Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal, 21(2), 1-16

An Investigation into the Perceptions of Japanese University

Educators on the Use of ICT in an EFL Tertiary Setting

Matthew Caldwell (mattinhannan2@gmail.com)

Hannan University, Japan

Abstract
Promotion of the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) in Japanese
education by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
(MEXT) has continued over the last two decades with national strategies such as e-Japan
Strategy, New IT Reform Strategy, and e-Japan strategy 2015. However, a cursory browse
through reports from organizations such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) reveals that Japan still lags behind other countries in the
uptake of ICT in education. Why is this? Is it in some way due to a lack of interest from
teachers? This study sought to determine what role university educators saw for ICT, as
well as the factors influencing the use of ICT in university EFL classrooms. Educator
perceptions were investigated through the qualitative method of four separate semi-
structured interviews, which provided data that was then coded for analysis purposes.
Educators noted the potential of technology to promote independent learning and student
engagement. Factors such as leadership support, improved ICT infrastructure, and the
educator’s own desire to use ICT were seen as influencing the use of ICT. Teachers’
beliefs, traditional teaching methods, and cultural issues were identified as barriers to ICT
integration in classrooms. The need for ICT training, especially pedagogical, also
emerged.

Keywords: Integrating ICT, Japanese universities, Teachers, EFL.

Introduction
Information Technology (IT) originally referred to computers and associated
hardware such as disk drives and printers. The 'C' was added in the late 1990s to account
for the influence of the communication aspect of technology (UNESCO, 2010). This
communication element was driven by the development of the Internet, which provided
the platform for email and mobile technologies (Unwin, 2007). The term
transformational has been used by Beetham and Sharpe (2007, p. xvi) to describe the
potential effect of ICT integration on teaching and learning. Citing the example of a
young boy who dislikes study, is low on self-esteem and possesses few skills, the authors
claim the technology can gather the content he finds interesting, conform to the demands
of the younger generations, and “respond to individual needs of pace and level”. Japan
would seem to be in a strong position to make the most of the potential that ICT offers as
it has the world’s second-highest number of both fixed broadband and mobile broadband
subscriptions (OECD, 2019). Furthermore, the World Economic Forum’s Network
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Readiness Index (NRI), an index that measures a country’s ability to make the most of
opportunities arising from ICT, places Japan 10th in the world (WEF, 2016). Yet when it
comes to utilising technology in education, figures show that Japan lags behind other
countries with just one computer available for every four 15-year-old students, slightly
better than the OECD average of 5:1 (OECD, 2015), and a ranking of 37th place among
139 countries for internet access in schools. To better understand why tertiary institutions
in Japan have not made use of ICT to transform teaching and learning, as Beetham and
Sharpe claim it can, this study investigates the perceptions of tertiary EFL (English as a
Foreign Language) educators regarding the use of ICT for study purposes.

Review of Literature
Among the factors noted in the literature as influencing educators’ use of
technology in classrooms are; teacher beliefs, teacher change, availability of professional
development, self-efficacy, teaching styles, and cultural considerations. These factors are
discussed in brief here.
Pajares (1992) believes that educational beliefs are related to a teacher’s belief in
his or her confidence to affect a student’s performance, and also notes that beliefs are
filters that inform teachers regarding instruction and decisions about curriculums. Turner,
Christensen, & Meyer (2009) add that beliefs represent an individual’s subjective
knowledge. Although research shows that teachers with constructivist beliefs are more
likely to try and integrate technology into their teaching (Higgins & Moseley, 2001; Sang
et al., 2011; Hermans et al., 2008), there is also research to show that holding
constructivist beliefs about teaching does not guarantee that technology use will be
constructivist in nature (Teo et al., 2008). A study from Levin and Wadmany (2006, p.
172) supports this view and notes that it is more likely that teachers’ beliefs on teaching
and classroom practices involving technology exist on a continuum in which “teaching
as transmission” is located at one end, with “teaching as facilitating knowledge
reconstruction” located on the opposite end.
The ability of a teacher to change his or her teaching practices is identified by
Ertmore and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010) as a key variable influencing integration of
technology. They give a number of reasons to explain teachers’ reluctance to introduce
technology to their teaching, including a lack of relevant knowledge, low self-efficacy,
and existing belief systems. Galanouli et al. (2004, p. 66) state that “resisting change is a
state of mind for many teachers and one of the most difficult barriers to the effective
integration of ICT to conquer”. One of the consequences of this unwillingness to change
is that when teachers are obliged to use ICT, it is often part of curricula featuring more
open-ended learning styles, which require different instruction methods; yet in many
cases, teachers persist with traditional instruction methods (Cullingford & Haq, 2009).
Wood and Bandura (1989) state that having a successful experience makes it more
likely that teachers will have higher self-efficacy, and that a bad experience leads to lower
self-efficacy. Studies have shown that the degree to which a teacher is confident in using
technology helps to predict how successful attempts at integrating ICT into learning will
be (Hatlevik & Hatlevik, 2018; Kusano et al., 2013; Moreira et al., 2018; Ha & Lee,
2019). Training in the use of ICT for study purposes should help teachers become more
confident and Schrum and Levin (2013) note that teachers have voiced the need for
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professional development if they are to successfully integrate technology into their

teaching. Levels of support within the school, together with the amount of access to ICT
resources are cited as being critical to technology integration (Al-Ruz & Khassawneh,
2011; Preston et al., 2000; Castaño-Muñoz et al., 2018).
Teaching styles can also be said to affect the degree to which teachers use
technology in the classroom. The transmissionist learning model sees “the teacher as the
source of knowledge and the students as passive recipients of knowledge” (Teo et al.,
2008, p. 165). This is in contrast to a constructivist style of teaching, which emphasizes
student-centred learning that promotes independent learning and student meaning-
making (Teo et al., 2008). Evidence from the literature indicates that the dominant
teaching style in Japan is a transmission-style and Aoki (2010) cites results from a
University of Tokyo study which found that 82% of classes were lecture-based, and only
30% of the respondents said that they had opportunities to make comments in class.
Hayashi and Cherry (2004) point out that in Japanese collectivist classrooms there is a
focus on the teacher transmitting information to the students in a lecturing style, with few
opportunities for students to express their opinions. Mima (2003, p. 266) declares that:

In conventional Japanese education, the curriculum is largely designed for fact-based,

exam-oriented learning. In this learning process standard textbooks are used to facilitate
the hierarchical flow of information from ‘knowers’ to ‘nonknowers’ and this one-way
flow has been implemented in the name of improving efficiency of education.

Robertson et al. (2004) inform us that learning with ICT necessitates using more
open-ended aspects of learning, thus the difficulties of trying to integrate ICT into
Japanese classrooms, where the transmissionist teaching style is more prevalent, becomes
apparent.
Yoshida and Bachnik (2003, p. 43) claim that another hindrance to the
implementation of ICT in Japanese higher education arises from the priority that Japanese
universities place on institutional rather than specialist-based criteria. The authors point
out that universities often choose to ignore the fact that faculty members need certain
skills to implement IT. Thus, it is not uncommon to see chairpersons of university
committees, who have been charged with promoting the integration of ICT into university
classrooms, lacking even rudimentary ICT skills, “because they were appointed by
criteria for seniority rather than skills”.

Method
Objective

The purpose of this study was to add to the literature on issues related to the use
of ICT by educators in EFL classrooms at Japanese universities. This was achieved by
seeking the opinions of university educators in relation to the use of technology to teach
and learn English. More specifically, the objective was to gain a better understanding of
what university educators felt the role of ICT was in EFL classrooms, and their opinions
on the factors influencing its use. This objective led to the formation of the following
research question:
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With regards to the use of ICT for EFL learning purposes, what are the
perceptions of Japanese university educators on:
(a) the role of ICT
(b) the factors influencing the use of ICT

Research Design

The author has worked as an EFL instructor at a number of Japanese universities,

thus providing opportunities to observe how each institution approaches the use of ICT
in their classrooms, as well as the chance to discuss the use of ICT in classes with other
instructors. It was felt that a series of semi-structured interviews with university educators
would be the best way to attain the objectives of the research. Mackey and Gass (2016)
note that in the qualitative research approach, existing situations are observed, and
questions start to emanate, leading to the formation of a hypothesis. Semi-structured
interviews use questions that are standardised and help to ensure that information from
different interviews is complete and consistent (Harrell and Bradley, 2009).
The sample for the semi-structured interviews consisted of four educators, all-
male and employed at Japanese universities. They are identified as Interviewee 1
(hereafter “I1”), Interviewee 2 (I2), Interviewee 3 (I3), and Interviewee 4 (I4). Apart
from I4, who is chief of the ICT department at a university and works in an administrative
role, all are full-time members of faculty at different private universities in western Japan.
I1 is a native English-speaking professor and teaches English to students majoring in
English (his students use an iPad in most classes). I2 is also a native English-speaking
professor and teaches English to students majoring in business. He sits on the university
ICT committee. I3 is a professor at a university of technology and a native speaker of
Japanese. He teaches English to students majoring in technology. The educators were also
asked to complete a pre-interview questionnaire containing straightforward questions one
week before the interview to save time. The interviews each lasted approximately thirty-
five minutes and were conducted in the participants’ offices. All interviews were recorded
with an IC recorder and transcribed.

Data Analysis

To analyse the data, what Marshall and Rossman (2014, p. 214) term “thematic
memos” were created. These helped group together thoughts about how a story emerged
or revealed a sentiment that the respondent seemed to be expressing. In addition, it is
easier to identify patterns and themes in the data, which Patton, 2002 (cited in Teddlie
and Tashakkori, 2009, p. 251) describes as a pattern of inductive analysis.

Findings and Analysis

The findings revealed that research participants felt that using technology in
classrooms could be beneficial both in terms of pedagogical and learning management
uses. They also identified challenges in trying to implement ICT in their classes. It
 5

emerged that multiple sources were driving the integration of ICT at their institutions and
that cultural issues also influenced ICT integration in Japanese university classrooms.

Advantages of Integrating ICT

Independent learning

The capacity of technology to facilitate independent learning was identified in the

interviews, with I3 stating that in addition to pedagogical purposes, his Moodle is used as
a Learning Management System (LMS). Regarding activities not completed in class, he
stated,
“I would just leave it to them to finish outside class. And then I can concentrate
more on what I want to do. That's a good use of learning management.”
I1 also feels that technology can support independent learning, as can be seen from his
comment regarding how students use their iPads.
“We just need to show them in class, and they can do it on their own – fantastic!”
Majumdar (2006) claims that learners appreciate ICT for this kind of flexibility in
relation to time, space and place.

Student engagement

There was some consensus among the professors on the potential for ICT to engage
students in learning and I3 commented,
“Engagement is the name of the game.”
I2 concurred with this and indicated that there was plenty of engagement from his students
when using the vocabulary learning app Quizlet,
“Oh, they enjoyed it, and there is a lot of chatter going on, comparing with each
other. There are certain races, little competitions you can do, and they enjoyed it,
it's clear.”

Reading (2008, p. 6) recommends teachers use an Engagement Measurement Plan

for students involved in tasks that integrate technology. Doing so would help teachers
recognise the contributions that the use of ICT has made to learning.
Although the professors had positive views on the degree to which use of ICT
could engage students, they were more circumspect about the value of ICT in promoting
motivation to learn. When asked if student use of ICT improved motivation, I2 replied,
“It’s hard to say.”

His students are required to use apps on their smartphones to study vocabulary
before coming to class but rarely do it. He revealed plans to use the inbuilt monitoring
function on the apps to check whether students had studied the vocabulary before class,
with task completion earning extra points for students. He stated,
“I need to find another way to hook them. And I think it might have to become a bit
of a bait and switch.”
 6

This comment suggests that he believes an extrinsic form of motivation is

necessary. I3 also acknowledged the failure of ICT to motivate some of his students.
“Some have motivational problems…… and are not concerned about it at all.”

Challenges to Integrating ICT

Participants expressed views that indicate they believe there are a number of
factors that can negatively influence teacher uptake of ICT in the classroom.

Teacher reluctance

I1 cited age and teaching styles as reasons why teachers in his university might
not want to implement ICT.
“We have a teacher who is sixty-seven. It’s different for such teachers. Their
whole idea of what happens in the classroom is totally different. It's probably
lectured based.”

I2 revealed that there are some teachers at his university who have no interest in
using technology, either due to a lack of knowledge, or an unwillingness to change.
“We have got people who have never opened email for example, or barely open
it. And then there are people, who have developed their own teaching style. And
they are happy with that. This is human nature; people often don't want to change.
They want to keep what they are doing”.

Cox et al. (1999) (cited in Bingimlas, 2009. p. 239) note that teachers are unlikely
to use new technologies if they perceive there is nothing wrong with their existing
teaching. They also state that teachers who oppose change are not rejecting the need for
change but often lack the knowledge that would help them see the benefits of change.
This is supported by Bingimlas (2009) who says that teacher reluctance to change is often
as a result of teachers lacking expertise as well as both time and technical support. He
suggests that more effective faculty development might be one way to address this
problem.

Insufficient training for ICT

There were diverging views among the professors regarding training to help
integrate ICT into teaching practices. I1’s comments suggest that he does not see a
pressing need for training in how to integrate ICT into teaching practice. Regarding his
university’s use of iPads, he claimed,
“Teachers know how to teach, so this is just another tool.”
I3 felt that he received adequate support from his university to help him with
queries about technology. Regarding pedagogical training from the university on the use
of ICT, he stated that it was up to the teachers themselves to attain this and then pass it
onto colleagues.
“I think that is more of our responsibility, going to those ‘Gakkais’ - (research
meetings and conferences), and study associations. We then feed it back into the
school, among English teachers.”
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I2 was critical of the Professional Development available at his university, and

related that he was unhappy with the status quo. In his capacity as a member of the ICT
committee, he had suggested to the university that teacher trainers be introduced.
“Why can't we have genuine informed people, teacher trainers, basically, come in
and watch our classes and give us real feedback?”

The diversity of opinions in relation to the issue of ICT training suggests that
reaching a consensus on effective training is difficult.
A comment made by I3 reflected the degree to which self-efficacy can influence
teacher uptake of technology. He noted that teachers are often put off using Computer
Aided Language Learning (CALL) rooms at his university because the equipment looks
so complicated.
“You have four or five monitors in front of you, you never know which one is
showing what! There are so many gadgets, two or three keyboards!”

Time constraints

Literature provides many references to indicate that teachers feel a lack of time is
a hindrance to the integration of ICT by teachers (Almekhlafi and Almeqdadi, 2010;
BECTA, 2004; Dawson, 2012). This was also evident in comments made by all three of
the professors, where they indicated that a lack of time and the pressure of other
commitments influenced the degree to which teachers might use ICT. I3 mentioned that
even though he shared a manual for his Moodle with colleagues, they did not use it.
Explaining why they did not use it, he stated,
“Maybe they already have too many things to do!”
I2 also spoke about the difficulty of finding time to undergo ICT training. Like I3,
he chooses to attend conferences and presentations for professional development
purposes. However, he pointed out that these are often held after work or at the weekend.
“When you have to do these things in the evening and at the weekend, it's hard.”
I1 also suggested that he was too busy to attend ICT training.
“We could do more, but we are all doing our own research and we are also
involved with improving the existing system.”

Connectivity problems

Problems related to gaining access to the internet were evident from comments
made by some of the participants. In I2’s case, he expressed frustration in relation to
insufficient data on students’ smartphone subscriptions.
“We have that situation towards the end of the month, where students have some
trouble with their data plans, they are getting near to the end of it and then suddenly,
their providers turn the tap off.”

The fact that students have to use their own data to access the Internet raises
questions about the availability of Wi-Fi and, I4, the ICT administrator acknowledged
this.
“There are a number of places (on campus) where there are problems when we
have a lot of students connecting to the Wi-Fi at the same time.”
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Oriaku (2008) warns that colleges already struggling to pay for updating of
computer systems often cannot afford the extra costs involved in trying to provide the
tools necessary to make maximum use of emerging technologies. I2 made reference to
this problem of high costs and revealed that the ICT committee was currently considering
a new Wi-Fi system.
“It’s a problematic issue, because to update everything to a Wi-Fi strength to what
is required is enormously expensive.”

Multiple Sources Instigating Integration of ICT

A noteworthy aspect to emerge from the research was the multifarious nature of
sources leading to the integration of ICT in Japanese universities. One of these is
leadership, and I1 cited the importance of the role university leaders play in integrating
ICT.
“So, a lot of it has to come from the top down, too. Because if it’s not there, there’s
nothing you can do.’”
This is supported by claims from Dexter (2008, p. 543), who argues that effective
leadership for technology in a school “is a significant predictor of its use by teachers and
students.” In contrast to this view, comments from I3 seem to indicate that his own desire
to leverage ICT to support his teaching and student learning, rather than an institutional
push, are what motivate him to use ICT. Similarly, while I2 did not refer to any curricular
demands that he should use technology in his classes, his position on the ICT committee
at his university may have prompted him to try integrating ICT more into his teaching
practices.
When asked about the degree to which the university was following the Ministry
of Education directives with regard to ICT integration, I4 stated that the main directive
from the Ministry concerned Active Learning and merely suggested that the university
promote it through using ICT. He stressed that while they had made attempts to do this,
it was still very much up to teachers themselves to decide on whether they use technology
or not.
The participants also noted that students’ preference for using smartphones was
also contributing to the use of technology for learning. I4 referred to a phrase that has
become ubiquitous among students,
“Sumafon de sumasu”,
which loosely translates as, “Your smartphone can do it all!” The phrase expresses
the sentiment that one’s smartphone is almighty, all-powerful, and can be used for any
task. He revealed that the university ICT support desk frequently receives queries from
students who have completed reports on their smartphones in the Notes function and want
to know how they can get the data off the phone so that they can submit the work. I1 also
recognised the fact that students were very comfortable with the digital world, claiming,
“The current generation, they don't know life outside of this stuff!”
I3 also noted that students were much more comfortable using smartphones, rather
than computers.
“Instead of being able to use computers adroitly, they are used to using mobile
phones, their fingers are good. It's (smartphone) part of their life.”
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Cultural Factors Influencing Use of ICT

The impact of cultural issues on the usage of ICT was also conspicuous in the
findings. How these issues might affect the integration of ICT into teaching practices is
discussed here.

Mistrust of technology

The influence of classroom norms on student beliefs about the use of technology
in the class came to light when I2 spoke about an incident that took place at a teacher
training university where he works part-time. He recalled the negative reaction students
had towards a student who was using her smartphone to look at some cues as she gave a
presentation. Her classmates felt that she had erred in using her smartphone during class.
“They (the students) had a sort of blanket mentality that it's not okay to use a
phone in the classroom.”
I2 expressed uncertainty as to why students reacted in this way, but it is possible
that their attitudes were tied into a mistrust of technology in an educational context.
Morrone (2012) claims such beliefs are common in Japan and present a major obstacle to
the integration of ICT in Japanese classrooms. He cites the fact that many schools refuse
to allow the use of calculators in Japan as an example of this mistrust. Such mind-sets
perceive the use of technology in the classroom almost akin to cheating and make
integration of technology more difficult. This case highlights the need for educators to be
alert to cultural issues that may influence how students interact with technology in
classrooms.

Composition of committees at Japanese universities

It was noted previously that integration of ICT at Japanese universities is often

hindered by an emphasis on institutional values, rather than specialist skills when
appointing people to committees charged with overseeing administrative and educational
matters (Yoshida & Bachnik, 2003). This is reflected in a comment I2 makes about his
appointment to the ICT committee.
“The fact that I am on the committee, I think that's probably down to a cultural
thing, the Japanese thing of where everybody has to do something, everybody has
to do their fair share”.
Whilst he was happy to serve on the ICT committee, I2 felt that others may have
been more qualified to do so. He added that others on the committee knew even less than
he did about computers. Deeply embedded practices such as this work against innovation
and make ICT integration even more difficult.

Discussion
With regard to the first part of the research question and the role of ICT, while the
findings reveal that educators believe ICT can positively contribute to student learning,
the degree to which it does so is less clear. I1 expressed positive views about the role ICT
played in his classes and felt that it helped with student autonomy, as students were able
 10

to learn on their own. His positive attitude towards technology was likely influenced by
school management supportive of ICT and school policy that requires all students to use
iPads. In addition to its usefulness for pedagogical purposes, I3 also felt that using the
learning management capabilities of ICT helped support students through independent
learning. It could be argued that utilizing LMS in this way is somewhat limited use of
ICT and fails to realize the potential of ICT to change learning. The literature contains
references which caution against an over-emphasis on the technology being used, with
De Boer (2013) warning that the use of technology in second language learning places
too much focus on the technology tools aiding learning, and not enough on the process
through which a language is learned via the help of technology. Hardman (2019) notes
that while studies have shown technology on its own has no significant impact on student
achievement, attainment can be positively influenced by the use of ICT, depending on the
pedagogical practices of teachers. In other words, it is how technology is used and
designed that determines whether or not the use of ICT will help improve learning
outcomes. This serves to highlight the need for ICT training, especially training for
pedagogical uses of ICT.
While I2 could see how ICT could engage his students, he was doubtful of its
capacity to motivate them. The difficulties involved in trying to foster independent
learning was highlighted by I2’s comment that he was hoping to use extrinsic forms of
motivation to encourage his students to complete vocabulary learning activities with their
smartphones before coming to class. Ushioda (2013) argues for a different stance, in this
case, claiming that internalised motivation for independent learning can be increased by
giving students more autonomy, flexibility, and choices. For students with low motivation,
I2’s “carrot” approach of using the awarding of points may serve to motivate students
when introducing new technology, at least until they can better understand the intrinsic
value of what they are studying. Giving students more freedom to choose how they use
their smartphones to learn English when they have understood the intrinsic value of such
methods could increase their motivation to study even further. In a study of EFL learners
in Spain, Kopinska (2017) notes that the use of ICT when learning a language contributes
to a sense of fun and innovation and can be important in sustaining the motivation of
learners, especially those with less well-developed English language skills.
With respect to the second part of the research question and identifying the factors
which influence educators’ use of ICT, the findings pointed to a number of issues. Among
these, a reluctance by teachers to change their teaching style was noted by the professors
as one of the challenges to integrating ICT into education. Many teachers may be reluctant
to try using technology because of the fear that they will look like a novice in front of
students if they cannot use the technology correctly or if something goes wrong. This fear
may be more pronounced in Japan where a transmissionist teaching style views the
teacher as the possessor of knowledge, charged with passing this knowledge onto students.
Morrone (2012) adds that teachers in Japan often foster a dependency-type relationship
with students, where the student cannot manage without the guidance of the teacher.
These factors make introducing ICT into classrooms less straightforward and as such, it
is not hard to imagine why teachers might be less willing to attempt to integrate ICT in
such cases.
The absence of training emerged as a potential barrier to integrating ICT, and while
both I2 and I3 expressed a willingness to undergo ICT training, as full-time members of
faculty, they have the option to ask the university to fund any courses they wish to join.
 11

Part-time teachers, however, do not have this option, despite being heavily relied upon at
Japanese universities. Nagatomo (2012) reveals that part-time teachers make up almost
57% of the teaching population at Japanese universities. I4, the university ICT chief,
alluded to the difficulties of arranging training for part-time teachers due to the fact many
part-teachers work at a different university every day. They would effectively need to run
the same course five times to cover all the part-time teachers that work from Monday to
Friday. Apart from the obvious practical difficulties involved in arranging this, financial
considerations would most likely render it unworkable.
Time constraints were also mentioned by the professors as an obstacle to attending
ICT training sessions. One suggestion that might ameliorate both the problems of finding
extra time to attend ICT training and also for training for busy part-time teachers is to
arrange attendance in an online course, as suggested by Frederick et al. (2006). The
diverse nature of courses taught at university is also referenced by Lockley (2013) as
contributing to the difficulties in arranging appropriate ICT training for teachers. Putting
additional resources into Faculty Development (FD) could also help universities to tackle
this problem.
The role of leadership in integrating ICT was raised by I1, who felt that ICT
integration was impossible without it. While literature does reference the importance of
leadership when implementing ICT (Chen et al., 2013; Schiller, 2002), it also notes both
the need for consensus among teachers about how best to integrate ICT into teaching, as
well as the importance of teacher autonomy. In their research on how schools can
successfully utilize professional development for technology integration, Schrum and
Levin (2013, p. 37) noted that the teachers they interviewed all worked in schools where
“the principles of distributed leadership” were practiced. Distributed leadership is
“characterised as a form of collective leadership” where teachers develop their skills
working together (Harris & Muijis, 2004, p. 28). Furthermore, in a study that sought to
determine factors influencing teachers’ intentions to integrate smartphones in language
lessons, O’ Neill et al. (2018), found that the degree to which teachers were influenced
by self-efficacy and autonomy to use smartphones in their lessons depended on how
familiar the teachers were with these devices. To this end, the authors cited
recommendations from Zhao and Frank (2003, p. 108) that schools take an evolutionary
rather than a revolutionary stance when trying to promote the use of technology in the
classroom. That is, rather than prescribing what technology teachers use (a top-down
approach), that it would be better to let teachers become more comfortable with using
devices, perhaps even for personal purposes, and then have them decide themselves how
they might apply their use to classroom learning situations.
The situation for the other professors was different and it appeared their efforts at
integrating ICT derived from their initiative. Comments made by I4 in relation to
directives on the use of ICT from the Ministry of Education suggested that the degree to
which government policy is instigating ICT integration at the tertiary level is rather
limited. This is confirmed by Narita (2003), who notes that in contrast to primary and
secondary schools, where the Ministry of Education has much more direct influence,
government influence on higher education is less direct and universities have a lot more
leeway in how they choose to integrate ICT in the classroom.
 12

Limitations and recommendations for further research

The study has a number of limitations, the most significant being the small sample
size (N = 4). In addition, all four educators work in universities situated in the same
geographical location in western Japan. This limits the degree to which the findings can
be generalised. Further research should try to increase sample sizes. Research into teacher
perceptions on integrating ICT into their teaching might also try to adopt a mixed-
methods approach. An initial quantitative study with a larger sample size could be used
to identify issues concerning the integration of ICT in EFL classes at the tertiary level,
with a subsequent qualitative study delving deeper into issues raised.

Conclusion
The potential for increased engagement and more independent learning among
their students were identified by the teachers in this study as possible merits of integrating
ICT into their teaching practice. However, maximizing the potential of ICT to realize
those aims is not straightforward. The barriers educators face when trying to make this
integration successful are multi-faceted, including financial, pedagogical, and cultural.
Teachers can take students to the “technology well”, but they need assistance in showing
the students how to drink from this well. If universities in Japan wish to overcome these
barriers, training in the practical and pedagogical use of ICT is essential to ensure that
students can become engaged in their learning, thus becoming both more autonomous,
and motivated to learn.

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