Artefact Studies

Artefact studies is another method for either provenance studies or technological studies or utility
studies (Tite 1991: 143). For provenance studies trace element composition, mineralogy and isotopic
composition are used to correlate the ingredients of an object with a specific quarry or ore (Tite
1991: 143). Because one aspect can show similarities among quarries (Tite 1991: 143). There is
another pitfall that some characteristics may change during production (Tite 1991: 143).

Oxford Laboratory conducted a couple of provenance studies which inferred that Stonehenge
bluestones came from Presceli Mountains in South Wales (Tite 1991: 145). Mycenaean pottery
extended from Peloponnessos to Cyprus, Near East and Egypt (Tite 1991: 145). However Minoan
pottery from Knossos is only distributed to the Aegean (Tite 1991: 145). Lead isotope analysis is
quite a reliable technique because the isotopes do not change during smelting (Tite 1991: 145). LBA
copper ingots found from Sardinia, Greece, Anatolia and Cyprus mostly indicate ores from Cyprus
(Tite 1991: 145).

Technological investigations are more indebted to physics as mechanical modifications, which are
more significant in the production process (Tite 1991: 145). The questions sought are:

i) How artefacts were made

ii) Type of material, preparation, forming, retouching, heating degree and oxidation for
ceramics
iii) Alloys used, how they were fabricated and decoration technique for metals. Copper + tin
= bronze, copper + zinc = brass, leaded bronze (Tite 1991: 145).

Earliest zinc production is 12th-18th c. A.D. in India. Zinc oxide, dolomite and charcoal heated at 1,000-
1,200°C. Zinc becomes vapour and then condenses (Tite 1991: 145).

Usage can be traced by observing micro-wear analysis (profile of edge, type of fracture, damage,
pitting or smoothness of surface, distribution of polish by using blind tests) (Tite 1991: 146).

Organic residues can be analysed by using chemical analyses. Traces of blood and phytoliths on tools
and residues trapped in the pore of ceramics (Tite 1991: 146).

Environmental information can be synthesised by gathering information on soils, sediments, pollens,

plant macro-fossils, animal bones, molluscs and insect remains (Tite 1991: 147). This information set
provides information on human behaviour in terms of food, shelter and clothing (Tite 1991: 147).

Anthropological studies provide information on sex, age, diseases, nutrition via stable isotope and
trace element analysis (Tite 1991: 149). Maize occurs in North America between 400-1,100 A.D. A
C4 plant photosynthesis mechanism with higher C13/C12 ratio (Tite 1991: 149). DNA sequences on
ancient bone provide information on kinship and population movements, palaeopathology with DNA
mutations, human evolution, domestication of plants and animals (Tite 1991: 149).

In the past Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) didn’t find the application of established
techniques (Tite 1991: 149). Archaeologist and scientist should be in contact for getting a meaningful
research problem (Tite 1991: 149). There is a need for reevaluation and new calibrations for existing
scientific data (Tite 1991: 149). Low-tech pottery, flint and obsidian are needed to further
understand the exchange, technology and usage (Tite 1991: 149).
Archaeological Materials and Their Properties-Metals (Macit Özenbaş)

Artefact forming processes follow an evolutionary state from early periods onwards (Aylin Tunçer
2008). The earliest technique used is by heating the metal to a point below recrystallisation
temperature simply in open fire explained by “camp fire theory” (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Camp fire
theory is the idea that Palestinians smelted copper in Jericho without a kiln (Özenbaş 2008).
Arslantepe (Malatya) is a developed smelting area (Özenbaş 2008).

M. Frangipane experiments smelting technology in open fire (Özenbaş 2008). There are not many
examples as they are worked and exploited to a large extend (Özenbaş 2008). Here small pieces of
naturally occurring ores as native copper are used and they are forged by hammering to form beads,
awls, pins and hoops (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Forging temperature ranges from room temperature up to
recrystallisation temperature (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Provenance deducing the ore of artefacts can be done two ways (Aylin Tunçer 2008): Trace
element analysis is a way of identifying the footprint of metal ores, where negligible amounts of
metals remain during smelting action diversified from the ores (Aylin Tunçer 2008). There is however
the consideration of elements behaving similarly, which would remain although their size is large
(Aylin Tunçer 2008). Therefore in ancient pyrotechnology, there is a good change of finding these
elements (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Arsenic and antimony behaves similar to copper, so there is a chance
of finding same amount of As and Sb both in the ore and in the artefact (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

The melting point of Au and Ag are higher than Cu and because they are not involved in the
reaction process they may get included in the next product of up to a degree of 2 or 3 times (Aylin
Tunçer 2008). As/Sb ratio remains same, as their respond is similar to Cu (Aylin Tunçer 2008).
Elements behaving similar is important in deciding the ore as oxidation and reduction properties act
similar, it is more difficult to separate them from the matrix with limited technology (Aylin Tunçer
2008).

Introduction-Encountering Metals
Metals are difficult to shape, they require high temperatures and elaborate pounding techniques to
get the desired shapes. Their exploitation has such vital importance for world history, because the
developments in metallurgy established an irreversible trademark that later people could only build
upon (George 1953: 165). Therefore the technological developments are such important inventions
early periods are coined for, such as Bronze Age and Iron Age (Wertime 1964: 1257). The inventions
were not under controlled knowledge of science, but based on experimentation. This allowed
recognising appealing combinations of tin-copper and zinc-copper alloys (George 1953: 167).

The use of metals in antiquity both as artefacts and ecofacts should be considered together. We
know that even in Palaeolithic Period man was scouting the area he lives to get control of the
resources and prevent other bands exploiting them. Therefore we know that metals were used as raw
materials in this period. Ochre is very commonly used as paint and it is possible to use undecomposed
metals as simple tools without modifying their shape, which is termed as ecofact.

Human populations adapt to their environment and organise the environment around them
according to their needs (Yener 1994: 302). Therefore it is not a big surprise to see the early
development of metallurgy in Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Iran, where there are
resources and enough trade/warfare network to pass information (Rehren et al. 2008: 234). Men were
able to reach high temperatures by 6th or 5th millenium B.C. to cast copper. By 2,000 B.C. Anatolian
and Eastern Mediterranean people started mass production by extracting copper from sulphide ores
and learned working iron (Wertime 1973: 875).

Degradation processes due to oxidation and reuse in antiquity influences their recovery and they
occur only in small ratios, and more likely they are recovered from unaerobic environments and
graves. Metals are investigated to understand the technological development and to stop corroding
factors. Regarding their rarity among finds, scientists always tried to find less destructive techniques
to preserve these materials.

Archaeologists study the metallurgical installations and processed material to understand the
metallurgical processes, ore types, production technologies and the scale of production. In smelting
the metal, a series of chemical reactions take place where the gangue remaining or host rock is
separated in the form of a slag, melting and vitrifying with the heat. Later other waste and
intermediate products as matte (metal sulphides) and speiss (transition metals combined with arsenic
and antimony) are formed (Rehren et al. 2008: 235).

Experimentation of past conditions for smelting technology has been one way of understanding and
bringing out figures for comparison. Cushing (1890) is the person doing the earliest experiment on
copper smelting in Salado Valley, Arizona. He tried roasting and smelting in a pit by slowly adding
copper where small prills were formed and then they separated from the slag and poured into moulds
(Tylecote et al. 1985: 4).

Gowland (1912) used hole-in-the-ground furnace of the Far East and Coghlan (1939-1940) used
bonfire which was unsuitable and bowl furnace to produce beads of copper from crushed malachite
(Tylecote et al. 1985: 4). Böhne (1968) concentrated on the smelting techniques of Austria where he
smelted chalcopyrite from Mitterberg. He started with roasting but the matte was difficult to separate
from the slag. Therefore they were crushed and hand sorted and matte was roasted again in a clay-
lined pit. The produced copper prills occurred embedded in the slag (Tylecote et al. 1985: 5).

Friede and Steel (1975) conducted another copper smelting experiment in Southern Africa
(Transvaal) using three different furnaces. They used the ethnographical data from the Kaonde tribe,
Zimbabwe, that is how they smelted malachite to produce copper prills and thin irregular shaped
copper layers. These copper prills were collected and remelted in a small crucible, with sodium,
calcium and potassium as flux, furnace to form the ingot (Tylecote et al. 1985: 5). Ghaznavi made
experiments at Timna where he used haematite as flux to the crushed nodular ore using a bowl furnace
and two tuyères (Tylecote et al. 1985: 7).

Iron was experimented the same way as copper based on local information, ethnographic data and
archaeological finds. Gilles (1958-60) is the first person to experiment shaft and hearth furnaces using
fayalite, where he managed to reach a temperature of 1,400°C in Germany. Wynne and Tylecote
(1958) did the same experiment in Britain using a low bloomery as described in Agricola where ore
entered from one side and fuel from the other (tuyère side). By putting a top reservoir they converted
the hearth into a shaft furnace (Tylecote et al. 1985: 8). Chretien (1982) did studies on bowl furnaces
at Burundi (East Africa). They roasted the ferric oxide ore using two tuyères and two bellows. It is
pushed by a stick and processed before it oxidises (Tylecote et al. 1985: 9)

M.H. Klaproth is the first person to analyse the chemical composition of ancient materials at the
end of 18th century. Early analytical studies are further done by Caleg (Werner 1970: 175). The
scientific techniques employed are XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) early trials by McKerrell (Edinburgh)
to identify arsenic, lead, silver and other impurities, EMP (Electron Microprobe Analysis) early trials
by Charles and Oddy to identify grain structures of the surface, lead isotope analysis for finding parent
ores (Wertime 1973:877), OES (Optical Emission Spectrometry) to identify trace elements (Coghlan
1962:129). Polarography is used to determine copper, tin, lead, zinc, nickel, iron and atomic
absorption is used to determine gold and silver (Werner 1970:184).

Contemporary techniques used involve those used by geochemistry, ore petrology and igneous
petrology. Multi-element analyses are done using XRF, ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma-
Optical Emission Spectrometry) with optical or electron microscopy, EDX (Energy Dispersive X-Ray
Analyser) along with SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), PIXE (Proton Induced X-Ray Emission)
or PIGE (Proton Induced Gamma Emission) are non-destructive methods for chemical analysis
(Rehren et al. 2008: 237).

Material Science Tetrahedron

Impurities, grain size, boundaries and dislocations are called the microstructure of the material
(Özenbaş 2008). Steel is hard, aluminum is ductile and ceramic is brittle and these are the properties
of the material (Özenbaş 2008). Casting requires processing and all properties, structure and
processing the material and the resulting performance are combined to characterise the material
(Özenbaş 2008).

Weapons are used to protect the settlement and provide food (Özenbaş 2008). Stoneware was used
to prepare food, then metallic kitchenware is used (Özenbaş 2008). Inheritance led people get the
knowledge to use certain materials (Özenbaş 2008).

Historical Ages in Anatolia

Neolithic Aceramic 12,000-7,000 B.C. Neolithic Ceramic 7,000-5,500 B.C.

Chalcolithic 5,500-3,000 B.C.
Early Bronze Age 3,000-2,000 B.C.
Middle Bronze Age 2,000-1,600 B.C.
Late Bronze Age 1,600-1,200 B.C.
Iron Age 1,200-700 B.C.

Çayönü, Çatalhöyük, Tepe Sialk (İran) and Chagar Bazar (İran) start using forging for native
metals with open fire temperature from Neolithic Period onwards (Aylin Tunçer 2008). For Aceramic
Neolithic Period (11,000-7,000 B.C.), Çayönü is the earliest site native copper is used in Anatolia
(Aylin Tunçer 2008). Though this period is only limited to South-Eastern Anatolia (Aylin Tunçer
2008). Çatalhöyük emerges with lead bracelets (Özenbaş 2008). But main material is stone
(Özenbaş 2008). Impurities like As, Sb may be present because the metal is directly used from the ore
without smelting (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Ceramic Neolithic Period (7,000-5,500 B.C.) emerges with sites like Çatalhöyük (Aylin Tunçer
2008). We see the use of lead along with copper (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It is possible that they smelted
ores (Aylin Tunçer 2008). The copper objects are rough because they don’t have much strength and
were used for ornamental items (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Smelting is possibly known from Ceramic
Neolithic onwards, but we don’t have evidence for that (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It is done by melting the
metal at a high temperature, where other impurities can be separated as lumps at the bottom called
slags (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Reaching 700° C is necessary for smelting copper (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Chalcolithic Period (5,500-3,000 B.C.) is a period we observe widespread use of the copper ore and
the use of smelting and casting (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Canhasan I is a very important centre. In later
Chalcolithic Period Cu/As, Cu/Sn, Cu/As/Sn and Cu/Pb were used together regarding the types of ores
the metal comes from (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Copper is a common material in everyday use only in
Chalcolithic Period. Chalcopyrite deposits are common in Anatolia (Özenbaş 2008). Pb and Ag use
also starts in this period (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Furnaces, crucibles and slags were available from this
period (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Tülintepe (Elazığ), Değirmentepe, Arslantepe (Malatya), Tilmenhöyük
(Gaziantep), Kuruçay (Denizli) and Beycesultan (Aydın) are late Chalcolithic sites with metal
production (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Early Bronze Age (3,000 B.C.-2,500 B.C.) is a time people needed powerful weapons and copper
was only good as ornamental items (Aylin Tunçer 2008). They needed more strength which is
achieved by using furnaces, chimneys, bellows and charcoal to reach high temperatures to melt their
alloy (Aylin Tunçer 2008). The use of arsenic bronzes (As/Cu) is slowly replaced by tin bronzes
(Sn/Cu) (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Alacahöyük and İkiztepe are important areas for Bronze Age metal-
working (Özenbaş 2008).

In Middle Bronze Age (2,500-2,000 B.C.) Troia emerges with a bronze production area (Aylin
Tunçer 2008). Lead is added to the bronze to provide it further strength (Aylin Tunçer 2008).
Precious metals and lead can be removed from the slag of metal oxides and other materials (Aylin
Tunçer 2008). It is mostly used to separate iron containing ores (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Lead is freed to
mix if for other alloy formations (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Late Bronze Age is important in Anatolia because tin is a very important trading item Kültepe
emerges as a site with trading activity with Assur (Aylin Tunçer 2008). In Assyrian Trade Colonies
Period (1,950-1,750 B.C.) tin ingots are traded on donkeys and there are cuneiform document
indicating the privileges provided for tradesmen (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Late Bronze Age continues
with Hittite Period (1,600-1,200 B.C.), where we see high amount of weaponry production at Hattusas
(Aylin Tunçer 2008),

Early Iron Age is a period we come across with the use of copper, tin, lead and iron. The
technology was sufficient enough to melt lead and separate it from impurities (Aylin Tunçer 2008).
Early Iron Age Chiefdoms (1,200-800 B.C.) appear in Early Iron Age and form chiefdoms all over
Anatolia (Aylin Tunçer 2008). They mainly reign Çukurova Region (Adana and Kahramanmaraş),
Syria, Palestine and Lebanon (Aylin Tunçer 2008). And they use metal objects for making weapons
(Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Late Iron Age (800-600 B.C.) is a period zinc also occur in the matrix for experimenting for giving
it a shiny gloss to look like gold (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It is not to the amount of brass, only attempts to
strengthen copper (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Real brass only occurs in Roman Period for coin making
(Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Methods of fabrication

Annealing is a heat treatment wherein a material is altered, causing changes in its properties, such as
strength and hardness (Aylin Tunçer 2008). This is achieved by softening the metal in gentle heat to
make the metal more malleable (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Therefore it requires higher temperatures, where
object becomes more malleable by using furnaces (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Along with previously
mentioned sites Tali İblis (İran), Tepe Yahya (İran), Badarian (Egypt), Eridu (Iraq), Ur (Iraq),
Canhasan and Beycesultan are some sites with these developments (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Smelting is possibly known from Ceramic Neolithic onwards, but we don’t have evidence for that
(Aylin Tunçer 2008). It is done by melting the metal at a high temperature, where other impurities can
be separated as lumps at the bottom called slags (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Reaching 700° C is necessary
for smelting copper (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Smelting and forging depends on the temperature of the
metal worked (Özenbaş 2008). If it is below TR (recrystallisation temperature), which is ½ of the
2 MP 3 MP
melting point − it is called forging, if it is above TR smelting (Özenbaş 2008).
5 5

Flux The next development is iron ore flux process done to reduce lead by adding iron oxide to the
charge (Aylin Tunçer 2008). This way lead becomes soluble and iron is collected as lumps called bear
(Aylin Tunçer 2008). The areas for lead ore is Astra (Konya) in Turkey and Kavir (diffused to Tepe
Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Chesmeh Ali) in Iran in Late Chalcolithic Period (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Casting is a development following the use of annealing for copper working (Aylin Tunçer 2008).
This is not a development on its own (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It requires a group of developments
occurring together to b able to reach such a technological advent. This became necessary in Early
Bronze Age, which is the time people were waging wars and needed powerful weapons and copper
was only good as ornamental items. They needed more strength which is achieved by using furnaces,
chimneys, bellows and charcoal to reach high temperatures to melth their alloy. Casting involves
liquid metal, furnace, ladle (pota) or crucible (kroze) to pour liquid metal (Özenbaş 2008).
 After melting , liquid metal will be poured into a mould made of sand (Özenbaş 2008). That
should be inside a flask (derece), walls keeping the mould inside and a pattern (Özenbaş 2008). When
metals are heated in furnaces, they absorb gas from the fuel (e.g. CO, CO 2, SO2, H2S,…) (Özenbaş
2008). But the most important one is water vapour (H2O) by the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel
(Özenbaş 2008). For example 2Cu + H2O → Cu2O + 2H. The hydrogen stays dissolved until
solidification and it is removed in the form of gas bubbles, which causes large pores at the cast surface
(Özenbaş 2008).

Alacahöyük metal pieces (cast pieces such as deers, sun discs) mostly contain gas porosities on
their surfaces (Özenbaş 2008). To get rid of such porosities risers and feeders can be used (Özenbaş
2008). Risers (above) and feeders (below) are to trap bubbles and gas will be confined in these areas
together with extra metal parts (burr) (Özenbaş 2008).

Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest type of casting that has been used for
centuries (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It requires a flask filled with sand and the model is placed in the
middle and resin and urine are used as fixatives (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Later the model is removed and
metal is poured in the hole taking the shape of the model (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Stone moulds are also
used for casting metals. Lost wax casting sometimes called by the French name of “cire perdue”, is
the process the original model si made by wax and a mould covering it is made with clay (Aylin
Tunçer 2008). It is used frequently for making statues or statuettes. As metal is poured, the wax melts
away (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Cupellation is a process, an alloy consisting of both noble and base metals is placed in a crucible
(Aylin Tunçer 2008). This mixture is then melted and allowed to freeze, where it is oxidised (Aylin
Tunçer 2008). Precious metals and lead can be removed from the slag of metal oxides and other
materials (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It is mostly used to separate iron containing ores (Aylin Tunçer 2008).
Where iron forms haematite (Fe2O3) and later by reduction process it combines with carbon monoxide
and frees iron (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Plating (e.g. tinning) rather than modern electroplating by placing the metal to be plated on the anode
and plating material on the cathode, by electron migration; ancient people preferred using tin sticks
and other metals over heated pieces of metal objects for protection from corrosion (Özenbaş 2008) and
also for decoration (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Silver plating is observed in Alacahöyük deers are just
obtained by hammering thin silver sheets on the objects (Özenbaş 2008).

Wires and tubes in modern process are made through extrusion by forcing the metal from one side
and getting wires from the other side (Özenbaş 2008). In ancient technique first of all the metal sheets
are cut in the form of strips (Özenbaş 2008). Then these strips are rounded over cylinderical pieces
(mostly wooden pieces) to have thin wires or tubes (Özenbaş 2008). Also these strips can be twisted
between two flat metal or stone pieces (Özenbaş 2008). Au and Ag pieces can be joined simply by
hammering the pieces together (Özenbaş 2008). Tubes are rolled into sheet metal around a wooden
stick and welding the edges to adhere them in a circular form (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

welding

Soldering (lehim) is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by Pb/Sn alloy.
The filler metal having a relatively low melting point (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Soft soldering is
characterised by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400° C (800° C) (Aylin Tunçer
2008).

Brazing (sert lehim) is a joining process where a filler metal or alloy done with high percentage of Pb
and some Sn are heated to melting temperature above 450° C (842° F) (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Welding (kaynak) is done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of
molten, liquid metal called weld puddle that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure, sometimes
used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Deep drawing is a compression-tension metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is
radially drawn into a mould forming a 3D shape by the mechanical action of a punch (Aylin Tunçer
2008).

Stamping is the method of making coins where there are two moulds and one is hammered on the top
to print the relief on both sides at one step (Aylin Tunçer 2008). One mould lasts 15,000 prints using
only three mould on the top (Aylin Tunçer 2008). Coin production starts first in Lydia (Sardis)
(Özenbaş 2008). First examples can be silver and gold coins produced by hammering flat pieces of
these metals (Özenbaş 2008). Bronze and copper coins are casted into coins as they are harder
(Özenbaş 2008). Last stage of coins production takes place using differently shaped (relieved) stamps
(Özenbaş 2008). These stamps are applied either on one surface or to all surfaces of the flat metal
pieces (Özenbaş 2008). Later man used shallow moulds for coin making (Aylin Tunçer 2008).

Camp Fire Theory and the Start of Annealing

Man encountered metals as he started exploiting the nature surrounding his territory. The first
attempts of using them was only for colouring purposes. Paleolithic people were keen on drawing
paintings on rocks, and rock art was possible through using paint derived from plants and metals.
Limonite, haematite are iron oxides and malachite and azurite are copper oxides that can be used as
painting agents. We have further evidence on the use of azurite in the 6,000 B.C. habitation layers of
Crete and haematite on burnished pottery from Eridu and Susa in 4,000 B.C. (Tylecote 1992: 1).

7,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C. native copper, gold, silver and lead were the only metals worked
(Wertime 1973:876). This period is the time people were using simply hammering. Small pieces of
native metal were shaped into beads, awls, pins and hoops. Çatalhöyük, Sialk and Chagar Bazar seem
to have used this technique at a very early period (Wertime 1964: 1260).
 Civilisations grew in metal rich areas, but there were geological constraints to this and it stimulated
developments in other areas as economics, politics, warfare and trade along with metal trade spreading
of mining and extractive metallurgy in the late 6th millenium B.C. (Rehren et al. 2008: 234). South-
West Asian Trade involved copper, chert, obsidian and turquoise in the mid 7 th millenium B.C.
(Wertime 1973:876). As pyrotechnology developed, it became the most important item. Copper was
one of the first metal experimented. It became an item of trade from late Neolithic onwards as
pyrotechnology developed. It was very sturdy and therefore was ideal to use for warfare. It takes an
important role in early urbanisation (Wertime 1973:876).

In very early periods prior to Chalcolithic, the only copper used was the native copper. Only after
exceeding 600°C soluble segregates start to diffuse and affect the grain boundaries (Tylecote 1992: 2)
and the working technique is merely hammering and annealing (Wertime 1973: 879). Annealing is the
softening process under gentle heat, then the metal becomes more malleable (Wertime 1964: 1261).
Therefore even for making small objects like beads, pins and awls as the ones found from Çayönü in
contexts as early as 7th millenium B.C. (more precisely 7,250-6,750 B.C.) (Tylecote 1992: 1), there is a
need to have enough technology for making prehistoric pottery.

Gold-working first occurred at Çayönü and Çatalhöyük in Neolithic Period (Özenbaş 1996: 6). It is
possible that the shimmer of gold nuggets and the ease of malleability even when it is cold made it the
first metal worked by humans. It is found in native form with 1 to 9% silver impurity and trace
amounts of SiO2, Fe(OH)3, Fe2O3. First step in working gold is to melt and pour it into water where
granulation is achieved. Then the granules are processed with salt, which is called saltification and the
last step is filtering them using ammonia (Özenbaş 1996: 8).

Lead was produced at Arpachiyah, Amuq , Anau, Uruk and Ur from very early periods onwards.
We see its use at Jemdet Nasr tumblers, at Tepe Hissar goblets and Pre-Dynastic and Dynastic human
and animal figurines and as sinkers for fish-nets (Wertime 1964: 1262). The earliest evidence for lead
was found at Çatalhöyük recovered by J. Mellaart. Other pieces were found at Arpachiyah (Iraq),
Anau (Iran); and was also used for utensils in Pre-Dynastic Egypt and Hissar III (Iran). There are
numerous lead-bearing gossans at Anatolia and Iran. Cerussite has been preferred before 2 nd
millenium B.C. because it is above the water table (Wertime 1973: 883).

Yazd (Iran) and Kavir are cerussite (PbS) sources where smelting was observed. Slags were found
from Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Chesmeh Ali. In Iran lead ore s are reduced by iron ore flux process
adding iron oxide to the charge. Charcoal and heavy blast increases the temperature to produce high
reducing temperature. Then lead becomes soluble and iron eventually is collected as an infusible lump
of compact iron known as a bear. In controlled temperatures the smelting will result a spongy state
(Wertime 1964: 1262).

Control of Temperature
There is a common view that ancient people started using metals by chance observing its
liquifaction on camp fire, which has the efficiency to reach up to 700°C (Özenbaş 1997: 10-1). There
are experiments led by various scholars to understand how they achieved metal-working under
technological constraints. The metals, although not being melted properly, could still be worked by
annealing under the fire for sometime and working with hammer (Maryon 1949: 94). Sintering must
have been achieved at this period too, which is a necessary process to make large items by joining
grains or nuggets without complete fusion at a time it is not entirely molten (Maryon 1949: 106).
 Copper is the dominant metal ore used from 7,000 to 1,500 B.C. (Wertime 1973: 877). Copper
minerals are in bright irridescent hues of blue and green in contact with metamorphic zones or in
gossans. It takes orange red colour when hammered. Native copper is found in small pellets or grains
as well as spongy or laminated textured and has traceable amounts of Ag, As, Fe, Co, Cd, Pb, Ni, Sb
and Sn (Özenbaş 1997: 10). Native copper is found in small quantities and it does not require
smelting and casting. Gossans are copper bearing deposits that appear in the weatherd surface
(Hodges 1964: 65). Mining is done either by grubbing-collecting from the surface ore or they are
mined by breaking into pieces by fire-setting. Lumps are then broken into pieces small enough to be
smelted easily. But this contains high amount of unwanted matter, gangue (mostly silica), which is
next washed to get rid of the small sized matter (Hodges 1964: 66).

There are two concentrations of copper occurrences: First between Turkey and Iran and the second
between Yugoslavia and Hungary. These zones criss-cross with the trade route of obsidian and other
precious stones. Iron is a major biproduct together with arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin and oxides of
zinc (Wertime 1973:878).

Chalcolithic Age is the time copper started to be used widespread. The only way to reach high
temperatures was through baking in furnaces with chimneys and increased the temperature using
bellows. They have high amount of arsenic, as they were not smelting the ore for purification
(Özenbaş 1997: 11), the temperature achieved was not sufficient for metal to melt in 5 th and 4th
millenium B.C. Before Early Bronze Age III, most of the metalwork consists of unalloyed copper (de
Jesus 1980: 124). The copper used without alloying was traded extensively even in this period.
Between early 5th to early 4th millenium B.C. copper was traded into Mesopotamia from Magan and
Meluhha and Aššur exploited the Ergani copper (Wertime 1964: 1264).

Transcaucasian Early Farming Culture is very distinctive for the copper working of the oxidised
ores in Middle Eneolithic Period. The culture is established between Georgia and Eastern Turkey
(Hauptmann 1995: 12). The Anatolian sites within the Transcaucasian culture, with the similar metal-
working trade are Arslantepe, Hassek Höyük, Karaz, Kurban Höyük, Murgul, Pulur, Samsat, Tepecik,
Yanıktepe and Yarımtepe (Hauptmann 1995: 5). The extraction of oxidised copper ore was centred
around Tsitelisopeli near Tbilisi, where stone hammers and slags were recovered (Hauptmann
1995:11).

Silver use starts at Beycesultan in the 5th millenium B.C. and Sialk (Iran). Patterson suggests that it
was recuperated from native crystals or cerargyrite (silver chloride), Gowland and Hoovers suggest
that it was yielded in the course of accidental cupellation of lead. In Mahmatlar (3 rd millenium B.C.)
they were found as cupel buttons and about the same time it became common at Thermi, Troy, Susa,
Ur III and Kültepe. It has a melting point of 327°C (Wertime 1973: 883). Lead ores were rendered
for silver, which was well-established during old Assyrian Trade Colonies Period centred at Kaneš
during 1,950-1,800 B.C. (Wertime 1973: 875).

Smelting, Alloying and Casting

Early Bronze Age onwards, man were more able to control the refining process using several
techniques. Bronze is shaped by casting therefore we must consider the liquifaction properties, how
they can be improved and the use of blowpipes and bellows to feed the fire. Man learned melting and
smelting metals and as a last step they learned to reduce them from their ores using appropriate fuel
and furnaces (Wertime 1964: 1257).
 True smelting starts in the Early Bronze Age Period, which brought with it the novelty of mixing
up ores to form alloys. Even by 4th millenium B.C. smiths were aware of decomposition, double
decomposition and reduction metathesis (exchange of impurities) (Wertime 1064: 1264). But by Early
Bronze Age they start to smelt copper more widespread as follows:

1-First copper is reduced at 1,100°C 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2

2-It liquidifies and flows to the bottom

There is a slow transition from the use of arsenic copper to tin bronzes, as the metallurgists had
more control over the materials they are using. There are arsenopyrite ores in Erzurum, which may
have yielded more durable coppers without the need of alloying (Wertime 1973: 881). These
processes require high temperatures, only possible to reach using high amount of charcoal. Therefore
one should consider the fact that there should be a fuel supply nearby the smelting area (Wertime
1964: 1258).

The gradual transition from unalloyed copper to arsenical copper to tin bronze. Sulphide ores were
also processed. They have more ardous processes to undergo, as they require roasting at 500°C prior
to smelting (Wertime 1964: 1264). Early Bronze Age II and Early Bronze Age III periods are studied
with percentages by de Jesus. He analysed metals from Alacahöyük, Ahlatlıbel, Alişar Höyük,
Beycesultan, Horoztepe, Kusura, Mersin, Tarsus and Troy. Using this data we can see the decrease of
unalloyed copper and also regional variances in Western/Middle and Eastern Anatolia, where changes
are not abrupt but following trends of Mainland Greece and Transcaucasia respectively (de Jesus
1980: 124-139). There is however change in the ratio of alloys according to the utility of the objects.
Knives and blades require cold working and have a few % of As just like axes and adzes, whereas in
vessels we see higher amount of As (Eaton 1976: 175).

It is also the period for the first large scale trade of tin and industrialisation of bronze production.
The technical interventions are described in the texts of Ur III, Larsa in Babylon, Kültepe tablets, the
tablets from Mari in Babylon and the Neo-Assyrian glass texts (Wertime 1973: 875).

In Late Bronze Age 1 to 10% lead is added to cast bronze to avoid viscosity. Lead and zinc are
also materials that improve resistivity (Özenbaş 1997: 15). The occurrence of phosphorus in bronzes
should be a result of using bones as flux inside the alloy (Özenbaş 1997: 14). Adding haematite
generally produces good flux, and used generally for lead and occasionally for iron (Wertime 1964:
1261).

1,600 B.C. was a period when metal trade expanded towards Europe and Western Asia. Tin was
traded as far as Cornwall in the mid 2nd millenium B.C. (Wertime 1973: 875). Cypriot sulphide
coppers were used by Late Minoans and Early Mycenaeans. The sulphide deposits in Cyprus and
Spain and lead deposits in Greece allowed mass production . Ox-hide ingots of Cyprus are trademarks
of this period (Wertime 1973:876). In early 2nd millenium B.C.ntin was traded frm Aššur to Kaneš
and from Susa to Mari and even from Mari via Syria to Crete (Wertime 1973: 884).

Use of Charcoal and Blooming Technology

Iron Age was only possible through another revolutionary development in furnaces. Bloomeries
are the places to separate iron from its oxides. These furnaces are used for smelting sponge iron,
called a bloom, by the help of a chimney, bellows and tuyères. Because of technological restrictions
iron only started to be worked properly after these novelties. Iron ores like haematite and jarosite with
fluxes like sea-shells or silicates were used. Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin and lead affects casting
properties of copper. Extraneous metals as silver, iron, gold and zinc are off-shoots of lead or copper
production (Wertime 1973:876).

Iron was specifically used for military concerns, because of its strength, on the other hand bronze
kept being produced for hunting weaponry (Muhly et al. 1985: 67). In Anatolia iron deposits are
scattered in multitude compared to copper, therefore it is less expensive and replaced the utensils of
everyday use.

There are also other iron artefacts from Tell Asmar and Tell Chagar Bazar, where the lump found is
an evidence of smelting (Wertime 1964: 1262). Covallite and chalcocite slags from Cyprus produce
almost pure iron. One iron-arsenic biproduct was found at Tiryns at Late Helladic IIIB2 phase at a
workshop, and it is probably speiss serving as a proof of iron smelting at Tiryns (Muhly et al. 1985:
77). Southern Black Sea coast is lined with sands high in magnetite and is self-fluxing, therefore can
be smelted in 900°C (Wertime 1973: 885). The major iron deposits are concentrated around
Çanakkale-Balıkesir, Aydın-Muğla-İzmir area, Kırşehir-Niğde-Kayseri area, Malatya-Sivas-Divriği
area (Muhly et al. 1985: 74).

The first use of iron is by Pre-Hittite and Hittite peoples in the late 3 rd and early 2nd millenium B.C.
(Wertime 1973: 875). Tarsus, Alişar also emerge with iron objects in the Early Bronze Age and
Alacahöyük and Boğazköy follow them in the Late Bronze Ages. A bloom was recovered from Troy
II leve (19th century B.C.) (Muhly et al. 1985: 70).

Iron was also defined in Kültepe tablets as a meteoritic metal. The iron swords of Alacahöyük
shows that it was also known asa terrestrial metal, because of containing low nickel. Iron letter is one
evidence mentioned in the texts to be requested probably by the king of Assyria from Hattušili III
assuming Hittites had the monopoly of iron production in the Bronze Age, and only with the collapse
of the Hittite Empire the control of iron industry passed to the Palestinians (Muhly et al. 1985: 71).

Native Metals

Gold They are found in metallic state in the nature (Özenbaş 2008). Usually metals ocur as oxides,
which is thermodynamically stable (Özenbaş 2008). Au, Cu, Ag and Fe are the first exploited metals
(Özenbaş 2008). Gold is probably the first metal exploited metals and in native form exists in the
silica rocks and when these rocks are crumbled into pieces, gold particles can be collected in the
streaming river (Özenbaş 2008).

Pactolus River (Sardis) banks are partially granite rocks and as gold extrudes out they sink as they
are heavy and lighter pieces of sand is carried away (Özenbaş 2008). These native gold particles
generally have the composition about 90% gold, 10% of silver and 1% of others (SiO 2, Cu,...) in
Anatolia (Özenbaş 2008). Such a composition is known as electrum (Özenbaş 2008). In the
Mediterranean countries, silver composition can go up to 20% silver (Özenbaş 2008).

Purification to get rid of silver is a treatment of NaCl (Özenbaş 2008). It easily combines with
silver to form AgCl leaving Au as pure (Özenbaş 2008). LBA and IA are the periods in Anatolia for
this revolution (Özenbaş 2008). The traditional way of testing the purity of gold is by means of a
touchstone (Özenbaş 2008). This stone is an abrasive hard stone (basalt or granite) on which the gold
object is rubbed (Özenbaş 2008).

Iron Native iron is meteoritic (Özenbaş 2008). They hit the earth and create craters containing
considerable amount of Ni 21% and P .71% (Özenbaş 2008). Toward the north pole Ni percentage
rises up to 50% (Özenbaş 2008). Meteoritic iron was used in Chalcolithic and Bronze Age (Özenbaş
2008). They are malleable (deformable) but nowadays meteoritic iron exists only in North America
(ca. 250 tons) (Özenbaş 2008).

Melting point is understood in alloys through phase diagrams (Özenbaş 2008). Native copper
exists in pure copper only (Özenbaş 2008). It is different from native gold containing some silver
(Özenbaş 2008). The first examples of native Cu objects are from Çayönü (Özenbaş 2008). These
objects are dated as 7,250 B.C. and they are some cold-worked hooks (Halet Çambel) (Özenbaş 2008).

Native copper ores are oxide ores and below them sulphide ores take place (Özenbaş 2008). Asia has
sulphide ores (Özenbaş 2008). North America has native ores, but they use oxide ores (Özenbaş
2008). In sulphide ores, we need to roast the metal (Özenbaş 2008).

Copper and Copper Ores Native copper is hard to find in our century due to massive exploitation.
Keweenaw and Isle Royale in Michigan and Coro Coro in Bolivia are two places where native ores
still exist.

Copper occurs mostly as oxidised ores (cuprite Cu2O) including copper carbonates
(malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2, azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) or sulphide ores (chalcocite Cu2S, bornite Cu5FeS4,
chalcopyrite CuFeS2, grey ore Cu3SbS3 and rarely as covellite CuS). Today mostly chalcopyrite is
extracted (Özenbaş 2008).

Ground Level

Native Copper

Oxidised Ores

Sulphide Ores

Copper samples can be observed using SEM-EDX to understand the temperature by elemental
composition and mineral characterisation (Özenbaş 2008). While pounding, the shape of
microstructure changes and would allow us to determine the type of workmanship (Özenbaş 2008).
 Cu2S inclusion from a metallographic
image of copper

The best way of deciding which type of ore has been used to make an artefact is to consider the
relative proportions of elements that are reducible and as oxidisable as copper itself during smelting
process (Özenbaş 2008). These elements will appear in the same smelted copper in the same relative
proportions as in the ore and will be little affected by slight differences in smelting techniques
(Özenbaş 2008).

Arsenic (As) and antimony are the two elements likely to be present in the smelted copper in the
same ratio as in the ore (Özenbaş 2008). Their chemical affinities are the same as copper (Özenbaş
2008). Reduced and oxidised the same way as copper does (Özenbaş 2008). Certain elements such as
silver and gold will be concentrated during smelting and therefore will occur in a greater quantity in
the smelting product than ore (Özenbaş 2008).

Copper smelting requires temperatures of 700-800°C (e.g. malachite), which is not possible to
obtain in open fire (Özenbaş 2008). The techniques to increase temperature can be: using a chimney
to increase oxygen concentration, using a pair of bellows to raise some part of the fire to higher
temperatures (Özenbaş 2008). A charcoal fire with sufficient air will supply with temperature using
the reaction (Özenbaş 2008):

2C + O2 → 2CO CuCO3 + CO →2CO2 + Cu which can be collected at the bottom (Özenbaş 2008).

In sulphidic ores Cu2S + 2O2 → 2CuO + SO2 (roasting reaction) CuO + Cu + CO2 (Özenbaş 2008).

Copper ores can contain impurity elements such as As and Sb (Özenbaş 2008). These impurities
cause strengthening. Strength of native copper (pure copper) is much less than strength of copper with
impurities (smelted copper) (Özenbaş 2008). These impurities cause strengthening due to their
interactions with dislocations in the crystal structure (one dimensional defects) (Özenbaş 2008).

Point defects are impurities of atomic size interstitial atoms take place among the lattice and are
called zero dimensional (Özenbaş 2008). Line defects are grain boundaries and are two dimensional
(Özenbaş 2008). Volume defects are harmful pores, cavities and cracks and are three dimensional
(Özenbaş 2008).
 The obstruction of the lattice by movement of molecules gives the metal further strength (Özenbaş
2008). Impurities interfere with the movement of dislocations and to use the dislocations further,
more and more stress should be applied (increased stress and hardness) (Özenbaş 2008).

Bronze Age starts first with arsenical copper (Özenbaş 2008). Bronze can be arsenical as well (1-
5% As) (Özenbaş 2008). After following a period of arsenical bronzes in Late Chalcolithic and Early
Bronze Ages, true tin bronzes (10% Sn 90%Cu) starts to be used in Middle and Late Bronze Ages
(Özenbaş 2008).

European Bronze Age starts at 1,000 B.C. (Özenbaş 2008). Tin comes from Mesopotamia in
Assyrian Trade Colonies Period (2,000-1,800 B.C.) (Özenbaş 2008). First they are transported to
wabartums and these middlemen have privileges (capitulations) as getting taxes and getting protected.
Mostly tin from Iran and Afghanistan are used (Özenbaş 2008).

In Anatolia, tin comes from Amanos (Bolkar Osmaniye) (Özenbaş 2008). CuAs bronzes first
appear in Chalcolithic Period, they are not intensionally from the ore (Özenbaş 2008). In Early
Bronze Age there is intensional use of CuAs and CuSn bronzes (Özenbaş 2008). Middle Bronze Age
is the period blacksmiths mostly use CuSn and in Late Bronze Age blacksmiths add Pb to tin bronze to
promote casting facilities (improves fluidity) (Özenbaş 2008).

Karadeniz copper mining has been locked out (Özenbaş 2008). The tin ores come from a belt
which runs across Balıkesir, Iran, Afghanistan, Amanos, Chile and Bolivia in the Americas (Özenbaş
2008). The melting point of tin is 327° C, lead is above 400° C and black like heavy coal (Özenbaş
2008).

Sometimes we assume that copper was mixed with bone spoons so we find high amount of
phosphorus (calcium hydroxyapatite) inside the metal (Özenbaş 2008). Sources of cassiterite
in Central Asia, namely in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, andAfghanistan that show signs of having been
exploited starting around 2000 BC (Cierny & Weisgerber 2003, p. 28) (Özenbaş 2008).

Tin has a melting point 327° C and recrystallises at room temperature for hot-working (Özenbaş
2008). In Cu melting point is 1083° C and room temperature is only good for cold-working (Özenbaş
2008). Cold-working helps strengthening as other processing techniques as rolling, extrusion, etc
(Özenbaş 2008).
 However hot worked metal is not strengthened enough because of the dislocated free grains in
recrystallisation (Aylin Tunçer 2008). It can be plasticly deformed up to 20-30% (permanent change)
(Özenbaş 2008). Hot-working is not effective on strengthening due to having dislocation of free grain,
there is more plastic deformation and any shape can be given (Özenbaş 2008). Hot-working and cold
working were available to Late Bronze Age and Iron Age in Anatolia (Özenbaş 2008).

Forging (dövmek) cold-working, smelting (kaletmek) hot-working, extrusion, deep drawing (çark),
rolling between two stones are techniques also observed in early periods such as Late Bronze Age and
Iron Age (Özenbaş 2008).

Iron Iron Age is the period when Cu, Sn, Pb and Fe ores were exploited (Özenbaş 2008). As the
percentage increases it becomes darker, and when decreases it gets lighter (Özenbaş 2008).
Chalybeate (Siderite FeCO3), haematite ore (Fe2O3) and limonite (Fe2O3 ∙ H2O) require heating above
500° C (Özenbaş 2008). Iron requires higher temperatures than copper for smelting (Özenbaş 2008).
Fluxes are important for iron production, only made possible through calcium oxide (CaO) (quick lime
or burnt lime) reduced from limestone (CaCO3) and soda (NaCO3) is also used as flux for glass
(Özenbaş 2008). Soda breaks SiO 44 −¿ ¿ and feldspar functions as crystal former (Özenbaş 2008).

FeCO3 → FeO + CO2 4FeO + O2 →Fe2O3 (oxidation) (Özenbaş 2008).

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 (Özenbaş 2008).

Lead and Silver are considered together, since more than half of the silver comes from Pb ores
(Özenbaş 2008). Main Pb ore is galena (PbS), which is dark and dense and very similar to coal
(Özenbaş 2008). PbS is a sulphide requiring roasting, it is not an oxide (Özenbaş 2008).

2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + SO2 (roasting) 2PbO (roasted) + PbS (unroasted) → 3Pb + SO2 (metallic
lead) (Özenbaş 2008).

Metallic lead is mainly used in weights, roofs and plates (writing piece) and also formerly in
pipelines (Özenbaş 2008). Lead is rather heavy and can not be oxidised easily as copper (Özenbaş
2008). Only some white layer will be formed at the surface after several years, which is called patina
(Özenbaş 2008). Recovery of silver from lead (oxidising lead requires 800° C). Not only silver, but
gold is also present in Pb ores (Özenbaş 2008).

The process is known as cupellation process (Özenbaş 2008). It involves the oxidation of Pb in
shallow containers so that maximum amount of Pb is exposed to air (Özenbaş 2008). Necessary
temperature is supplied by charcoal fire and the use of bellows (Özenbaş 2008). Further silver
containing material can be mixed with NaCl and Ag readily forms AgCl (Özenbaş 2008).

Roman galena mining city Astra (Konya) still preserves furnaces (Özenbaş 2008) . AgCl is then
mixed with clay and converted to pure silver (Özenbaş 2008). In production of Pb pipelines, first
sheet lead is produced by casting on to very thin and flat containers with clay linings (Özenbaş 2008).
Upon solidification sheet lead can be produced (Özenbaş 2008). These sheets then are bent over some
wooden sticks and then inner parts are filled by sand to facilitate round shapes (Özenbaş 2008).

The lead rolled and hammered on cylinderical mould is then welded (répoussée) by heating up the
ends of the pipe (Özenbaş 2008). Solders are Pb/Sn alloys and can not provide continuous water flow.
They may cause leakage in water (Özenbaş 2008).
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