. The
capability to discover and locate sites of PDs down to 10pC in cables in the
field is now available. It has to be pointed out that there are no PDs related
with water trees by themselves unless the water trees become electric trees.
Hence, unless water tree in the cable becomes an electrical tree PD testing is
not able to discover it. Electrical trees and water trees have totally different
characteristics, and the diagnostic processes used to discover them are also
totally different. In many situations, cables with very poor DF test results,
show the presence of serious water treeing, show no PD activity. PD is useful
in isolating installation defects in the cable system and especially in the
accessories. Nevertheless, PDs must be present in order to detect any PD. For
instance, a wet splice may have a high leakage current but may not show any
PD. So, which technique needs be used to discover the health of the cable
system?
The used diagnostic technique will depend on a number of factors, including
the type of insulation, the age of the cable, maintenance strategy, etc. In
order to understand the condition of a new installation, a PD check is very
efficient in isolating installation defects that may have happened. A poorly
installed splice or an outer shield compromised during the cable installation
will lend itself more to a PD test than a tan δ test, since no insulation aging
would be present in the new power cable.
For older installation maintenance testing, a tan δ would be of most useful to
understand the degree of cable insulation aging. If the cable is very critical in
nature and even a single cable fault is to be avoided, then a combination of a
PD and a tan δ test is the best possible option. Most utilities are concerned
about spending large amounts of unnecessary resources fixing cables that
have a succession of repetitive failures. This is especially true if the cable is
globally deteriorated. The utilities would rather replace such a cable at the
outset. In such a case, a tan δ test will be most useful. Even though it may not
discover a singular defect in an otherwise good cable, it will discover a
globally aged cable that could be the source of many future failures. As in
most efficient maintenance strategies, a combination of more than one
diagnostic test is typically the best way of establishing the condition of a
cable system. Cable diagnostic systems that include a combination of both
tan δ and PD diagnostic measurements in one integrated test instrument are
now available to fulfil all these needs.
switches may be connected to a cable end with a role to disconnect the
power cable from the rest of the system. The capacity of the switch to sustain
the VLF test voltage while the other end is under normal operating voltage
need to be shall be verified with the manufacturer. The safety procedures
shall include the following requirements:
‐ IEEE std. 510‐1983
‐ Applicable user safety operating processes
‐ Applicable state and local safety operating regulations
‐ NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical safety requirements
‐ Protection of utility and customer property while conducting the test,
one or more cable ends will be remote from the testing site. Hence, before
testing is started, the following actions need to be completed:
‐ Cable ends under test need to be cleared and protected
‐ Cables need to be de‐energized and earthed
‐ At the conclusion of HV testing, attention needs to be given to
discharge cables and cable systems including test instruments
Cable installations can be considered de‐energized and earthed when a
conductor and metallic shield are connected to system earth point at the test
site and, if possible, at the far end of the power cable. When conducting a
test, a single system earth point at the test site is advised. The cable shield or
concentric conductor of the tested cable is connected to a system earth point.
If this connection is missing, deteriorated, or has been removed, it needs to
be fixed. A safety earth cable needs to connect the instrument case with the
system earth point. If the test instrument is a HV instrument, the safety
earthing cable needs to be at least a braided or stranded #2 AWG copper
cable capable of transferring anticipated fault current. Only after the safety
earthing cable is connected, the conductor‐to‐earth connection can be
removed. In the case local ground is needed for the test equipment, the case
ground needs to stay connected to the system earth point in order to
maintain an acceptable single‐ground potential. Attention needs to be taken
to make sure that all earthing connections cannot be disconnected by
accident.
tests that stress the insulation comparably to normal operating voltage. Also,
this test replicates the factory test completed on the new power cable. When
completing the AC 60 Hz hi‐pot test attention needs to be given to the
adequacy of the test equipment for successfully charging the test specimen.
The AC test equipment needs to have proper volt‐ampere VA capacity to
provide the needed cable charging current requirements of the tested cable.
The VA capacity of the AC hi‐pot test equipment can be calculated with the
following formula:
VA 2πfcE or kVA 2πfcE 10
where
c is capacitance µf/mile
f is the frequency Hz
E is the test voltage kV of the test set
The test voltage values suggested for acceptance and maintenance tests are
80% and 60%, respectively, of the final factory test voltage.
k is the insulation dielectric constant
e0 is the permittivity capacitance of air
di is the diameter over the insulation
dc is the conductor diameter
For power cables with conventional insulating materials, the cable
conductance G per unit length can be calculated using the following
formula:
G 2πfC tan δ
The quantity tan δ presents the losses in the insulation when exposed to an
electric field and is known as DF or the insulating material loss angle. Table 1
gives typical values of dielectric constant k and tan δ.
Table 1. Typical values of dielectric constant k and tan δ
Type of Insulation k tan δ
Impregnated paper 3.5 2.3 x 10‐3
Impregnated PPP 2.7 0.7 x 10‐3
PVC 5.8 0.7 x 10‐3
XLPE 2.3 0.1 x 10‐3
HDPE 2.3 0.1 x 10‐3
EPR 2.8 3.5 x 10‐3
When a voltage V is applied to the loss‐free insulation dielectric, the total
current IT taken by the dielectric is the sum of the capacitive charging
current IC and loss current IR . The angle formed by the current IT and IC
is δ, and the angle formed by the IT and voltage E is q where cos q is the
dielectric PF. The DF tan δ test allows inspection of an insulation system at
operating voltage level and frequency.
The tan δ test can also be completed at frequency different than 60 Hz, such
as at VLF of 0.1 Hz during proof test completed at such frequency. According
to IEEE std. 400‐2001, tests completed on 1500 miles of XLPE insulated cable
have established a figure of merit for XLPE at tan δ 2.2 10 3. In the case
the measured tan δ is bigger than 2.2 10 3, then the cable insulation is
degraded by moisture in the form of water trees, and it is suggested that
extra hi‐pot tests, such as VLF test be completed to discover cable insulation
defects. The tan δ test for each conductor with respect to ground should be
done. The evaluation needs to be based upon comparative analysis with
previously completed tests or correlated with test results of similar types of
cables.
may be considered as nondestructive test. Diagnostic testing helps to
determine the relative amount of cable system degradation, and by
comparison with previous test records, whether a cable installation is likely
to continue to perform correctly. It needs to be noted that values of the
diagnostic quantity measurements collected during VLF tests may not
correlate with those collected during power frequency tests. For instance,
the PF and DF tests are completed at power frequency 60 Hz which is
much bigger than at 0.1 Hz, and PD may differ in terms of magnitude and
inception voltage. At the time cable system insulation is in an advanced
degradation stage, the VLF diagnostic tests can cause breakdown of the cable
before the test can be completed. The VLF withstand test for cable systems
can be completed with the following waveforms:
‐ Sinusoidal waveform
‐ Cosine‐rectangular waveform
‐ Alternating regulated positive and negative DC step voltages
‐ Bipolar rectangular waveform
The diagnostic test using VLF methods for cable systems are:
‐ VLF differential dissipation factor measurement VLF‐DTD
‐ VLF loss current harmonics VLF‐LCH
‐ VLF partial discharge measurement VLF‐PD
‐ Spectroscopy VLF‐DS
‐ Dissipation factor tan δ measurement VLF‐DF
‐ VLF dielectric
‐ VLF leakage current VLF‐LC
The most typically applied, commercially available VLF test frequency is 0.1
Hz. Other commercially available frequencies are in the range of 0.0001– 1
Hz. These frequencies may be beneficial for inspecting cable systems where
the cable system length surpasses the limitations of the test system at 0.1 Hz,
even though there is evidence that testing below 0.1 Hz may increase the risk
of failure in service once the test is completed. The internal impedance of the
test set can limit the available charging current, preventing the tested cable
to reach the required test voltage. Cable manufacturer may be consulted
when choosing an initial test voltage level and testing time duration for a
particular cable length. VLF test voltages with cosine‐rectangular and the
sinusoidal wave shapes are most typically applied. While other VLF wave
shapes are available for cable system testing, recommended test voltage
levels have not been specified. During a VLF test an electrical tree at the site
of an insulation defect is forced to penetrate the insulation. Inception of an
electrical tree and channel development time depend on test signal
frequency and amplitude. For an electrical tree to totally penetrate the
insulation during the test duration, VLF test voltage levels and testing time
durations have been determined for the two most typically used test signals,
the cosine‐rectangular and the sinusoidal wave shapes.
The installation and acceptance voltage levels are based on worldwide most‐
used practices of between two times rated voltage and three times rated
voltage for cables rated between 5 and 35 kV. The maintenance test level is
around 80% of the acceptance test level. One can decrease the test voltage
another 20% if more test cycles are done. Table 2 and Table 3 present
voltage levels for VLF withstand examination of shielded power cable
systems using cosine‐rectangular and sinusoidal waveforms.
Table 2. VLF test voltages for cosine‐rectangular waveform
Cable rating Installation phase Acceptance phase Maintenance phase
phase to to earth RMS to earth RMS to earth RMS
phase RMS voltage/peak voltage/peak voltage/peak
voltage kV voltage voltage voltage
5 12 14 10
8 16 18 14
15 25 28 22
25 38 44 33
Table 3. VLF test voltages for sinusoidal waveform
Cable rating Installation phase Acceptance phase Maintenance phase
phase to phase to earth to earth to earth RMS/Peak
RMS voltage RMS/Peak voltage RMS/Peak voltage voltage
kV
5 9/13 10/14 7/10
8 11/16 13/18 10/14
15 18/25 20/28 16/22
25 27/38 31/44 23/33
35 39 55 44 62 33 47
For a sinusoidal waveform, the RMS is 0.707 of the peak value if the
distortion is less than 5%. The suggested testing time ranges from 15 to 60
min, even though the average testing time of 30 min is typically used. The
real testing time and voltage may be determined by the supplier and user.
They are dependent on the testing philosophy, cable installation, insulation
condition, how frequently the test is done, and the chosen test technique.
When a VLF test is interrupted, it is suggested that the testing timer is reset
to the original time when the VLF test is restarted. The tan δ test may be
completed with VLF equipment at 0.1 Hz sinusoidal to monitor the aging and
degradation of extruded insulated cables. The tan δ test gives an assessment
of the water tree damage in the cable insulation. The tan δ measurement
with 0.1 Hz sinusoidal waveform gives comparative evaluation of the aging
condition of PE, XLPE, and EPR‐type insulation systems. The tan δ test needs
to be completed at normal operating service voltage to prevent insulation
breakdown.
The tan δ test completed at 0.1 Hz sinusoidal waveform is typically
determined by water tree damage in the insulation system and if the tan δ
measurement is bigger than 4 10 3, the service‐aged cable needs to be
examined for replacement. If the tan δ measurement is lower than 4 10 3,
the cable should be additionally examined with VLF at three times the
service voltage for 60 min.
The pros and cons of VLF testing are presented below:
Pros
‐ The 0.1 Hz cosine‐rectangular waveform has polarity changes similar
to those at power frequency. Because of the sinusoidal transitions between
the positive and negative polarities, traveling waves are not created, and
because of continuous polarity changes, dangerous space charges are less
likely to be created in the insulation.
‐ Leakage current needs to be measured.
‐ Cables may be examined with an AC voltage roughly three times the
28. PD Test
A PD is an electrical discharge that happens in a void within the extruded
cable insulation, at interfaces or surfaces such as shield protrusion and the
insulation or in a water tree within cable insulation when exposed to
relatively HV. PD manifests as a series of PD pulses during each half cycle of
an AC waveform. The rise time of the PD pulses is in the order of
nanoseconds to tens of nanoseconds. The PD pulses tend to set an
electromagnetic field which expands in both directions along the cable with a
propagation velocity that is based on the cable insulation dielectric constant.
PD features are dependent on the type, size and defect location, insulation
type, voltage, and cable temperature. The insulation of full reels of extruded
cables is tested for PDs at the factory at power frequency. This test is chosen
to discover small imperfections in the insulation such as voids or skips in the
insulation shield layer. It seems logical to complete PD measurements on
newly installed and service‐aged cables to discover any damage made during
the installation of new cable or in‐service degradation of cable insulation due
to PDs.
Two techniques that can be used for discovering PDs from installed cables in
the field. They are on‐ and off‐line detection system. There are several
commercial off‐line systems available for measuring PD in medium‐voltage
systems up to 35 kV . The online measuring system is based on measuring
PDs at the cable‐operating voltage. In the case of offline system, the PD
measurements are completed at a higher voltage than cable‐operating
voltage. This is due to the fact that the off‐line testing demands the power
cable to be de‐energized which results in cessation of any active PD activity.
In order to start the PD activity again in the de‐energized cable during off‐
line testing, a higher voltage is demanded to restart the PD activity. The test
equipment for PD testing for online or off‐line comprise of the power supply,
sensors and noise reduction, signal detection, and signal processing
instruments.
The power supply can be 60 Hz voltage, oscillating voltage, or VLF 0.1 Hz
voltage source. The sensors can be inductive couplers, capacitive couplers, or
an antenna along with noise treatment and amplification instruments. The
signal detection and processing instruments include digital oscilloscope,
spectrum analyzer, wave form digitizer and time‐domain reflectometer
TDR . Even though it is difficult to complete a PD measurement in the field
because of external noise, this test can be done in the field where conditions
warrant it is worth the time and cost to do so. The PD test provides the most
convincing validation whether the power cable is in good condition and
suitable for operation or needs to be fixed or replaced. The PD test is
beneficial for both the laminated and extruded cable insulation installations.
This test can be completed at power frequency or at any other frequency,
such as 0.1 Hz VLF .
To complete an off‐line PD test the cable is disconnected from the network at
both ends and correctly isolated. A voltage source and a coupling instrument,
or sensor, are connected at one of the ends, whereas the remote end is left
disconnected. The coupling instrument could be capacitive or inductive. The
coupling instrument is connected to the PD detecting and processing
systems. Variations of this arrangement include a measuring system with
sensors at both ends and means to communicate the far end data to the near
end processing devices or, in the case of a branched system, sensors installed
at the end of each branch. Multi‐terminal testing also has the benefit of
higher sensitivity in the PD testing of very long cable lengths as the pulse
travel distances are considerably shorter and consequently the related
attenuation of pulse amplitude is lower. The following steps are completed:
‐ Low‐voltage TDR is used to find cable joints and other irregularities
‐ Sensitivity check
‐ PD magnitude calibration
‐ PD testing under voltage stress
‐ Test record evaluation and documentation
Cable circuits with generic defects that may create big failure rates. For
example, some silane‐cured cables can create severe corrosion of aluminum
conductors.
Cable installations that are being considered for silicone injection, the
rationale being that all power cables with electrical trees will fail at bigger
test voltages. The bigger test voltages could also create new electrical trees.
Cable installations that may have suspect accessories and/or cables to
ensure operation during high load periods. The voltage in power frequency
tests may be applied for up to a maximum of 15 min to make sure that
electrons are available in cavities to start PD. Nevertheless, once PDs are
discovered, the voltage needs to be applied long enough to collect sufficient
data up to a maximum of 15 s.
For example, the following steps are done for voltage stress testing. The
voltage is quickly increased to the cable operating level 1.0 p.u. at which it
is kept for several minutes as a conditioning step. The voltage is increased to
its maximum value such as 2.0 or 2.5p.u. . It then is returned to zero as fast
as possible. During this stress cycle, several data sets are collected. Each of
these sets encompasses an entire 60 Hz period. The rising and falling parts of
the voltage help determine the PDIV and PD extinction voltage PDEV ,
respectively. It needs to be clear that off‐line testing using bigger voltages
than cable operating voltage may be a destructive test. In conclusion, it is not
possible to standardize a specific test procedure at the current time for
either online or off‐line tests. This may be possible as more information is
obtained.
For off‐line tests, the amplitude of the test voltage can be varied. For heavily
aged systems, a maximum test voltage of 2p.u. is recommended. As the
anticipated condition of the cable improves, the test voltage may be
increased to as much as 2.5p.u. New cable installations, either on the reel or
newly installed, may be tested to a maximum of 3p.u. at the concurrence of
the cable owner and cable manufacturer. The test duration needs to be
sufficiently long to allow the availability of electrons to start PDs, but once
PDs are discovered, the voltage needs to be applied long enough to obtain
sufficient PD data.
‐ If available splice type
PD test results
‐ Test date.
‐ Date of the most recent completed test.
‐ Splice location.
‐ Cable length.
‐ Background noise level.
‐ Test voltage levels.
‐ At each test voltage level, the location of each PD site, along with the
accuracy limits.
‐ At each voltage and site location, the number of PD events per second
or per cycle of a sinusoidal excitation voltage.
‐ Minimum resolvable PD signal pC magnitude and how it was found. If
the sensitivity is lower than anticipated, provide the justification.
‐ At each voltage and site location, a phase‐resolved PD representation
provided the excitation voltage is sinusoidal. Mention the number of cycles
included in the phase‐resolved diagram.
‐ Any other diagnostic results pertinent to the used test method.
‐ An indication of the severity of the PD behavior, if PDs are discovered,
and suggestions on possible corrective action to be done.
‐ Variations of this 3D representation are also possible. Others prefer a
set of two‐dimensional representations, presenting PD location with PDIV,
and apparent charge pC versus phase angle for each PD site, at each voltage
level, and PD repetition rate for each PD site at each voltage level.
‐ The reporting format may vary. For example, some prefer reporting
When resonance happens, the energy absorbed at any moment by one
reactive element is exactly same to that released by another reactive element
within the system. Therefore, energy pulsates from one reactive element to
the other. Hence, once the system has reached resonance condition, it needs
no additional reactive power since it is self‐sustaining. The total apparent
power is then simply equal to the average power dissipated by the resistive
elements in the inductor and cable installation. Either parallel or series
resonant circuits are typically used for completing this test. The series
resonant test consists of a voltage regulator autotransformer type that is
connected to the supply voltage. The regulator gives a variable voltage to the
exciter transformer. The exciter transformer is supplied by the voltage
regulator output. This transformer increases the voltage to a usable value by
the HV portion of the circuit. The HV reactor L and the load capacitance C
represent the HV portion of the circuit. The inductance of the HV reactor can
be changed by changing iron core air gap. The load capacitance C consists of
the load capacitance. When testing, the HV reactor is adjusted so that the
impedance of L corresponds to the impedance of C at the frequency of the
supply voltage. Hence, the circuit is tuned to series resonance at 50 or 60 Hz.
The Q of the basic resonant circuit or with a low loss test specimen is usually
50 to 80. The HV reactor is made for a minimum Q of 40. The system Q is
made around the projected load. In case of a flashover during testing on the
HV side, the resonant circuit is detuned and the test voltage instantly
decreases. The short‐circuit current is limited by the HV reactor impedance.
This means that the short‐circuit current of a series resonant system with a Q
of 40 is 2.5% of the load current to which it is tuned. The series resonant
mode is appropriate for sensitive PD measurements.
Harmonics from the supply are better suppressed than in parallel mode. The
parallel resonant configuration gives a more stable output voltage with test
specimens, such as big generator windings, or other specimens with corona
losses. The test voltage rate of rise is stable in parallel mode, independent of
the tuning degree and the Q of the circuit. Also, parallel mode allows the test
set to be energized to full voltage without a load. This is beneficial for
calibrating the instrumentation and checking for the test equipment PD level.
The test voltage rate of rise is stable in parallel mode, independent of the
degree of tuning and the Q of the circuit. The average power absorbed by the
system will also be at a maximum at resonance. The typically used measure
of the quality in a resonant circuit is the quality factor, or Q. The power
source of resonant circuits operating in the resonant mode is used to supply
the dissipated energy.
Q is roughly equivalent to the ratio of the output kVA to the input kVA. Given
the load kVA demands and the Q of the test system, the input power can be
determined by dividing the kVA by the Q. The correct operation mode must
be selected according to the test objects and the measurements that need to
be completed. The parallel resonant mode gives a more stable output voltage
with test specimens, such as large generator windings, or other specimens
with corona losses. Resonant test installations are available that use variable
inductance and variable frequency resonant and pulsed resonant test
sources. A quick overview of the variable frequency resonant test installation
is as follows.
The resonant test installation with variable frequency typically consists of
the frequency converter, the exciting transformer, the coupling capacitors,
and HV reactors with fixed inductance. The frequency converter produces a
variable voltage and frequency output which is applied to the exciter
transformer. The exciter transformer excites the series resonant circuit
consisting of the reactor’s inductance L and the cable capacitance C. The
resonance is adjusted by tuning the frequency of the frequency converter
according the expression:
1 /
f LC
2π
The tuning range of the test installation is calculated by the converter’s
frequency range:
C f
C f
is applied in a steps and the leakage current is observed, then the test may be
classified as being non‐destructive. The reasoning for this is that the test can
be stopped before the insulation gets to a failure point since at every step of
voltage application the leakage current is being observed and evaluated
before continuing to the next step. An application of this test technique is the
step‐voltage DC hi‐pot withstand test. The same cannot be stated for AC hi‐
pot withstand test since there is no possibility to assess the leakage current.
Hence, this test would be considered as go‐no‐go test and destructive. The
GCA tests and PD tests are classified as non‐destructive since the voltage
used during these checks is either the same, or lower than, or slightly above
the in‐service operating voltage. The pros and cons of the tests are as follow:
extruded cable long after the test’s conclusion
‐ Cannot discover high impedance failures such as voids and cuts
‐ Stress distribution is not the same as in‐service conditions
‐ Cannot be cross compared to factory tests
Cons:
‐ Aggravate failures in aged power cable without failing them
‐ Does not replicate service conditions
‐ Cannot be directly cross compared to factory tests
‐ Not suggested for aged power cable with multiple failures
‐ Stress distribution is not the same as in‐service conditions
‐ Does not replicate normal stress distribution conditions with wet
regions
Pros:
‐ Considered as non‐destructive to cable insulation
‐ Tests are completed at in‐service voltage levels
‐ Monitor the overall condition of the cable insulation
‐ Efficient in discovering and assessing conduction‐type failures
‐ Can be cross compared to factory tests
‐ Portable for field testing
Cons:
‐ Need prior cable types and data for cross comparison
‐ Temperature dependant in extruded cables
‐ Cannot discover high‐impedance failures such as cuts, voids, and PD
‐ Cannot discover singular failures in extruded insulation, such as water
tree
‐ Not an efficient test for mixed dielectric or newly installed cable
installation
‐ Equipment is expensive in comparison to hi‐pot equipment
41. PD Tests
Two type of PD tests are considered, that is online PD testing and off‐line PD
testing. PD diagnostics evaluations are considered to be efficient in
discovering defects in shielded power cables.
‐ Cannot discover or locate conduction‐type failures
‐ Finds all defect sites in one test from one cable end
‐ Is efficient with mixed dielectric power cables
‐ Can be quickly compared to factory baseline tests
Cons:
‐ Need circuit outage for test completion
‐ Equipment is costly in comparison to other tests