The Uses of Argument
by Stephen Toulmin
(Cambridge University Press 1993 reprint,
originally published in 1958)
ADAPTED FOR USE IN VAISNAVA DISCOURSE
by Suhotra Swami
I. Fields of argument
A. Essence of most arguments: assertation vs. challenge
1. I say "Krsna is God."
2. You say, "Why should I believe you?"
3. I give evidence for my assertation, and establish conditions
where they apply.
B. The *field* of an argument is its "logical type:"
1. The type of assertation;
a. Imperative and attitude assertation.
b. Empirical assertation.
c. Analytic assertation.
d. Value assertation.
e. Supramundane assertation.
2. The kind of evidence employed;
3. The qualifications that impinge upon the conclusion.
C. Aspects to be considered in assessing the field:
1. The mode of argument (modal terms).
a. Are we arguing possibilities? ("It could be.")
b. Are we arguing necessities? ("It must be.")
c. Are we arguing that something is good?
d. Are we arguing that something is bad?
2. The evidence (sources of valid knowledge, or pramana):
a. Sense perception;
b. Logical doubt;
c. Authoritative testimony (guru, sastra, sadhu).
d. The above (a-c) are used in formulating the reason,
factual example and the backing of the assertation.
i. The reason of the assertation "Krsna is God" is,
"Because the Vedic scriptures define God as the source
of everything" (then "Krsna is God").
ii. The factual example of the assertation is, (Because--
then--) "since all things--both matter and spirit--
emanate from Krsna."
iii. The backing of the assertation is, (If--then--
because--) "it is confirmed in *Bhagavad-gita* 18.8,
*aham sarvasya prabhavo*."
3. Refinement of the assertation.
a. Time?
b. Place?
c. Circumstances?
Toulmin's terms compared to nyaya terms:
"Every theme must necessarily be explained with reference to pratijna,
or a solemn declaration of the purpose of the treatise. The solemn
declaration given in the beginning of the Vedanta-sutra is athato
brahma-jijnasa, which indicates that this book was written with the
solemn declaration to inquire about the Absolute Truth. Similarly,
reasons must be expressed (hetu), examples must be given in terms
of various facts (udaharana), the theme must gradually be brought
nearer for understanding (upanaya), and finally it must be supported
by authoritative quotations from the Vedic sastras (nigamana)." (Adi
7.106)
Assertation--pratijna (fact)
Reason--hetu
Factual example--udaharana (factual example)
Refinement of the assertation--upanayana (bringing the theme nearer
for understanding)
Backing--nigamana (authoritative quotations)
"It is completely useless to try to understand God by our limited
knowledge, and an intelligent man understands this. We should
become submissive and try to understand that our position is that of a
very insignificant segment in this creation. The words namanta eva
indicate that we are just to become submissive in order to understand
the Supreme from a reliable source. And what is that source? San-
mukharitam: from the lips of realized souls. Arjuna is understanding
God directly from the lips of Krsna, and we have to understand God
through the lips of Arjuna or his bona fide representative. We can
understand the transcendental nature of God only from a reliable
source. That source may be Indian, European, American, Japanese,
Hindu, Muslim, or whatever. The circumstances are not important. We
just have to try to understand by hearing and then try to put the
process to practice in our daily lives. By becoming submissive, hearing
from the right source, and trying to apply the teachings in our daily
lives, we can become conquerors of the Supreme." (Path of Perfection,
Chapter 9)
Assertation: We can understand the transcendental nature of God only
from a reliable source.
Reason: It is completely useless to try to understand God by our
limited knowledge, and an intelligent man understands this.
Factual example: Arjuna is understanding God directly from the lips of
Krsna, and we have to understand God through the lips of Arjuna or
his bona fide representative.
Refinement of the assertation: That source may be Indian, European,
American, Japanese, Hindu, Muslim, or whatever. The circumstances
are not important. We just have to try to understand by hearing and
then try to put the process to practice in our daily lives. By becoming
submissive, hearing from the right source, and trying to apply the
teachings in our daily lives, we can become conquerors of the
Supreme.
Backing: The words namanta eva indicate that we are just to become
submissive in order to understand the Supreme from a reliable source.
And what is that source? San-mukharitam: from the lips of realized
souls.
IT IS A FACT THAT
We can understand the transcendental nature of God only from a
reliable source.
BECAUSE
It is completely useless to try to understand God by our limited
knowledge, and an intelligent man understands this.
SINCE
Arjuna is understanding God directly from the lips of Krsna, and we
have to understand God through the lips of Arjuna or his bona fide
representative.
TO CLARIFY,
That source may be Indian, European, American, Japanese, Hindu,
Muslim, or whatever. The circumstances are not important. We just
have to try to understand by hearing and then try to put the process
to practice in our daily lives. By becoming submissive, hearing from
the right source, and trying to apply the teachings in our daily lives,
we can become conquerors of the Supreme.
IT IS CONFIRMED THAT
The words namanta eva indicate that we are just to become
submissive in order to understand the Supreme from a reliable source.
And what is that source? San-mukharitam: from the lips of realized
souls.
