Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Properties of recycled concrete aggregate and their influence in new T

concrete production
⁎
Kho Pin Veriana, , Warda Ashrafb, Yizheng Caoc
a
Laticrete International, Inc., One Laticrete Park North, CT, 06524-3423, USA
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, USA
c
SSCI, Albany Molecular Research Inc., West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This manuscript presents a review of the potential and challenge of using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as
Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) the substitute for natural aggregate (NA) in concrete mixtures. Using RCA in concrete preserves the environment
Compressive strength by reducing the need for opening new aggregate quarries and decreases the amount of construction waste that
Fly ash goes into landfill. The properties of RCA such as specific gravity, absorption, and the amount of contaminant
Specific gravity
present in it contribute to the strength and durability of concrete. The quality of RCA depends on the features of
Absorption
the original aggregate and the condition of the demolished concrete. Some researchers have reported that the use
of RCA degrades concrete properties while others have successfully produced RCA concrete with a performance
that matched normal concrete (NC). In addition to the influence of RCA to concrete properties, this paper also
evaluates multiple techniques to improve the performance of RCA concrete, reported cost savings in concrete
production and recommendations regarding the application of RCA in concrete.

1. Introduction aggregate (RA) may help to address some of these challenges (ACPA,
2009; Verian, 2012). RA can be derived from existing concrete, and
Concrete is known as one of the most highly consumed construction thus, termed as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). According to de
materials. The primary ingredients of a concrete mixture are cement, Vries (1996), the application of RCA in construction works has become
aggregates (coarse and fine), water and admixtures (Mindess et al., a subject of priority throughout many places around the world. As in-
2003; National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA), 2012). dicators, 10% of the total aggregates used in the United Kingdom (UK)
Among the aforementioned components, aggregate takes up about 70% are RCA (Collins, 1996), 78000 tons of RCA were used in the Nether-
to 80% of concrete’s volume. Types of NAs that are commonly used in lands in 1994 (de Vries, 1996) while Germany has been aiming a target
concrete application consist of crushed stone, sand, and gravel (USGS, of 40% recycling rate of its building and demolition waste since 1991
1997). These NAs are obtained through mining natural resources and (van Acker, 1998). According the data in 1997, 0.9 million out of 1.06
opening aggregate quarries. The mining process of NAs generally takes million metric ton of the recycled old concrete was used for construc-
place in vast aggregate quarries that involves heavy equipment and tion in Denmark (Schimmoller et al., 2000). The annual production of
consumes an excessive amount of energy. The resources of NAs are recycled materials derived from old asphalt pavement reached 0.8
abundant but finite (USGS, 1997). Challenges may develop in con- million metric ton in Sweden in 1999, in which 95% of it was used in
struction due to depletion and scarcity of the sources, restrictions on the new asphalt pavement (Schimmoller et al., 2000). Florea and
opening new sources and the increased production cost. Using recycled Brouwers (2012) have reported that due to the costly landfilling

Abbreviations: ACI, American Concrete Institute; ASR, Alkali-Silica Reaction; ASTM, American Society for testing Materials; BCA, Benefit-Cost Analysis; BFB, asalt Fiber; CH, Calcium
Hydroxide; C-S-H, Calcium Silicate Hydrate; CTE, Coefficient of Thermal Expansion; DHE, Double Hooked-End; FA, Fly Ash; FT, Freeze-Thaw; FHWA, Federal Highway Administration;
HCl, Hydrochloric Acid; IN, Indiana; INDOT, Indiana Department of Transportation; ITM, Indiana Test Method; ITZ, Interfacial Transition Zone; L.A, Los Angeles; MMA, Mortar Mixing
Approach; NA, Natural Aggregate; NC, Normal Concrete; NMA, Normal Mixing Approach; JRCP, Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements; OPC, Ordinary Portland Cement; PP, Pozzolanic
Powder; RA, Recycled Aggregate; RAP, Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement; RCA, Recycled Concrete Aggregate; RCPT, Rapid Chloride Permeability Test; RDME, Relative Dynamic Modulus of
Elasticity; RMA, Recycled Masonry Aggregate; RMC, Reclaimed Mortar Content; rpm, rotation per minute; SCM, Supplementary Cementitious Material; SEM, Scanning Electron
Microscopy; SEMA, Sand Enveloped Mixing Approach; SF, Silica Fume; SR, State Road; SSD, Saturated Surface Dry; TSMA, Two-Stage Mixing Approach; TSMAS, Two-Stage Mixing
Approach with Silica Fume; TSMASC, Two-Stage Mixing Approach with Silica Fume and Cement; UK, United Kingdom; U.S., United States; USGS, United States Geological Survey; w/b,
water to binder ratio; w/cm, water to cementitious ratio
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: kverian@laticrete.com (K.P. Verian), warda.ashraf@maine.edu (W. Ashraf), yizheng.cao@amriglobal.com (Y. Cao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.005
Received 8 October 2017; Received in revised form 6 February 2018; Accepted 6 February 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

process, which I some cases are more costly than recycling, many RCA was at least in the partially-saturated moisture state prior the
European countries have set a high bar for their recycling goals – be- mixing with TSMA method (Brand et al., 2015).
tween 50% to 90% of their construction and demolition (C&D) waste
production. 3. Production of RCA
In the United States (U.S.), nearly 100 highway paving projects by
the mid-1990s had incorporated RCA in concrete for pavements, some There are many types of materials that can be recycled and used as a
of which are derived from pavements exhibiting D-cracking and alkali- substitute for NA in construction. These materials include, but not
silica reaction (ASR) damage (Burke et al., 1992). limited to, concrete, brick (Kabir et al., 2012; Cachim, 2009; Khalaf and
As one of the solutions in preserving the environment and as it is DeVenny, 2005), ceramic (Binici, 2007; Torkittikul and Chaipanich,
rich in potentials, the use of RCA has been rising and is encouraged. For 2010; Medina et al., 2012; Senthamarai et al., 2011; Pacheco-Torgal
this reason, understanding the characteristics of RCA is critical to assure and Jalali, 2010; Senthamarai and Devadas Manoharan, 2005), rubber
the success of its application. This manuscript presents information (Atahan and Yücel, 2012; Najim and Hall, 2012; Papakonstantinou and
regarding the state-of-the-art of the characteristics of RCA, its effects on Tobolski, 2006; Richardson et al., 2012; Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew,
concrete properties, and various methods to optimize its application. 2006; Topcu, 1995; Batayneh et al., 2008; Sukontasukkul, 2009), glass
(Henry and Morin, 1997; Polley et al., 1998; Nemes and Józsa, 2006;
2. Benefits of using RCA Xie et al., 2003; Shayan, 2002; Du and Tan, 2013; Shao et al., 2000;
Federico and Chidiac, 2009; Meyer et al., 2001; Ismail and AL-Hashmi,
Using RCA instead of NA has positive influences in terms of the 2009; Canbaz, 2004), etc. This section emphasizes on the RA derived
environment and economics. It can conserve NA consumption thereby from concrete. RCA is produced by crushing existing concrete to be
reducing the need to open new mining areas (hence, preserve the en- used as aggregates in new concrete. The production process of RCA
vironment (Mack et al., 2018)) as well as the energy/fuel consumption should be designed in a way that optimizes the production of usable
associated with hauling (for the same hauling distance, energy required RCA in terms of both quality and quantity. The quality of RCA is driven
to transport RCA is less than that of NA when the unit weight of RCA is by several different factors, such as the quality of the original concrete,
lower than NA. The specific gravity of RCA and NA is discussed in the presence of contaminants (Noguchi et al., 2015) and the processing
Section 6.2). On the other hand, use of RCA reduces construction waste of the RCA itself (ACI Committee, 2001). Several steps in recycling
that usually ends up in landfills (Mack et al., 2018). Using RCA may also concrete include evaluation of the source concrete, concrete prepara-
reduce construction costs. The price for every ton (1000 kg) of various tion, concrete breaking and removal, removal of any contaminants (i.e.
RCA products ranges from $1 to $18 and vary at different areas (USGS, steel mesh, rebars or dowels), crushing the concrete and sizing the RCA,
2000). According to a study by Environmental Council of Concrete and beneficiation process (removal of any additional contaminants such
Organizations there is an estimated saving of up to 60% by using RAs as as old mortar) (ACI Committee, 2001).
a replacement of NAs (Environmental Council of Concrete
Organization, 2018). A study conducted at Purdue University, USA 4. Percentage replacement of RCA in concrete mixture
reported that using RCA has the potential of reducing cost as much as
$2.26–$2.93 per ton (without considering additional potential saving The amounts of RCA used in concrete mixtures varied among dif-
from landfill) of pavement concrete (Verian et al., 2013). This study ferent researchers as did the inclusion of fine RCA. A brief survey on the
also developed a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) model which can provide replacement levels of NA with RCA is presented in Table 1. The results
substantial information for RCA usage (Verian et al., 2013). The overall of the studies presented in Table 1 have indicated that coarse and fine
environmental benefit of using RCA based on the life cycle cost analysis RCA have the potential to be used as aggregates in concrete application.
of concrete has also been reported by several studies (Ding et al., 2016;
Serres et al., 2016; Knoeri et al., 2013; Marinković et al., 2010). A study 5. Consideration for using fine RCA
by Hossain et al. (2016) revealed that the use of coarse RA obtained
from the construction and demolition (C&D) waste in Hong Kong re- The concern of using fine RCA in the concrete mixture is mainly
duces the greenhouse gases footprints up to 65% and saves up to 58% of associated with the higher mortar and impurity contents of the fine RCA
the energy consumption. as compared to coarse RCA. The adhered and loose mortars contribute
Several other studies have implied that concrete made with RCA can to the angularity, rough surface texture and high absorption of fine RCA
be designed in a way to match the quality of concrete made with NA particles (Evangelista et al., 2015). These properties of fine RCA, in
without the need for additional cement. A study by Beltrán et al. (2014) many cases, were reported to be responsible for the workability pro-
has indicated that at water to cementitious ratio (w/cm) of 0.5, the use blems (Obla et al., 2007), reduction in concrete strength, and sig-
of RCA increased the compressive and flexural strengths of concrete nificant increases in volumetric instability (i.e., shrinkage, creep and
when additional cement (up to 34 kg/m3) was added into the mixture. coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)).
According to Etxeberria et al. (2007), replacing natural coarse ag- A study by Fan et al. (2015) indicated that mortars containing 25%
gregate with RCA at 25% and 50% weight-base replacement levels to 100% of fine RCA experienced higher drying shrinkage than the
improved the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete when ad- control specimens at all tested ages (7, 14, 21 and 28 days) due to the
justments in the mixture proportion were applied, such as increasing higher porosity of this constituent which enables water to evaporate
the amount of cement, lowering w/cm, adjusting the amount of ad- rapidly. Smith (2018) observed that fine RCA contained many im-
ditive and aggregate proportion. Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2011a) purities which degraded the strength of concrete. Zaharieva et al.
and Jain et al. (2012a) have also indicated that concretes containing (2003) stated that the use of fine RCA is often prevented due to its
30% coarse RCA (w/cm: 0.43) outperformed the control concrete made negative effects on concrete. According to the study results by
with NA only (w/cm: 0.44). By using a modified mixing technique (i.e. Evangelista et al. (2015), the smaller size fractions (125–500 μm) of fine
two-stage mixing approach (TSMA)), Tam et al. have succeeded in RCA possess high mortar content while bigger fractions (1–4 mm) of
improving the properties of concrete containing up to 30% of RCA to a fine RCA present a considerable amount of cracks at the paste-aggregate
level comparable or even better than the control concrete (Tam et al., ITZ. Obla et al. (2007) made an estimation that additional cost (about
2005; Tam and Tam, 2007; Tam and Tam, 2008). The benefit of TSMA $2/ton) is required when aggregate producer separates the RCA into
in improving the performance of RCA concrete is also reported by coarse and fine fractions as compared to coarse fraction only.
Brand et al. (2015). In his study, Brand et al. (2015) also found that the Evangelista and de Brito (2007) used fine RCA which is derived from
greatest strength properties of RCA concrete were achieved when the concretes that are specifically made in laboratorial conditions which

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Table 1
Percent replacement of RCA used in various studies by different researchers–a brief survey.

No. Reference Percent replacement

Coarse RCA Fine RCA

1 Zaharieva et al. (2003) 0% and 100% 0% and 100%

2 Juanyu and Bing (2009) 0% and 100% 0% and 100%
3 Corinaldesi and Moriconi (2009) 0% and 100% 0% and 100%
4 Sturtevant et al. (2007) 0%, 20%, 50%, 100% 0%, 20%, 22%, 25%
5 Xiao et al. (2005) 0%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% 0%
6 Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013) 0%, 30%, 50% and 100% 0%
7 Tam and Tam (2007) 0%, 20% and 100% 0%
8 Rahal (2007) 0% and 100% 0%
9 Olorunsogo and Padayachee (2002) 0%, 50% and 100% 0%
10 Kou et al. (2007) 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% 0%
11 Poon et al. (2004) 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% 0%
12 Smith (2018) 0%, 15%, 30% and 50% 0%
13 Etxeberria et al. (2007) 0%, 20%, 50% and 100% 0%
14 Gomez Soberon (2002) 0% and 100% 0%
15 Afroughsabet et al. (2017) 0%, 50% and 100% 0%
16 Gao et al. (2017) 0%, 30%, 50% and 100% 0%
17 Katkhuda and Shatarat (2017) 0% and 20% 0%
18 Butler et al. (2013) 0% and 100% 0%
19 Kurda et al. (2017a) 0% and 100% 0%, 50%, 100%
20 Salem et al. (2003) 0% and 100% 0%
21 Ait Mohamed Amer et al. (2016) 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100% 0%
22 Evangelista and de Brito (2007) 0% 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 50%, 100%
23 Khatib (2005) 0% 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%
24 Fumoto and Yamada (1999) 0% 0%, 25%, 33%, 51%, 67%, 76%, 84%, 92%, 100%
25 Pedro et al. (2017) 0%, 50% and 100% 0%, 50%, 100%

were crushed afterwards. This study indicated that the laboratory-made Crentsil et al., 2001; Thomas et al., 2013; Shi et al., 2016; Snyder,
fine RCA can be used up to 30% replacement ratio without having 2016). These differences are, but not limited to, mortar content, specific
significant effect to the mechanical properties (compressive strength, gravity, absorption, Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion resistance, soundness
split tensile, elastic modulus, and abrasion resistance) of the studied resistance, and the chemical components.
concrete (Evangelista and de Brito, 2007). However, it needs to be
noted that the fine RCA used in this study is derived by crushing and
sieving concretes specifically produced and cured in the laboratory 6.1. Mortar content
(Evangelista and de Brito, 2007), which may be totally different from
the actual exposure condition experienced by concrete in the field. It is commonly found that some old mortars inherently cling to the
In mortar application, several studies reported that using fine RCA surfaces of the original aggregate and becomes part of the RCA product
yielded similar or even better compressive strength than using natural (Verian, 2012). Due to the nature of mortar which is less dense and
sand due to the more irregular and porous surface (which leads to a more porous than the aggregate matrix, this old mortar creates a lighter
possible higher surface area) of fine RCA that enhances the interlocking system in the RCA. The presence of these old mortars eventually in-
bond between the aggregate and paste (Neno et al., 2014; Topçu and creased the absorption capacity and decreased specific gravity of RCA
Bilir, 2010). The hydration between unhydrated OPC particles existing as compared to most NA (Kisku et al., 2017). In the concrete system, the
in the RCA with water can also be a possible reason behind the in- use of RCA with a surface containing adhered mortar layers creates two
creased strength over time (Braga et al., 2012). A similar or even better types of ITZ (old and new) as described in Fig. 1.The porosity dis-
compressive strength was also observed in the mortar made with fine tribution of the new ITZ found to be significantly influenced by the
recycled masonry aggregate (RMA) when it is compared to the control initial moisture condition of the RCA and the strength of RCA source
mortar containing NA (Silva et al., 2009; Correia et al., 2006; Vieira concrete (Leite and Monteiro, 2016; Le et al., 2017).
et al., 2016). Such improvement is due to the reaction between the A previous study by Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013) examined
calcium hydroxide of cement paste and alumina (Al2O3)/silica (SiO2) the cross-section of epoxy-embedded RCA particles to determine the
content of the fine RMA which occurs over time (Silva et al., 2009;
Correia et al., 2006; Vieira et al., 2016). Another study by Evangelista
and De Brito (2014) presented a comprehensive review regarding the
studies of fine RCA and its application around the world.

6. Characteristic of RCA

Many studies have reported the differences between the character-

istics of RCA and NA (Verian, 2012; Verian et al., 2013; Beltrán et al.,
2014; Verian et al., 2011a; Jain et al., 2012a; Olorunsogo and
Padayachee, 2002; Poon et al., 2004; Gomez Soberon, 2002; Khatib,
2005; Medina et al., 2014; Kou and Poon, 2013; Ann et al., 2008; Abbas
et al., 2009; Fathifazl et al., 2009; Jain et al., 2012b; Kapoor et al.,
2016; Evangelista and De Brito, 2010; Silva et al., 2015; Gesoglu et al.,
Fig 1. Schematic of old and new ITZ in RCA concrete–adapted from (isku et al. (2017).
2015; Gokce et al., 2004; Katz, 2003; Limbachiya et al., 2000; Sagoe-

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 2. Cross sections of the sawn surface test specimens made from RCA embedded in epoxy– adapted from Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013).

percent of mortar adhered to their surfaces by using an optical micro- lower than that of NA as indicated in Fig. 4(a). The specific gravity of
scope. The observed specimens are presented in Fig. 2 (Verian, 2012; RCA ranges from 1.91 to 2.70 (the only exception is the specific gravity
Verian et al., 2013). The result has indicated that the probability of of recycled sanitary ware, which is 2.97 (Vieira et al., 2016))as com-
finding old mortars that were adhered to the surfaces of RCA is up to pared to 2.40–2.89 of NA. As stated previously, the presence of old
28.9% (Verian, 2012; Verian et al., 2013). mortar attached to the RCA is responsible for the lower value of specific
Etxeberria et al. (2007) have reported that in the RCA aggregates gravity of RCA compared to NA (ACPA, 2009). The detail is given in
used in their study, the old mortar contaminants are about 20% and Appendix A, Table A1.
40% for two different RCA fractions (10/25 and 4/10 mm). Within the
range of the findings by Etxeberria et al. (2007), Li (2008) also reported 6.3. Absorption
that the adhered mortar can occupy up to 20–30% of the RCA’s volume.
Afroughsabet et al. (2017) quantified the amount of attached mortar as The presence of old mortars on the surfaces of RCA particles leads to
much as 24% and 38% on two types of RCA used in his study. These higher absorption capacity of RCA as compared to NA due to the
RCA traits affect concrete properties and are discussed in more detail in somewhat porous nature of the attached mortar (ACPA, 2009; Verian,
Section 7. Roesler et al. (2013) reported the amount of reclaimed 2012; Olorunsogo and Padayachee, 2002; Levy and Helene, 2004).
mortar content (RMC) of the coarse RCA at different sizes. As presented Some of these reported values have NA ranging from 0.34% to 3.00%
in Fig. 3, the RMC of finer fractions of RCA (4.75 and 9.5 mm) is higher and RCA ranging from 0.50% to 14.75% (as shown in Fig. 4(b), the
than the coarser fractions (> 9.5 mm). In his study, Liu et al. (2011) detail is given in Appendix A, Table A2).
quantified the amount of old mortar in the RAs reclaimed from concrete The correlations between the literature collected specific gravity
with strength grade of 20 MPa and 30 MPa (termed as RA20 and RA30, and their respective absorption of the coarse and fine RA are visualized
respectively). The percentages of the old mortar are 42.22% for RA20 in Fig. 5. It is shown in Fig. 5 that higher absorption correlates to the
and 46.51% for RA30 (Liu et al., 2011). lower value of specific gravity (except for fine NA which average ab-
sorption values relatively constant across the observed range of specific
gravity).
6.2. Specific gravity

6.4. L.A. abrasion test mass loss

From the collected literature, the specific gravity of RCA is generally

In practice, the L.A. abrasion test resulted in% mass loss experienced
by the aggregates that take place during the impact of the steel balls
and the aggregates. L.A. abrasion mass loss values typically are higher
for RCA than for NA. This higher mass loss was caused by the presence
of the softer old mortar and the presence of particles that were cracked
during the crushing process (Snyder et al., 1994). The L.A. abrasion test
results of RCA as compared to NA reported by different researchers are
presented in Table 2.

6.5. Soundness durability

Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013) conducted soundness test on

RCA and NA used in his study regarding the application of RCA as
coarse aggregate in pavement concrete. The soundness test involves
freezing and thawing of aggregates in a brine solution and is used to
determine the resistance of aggregate to disintegration by repeated-
rapid cycles of freezing and thawing in the presence of sodium chloride
solution (Verian, 2012). The soundness test results, in terms of mass
loss of RCA and NA, are presented in Table 3.
Fig. 3. RMC of different sizes of RCA–adapted from Roesler et al. (2013).
The soundness test results have indicated that RCA experienced

33
K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 4. Frequency distributions of specific gravity (a) and absorption capacity (b) of the RCA.

Table 3
Soundness test results of RCA and NA and the maximum limits set by INDOT–adapted
from Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013).

Aggregate Mass loss after soundness test INDOT max. limit

#8N1 0.1% –0.5%

a a
30%
#8N2 0.90% 30%
#8R 16.40% 30%
#23 sand 0.9%a–9.5%a 12%

#8N1: natural dolomitic limestone with max. size of 25 mm.

#8N2: natural dolomitic limestone with max. size of 25 mm.
#8R: RCA with max. size of 25 mm.
#23 sand: natural sand with max. size 4.75 mm.
a
from INDOT historical data.

6.6. Potassium, chloride and sulfate leachate concentration

The amount of ionic species in the RA is influenced by the exposure

condition of the structure (that was crushed and used as the RA source)
Fig. 5. Specific gravity and absorption of RA and NA used in various studies. during its service life. Verian (2012) has reported in his study that the
average potassium ion concentration obtained from the leachate solu-
Table 2 tion of RCA derived from SR-26, IN, USA, is approximately 8 times
L.A abrasion results (% mass loss) of RCA and NA obtained by different researchers–a higher than that of NA (see Table 4). This may increase the risk alkali-
brief survey. silica reaction (ASR) on concrete containing RCA. The amount of
chloride ion from the leachate solution of RCA is found to be more than
References L.A. abrasion mass loss (%)
double that of NA (Verian, 2012). This finding is not surprising, con-
RCA NA sidering that chloride-based deicers were commonly applied on this
pavement throughout its service life, especially during the winter. A
Snyder et al. (1994) 20–45 15–30
study by Rahal (2007) also showed higher chloride content of RCA
Verian (2012), Verian et al. (2013) 34–36 29–31
Li (2009) 27.3 11.5 compared to NA (0.3% vs. 0.14% of cement mass). This RCA is obtained
Wen et al. (2014) 20–29 15 from the demolished old structure in Hawally area, Kuwait (Rahal,
Yehia and Abdelfatah (2016) 21–35 19–25 2007), which is located in the sub-tropic climate zone. Higher chloride
Hansen and Narud (1983) 22–41 20–30 content makes RCA concrete more prone to corrosion and other
Ravindrarajah and Tam (1985) 37–41 18
chloride-related deterioration when rebars are used in the concrete.
Ait Mohamed Amer et al. (2016) 51.5 38.9
Kurda et al. (2017a) 43 28 Sulfate ion of RCA is found to be less than half of NA which indicates
Liu et al. (2011) 42 31

Table 4
more severe deterioration as indicated by the higher mass loss due to Ion content of aggregate leachates–adapted from Verian (2012).

the exposure to FT cycles in the brine solution compared to NA. Another Type of aggregate Potassium ion (ppm) Chloride ion Sulfate ion
study by Zaharieva et al. (Zaharieva et al., 2003) reported the mass loss (ppm) (ppm)
of fine and coarse RCA are 25.7 ± 1% and 26.4 ± 0.5%, respectively,
as the results of a sulfate soundness test. In their study, Zaharieva et al. #8N1 30 377 120
#8N2 32 395 106
(Zaharieva et al., 2003) did not report the value of the sulfate soundness
#8R 239 851 39
test result for natural sand, but the mass loss value for coarse NA was
3.8 ± 0.5%. #8N1: natural dolomitic limestone from source 1 (max. size of 25 mm).
#8N2: natural dolomitic limestone from source 2 (max. size of 25 mm).
#8R: RCA (max. size of 25 mm).

34
K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

the potential of RCA in reducing the risk of internal sulfate attack in the specific gravity of the RCA with respect to that of NA. The density of
concrete as compared to NA (Verian, 2012). The results of the ion concrete containing 100% coarse RCA according to Xiao et al. (2005)
chromatography test are presented in Table 4 and the detail of the and Verian (2012) is about 5% less than those made with 100% NAs. In
corresponding test method can be found in the Ref. (Verian, 2012). the study by Etxeberria et al. (2007) the density of concrete decreases
∼3.3% when all the coarse NA is replaced with coarse RCA. In a study
7. Characteristic of concrete containing RCA by Dong et al. (2013), 50% of coarse RCA replacement does not sig-
nificantly affect the concrete density (∼0.8% reduction). Marinković
Aggregate characteristics influence the properties of concrete at et al. (2010) used three different fractions of RCA to replace 65% of NA
plastic and hardened phases (Verian, 2012; Verian, 2015). Therefore, at different w/cm and has resulted in 4.7%–4.9% lower density as
the different quality of RCA compared to NA could differ the perfor- compared to the control concrete.
mance of RCA concrete and NC (Verian et al., 2013; Etxeberria et al.,
2007; Rahal, 2007; Ann et al., 2008; Limbachiya et al., 2000; Levy and 7.3. Compressive strength
Helene, 2004; Kou et al., 2011; Saravanakumar et al., 2016; Federal
Highway Administration, 2018). The compressive strength results of various concrete made with
different amounts of RCA are presented in Fig. 7. Several studies have
7.1. Workability reported that the strength development rate of RCA concrete is higher
than that of NC, especially at the later age (e.g. 28 days) (Poon et al.,
Concrete made with RCA have lower slump than NC at the same w/ 2004; Evangelista and de Brito, 2007; Gesoglu et al., 2015; Kurad et al.,
cm (Smith, 2018; Liu and Chen, 2008; Sturtevant, 2007; Lotfi et al., 2017). This is due to the remnant of non-hydrated old cement adhered
2014). The decrease workability of concrete containing RCA is attrib- on the surfaces of RCA particles which react with water and thus, in-
uted to the higher absorption capacity of RCA, the rougher surfaces and creases the rate of strength development (Kurad et al., 2017).
more irregular shapes (Kurda et al., 2017a). In order to achieve similar Silva et al. (Silva et al., 2014) performed statistical analysis on the
workability of NC, concrete made with RCA requires approximately 5% collected data from literature and reported that it is possible to develop
to 15% of additional mixing water in the mixture when the RCA used in a model to predict the strength decrease in concrete containing RCA for
the dry state (Verian, 2012). Thus, increasing the apparent water to different replacement level. This is in agreement with the data pre-
binder ratio (w/b) of concrete when RCA is incorporated in the mixture sented in Fig. 7(A) and (B) which indicate that compressive strength
is commonly practiced (Kurda et al., 2017a). In some cases, this prac- tends to decrease as the amount of RCA increases. However, Poon et al.
tice can be avoided if the RCA is properly handled and the concrete (Poon et al., 2004) reported that the influence of RCA replacement level
formulation is designed properly. For example, when the RCA is at or on concrete compressive strength is significantly influenced by the in-
slightly below SSD condition prior to the mixing, similar workability to itial moisture condition of RCA. Depending on the moisture level the
NC can be achieved (Brand et al., 2015). The use of admixtures (water compressive strength can be reduced by up to 30% or increase up to
reducers/plasticizer), fly ash (FA), and the combination of both im- 20% for 100% aggregate replaced by RCA (see Fig. 8). The phenomena
proves the workability of concrete containing RCA and is commonly of a lower compressive strength of concrete made with RCA (Tam et al.,
used to limit the amount of water (Kurda et al., 2017a; Kou et al., 2005; Tam and Tam, 2008; Kou et al., 2011; Lotfi et al., 2014; Kong
2011). et al., 2010) is attributed to the presence of two types of interfacial
transition zones (ITZ) in the matrix. The ITZ represents the bond be-
7.2. Density tween aggregate and paste and is normally weaker than either the ag-
gregate or hydrated cement paste. In concrete made with NA, the ITZ
The increased amount of RCA in concrete contributes to the de- occurs between the aggregate and mortar while in concrete containing
creased density of RCA concrete (Verian, 2012; Etxeberria et al., 2007; RCA, the ITZ take place between the original aggregate and old mortar
Xiao et al., 2005; Gomez Soberon, 2002). Lower specific gravity and the and new mortar (Etxeberria et al., 2007; Tam et al., 2005; Kou et al.,
adhered old mortar on RCA contribute to the lower density of concrete 2011; Kong et al., 2010; Lihua et al., 2017) (Fig. 1). Moreover, the
containing RCA. The density of concretes containing various amount of lower compressive strength is also driven by the fact that higher
coarse RCA is presented in Fig. 6. amount of water is, in many cases, used in the RCA concrete mixture in
The variation in density of concrete containing RCA is driven by the order to achieve desirable workability (Kurda et al., 2017a; Kurda et al.,
amount of RCA used in the concrete mixtures and by the variation in 2017c). The presence of old mortar on the surfaces of RCA also

Fig. 6. Density of concrete containing different amount of coarse RCA–adapted from Verian (2012), Marinković et al. (2010), Etxeberria et al. (2007), Xiao et al. (2005), Dong et al.
(2013).

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 7. Compressive strength values of various concretes made with different levels of RCA; (A) adapted from Poon et al. (2004), Gomez Soberon (2002); (B) adapted from Beltrán et al.
(2014), Xiao et al. (2005) Evangelista and de Brito (2007), Gesoglu et al. (2015): (C) adapted from Tam and Tam (2008).

contributes to the lower compressive strength of RCA concrete as it made with low w/cm as compared to concrete with high w/cm. This is
possesses lower density (w.r.t. aggregate’s density) (Kurda et al., because, at a high level of w/cm the quality of the new cement paste is
2017c). closer to that of old mortar than the paste made with low w/cm. These
Fig. 7(A) shows that air-dry aggregates produced concrete with results are aligned with the finding by Kurad et al. (2017) that used fine
higher compressive strength (for normal and RCA concrete) compared RCA in their study.
to the compressive strength of concretes made with oven-dried and SSD Fig. 7(C) indicates the benefit of the TSMA, developed by Tam and
aggregates (Poon et al., 2004). Lowering w/cm improves the com- Tam (2008), in producing concrete with higher compressive strength
pressive strength of both concrete containing RCA and NC (Fig. 7(B)) than the concrete produced with the normal mixing approach (NMA).
(Gesoglu et al., 2015). By comparing study by Gesoglu et al. (2015) (w/ Brand et al. (2015) combined TSMA and the use of saturated RCA to
cm 0.3 and 0.43) and Beltrán et al. (2014) (w/cm 0.5 and 0.6) in improve the compressive strength of RCA concrete. The detail regarding
Fig. 7(B), the incorporation of RCA in concrete mixture has more sig- TSMA is discussed further in Section 8.2.
nificant influence in lowering the compressive strength of concrete

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

keeping the same amount of water. Brand et al. (2015) improved the
tensile strength of RCA concrete through TSMA and using saturated
(∼80% and 100% SSD) aggregate. The tensile strength of various con-
cretes containing different amounts of RCA is presented in Fig. 10.

7.6. Modulus of elasticity (E)

Several studies have indicated that concrete containing RCA has a

lower modulus of elasticity (E) than NC, and the reduction is propor-
tional to the increased of RCA used in the concrete mixture (Verian,
2012; Etxeberria et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2005; Kou et al., 2007; Gomez
Soberon, 2002). This loss is associated with the lower E of RA as
compared to NA specifically when the other mixture components are
kept constant (Silva et al., 2016a). The E value for concrete made with
coarse RCA was 10%-33% less than the E of NC (ACI Committee, 2001;
Federal Highway Administration, 2018; Hansen, 1986). A study by Xiao
et al. (Xiao et al., 2005) indicates that when all the coarse NA is re-
Fig. 8. Compressive strength variation of concrete with RCA replacement levels for dif- placed by RCA, the E of concrete reduces by around 45%.The variation
ferent initial moisture conditions. Data from Poon et al. (2004). of E with respect to the percent coarse RCA replacement in concrete as
reported by several researchers is presented in Fig. 11.
As it can be observed from Fig. 11, the elastic modulus can be re-
7.4. Flexural strength
duced by up to 20% if 100% coarse NA of the concrete mixture is re-
placed by coarse RCA. However, based on the literature data, the var-
A study by Katz (2003) has indicated that the flexural strength of
concrete made with RCA is ∼10% lower than that of NC. The decrease iation in elastic modulus appeared to be lower (see 95% prediction
band in Fig. 11) compared to the compressive strength. From Fig. 11,
of flexural strength of concrete containing RCA was noticeable espe-
cially when saturated recycled aggregate was used in the concrete the linear correlation between E and the amount of RCA is presented in
mixture (Poon et al., 2004; Kou et al., 2011). However, studies by Fig. 12.
Limbachiya et al. (2000) and Beltrán et al. (2014) have indicated that
RCA does not have a significant effect on the flexural strength of con- 7.7. Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
crete. Limbachiya et al. (2000) used three levels of w/cm (0.29, 0.36
and 0.45) for both NA and RCA concrete in their study. Meanwhile, Pavement concrete containing RCA was reported to possess a higher
Beltrán et al. (2014) increased the amount of cement (up to 45 kg/ coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than the control pavement
100% of RCA replacement level) as the amount of RCA increased. At the concrete made with NA only (Sturtevant, 2007). High values of CTE
same time, Beltrán et al. (2014) also increased the amount of water increases the potential for cracking due to higher stress generated due
along with the cement in order to keep the w/cm at 0.5 and 0.6. The to changes in temperature. The CTE of concrete made with RCA is re-
flexural strength results obtained by different researchers at various ported to be up to ∼30% higher than the CTE of normal pavement
level of RCA in concrete are presented in Fig. 9. concrete (Hansen, 1986).

7.8. Freezing-thawing resistance

7.5. Tensile strength
Salem et al. (2003) and Verian (2012) indicated that concrete
A study by Katz (2003) has indicated that the tensile strength of containing RCA had lower resistance to FT exposure than conventional
concrete made with RCA is ∼6% lower than that of NC. Other studies concrete made with NA due to the higher porosity, which subsequently
showed that reduction of tensile strength on concrete containing RCA is up leads to higher absorption and poorer mechanical performance of
to 10% when only coarse NAs were replaced by coarse recycled ag- concrete made with RCA. Another study Gokce et al. (2004) showed
gregates. In case of both coarse and fine NAs replacement by RCA, the that concrete containing RCA made with recycled coarse aggregates
tensile strength was further reduced by 10%–20% (ACI Committee, 2001; derived from air-entrained concretes has better FT resistance than
Federal Highway Administration, 2018; Hansen, 1986). Etxeberria et al. concrete made with RCA made with recycled coarse aggregate from
(2007) compensated the potential reduction of tensile strength due to the non-air-entrained concrete after subjected to 500 FT cycles. On the
incorporation of RCA by adding more cement (up to 25 kg/m3) while other hand, Bogas et al., (2016) reported that the use of fine RCA as the

Fig. 9. Flexural strength values of various concretes made with different amounts of RCA–adapted from Beltrán et al. (2014), Katz (2003), Limbachiya et al. (2000).

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 10. Tensile strength values of various concretes made with different amounts of RCA–adapted from Etxeberria et al. (2007), Gomez Soberon (2002), Evangelista and de Brito (2007),
Katz (2003).

7.9. Drying shrinkage

The extent of the occurrence of drying shrinkage is affected by paste

content and w/cm of the concrete (Mindess et al., 2003). Concrete
made with RCA generally contains higher paste content due to its re-
claimed and new mortar, and thus, concrete containing RCA has higher
magnitude of drying shrinkage compare to NC (Verian, 2012; Verian
et al., 2013; Beltrán et al., 2014; Khatib, 2005; Evangelista and De
Brito, 2010; Sagoe-Crentsil et al., 2001; Snyder, 2016; Sturtevant,
2007). According to the study by Building Contractors Society of Japan
(Building Contractors Society of Japan, 1978), as reported by the ACI
committee 555, concrete made with coarse RCA and natural sand has
20% to 50% higher shrinkage while concrete made with both coarse
and fine RCA has 70% to 100% higher shrinkage compared to NC (ACI
Committee, 2001). The incorporation fine RCA induces higher drying
shrinkage due to the relatively higher old paste content as compared to
coarse RCA which leads to high absorption (Fan et al., 2015). The
previous study by the author resulted in more than 0.055% shrinkage
Fig. 11. Modulus elasticity values of different concrete made with different level of for concrete made with 100% coarse RCA after 150 days while the
coarse RCA as replacement for coarse NA–adapted from Beltrán et al. (2014), Gomez
control concrete experienced less than 0.03% shrinkage (Verian, 2012).
Soberon (2002), Evangelista and de Brito (2007), Gesoglu et al. (2015), Limbachiya et al.
(2000).
7.10. Creep

The creep of concrete containing RCA is found to be proportional to

the amount of RCA as the higher amount of RCA in concrete mixture
increased the degree of potential creep (Tam and Tam, 2007; Hansen,
1986). Ravindrarajah and Tam (1985) has reported that creep for
concrete manufactured from RCA to be 30% to 60% greater than NC.
This phenomenon is due to the higher paste volume of RCA concrete
compared to NC as creep of concrete is proportional to the amount of
paste or mortar in concrete (ACI Committee, 2001). Kou and Poon
(2012) reported that the creep strain of concrete made with RCA
reached more than 600 μm as compared to less than 500 μm of NC.

7.11. Permeability

The coefficient of permeability of concrete is dictated by the size and

continuity of the pores in hydrated cement paste (Mindess et al., 2003).
Concrete made with RCA has permeability two to five times higher than
that of NC for mixtures with w/cm of 0.5–0.7 (Hansen, 1986). Based on
Fig. 12. Relation between E and compressive strength of concrete containing RCA. experiments conducted by Zaharieva et al. (Zaharieva et al., 2003), the
water permeability of RCA concrete (k = 1.4 ± 0.3 × 10−20 m2 and
replacement of fine NA did not impair the FT resistance of concrete but k = 2.4 ± 0.5 × 10−20 m2) is found to be twice than that of NC
the scaling resistance. Another study by Lotfi et al. (2014) had resulted (k = 0.8 ± 0.1 × 10−20 m2). A similar result is obtained by Ujike
in 5.8 MPa reduction in the compressive strength of RCA concrete ex- (2000). A study by Bhikshma and Divya (2012) also indicated higher
posed to FT cycles as compared to 0.4 MPa reduction of its control permeability of RCA concrete as compared to NC. Bhikshma and Divya
specimens. (2012) also found that incorporating up to 30% of FA as OPC replace-
ment in RCA concrete reduced the permeability.

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

7.12. Chloride ion penetrability resistance permeability, and creep. As such, it is clear that additional studies
should be undertaken to investigate the durability and long-term per-
As the permeability increases, the chloride ion penetration re- formance of concrete containing RCA.
sistance of concrete made with RCA decreases (Verian, 2012; Jain et al.,
2012a; Kou et al., 2011; Verian et al., 2011b). Kou et al. reported that 8. Potential ways to improve the performance of RCA concrete
concrete containing RCA made with 100% coarse RCA had more than
40% lower chloride penetration resistance compared to NC (Kou et al., To compensate the negative influence of the use of RCA in concrete,
2011; Kou and Poon, 2012). Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT, as several efforts to improve the performance of concrete made with RCA
per ASTM C 1202 (American Society for Testing Materials, 2016)) on are discussed in the following subsections.
concrete made with coarse RCA has a total charge passed off more than
4000C as compared to ∼3200C of NC (Verian, 2012; Verian et al., 8.1. Using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) as partial OPC
2013; Jain et al., 2012a; Verian et al., 2011b). The higher passing replacement
charge also implies that incorporating RCA in concrete reduces its re-
sistivity (Verian, 2012; Verian et al., 2013; Verian et al., 2011b). The SCMs that are covered in this manuscript are limited to FA,
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume (SF) and
metakaolin.
7.13. Fracture properties
8.1.1. Fly ash (FA)
The quality of the RA and the bond between the aggregate and paste The additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) which is produced
play important role in determining the fracture behavior of concrete. A through the pozzolanic reaction of FA that densifies paste matrix of
number of studies have investigated the fracture properties of concrete concrete and compensates for the more porous nature of concrete made
made with RA. Brand et al. (2014) used reclaimed asphalt pavement with RCA (Lothenbach et al., 2011). The source of CH which is required
(RAP), fractionated RAP, and RCA is his study which indicates despite for pozzolanic reaction in RCA concrete is not only from the hydration
having lower strengths (compressive, flexural and tensile) and E, con- between new cement and water but also from the old mortar attached
cretes containing the aforementioned materials have yielded compar- on the surface of RCA particles (Kou and Poon, 2013). The benefits of
able or in some cases, higher total fracture energy compared to the using FA are as follows:
control. This is in agreement with some other studies that have shown
the similar to or even higher fracture capacity of concrete containing – FA improves the workability of concrete (Paleti, 2011; Jalal et al.,
RA than NC (Kou, 2006; Amirkhanian, 2012). Other studies found that 2015; Hale et al., 2008)
incorporating RCA in concrete reduces the fracture properties (Roesler – FA reduces the permeability of concrete, limiting the penetration of
et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2011; Amirkhanian et al., 2011). As an example, water and/or other liquids that may damage the concrete (Verian,
a study by Ishiguro (1995) indicated that the fracture energy of RCA 2012; Verian, 2015; Kou and Poon, 2012; Verian et al., 2011b;
concrete is 60% of that of NC. Verian et al., 2015; Kurda et al., 2017b)
As it can be observed from above discussion, the influence of RCA – FA improves the compressive strength of concrete at later age
on concrete properties can vary. Accordingly, to compare the findings, (Verian, 2012; Verian, 2015; Hale et al., 2008; Kurda et al., 2017b;
the summarized information is presented in Fig. 13. Apparently, from Weng et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2000)
this figure multiple studies have confirmed same influence of RCA on – FA improves the performance of concrete exposed to FT cycles
concrete compressive strength, flexural strength, density, workability, (Verian, 2012; Verian, 2015) and chloride-based deicers (Verian,
permeability, creep and shrinkage. However, the influence of RCA on 2015; Verian et al., 2015; Kurda et al., 2017b)
fracture properties, FT resistance and tensile strength appeared to be – FA reduces the shrinkage of concrete containing RCA (Verian, 2012;
indecisive. Another interesting thing to notice is that most of the studies Verian et al., 2013; Kou and Poon, 2012; Kurda et al., 2017b)
focused on the mechanical properties of concrete containing RCA. – In a condition which favorable for carbonation (RH 40%–70%), FA
Whereas, only a few studies focused on parameters which are known to has the potential in increasing CO2 sequestration in concrete
influence the long-term performance of concrete, such as FT resistance,

Fig. 13. Summarized influence of RCA on concrete properties.

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

(Arredondo-Rea et al., 2012; Khalil and Anwar, 2015). This is due to lower strength (up to 20% lower) at the early ages as compared to the
the pozzolanic reaction which reduces the pH (though the con- control. However, the positive effect of SF was observed at later age as
sumption of CH), make it favorable for carbonation to occur all the observed RCA concretes were able to achieve compressive
(Limbachiya et al., 2012). However, low pH also leads to depassi- strengths between 70 and 85 MPa after 91 days (Pedro et al., 2017). The
vation of rebars and make it prone to corrosion. Moreover, as the same study also reported that SF led to lower tensile strength in RCA
secondary C-S-H formed and densified the concrete, the carbonation concrete (Pedro et al., 2017). Contradictorily, Çakır and Sofyanlı
rate decreases (Limbachiya et al., 2012). (2015) reported a continuous and significant improvement in the ten-
sile strength of RCA concrete due to the presence of SF. Çakır and
Several researchers have proven that the detrimental effects of RCA Sofyanlı (2015) also reported the reduction in the compressive strength
can be mitigated by using FA as partial OPC replacement (Verian, 2012; at the early ages for NC and RCA concrete due to the incorporation of SF
Verian et al., 2013; Smith, 2018; Verian et al., 2011b; Kurda et al., in the mixtures. However, this decrease was found to be less for RCA
2017b; Pürsünlü et al., 2013). Incorporating 20% of FA as the re- concrete as compared to the control (Çakır and Sofyanlı, 2015).
placement of OPC was reported to improve the 28-day compressive Moreover, the same study also concluded that the use of SF is more
strength of concrete made with 50% and 100% of coarse RCA by more effective on concrete made with 4/12 mm fraction of RCA than their
than 10% and 5%, respectively (Verian, 2012). The Nernst-Plank counterpart which made of 8/22 mm RCA particles (Çakır and Sofyanlı,
chloride diffusion coefficients of 56-day old RCA concrete made with 2015).
100% coarse RCA are 2.66 × 10−12 m2/s and 1.93 × 10−12 m2/s for
plain and concrete with 20% FA, respectively (Verian, 2012; Verian 8.2. Two-stage mixing approach (TSMA)
et al., 2013).
TSMA was developed by Tam et al. (2005); Tam and Tam (2007) to
8.1.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) improve the quality of concrete made with RCA. In TSMA, mixing water
GGBFS, also known as slag cement, possess latent hydraulic prop- was divided into two portions and was introduced to the concrete mixture
erty which enhances the long-term durability properties of concrete at different times. In this mixing approach, all the aggregates are mixed for
(Wang et al., 2013; Li et al., 2012; Lübeck et al., 2012). Parthiban and 60 s and then the first portion of water is introduced into the mixture of
Saravana Raja Mohan (2017) used a mix of sodium silicate (Na2SiO3, aggregates and the mixing continues for another 60 s. After 60 s of mixing
made of 28% SiO2 and 11.2% of Na2O) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH the aggregates with the first portion of the water, cement is introduced
−99% purity) solution as the mixing liquid instead of water when they into the mixture and the mixing process continues for 30 s. Later, the
replaced all the OPC with GGBFS. This study incorporated coarse RCA second portion of the water is introduced into the mixture and the mixing
at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% for the mixture made with GGBFS process continues for 120 s. Tam et al. (2005, 2007); Tam et al., 2005 has
binder. The use of GGBFS with the aforementioned activator has re- proven that this method improves the ITZ of concrete containing RCA. The
sulted in more superior quality concrete (higher compressive strength, drawback of this procedure is the longer mixing time as compared to the
flexural and split tensile strengths) at all aforementioned levels of RCA normal mixing approach (NMA) (270 s vs. 120 s). The schematic se-
as compared to OPC concrete made with natural aggregate (Parthiban quences for NMA and TSMA are shown in Fig. 14 (A) and (B) (Tam and
and Saravana Raja Mohan, 2017). Tam, 2007). The complete information regarding TSMA can be viewed in
Another study by Majhi et al. (2018) used GGBFS with low activity Ref. (Tam et al., 2005; Tam and Tam, 2007).
index (grade 80 of ASTM C989) as up to 100% of OPC replacement. In Some modifications of TSMA were also proposed by Tam and Tam
addition to the GGBFS, this study also used up to 60% of coarse RCA (2007, 2008) which incorporates SF (TSMAS) and a combination of SF
(Majhi et al., 2018). Majhi et al. (2018) concluded that the mechanical with cement (TSMASC) in the pre-mix process. The schematic mixing
properties i.e. compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths decrease sequences of TSMAS and TSMASC are presented in Figs. 15 and 16, re-
as the percentage of RCA, GGBFS or both of these two increase. These spectively (Tam and Tam, 2008).
results are contradictory with the study by Parthiban and Saravana Raja According to Tam and Tam (2008), the use of TSMAS develops a
Mohan (2017). It needs to be noticed that in addition to use low-grade denser old cement mortar by filling up the old pores and cracks with SF.
GGBFS, Majhi et al. (2018) did not use alkali activator in his study. The TSMASC is found to further enhance the ITZ between RCA and
Majhi et al. (Majhi et al., 2018) also increased the amount of water (up cement paste since a certain amount of cement and SF are present,
to 20 kg/m3) as the amount of GGBFS and RCA increased while providing a stronger interfacial zone, and thus a higher compressive
Parthiban and Saravana Raja Mohan (2017) kept the amount of liquid strength of RCA concrete. These results were confirmed by the la-
constant for all concrete mixtures. boratory testing results in which RCA concrete specimens made with
TSMASC method achieved a higher strength improvement in compar-
8.1.3. Silica fume (SF) and metakaolin ison with the specimens made with TSMAS method. The RCA concrete
Kapoor et al. (2016) have proven that the use of SF and metakaolin specimens prepared by using TSMAS and TSMASC methods have su-
as partial OPC replacements improves the properties of self-compacted perior performance than that of RCA concrete specimens made with
concrete containing RCA. A study by Dilbas (2014) has indicated that conventional TSMA. These results indicate that TSMAS and TSMASC are
SF improves the compressive strength of concrete containing RCA. more effective than TSMA in enhancing the strength of RCA concrete
Adding SF and metakaolin into RCA concrete mixtures improves the (Tam and Tam, 2008). The illustration of the interface between RCA
compressive strength and lowers the maximum hydration temperature surfaces with concrete paste for NMA, TSMAS, and TSMASC are pre-
(Radonjanin et al., 2013). Study results by Elhakam et al. (2012) have sented in Fig. 17.
indicated that adding 10% of SF increases compressive and tensile
strengths of concrete containing RCA. Dimitriou et al. (2018) have re- 8.3. Mortar mixing approach (MMA)
ported that adding FA and SF into RCA concrete mixture improved the
durability properties significantly. Especially SF which found to reduce Mortar mixing approach (MMA) is developed by Liang et al. (2013)
the permeability of RCA concrete (Dimitriou et al., 2018). The same with the purpose to improve the fresh and hardened concrete proper-
study also reported that the mechanical properties of RCA concrete ties. The schematic of MMA is presented in Fig. 18. All the coarse NA is
were not significantly influenced by FA and SF and low compressive replaced with coarse RCA. The coarse RCA underwent pre-surface
strength was reported at the early age as the consequences of delayed treatment 7 days prior to the mixing. The improvement in compressive
pozzolanic activity by FA (Dimitriou et al., 2018). A study by Pedro strength is reported on concrete made with 100% coarse RCA when
et al. (2017) has indicated that incorporating SF in RCA concrete led to MMA is applied as the mixing method.

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 14. Mixing sequences of the (A) Normal Mixing Approach–NMA and (B) Two-Stage Mixing Approach –adapted from Tam and Tam (2007).

8.4. Sand enveloped mixing approach (SEMA) 8.6. Mixture design modification

Sand enveloped mixing approach (SEMA) was also developed by Some studies have shown that modifying concrete’s mixture pro-
Liang et al. (2013). Similar to MMA, the coarse RCA particles under- portion can compensate for the change in properties due to the use of
went pre-surface treatment 7 days prior to the mixing. RCA concrete RCA in concrete (Beltrán et al., 2014; Etxeberria et al., 2007). To offset
made with this method had higher 28-day compressive strength as the reduction in strength in concrete with RCA, additional cement can
compared to that of RCA concrete made with MMA method and SEMA be added to the mixture while maintaining the same amount of water.
but without pre-surface treatment. This improvement is due to the For example, concrete made with 50% coarse RCA requires an addition
formation of cement-SF solution which creates a coating layer on the of 6% cement to achieve the comparable compressive strength of NC
surfaces of RCA (Liang et al., 2013). The concrete mixing sequence of (Etxeberria et al., 2007). When all the coarse aggregates were replaced
SEMA method is shown in Fig. 19. by RCA, an additional 8.3% of cement is needed to maintain the
compressive strength to be similar to that of NC (Etxeberria et al.,
8.5. Reducing the mortar content on RCA 2007). Etxeberria et al. (2007) also showed that additional cement and
admixtures are needed to improve the compressive strength and
Reducing the mortar adhered to the RCA has shown improvement to maintain the workability of concrete containing RCA. Mas et al. (2012)
the quality of the final product (ACI Committee, 2001). The mortar used Type III OPC to compensate the strength loss in RCA concrete. The
content of RCA can be reduced by crushing it into a smaller size and guidelines for developing concrete mixture proportion using RCA can
subsequent washing of the aggregates with water (e.g. crushing RCA be found in Section 5.5.4–Removal and Reuse of Hardened Concrete, a
with a maximum aggregate size of 25.4 mm (1 inch) into RCA with technical report by ACI Committee (2001).
maximum size 19 mm (3/4 inch)) (ACI Committee, 2001). Katkhuda
and Shatarat (2017) submerged the RCA for 24-h in 0.1 M hydrochloric 8.7. Limiting the amount of RCA in concrete mixture
acid (HCl) solution to remove the adhered mortar. This method is re-
ported to successfully remove the old mortar as much as 0.76% and To minimize the alteration of concrete properties due to the im-
0.54% of the total RCA mass for the 10 and 20 mm aggregates plementation of RCA, some researchers limit the amount of RCA used in
(Katkhuda and Shatarat, 2017). Parthiban and Saravana Raja Mohan the mixture. Kou et al. (2011) concluded that incorporating RCA up to
(2017) adopted a method which was originally recommended by 50% did not affect the compressive strength of concrete. A study by
Akbarnezhad et al. (2011). In this method, attached mortar of RCA was Verian has indicated that concrete pavement containing 30% of coarse
removed by submerging the RA in a 2 M sulphuric acid solution for RCA has similar to slightly better properties than NC (Verian, 2012).
5 days. The RA then was subsequently washed and sieved through #4 When class C FA is used as 20% replacement of OPC, the amount of
sieve (4.75 mm) to further separate the detached mortar from the ag- coarse RCA can be increased up to 50% of the total coarse aggregate
gregate. This method is reported to remove the adhered mortar as much (Verian, 2012). Elhakam et al. (2012) conclude that the compressive
as 12% to 20% of the initial mass of the RA. Skyrra Vassas Ltd., a local strength of concrete is not affected when RCA is used up to 25% of total
NA and RCA supplier in Cyprus, utilized a customized low-cost treat- aggregates. Limbachiya et al. (2000) indicated that the addition of up to
ment to remove the adhered mortar on some of the RCA that was ob- 30% of coarse RCA had no effect on the strength of concrete. Tam and
tained by the company (Dimitriou et al., 2018). In this method, the RCA Tam (2007) limited his study by using only up to 30% of coarse RCA as
was placed into a modified concrete mixer which has a capacity of 8 m3. many researchers have suggested such limit.
The mixer was rotated at a speed of 10 rpm for 5 h. During this process,
water was added to the rotating mixer to fully submerge the RCA 8.8. Self-healing RCA
particles. This washing process inside the rotating drum removes fine
particles, dust and some of the adhered mortar. At the final step, the According to Gesoglu et al. (2015), self-healing RCA can be
RCA was sieved in order to discard fine particles (< 4 mm). This pro- achieved by immersing the aggregates in water for 30 days. This pro-
cess improved the quality of RCA substantially (Dimitriou et al., 2018). cedure enables the unhydrated cement particles in the old mortar

Fig. 15. TSMA with SF slurry– adapted from Tam and Tam (2008).

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 16. TSMA with SFand cement slurry– adapted from Tam and Tam (2008).

adhered to the RCA particles to undergo hydration when it comes into batching process improves the performance of the concrete (Brand
contact with water (Gesoglu et al., 2015). This mechanism improves the et al., 2015; Leite and Monteiro, 2016; Pickel, 2014; Yildirim et al.,
quality of RCA as well as the quality of concrete incorporating these 2015; Pickel et al., 2017). Fully saturating the RCA can be achieved by
aggregates (Elhakam et al., 2012; Keskin et al., 2008; Zhong and Yao, immersing the aggregate in the water for 24-h (Ferreira et al., 2011).
2008; Granger and Loukili, 2018; Qian et al., 2009). According to Ferreira et al. (2011), 90% of saturation level was ideal
while 100% of saturation level may have a detrimental effect on con-
8.9. Coating RCA surfaces with pozzolanic powder crete. Etxeberria et al. (2007) wetted the coarse RCA used in their study
and recommended a humidity level as high as 80% of the total RCA’s
Li et al. (2009) developed a new technique in which the RCA sur- absorption capacity to be achieved prior to its use in the batching
faces were coated with a mixture of pozzolanic powder (PP) (i.e. FA, SF, process. This practice is reported to contribute to the controllable
and blast furnace slag) and water. The schematic mixing process of this concrete quality in terms of the effective w/cm and the workability
technique is presented in Fig. 20. (Etxeberria et al., 2007). Moreover, a study on the microstructure of the
As it is shown in Fig. 20, the mixing process is initiated by creating a recycled concrete by Leite and Monteiro (2016) indicated that the ITZ
slurry of PP. This step is followed by introducing the RCA to the slurry. between the aggregate particle and the paste is denser for saturated
After a minute of mixing the RCA with the PP slurry, the remaining RCA as compared to that of dry RCA. The higher absorption capacity of
materials (the rest of the water, fine aggregate, and cement) are added RCA as compared to NA provides a potential for supplying moisture
to the mixer and mixed for another three minutes. The authors reported from the aggregate’s matrix to the bulk of the concrete. Despite its
significant improvement in workability as the RCA concrete was mixed higher absorption capacity, the RCA used by Pickel et al. (2017) has
with this technique as compared to conventional mixing process. The insufficient desorption rate at 93% RH which limits the potential of
hypothesis for the improvement in workability is due to the formation RCA to provide internal curing. The benefit of using saturated RCA
of the thin film layer made from PP which covers the surfaces of the instead of dry is also reflected in the mortar where the compressive
RCA particles. This layer limits the absorbed water on RCA surfaces strength of the specimens made with saturated fine RCA is higher than
during the initial stage of mixing (Li et al., 2009). Moreover, this its counterpart made with dry fine RCA Le et al. (2017).
technique is claimed to improve the compressive and flexural strength
of RCA concrete (Li et al., 2009). 8.12. Incorporating fiber into RCA concrete mixture

8.10. Surface-modification technology The use of fiber has been reported to offset some of the drawbacks
from using RCA in concrete (Afroughsabet et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2017;
Choi et al. (Choi et al., 2016; Choi et al., 2014a; Choi et al., 2014b) Katkhuda and Shatarat, 2017). Katkhuda and Shatarat (2017) used up
developed a technique to improve the performance of low-quality RCA to six different levels (0%, 0.1%, 0.3%, 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% of the total
by covering the surfaces of RCA particles with a coarse paste containing volume of concrete) of basalt fiber (BF) on untreated and treated (24-h
inorganic admixtures. This method increases the compressive, tensile, of submersion in 0.1 M of HCl solution) RCA. The study showed that
and shear strengths of RCA concrete (Choi et al., 2016; Choi et al., concrete made with 20% of treated RCA (80% NA) with 1% and 1.5%
2014a; Choi et al., 2014b). The detail regarding surface-modification BF yields higher splitting tensile and flexural strengths than that of
technology can be found in Ref. (Choi et al., 2016; Choi et al., 2014a; control concrete (Katkhuda and Shatarat, 2017). These results are
Choi et al., 2014b). aligned with the study by Afroughsabet et al. (2017) which used 1% of
double hooked-end (DHE) steel fiber in RCA concrete. Afroughsabet
8.11. Using saturated aggregate et al. (2017) reported that DHE steel fiber led to an up to 60% increase
in the splitting tensile strength and up to 88% increase in the flexural
Several studies have indicated that saturating the RCA prior to the strength of RCA concrete at 28 days. These improvements can be

Fig. 17. The illustration of RCA particle structure after adopting (i) NMA, (ii) TSMAS, and (iii) TSMASC– adapted from Tam and Tam (2008).

42
K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Fig. 18. The schematic of mortar mixing approach

(MMA)– adapted from Liang et al. (2013).

Fig. 19. The schematic of sand enveloped mixing

approach (SEMA)–adapted from Liang et al. (2013).

Fig. 20. The mixing process which incorporates RCA coating–adapted from Li et al. (2009).

attributed to the better bond between RCA and paste due to the rough RCA surfaces with PP, applying new ways of mixing concrete techni-
surface of RCA in addition to the interlocking effect between the fibers ques (i.e., TSMA, TSMAS, TSMASC, MMA, SEMA), surface-modification
and RCA (Afroughsabet et al., 2017). Gao et al. (2017) used up to 2% of technology, self-healed the RCA prior to its usage in the concrete
steel fiber in his study which incorporated 30%, 50% and 100% of RCA. mixture, reducing the amount of old mortar and other impurities in
This study indicated that the presence of the steel fiber (up to 2% of the RCA particles, incorporating fiber into RCA concrete mixture.
total volume) increased the shear strength (up to 135%) of the concrete -The loss of workability when incorporating RCA in the concrete
containing 50% of coarse RCA (Gao et al., 2017). A study by Bordelon mixture can be addressed by several methods such as wetting the ag-
et al. (Bordelon et al., 2009) has indicated that incorporating synthetic gregate prior to the mixing, using plasticizer and/or a superplasticizer,
macro-fibers as much as 0.2% of the total volume of concrete made incorporating SCMs as partial replacement of OPC and the combination
with 50% coarse RCA improved its fracture properties into a level that of the aforementioned techniques.
is similar to NC.
9.2. Recommendations for use of RCA in concrete
9. Conclusions and recommendations
Based on results of various studies by different researchers, several
This section summarizes conclusions drawn from the study and recommendations on the application of RCA in concrete are summar-
provides general recommendations regarding the use of recycled ag- ized as follows:
gregate (RCA) in the concrete mixture.
– To achieve good quality, the contaminants on RCA should be
minimized. The removal of unwanted contaminants on RCA can be
9.1. Conclusions
done by crushing RCA with the appropriate type of crushers (i.e.
impact crusher and cone crusher) which are effective at removing
-The difference in properties of RCA with respect to NA is mainly
the adhered mortar on the surfaces of the RCA (ACPA, 2010).
driven by the presence of old mortars that adhere on the surfaces of
Washing the RCA prior to the batching process is also recommended
RCA particles. This remnant of mortar responsible for the lower specific
to minimize the amount of fine particles (minus #200 sieve/74 μm)
gravity, higher absorption, lower abrasion resistance of RCA as com-
and to reduce the potential of mixture workability problem asso-
pared to NA.
ciated to the moisture absorption during the mixing process (ACI
-Assuring the quality of RCA (both fine and coarse) is crucial prior to
Committee, 2001). Soaking the RCA in the 0.1 M of HCl solution is
its use as aggregate in the mixture in order to make a good quality
also an option for removing the old mortar from the RCA.
concrete and/or mortar. One of the ways is by minimizing the amount
– The use of RCA in saturated condition is recommended to assure a
of the attached old mortar on the surfaces of the coarse and/or fine RCA
better workability than using dry RCA. This effort can be combined
particles.
with adding water reducing admixture into the mixture.
-The handling of RCA prior to the mixing process influences the
– There are no general limits on the use of coarse RCA in a concrete
quality of the batched concrete. Combined with proper mix design and
mixture. Several researchers recommend 30% as the maximum limit
batching process, the use of partially saturated to fully saturated RCA
for using coarse RCA as replacement of coarse NA (Verian, 2012;
has shown to improve concrete performance relative to that of concrete
Verian et al., 2013; Tam et al., 2005). This limit, however, can go
batched with dry RCA.
even higher (i.e. 50%, 100%) if the mix design, batching metho-
-There are several ways to improve the quality of concrete con-
dology, and the moisture condition of the RCA are properly handled.
taining RCA such as using saturated RCA, incorporating sufficient
– Using modified batching techniques (i.e. TSMA, TSMAS, TSMASC,
amounts of SCMs (i.e., FA, GGBFS, metakaolin and SF) in the mixture
MMA, SEMA) which have been proven to improve the quality of
and performing other mixture-design modification (i.e. increasing the
RCA concrete is recommended when incorporating this material into
amount of cement, using superplasticizer to lower the w/b), coating

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

concrete mixture. Acknowledgements

– The use of SCMs (i.e. FA, GGBFS, SF and metakaolin) which have
been proven to improve the quality of RCA concrete is re- The authors would like to acknowledge Wren Fitzgerald and Karen
commended in RCA concrete (Verian et al., 2013; Verian et al., Travis for providing writing assistance and proof-reading the manu-
2011a; Kou et al., 2007; Snyder, 2016; Kumar et al., 2017; Hansen, script. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
1990; Silva et al., 2016b; Berndt, 2009). agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Appendix A

Table A1
Specific gravity of RCA and NA reported by different researchers.

Author Specific gravity (gram/cc)

RCA NA

Snyder et al. 2.10–2.40 2.40–2.90

(1994)
Medina et al. 2.54–2.56 2.66
(2014)
Gomez Soberon 2.35–2.42 (SSD) 2.59–2.67 (SSD)
(2002), Poon 2.17–2.28 (air dry) 2.57–2.64 (air dry)
et al. (2004)
Ann et al. (2008) 2.48 2.63
Xiao et al. (2005) 2.52 2.82
Fathifazl et al. 2.31–2.42 (bulk) 2.70–2.72 (bulk)
(2009) 2.42–2.5 (SSD) 2.71–2.74 (SSD)
2.64 (apparent) 2.73–2.79 (apparent)
Kou et al. (2007) 2.49–2.57 2.62
Olorunsogo and 2.60 2.61
Padayachee
(2002)
Verian (2012), 2.3–2.33 (bulk) 2.62–2.69 (bulk)
Verian et al. 2.42–2.45 (SSD) 2.69–2.74 (SSD)
(2013) 2.62–2.66 (apparent) 2.82 (apparent)
Abbas et al. 2.31–2.42 (bulk) 2.7–2.72 (bulk)
(2009) 2.42–2.5 (SSD) 2.71–2.74 (SSD)
2.64 (apparent) 2.73–2.79 (apparent)
Kapoor et al. 2.46 2.64
(2016)
Evangelista and 1.91 (dry)* 2.54 (dry)*
de Brito 2.17 (surface dry)* 2.56 (surface dry)*
(2007)
Gesoglu et al. 2.10* 2.40*
(2015) 2.40 2.70
Gokce et al. 2.41–2.5 2.64–2.65
(2004)
Katz (2003) 2.23–2.25* –
2.55–2.59 –
Khatib (2005) 2.05–2.65 –
Lin et al. (2004) 2.11 (oven dry) 2.62 (oven dry)*
2.27 (SSD) 2.68 (SSD) *
2.25 (SSD)*
Limbachiya et al. 2.40–2.41 (SSD) 2.60
(2000)
Sagoe-Crentsil 2.39 (bulk) 2.89 (bulk)
et al. (2001)
Thomas et al. 2.32 (relative) 2.51–2.54 (relative)
(2013) 2.31 (SSD) 2.55–2.59 (SSD)
Park et al. (2005) 2.34 2.55
Beltrán et al. 2.38 (SSD) 2.68 (SSD)
(2014)
Zhihui et al. 2.65 (apparent) 2.73 (apparent)
(2013)
Zaharieva et al. 2.16 ± 0.30 (dry density)* 2.60 (dry density)*
(2003) 2.25 ± 0.40 (dry density) 2.68 ± 0.02 (dry density)
Corinaldesi and 2.15 (SSD)* 2.62 (SSD)*
Moriconi 2.32 (SSD) 2.68 (SSD)
(2009)
Rahal (2007) 2.39 (SSD) 2.86 (SSD)
2.31 (oven dry) 2.84 (oven dry)
(continued on next page)

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K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Table A1 (continued)

Author Specific gravity (gram/cc)

RCA NA

Li (2009) 2.68 (SSD) 2.91 (SSD)

Vieira et al. 1.95* (dry density–recycled 2.55* (dry density–coarse
(2016) brick) sand)
2.97* (dry density–recycled 2.53* (dry density–fine
sanitary ware) sand)
Salem et al. 2.40 (SSD) 2.67 (SSD)
(2003)
Kurda et al. 2.39 (oven dry) 2.63 (oven dry–coarse
(2017a) gravel)
2.22* (oven dry) 2.74 (oven dry–gravel)
2.60* (oven dry–coarse
sand)
2.59* (oven dry–fine sand)
Ait Mohamed 2.38 (specific weight) 2.63 (specific weight)
Amer et al.
(2016)
Pickel (2014), 2.65 (apparent – RCA 1) 2.76 (apparent)
Pickel et al. 2.70 (apparent – RCA 2)
(2017)
Roesler et al. 2.41 (bulk) 2.67-2.68 (bulk)
(2013) 2.20* (bulk) 2.57* (bulk)
Liu et al. (2011) 2.42 (apparent–RA20) 2.79 (apparent)
2.43 (apparent–RA30)

–: data not available

*: fine aggregate

Table A2
Absorption of RCA and NA reported by different researchers.

Author Absorption (%)

RCA NA

Snyder et al. (1994) 3.7–8.7 0.8–3.7

Medina et al. (2014) 4.36−4.49 2.66
Gomez Soberon (2002) 5.83–8.16 0.88–1.49
Poon et al. (2004) 6.28–7.56 1.24–1.25
Ann et al. (2008) 4.25 0.73
Xiao et al. (2005) 9.25 0.4
Kou et al. (2007) 3.52–4.26 1.11–1.12
Verian (2012) 5.3–5.4 1.8–2.7
Abbas et al. (2009) 3.3–5.4 0.34–0.89
Kapoor et al. (2016) 5.35 0.68
Evangelista and de Brito 13.1* 0.8*
(2007)
Gesoglu et al. (2015) 10.9* 2.1*
7.4 0.5
Gokce et al. (2004) – 0.94
Katz (2003) 11.2–12.7* –
3.2–3.4 –
Khatib (2005) 0.5–14.75 –
Lin et al. (2004) 6.99 –
11.9* 2.23*
Limbachiya et al. (2000) 4.9–5.2 2.5
Sagoe-Crentsil et al. (2001) 5.6 1
Thomas et al. (2013) 5.3 1.6–1.8
Park et al. (2005) 4.1 1.2
Beltrán et al. (2014) 6.94 1.53
Zhihui et al. (2013) 4.1 0.7
Zaharieva et al. (2003) 12.0 ± 1.5* 2.0*
6.0 ± 0.5 0.2
Corinaldesi and Moriconi 10.0* 3.0*
(2009) 8.0 2.0
Rahal (2007) 3.47 0.68
Li (2009) 4.05 0.18
Ait Mohamed Amer et al. 5.05 0.96
(2016)
Vieira et al. (2016) 12.63* (recycled brick) 0.58* (coarse sand)
0.19* (recycled sanitary 0.32* (fine sand)
ware)
(continued on next page)

45
K.P. Verian et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 133 (2018) 30–49

Table A2 (continued)

Author Absorption (%)

RCA NA

Salem et al. (2003) 0.30 4.70

Kurda et al. (2017a) 5.0 (oven dry) 1.4 (coarse gravel)
8.0* (oven dry) 1.2 (fine gravel)
0.5* (coarse sand)
0.4* (fine sand)
Ait Mohamed Amer et al. 5.05 0.96
(2016)
Pickel, 2014, Pickel et al. 4.72 (RCA 1) 1.53
(2017) 6.93 (RCA 2)
Roesler et al. (2013) 5.51 1.9–2.73
9.85* 2.43*
Liu et al. (2011) 6.90 (RA20) 0.4
5.26 (RA30)

–: data not available

*: fine aggregate

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