Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
University of Technology
Petroleum Technology Department

Environment

Air pollution and air pollution

resources

Mohammad Ali Kareem Shukur

3th Stage (2019/2020)
Environment
Introduction:
The subject of pollution remains high in the public consciousness and has been a significant factor on
the political agenda of both developed and developing countries for a number of years. The subject is
now seen as a priority area for research and for technological developments. The impact of global air
pollution on climate and the environment is a new focus in atmospheric science. Intercontinental
transport and hemispheric air pollution by ozone jeopardize agricultural and natural ecosystems
worldwide and have a strong effect on climate. Aerosols, which are spread globally but have a strong
regional imbalance, change global climate through their direct and indirect effects on radiative forcing.
In the 1990s, nitrogen oxide emissions from Asia surpassed those from North America and Europe and
should continue to exceed them for decades. International initiatives to mitigate global air pollution
require participation from both developed and developing countries. Air pollution and global warming
are two of the greatest threats to human and animal health and political stability. Energy insecurity and
rising prices of conventional energy sources are also major threats to economic and political stability.
Many alternatives to conventional energy sources have been proposed, but analyses of such options
have been limited in breadth and depth. The purpose of this paper is to review several major proposed
solutions to these problems with respect to multiple externalities of each option. With such information,
policy makers can make better decisions about supporting various options. Otherwise, market forces
alone will drive decisions that may result in little benefit to climate, air pollution, or energy–security
problems. Indoor plus outdoor air pollution is the sixth-leading cause of death, causing over 2.4 million
premature deaths worldwide.1 Air pollution also increases asthma, respiratory illness, cardiovascular
disease, cancer, hospitalizations, emergency-room visits, work-days lost, and school-days lost,2,3 all of
which decrease economic output, divert resources, and weaken the security of nations.

Air pollution sources:

1. Sulfur Dioxide: The major source of sulfur dioxide is the conibustion of fossil fuels containing
sulfur. These are predominantly coal and fuel oil since natural gas, petrol and diesel fuels have a
relatively low sulfur content. Until recently, emissions of sulfur dioxide from diesel engines led
to a small but perceptible increment in sulfur dioxide alongside busy roads, but recent years
have seen a very substantial reduction in the sulfur content of diesel fuel. Figure 7.1 shows in
diagrammatic form the sources of sulfur dioxide emissions by source category for the United
Kingdom.' Combustion of coal in power stations is far the most major single source of SO2
emissions. Over past years, two source categories, both associated with coal burning have
tended to dominate the UK situation with respect to sulfur dioxide. Urban ground-level
concentration of SO2 fell rapidly between 1970 and 1990 largely due to a decline in the burning
of coal in domestic fireplaces for home heating. Airborne concentrations fell much faster than
total emissions of sulfur dioxide because over that period the reduction in emissions from
power stations was quite limited. Since around 1990, urban and rural concentrations of sulfur
dioxide have become almost indistinguishable because they have a common source in power
station plumes superimposed on a low background from diffuse sources. Total UK emissions
declined by more than half between 1990 and 1997 due largely to a cut in emissions from power
stations effected by installation of flue gas desulfurization plant on some of the larger stations
 and a switch to electricity generation from combined cycle gas turbine plants burning natural
gas. The main driver for this reduction has been international concern over acid rain problems
(see Chapter 8) rather than domestic health concerns.
2. Suspended Particulate Matter: Airborne particles are very diverse in character, including both
organic and inorganic substances with diameters ranging from less than 10 nm to greater than
100 pm. Since very fine particles grow rapidly by coagulation and vapour condensation, and
large particles sediment rapidly under gravitational influence, the major part (by mass) generally
exists in the 0.1--10 ,um range. A schematic representation of the typical size distribution for
atmospheric particles. There are three peaks, or modes, in the distribution. The smallest one
relates to the transient nuclei, which are very tiny particles formed by condensation of hot
vapours, or gas to particle conversion processes. Thus, primary particles from motor vehicle
exhaust and sulfuric acid formed from SOz oxidation are initially in the transient nuclei mode.
Such particles, when emitted, are present in very high numbers and are subject to rather rapid
coagulation both with other fine particles and also with coarser particles already in the
atmosphere. Through this mechanism they enter the accumulation range of particles typically
with diameters between about 100 nm and 2pm. Such particles are also capable of growth
through the condensation of low volatility materials.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: The most abundant nitrogen oxide in the atmosphere is nitrous oxide,
N20. This is chemically rather unreactive and is formed by natural microbiological processes in
the soil. It is not normally considered as a pollutant, although it does have an effect upon
stratospheric ozone concentrations and there is much evidence that use of nitrogenous
fertilizers is increasing atmospheric levels of nitrous oxide. The pollutant nitrogen oxides of
concern are nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO2. By far the major proportion of emitted
NO, (as the sum of the two compounds is known) is in the form of NO, although most of the
atmospheric burden is usually in the form of NO2. The major conversion mechanism is the very
rapid reaction of NO with ambient ozone. The major source of NO, is the high temperature
combination of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen in combustion processes, there being also a
lesser contribution from combustion of nitrogen contained in the fuel.Typical hourly average air
concentrations of NO, are normally in the range 5-100 ppb in urban areas and less than 20 ppb
at rural sites. The proportion present as the more toxic pollutant nitrogen dioxide in general
becomes greater the lower the total NO, concentration. Over the period in question, road traffic
will undoubtedly have been the main source of NO, in the atmosphere of London and the
apparent lack of relationships between the NO, emissions and the NO2 concentration is due to
the atmospheric chemistry of nitrogen oxides. NO, as noted above is emitted predominantly in
the form of NO, depending upon reaction with ozone to convert it into NO2. This reaction is
limited mainly by the availability of ozone, and hence in an oxidant-limited situation, reductions
in NO, emissions lead to a reduction in NO, concentrations, but an increase in the NO2 to NO
ratio. The typical relationship between hourly mean, nitrogen dioxide and NO, appears in Figure
7.8 and it may be seen that over the predominant range of NO, concentrations (NO, between 40
ppb and 800 ppb), there is little change in NO2 concentration.
4. Carbon Monoxide: As exemplified by the inventories,’ carbon monoxide is a pollutant very
much associated with emissions from petrol vehicles. Within urban areas where concentrations
tend to be highest, motor traffic is responsible for about 98% of emissions of carbon monoxide,
and in the UK as a whole road traffic accounted for 73% of total emissions in 1998. The major
 sink process is conversion into C02 by reaction with the hydroxyl radical. This process is,
however, rather slow and the reduction in CO level away from the source areas is almost
entirely a function of atmospheric dilution processes. Carbon monoxide can be a problem in
heavily trafficked areas especially in confined ‘street canyons’ where concentrations may reach
50 ppm or more for short periods.
5. Hydrocarbons: The major sources of volatile organic compounds (which are mainly but not
exclusively hydrocarbons) in the UK. It may be seen that these are rather more diverse than for
many of the pollutants and include natural sources such as release from forest trees. In urban
areas, road transport is probably the major contributor, although use of solvents, for example in
paints and adhesives, can be a very significant source. Emissions from road transport include
both the evaporation of fuels and the emission of unburned and partially combusted
hydrocarbons and their oxidation products from the vehicle exhaust. Many sources emit a range
of individual compounds and careful analytical work has shown measurable levels of in excess of
200 hydrocarbons in some ambient air samples. In the UK the Hydrocarbon Network,' which
makes automated hourly measurements of volatile organic compounds, reports data on some
25 individual hydrocarbons. Both benzene and 1,3-butadiene* are subject to regulation through
the UK National Air Quality Strategy. Methane, which is not often measured. far exceeds the
other hydrocarbons in concentration. The Northern Hemisphere background of this compound
is approximately 1.8 ppm and elevated levels occur in urban areas as a result particularly of
leakage of natural gas from the distribution system. There are two major reasons for interest in
the concentrations of hydrocarbons in the polluted atmosphere. The first is the direct toxicity of
some compounds, particularly benzene and 1,3-butadiene, both of which are chemical
carcinogens. The second cause of concern regarding hydrocarbons is due to their role as
precursors of photochemical ozone. Compounds differ greatly in their potential to promote the
production of ozone which has led to a system of classifying hydrocarbons according to their
photochemical ozone creation potential.

The effects of that sources are so huge on nature and it influence the human race existence so in the
next figures some of the affections on the nature.

Wild and Akimoto have studied the intercontinental transport and chemical transformation of O3
between North America, Europe, and Asia using a global chemical transport model. Figure 2 shows the
annual zonal, column, and meridional mean difference in O3 mixing ratios (in ppbv) due to a 10%
increase in emissions of three anthropogenic precursors of O3, NOx, CO, and volatile organic
compounds over East Asia, the United States, and Europe. The meridional mean values (Fig. 2, right)
highlight the elevated concentrations of O3 above the polluted boundary layer and downwind of the
region. Vertical transport processes move O3 and its precursors emitted from East Asia close to the
tropopause and effectively spread O3 through the upper troposphere on a hemispheric scale, over
North America and Europe as well. Thus, intercontinental transport of O3 from East Asia occurs mostly
in the middle and upper troposphere. In contrast, vertical transport of O3 and its precursors is very
weak in the case of European emissions, and downwind O3 is confined to the boundary layer and middle
troposphere. Thus, intercontinental transport of O3 from Europe affects mainly near-surface O3
concentrations in East Asia. European emissions produce the greatest enhancements over northern
polar regions, whereas East Asian emissions occur sufficiently far south to affect the upper troposphere
in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere as well (Fig. 2, left). Emissions from the United States have an
effect between that of East Asia and Europe for vertical, meridional, and zonal transport (Fig. 2, middle
row). Thus, the O3 from the United States affects Europe in the boundary layer and middle and upper
troposphere.

Figure 3 shows the recent trend in NOx emissions by continent in the Northern Hemisphere (40).
Emissions from North America include those from the United States and Canada (41); European
emissions include those from Russia and middle and near-East Asia (42, 43); and Asian emissions include
those from East, Southeast, and South Asia (44, 45). Emissions from North America and Europe
(including adjacent regions) have been nearly equal since the 1980s and have each remained near 25 to
28 Tg/year. After 1990, an apparently decreasing trend in NOx emissions from Europe is thought to be
due to stringent emission controls in Western European countries. In contrast, Asian emissions, which
contributed only a minor fraction of global emissions during the 1970s, have increased rapidly since then
and surpassed emissions from North America and Europe in the mid-1990s. This situation is expected to
continue for at least the next couple of decades. In addition, future increases of emissions from Africa
and South America, because of the economic growth there, would make global air quality more of an
issue in the Southern Hemisphere, a region where only biomass burning has been considered important
so far.
The effect of air pollution on mankind health:
This is not a simple question. It is easy, for example, to measure sinall but subtle changes in lung
function (for example changes in the amount of air that can be exhaled in one second, or the FEVI) or
bronchial reactivity (how sensitive the lung is to challenge with drugs that make the airways constrict)
when an individual is exposed to pollutants in the laboratory. However, these changes are usually
transient and fully reversible in the experimental setting, and it may be argued that they are not lasting
health effects. It may also be that a small change in bronchial reactivity is of no consequence to a normal
individual, but makes a great deal of difference to a person suffering from asthma, who may suffer an
attack as a result. At the other end of the scale, we may observe an increase in deaths or hospital
admissions on days following high levels of pollution. However, this increase may represent in the
majority of cases an effect on individuals who were already suffering from severe disease, brought
forward maybe by just a few weeks or days. Figure 1 1.1 represents a pyramid of severity of effects that
may be observed after exposure to pollutants. The strata are not meant to be quantitative, since
quantification of the effects of air pollution is complex. The further question remains as to where effects
cease to be reversible and become lasting health effects.
Technical solution for air pollution:
Below different proposed technologies for addressing climate change and air pollution problems are
briefly discussed.

1. Solar photovoltaics (PVs): Solar photovoltaics (PVs) are arrays of cells containing a material
that converts solar radiation into direct current (DC) electricity.11 Materials used today include
amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon, micro-crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium selenide/sulfide. A material is doped to increase the number of positive (p-type)
or negative (n-type) charge carriers. The resulting p- and n-type semiconductors are then joined
to form a p–n junction that allows the generation of electricity when illuminated. PV
performance decreases when the cell temperature exceeds a threshold of 45 C.12
Photovoltaics can be mounted on roofs or combined into farms. Solar-PV farms today range
from 10–60 MW although proposed farms are on the order of 150 MW.
2. Concentrated solar power (CSP): Concentrated Solar Power is a technology by which sunlight
is focused (concentrated) by mirrors or reflective lenses to heat a fluid in a collector at high
temperature. The heated fluid (e.g., pressurized steam, synthetic oil, molten salt) flows from the
 collector to a heat engine where a portion of the heat (up to 30%) is converted to electricity.13
One type of collector is a set of parabolic-trough (long U-shaped) mirror reflectors that focus
light onto a pipe containing oil that flows to a chamber to heat water for a steam generator that
produces electricity. A second type is a central tower receiver with a field of mirrors surrounding
it. The focused light heats molten nitrate salt that produce steam for a steam generator. By
storing heat in a thermal storage media, such as pressurized steam, concrete, molten sodium
nitrate, molten potassium nitrate, or purified graphite within an insulated reservoir before
producing electricity, the parabolictrough and central tower CSP plants can reduce the effects of
solar intermittency by producing electricity at night. A third type of CSP technology is a parabolic
dish-shaped (e.g., satellite dish) reflector that rotates to track the sun and reflects light onto a
receiver, which transfers the energy to hydrogen in a closed loop. The expansion of hydrogen
against a piston or turbine produces mechanical power used to run a generator or alternator to
produce electricity. The power conversion unit is air cooled, so water cooling is not needed.
Thermal storage is not coupled with parabolic-dish CSP.
3. Wind: Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electricity. Generally, a
gearbox turns the slow-turning turbine rotor into faster-rotating gears, which convert
mechanical energy to electricity in a generator. Some late-technology turbines are gearless. The
instantaneous power produced by a turbine is proportional to the third power of the
instantaneous wind speed. However, because wind speed frequency distributions are Rayleigh
in nature, the average power in the wind over a given period is linearly proportional to the mean
wind speed of the Rayleigh distribution during that period.11 The efficiency of wind power
generation increases with the turbine height since wind speeds generally increase with
increasing height. As such, larger turbines capture faster winds. Large turbines are generally
sited in flat open areas of land, within mountain passes, on ridges, or offshore. Although less
efficient, small turbines (e.g., 1–10 kW) are convenient for use in homes or city street canyons.
4. Geothermal: Geothermal energy is energy extracted from hot water and steam below the
Earth’s surface. Steam or hot water from the Earth has been used historically to provide heat for
buildings, industrial processes, and domestic water. Hot water and/or steam have also been
used to generate electricity in geothermal power plants. Three major types of geothermal plants
are dry steam, flash steam, and binary.13 Dry and flash steam plants operate where geothermal
reservoir temperatures are 180–370 C or higher. In both cases, two boreholes are drilled – one
for steam alone (in the case of dry steam) or liquid water plus steam (in the case of flash steam)
to flow up, and the second for condensed water to return after it passes through the plant. In
the dry steam plant, the pressure of the steam rising up the first borehole powers a turbine,
which drives a generator to produce electricity. About 70% of the steam recondenses after it
passes through a condenser, and the rest is released to the air. Since CO2, NO, SO2, and H2S in
the reservoir steam do not recondense along with water vapor, these gases are emitted to the
air. Theoretically, they could be captured, but they have not been to date. In a flash steam plant,
the liquid water plus steam from the reservoir enters a flash tank held at low pressure, causing
some of the water to vaporize (‘‘flash’’). The vapor then drives a turbine. About 70% of this
vapor is recondensed. The remainder escapes with CO2 and other gases. The liquid water is
injected back to the ground. A binary system is used when the reservoir temperature is 120–180
C. Water rising up a borehole is kept in an enclosed pipe and heats a low-boiling-point organic
fluid, such as isobutene or isopentane, through a heat exchanger. The evaporated organic turns
 a turbine that powers a generator, producing electricity. Because the water from the reservoir
stays in an enclosed pipe when it passes through the power plant and is reinjected to the
reservoir, binary systems produce virtually no emissions of CO2, NO, SO2, or H2S. About 15% of
geothermal plants today are binary plants.
5. Hydroelectric: Hydroelectric power is currently the world’s largest installed renewable source
of electricity, supplying about 17.4% of total electricity in 2005.14 Water generates electricity
when it drops gravitationally, driving a turbine and generator. While most hydroelectricity is
produced by water falling from dams, some is produced by water flowing down rivers (run-of-
the-river electricity). Hydroelectricity is ideal for providing peaking power and smoothing
intermittent wind and solar resources. When it is in spinning-reserve mode, it can provide
electric power within 15–30 s. Hydroelectric power today is usually used for peaking power. The
exception is when small reservoirs are in danger of overflowing, such as during heavy snowmelt
during spring. In those cases, hydro is used for baseload.
6. Wave: Winds passing over water create surface waves. The faster the wind speed, the longer
the wind is sustained, the greater the distance the wind travels, and the greater the wave
height. The power in a wave is generally proportional to the density of water, the square of the
height of the wave, and the period of the wave.15 Wave power devices capture energy from
ocean surface waves to produce electricity. One type of device is a buoy that rises and falls with
a wave, creating mechanical energy that is converted to electricity that is sent through an
underwater transmission line to shore. Another type is a floating surface-following device,
whose up-and-down motion increases the pressure on oil to drive a hydraulic ram to run a
hydraulic motor.
7. Tidal: Tides are characterized by oscillating currents in the ocean caused by the rise and fall of
the ocean surface due to the gravitational attraction among the Earth, Moon, and Sun.13 A tidal
turbine is similar to a wind turbine in that it consists of a rotor that turns due to its interaction
with water during the ebb and flow of a tide. A generator in a tidal turbine converts kinetic
energy to electrical energy, which is transmitted to shore. The turbine is generally mounted on
the sea floor and may or may not extend to the surface. The rotor, which lies under water, may
be fully exposed to the water or placed within a narrowing duct that directs water toward it.
Because of the high density of seawater, a slow-moving tide can produce significant tidal turbine
power; however, water current speeds need to be at least 4 knots (2.05 m s1 ) for tidal energy
to be economical. In comparison, wind speeds over land need to be about 7 m s1 or faster for
wind energy to be economical. Since tides run about six hours in one direction before switching
directions for six hours, they are fairly predictable, so tidal turbines may potentially be used to
supply baseload energy.
8. Nuclear: Nuclear power plants today generally produce electricity after splitting heavy
elements during fission. The products of the fission collide with water in a reactor, releasing
energy, causing the water to boil, releasing steam whose enhanced partial pressure turns a
turbine to generate electricity. The most common heavy elements split are 235U and 239Pu.
When a slow-moving neutron hits 235U, the neutron is absorbed, forming 236U, which splits,
for example, into 92Kr, 141Ba, three free neutrons, and gamma rays. When the fragments and
the gamma rays collide with water in a reactor, they respectively convert kinetic energy and
electromagnetic energy to heat, boiling the water. The element fragments decay further
radioactively, emitting beta particles (high-speed electrons). Uranium is originally stored as
 small ceramic pellets within metal fuel rods. After 18–24 months of use as a fuel, the uranium’s
useful energy is consumed and the fuel rod becomes radioactive waste that needs to be stored
for up to thousands of years. With breeder reactors, unused uranium and its product,
plutonium, are extracted and reused, extending the lifetime of a given mass of uranium
significantly.
9. Coal–carbon: capture and storage Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the diversion of CO2
from point emission sources to underground geological formations (e.g., saline aquifers,
depleted oil and gas fields, unminable coal seams), the deep ocean, or as carbonate minerals.
Geological formations worldwide may store up to To date, CO2 has been diverted underground
following its separation from mined natural gas in several operations and from gasified coal in
one case. However, no large power plant currently captures CO2. Several options of combining
fossil fuel combustion for electricity generation with CCS technologies have been considered. In
one model,17 integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology would be used to gasify
coal and produce hydrogen. Since hydrogen production from coal gasification is a chemical
rather than combustion process, this method could result in relatively low emissions of classical
air pollutants, but CO2 emissions would still be large18,19 unless it is piped to a geological
formation. However, this model (with capture) is not currently feasible due to high costs. In a
more standard model considered here, CCS equipment is added to an existing or new coal-fired
power plant. CO2 is then separated from other gases and injected underground after coal
combustion. The remaining gases are emitted to the air. Other CCS methods include injection to
the deep ocean and production of carbonate minerals. Ocean storage, however, results in ocean
acidification. The dissolved CO2 in the deep ocean would eventually equilibrate with that in the
surface ocean, increasing the backpressure, expelling CO2 to the air. Producing carbonate
minerals has a long history. Joseph Black, in 1756, named carbon dioxide ‘‘fixed air’’ because it
fixed to quicklime (CaO) to form CaCO3. However, the natural process is slow and requires
massive amounts of quicklime for large-scale CO2 reduction. The process can be hastened by
increasing temperature and pressure, but this requires additional energy.
10. Corn and cellulosic: ethanol Biofuels are solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels derived from organic
matter. Most biofuels are derived from dead plants or animal excrement. Biofuels, such as
wood, grass, and dung, are used directly for home heating and cooking in developing countries
and for electric power generation in others. Many countries also use biofuels for transportation.
The most common transportation biofuels are various ethanol/gasoline blends and biodiesel.
Ethanol is produced in a factory, generally from corn, sugarcane, wheat, sugar beet, or
molasses. Microorganisms and enzyme ferment sugars or starches in these crops to produce
ethanol. Fermentation of cellulose from switchgrass, wood waste, wheat, stalks, corn stalks, or
miscanthus, can also produce ethanol, but the process is more difficult since natural enzyme
breakdown of cellulose (e.g., as occurs in the digestive tracts of cattle) is slow. The faster
breakdown of cellulose requires genetic engineering of enzymes. Here, we consider only corn
and cellulosic ethanol and its use for producing E85 (a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline).

Conclusion:
Air pollution is real thing that happing every day most of it by the industry and power uses
factors we should make some real changes in our life style so we can change that fact ether else
its our end and the end of the planet sooner or later the distraction will happen if we do
nothing.

Resources:
1. Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security†
2. Global Air Pollution and Climatic Change
3. Global Air Quality and Pollution Hajime Akimoto
4. Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control