Accepted Manuscript

Effect of sourdough fermentation and baking process severity on bioactive fiber

compounds in immature and ripe wheat flour bread

Danielle Taneyo Saa, Raffaella Di Silvestro, Lorenzo Nissen, Giovanni Dinelli, Andrea
Gianotti

PII: S0023-6438(17)30799-5
DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.10.046
Reference: YFSTL 6609

To appear in: LWT - Food Science and Technology

Received Date: 4 August 2017

Revised Date: 13 October 2017
Accepted Date: 21 October 2017

Please cite this article as: Saa, D.T., Di Silvestro, R., Nissen, L., Dinelli, G., Gianotti, A., Effect of
sourdough fermentation and baking process severity on bioactive fiber compounds in immature and ripe
wheat flour bread, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2017.10.046.

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1 Effect of sourdough fermentation and baking process severity on bioactive fiber compounds in

2 immature and ripe wheat flour bread

5 Danielle Taneyo Saa, Raffaella Di Silvestro, Lorenzo Nissen, Giovanni Dinelli, Andrea Gianotti*.

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7 Department of Agricultural and Food Science and Technology, Alma Mater Studiorum-University

8 of Bologna, V.le G. Fanin 50, 40127, Bologna, Italy.

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10 *Corresponding author Andrea Gianotti, Ph.D.

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Department of Agricultural and Food Science and Technology, Alma Mater Studiorum-University
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12 of Bologna, Via Fanin 50, 40127 Bologna, Italy.
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13 Tel.: +39 0512096577

14 Campus di Scienze degli Alimenti, Facoltà di Agraria, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of

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15 Bologna, P.zza Goidanich 60, 47521 Cesena (FC), Italy.

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16 E-mail address: andrea.gianotti@unibo.it

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29 Abstract:

30 The dietary fiber complex of cereal whole grain is an important source of host beneficial molecules,

31 such as: beta-glucans, fructans, resistant starch and arabinoxylans. The bioavailability of these

32 compounds from whole grain products is generally dependent to different physiological and

33 technological issues, likewise: genotype and maturation stage, dough preparation, fermentation

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34 options and baking process. This study regards the production of breads from cereal whole grains,

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35 taking into account two wheat genotypes harvested at mature and immature stages and processed

36 through different conditions, varying temperature, time of baking and fermentation parameters. The

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37 aim is to highlight the different impact of these aspects on the amount and the bioavailability of the

38 aforementioned four bioactive molecules. Our results showed that the best product, in terms of

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content of beneficial compounds, is that obtained from the flour of advanced maturation stage
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40 processed with brewer’s yeast fermentation. Given the great interest in finding better technological
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41 processes to increase the daily dietary fiber intake, our findings could be very useful for the food

42 industry to design the exact formulation and best process for the increase of bio-active molecules
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43 concentration in cereal whole grains products.

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61 Contact details of at least 3 suggested reviewers (name, affiliation and email address)
62 1) Enrico Tatti, PhD. Lecturer at National University of Ireland, Galway Marine

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63 Microbiology; Methods in Microbial Ecology; Molecular System Biology.

64 enrico.tatti@gmail.com

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65 2) Martin Trapecar, PhD, Gladstone Institutes, School of Medicine, University of California,

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66 San Francisco. martin.trapecar@gladstone.ucsf.edu

67 3) Tomás Bolumar García, PhD, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

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68 Organisation (CSIRO), Coopers Plain, QLD, Australia. tomas.bolumargarcia@csiro.au
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69 Highlights
70 • Dietary fiber components of flours obtained from different wheat plants are different.
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71 • The best combination of genotype and maturation based on dietary fiber compounds was
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73 • The best processing for bread making needed to exploit beneficial fiber components was
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74 provided
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76 Keywords: sourdough, dietary fibers, Lactobacillus, ancient wheat, KAMUT® khorasan wheat
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86 1. Introduction

87 In the last decade, the state of the science around the health benefits of whole grains was translated

88 into dietary guidance recommending consuming at least half of the daily grain servings as whole

89 grains (McGill, Fulgoni, & Devareddy, 2015). Indeed, the health benefits for human consumption

90 of cereals whole grain have been recently investigated, and there is scientific evidence on

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91 prevention of cardiovascular diseases (Brownawell et al., 2012), diabetes, obesity (Aune et al.,

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92 2016), other disorders related to the metabolic syndrome (Zhang & Hamaker, 2016), and on risk

93 reduction of colorectal cancer (Makarem, Nicholson, Bandera, McKeown, & Parekh, 2016). Among

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94 the healthy compounds of whole grains, dietary fiber components, proved to exert both

95 technologically and physiologically positive effects. The most prominent are: Arabinoxylans (AX),

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β-glucans (BG), fructans (FRUT) and resistant starch (RS). AX are mainly present as cell wall
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97 components cross-linked with phenolic acid. Enzymatic hydrolysis of AX yields arabinoxylan-
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98 oligosaccharides (AXOS). AXOS are considered prebiotic with a stronger efficacy then fructo

99 oligosaccharides (Grootaert et al., 2009), modulating gut microbiota and intestinal permeability in
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100 obese patients (Salden et al., 2017) and regulating postprandial metabolism and cholesterol level
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101 (Schioldan et al., 2017). BG even if are present at low levels in the wheat grain, are able to generate

102 multiple beneficial effects including: limitation of the risk of coronary heart disease (EFSA, 2010),
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103 stimulation of immune system (Novak & Vetvicka, 2008), prevention of cancer (Choromanska et

104 al., 2016), and reduction of disorders related to metabolic syndrome, as high cholesterol blood
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105 levels (Whitehead, Beck, Tosh, & Wolever, 2014), diabetes mellitus (Andrade et al., 2016) and

106 obesity (El Khoury, Cuda, Luhovyv, & Anderson, 2012). Moreover, BG show a prebiotic activity

107 (Falco, Sotres, Rascòn, Risbo, & Cardenas, 2017), fostering the selective growth of Lactobacillus

108 spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. (Shen, Dang, Dong, & Hu, 2012; Russo et al., 2012).

109 FRUT are mainly found in aleurone layer of wheat and are broken down by microorganisms in the

110 colon to produce by-products such as short-chain fatty acids (Tarini & Wolever, 2010), indeed

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111 FRUT show prebiotic activity, selectively stimulating the growth of gut probiotic bacteria

112 (Roberfroid et al., 2010). Moreover, FRUT increase mineral absorption (Scholz-Ahrens et al.,

113 2007), reduce appetite (Cani et al., 2009), stimulate the immune system (Vogt, Meyer, & Pullens,

114 2014); but can cause intolerances (Rao, Yu & Fedewa, 2015).

115 RS is the starch fraction defined as the total amount of starch and the products of starch degradation

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116 that resists digestion in the small intestine. RS has been recognized as a potent prebiotic (Zaman &

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117 Sarbini, 2016). RS is involved in promoting large bowel health and preventing bowel inflammatory

118 diseases (Birt et al., 2013) and colorectal cancer (Keenan et al., 2015).

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119 In general, it is observed that wheat yield and functional properties of the derived wheat flour may

120 substantially change as a result of genetic factors and agronomic factors (Dornez et al., 2008).

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Furthermore, immature and full ripe wholemeals have a different composition in starch and non-
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122 starch polysaccharides (Merendino et al., 2006).
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123 Finally baking and fermentation influence the composition of food dietary fibers and other health

124 compounds (Johansson, Tuomainen, Anttila, Rita, & Virkki, 2007). Previous works have clearly
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125 showed the ability of LAB strains to increase some healthy compounds of whole grains flours both
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126 alone (Ferri, Serrazanetti, Tassoni, Baldissarri, & Gianotti, 2016) or in combination with baking

127 process (Saa, Di Silvestro, Dinelli, & Gianotti, 2017). In this study, we have evaluated the impact of
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128 wheat genotype, maturation stage and processing conditions on the content of BG, AX, FRUT and

129 RS of obtained breads.

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130 2. Materials and methods

131 2.1. Flours

132 The ancient KAMUT® khorasan and a modern durum wheat grain (cv. Claudio) were obtained

133 from the Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bologna (Italy). KAMUT® is a

134 registered trademark of Kamut International, Ltd. and Kamut Enterprises of Europe. Wheat samples

135 were grown at the same location during the same growing season and cropped according to the

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136 biodynamic agro-technique. Grains were collected at the milky (75-79 BBCH scale; 15 days after

137 anthesis) and full ripe maturity stages (89 BBCH scale). Wheat samples were air dried until the

138 12% humidity was reached and stone milled (100% flour extraction). Wholemeal flours were

139 characterised for the total protein content according to the Kjeldhal procedure (N x 5.7) and for the

140 dietary fibre and phenolic content using the procedures detailed below. Both milky and fully ripe

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141 stage flours were used for two types of fermentations and baking conditions.

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142 2.2. Strains and growth media

143 All the microbial strains used in this study belong to the Department of Agricultural and Food

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144 Science and Technology of University of Bologna (Italy), and were selected based on their

145 suitability to increase the quality of bakery products (Cevoli et al., 2014).

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Lb. plantarum 98a, Lb. sanfranciscensis BB12, Lb. brevis 3BHI were grown separately in the Man
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147 Rogosa Sharpe (MRS) broth (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc, USA) at 37 °C for 24 h, and
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148 Saccharomyces cerevisiae LBS was grown in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) broth (Oxoid),

149 at 28 °C for 24 h. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4000 x g for ten min, and washed
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150 twice with sterile water.

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151 2.3. Fermentation and baking

152 Two different fermentation conditions were achieved in this study. In order to prepare sourdough
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153 fermentation (SOUR), 600 g of KAMUT® khorasan and durum wheat flours were gently mixed

154 with 270 ml of water and 80 ml of microbial suspension (Lb, plantarum 98a, Lb. sanfranciscensis
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155 BB12, Lb. brevis 3BHI and S. cerevisiae LBS). The concentration of the inoculums in dough was

156 approximately 109 CFU/g for Lactobacillus spp. and 107 CFU/g for S. cerevisiae, and incubation

157 was conducted at 30 °C for 24 h. A second protocol simulating the industrial fermentation (IND)

158 was adopted; the KAMUT® khorasan and durum wheat doughs were made with 600 g of flour,

159 270 ml of water and 180 ml of S. cerevisiae suspension (107 CFU/g), and incubated at 30 °C for 1,5

160 h. After fermentation, the doughs obtained (325-350 g) were put on bread mould and baked in

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161 electric oven (Electrolux S.p.A., Italy) under two different conditions: i) long time and high

162 temperature (HT) (250 °C for 20 min), and ii) short time and low temperature (LT) (210 °C for 10

163 min)

164 2.4. Determination of β-glucans, arabinoxylans, fructans and resistant starch

165 For the determination of BG, the commercial assay kit Mixed Linkage Beta Glucans (Megazyme

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166 Int. Ltd., Ireland) was used, according to McCleary and Holmes (1985), McCleary and Codd

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167 (1991). For the determination of AX content the commercial assay kit D-Xylose (Megazyme) was

168 used following manufacturer’s instructions. RS content was determined according to McCleary and

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169 Monaghan (2002), employing the commercial kit Resistant Starch (Megazyme). For the

170 determination of FRUT, the commercial assay kit K-FRUC (Megazyme) was used according to

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McCleary, Murphy and Mugford (2000). (Supplementary Table 2).
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172 2.5. Statistical analysis
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173 Results were calculated from the mean of at least two replicates and expressed in g/100 g dry

174 matter. Factorial ANOVA was applied to determine interrelationships between the amount of RS,
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175 BG, AX and FRUT content based upon the flour genotype (KAMUT® khorasan and durum wheat),
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176 maturation stage (milk and fully ripe), fermentation (sourdough and industrial) and baking (HT and

177 LT) in breads. Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA) with Hypothesis-Error (HE) plot technique
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178 was utilized to evaluate the diversification between the samples (Friendly, 2007; Egesel, Kahriman,

179 & Gül, 2011). This method is based on a multivariate linear model (MLM) approach and it is used
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180 to reduce dimension in the dependent variables aimed to conserve the greatest one between groups

181 variation (groups determined by the independent variable). In CDA with HE graphs, hypothesis (H)

182 ellipse is obtained from the sum of squares for the hypothesis, while error (E) ellipse is obtained

183 from the sum of squares for the error. These values are p x p matrices of sum of squares cross

184 products. All analyses were performed using R software 3.0.1.

185 3. Results and Discussion

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186 The characterisation of the flour obtained from milky and full ripe grains is summarised and

187 showed in Table 1, the full results data set is showed in Supplementary Table 1. The analysis of the

188 wholemeal flours showed that starch was accumulated in the grain as development proceed. Starch

189 increased from the milky to the full ripe stage in both wheat varieties and reached a maximum value

190 of 68.68 and 67.54 g/100 g for durum wheat and KAMUT® khorasan wheat, respectively (Table 1).

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191 The investigation of amylose/amylopectin ratio highlighted that the starch composition varied as a

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192 result of the maturity stage: the highest amylose percentage was found in the full ripe flour (from

193 30.55 to 31.11% of total starch) while the lowest percentage values were detected for the immature

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194 samples (from 26.83 to 27.82%). Regarding RS, a different trend was observed depending on wheat

195 genotype. The durum wheat variety did not show any difference between immature and ripe flour

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for the RS fraction (ranging from 0.61 to 0.66% of total starch). Differently, a slight but statistically
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197 significant increase in mature seeds was observed in KAMUT® khorasan wheat flour (which varied
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198 from 0.59% of the flour from the milky stage to 0.71% of the flour from the full ripe stage). No

199 variation between maturity stages was spotted for AX neither comparing genotypes (indeed the
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200 values were comprised between 3.17 and 3.76 g/100 g). BG were found at low concentrations in the
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201 KAMUT® khorasan wheat samples and accounted for 0.30 and 0.29 g/100 g for milky and full ripe

202 flours, respectively. Higher amounts were observed for the durum wheat variety, as the BG content
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203 raised during the maturation to 0.44 g/100 g.

204 3.1. Box plots of each significant interactions from the bread data set for β-glucans
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205 The median amount of BG found in durum wheat was greater than the amount of KAMUT®

206 khorasan wheat, independently of the maturation stage. The interaction ofbetween the maturation

207 stage (MAT) and the genotype (GEN) (Fig. 1a) shows that the maximum amount of BG was

208 reached using the durum wheat at the milky stage. The GEN and fermentation (FER) interaction

209 (GEN:FER) indicated that the median content of breads obtained via the IND fermentation was

210 greater compared to the one obtained with the SOUR (Fig. 1b). Moreover, taking into account the

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211 interaction ofbetween MAT and the baking process (TEMP) (MAT:TEMP), in figure 1c it is shown

212 that the content of BG was higher in durum wheat in all the temperature used. With the HT process,

213 the highest value was observed on durum wheat at fully ripe bread obtained via IND, while for LT

214 process the milky stage flour bread counterpart showed the highest value.

215 3.2. Box plots of each significant interactions from the bread data set for arabinoxylans

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216 The AX results (Fig. 2a) showed that their median amount was higher in KAMUT® khorasan

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217 wheat than durum wheat, independently to other factors. The interaction MAT:FER (Fig. 2b) shows

218 that the maximum amount was reached when bread samples were at the milky stage using the

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219 SOUR fermentation. As well, taking into account the interaction MAT:TEMP, the amount of AX

220 on experimental breads was higher when LT was used with the KAMUT® khorasan milky stage

221 flour (Fig. 2c).

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222 3.3. Box plots of each significant interactions from the bread data set for resistant starch
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223 Looking at the dataset of RS (Fig. 3), durum wheat has a higher content of RS than KAMUT®

224 khorasan wheat, independently of the fermentation process. Specifically, in GEN:FER interaction
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225 (Fig. 3a) we observed that the median amount of RS was higher in the durum wheat with IND
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226 fermentation. The FER:MAT (Fig. 3b) interaction proved that the median amount of the RS of fully

227 ripe bread was greater the milky stage bread and the IND fermentation median was higher than the
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228 SOUR one On these baked products, the durum wheat at the fully ripe stage processed via IND

229 showed the maximum amount of RS, independently of the temperature applied (Fig. 3c). Similarly,
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230 the SOUR breads had a lower amount compared to the IND breads, no matter the temperature

231 applied.

232 3.4. Box plots of each significant interactions from the bread data set for fructans

233 Like AX, FRUT content in KAMUT® khorasan was higher than in durum wheat. For the type of

234 fermentation process achieved, we observed that the median content of SOUR was lower than IND

235 (Fig. 4a). Considering the interaction FER:MAT (Fig. 4b), the median of IND fermentation was

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236 higher than the SOUR, and looking at the combination, the median of the milky stage was higher

237 when combined with SOUR whereas the content of fully ripe was higher combined with IND. The

238 KAMUT® khorasan bread had highest value when produced with IND fermentation, independently

239 to of the maturation stage and temperature. Considering temperature, employing the LT, the FRUT

240 content on KAMUT® khorasan milky SOUR was greater than the relative fully ripe, same result

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241 with HT but the difference is slight (Fig. 4c).

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242 3.5. Canonical discriminant analyses (CDA)

243 This approach was used to see whether the independent variables (GEN, MAT, FER, TEMP)

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244 significantly differ from the multidimensional dependent variables (BG, AX, RS and FRUT). From

245 the Anova test all the factors and their interactions were significant, and once chosen the grouping

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variable genotype, a HE plot was build. As the genotype is a binary variable with two categories
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247 (KAMUT® khorasan and durum wheat) only one dimension was needed to reach maximum
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248 separation (Fig. 5).

249 The standardized coefficients were respectively 0.145, 0.513, -0.686, -0.612 for RS, BG, FRUT and
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250 AX, which indicate the relative contributions of the features for the discrimination. The
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251 contribution of the features is based on their relative canonical scores, the KAMUT® khorasan

252 weighs more on the negative side of the y-axis whereas the durum wheat weighs on the positive
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253 side. So, considering these coefficients, FRUT and AX contributed more to characterize the

254 KAMUT® khorasan wheat, whereas the BG and RS characterize more the
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255 durum wheat (Fig. 5). These results show that the factors genotype, fermentation, maturation and

256 temperature can influence the dependent variables (BG, AX, RS and FRUT) based on a

257 combination, but if we want to take into account only a genotype we can use the HE plot to select

258 the bioactive compound to decrease or increase. This approach confirms the results on the

259 individual independent variables, and their contribution on the increase or decrease of the

260 dependent. As the amylose is susceptible to be converted in RS, a parallel increase of the RS

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261 fraction was observed in the fully ripe flour. The amylose content of durum wheat grain was

262 reported previously between 25 and 30% of the total starch amount, similarly to our results (Hansen

263 et al., 2010). No variation was seen for the AX content, suggesting that the deposition of these

264 compounds starts early during kernel development, as previously described by Shewry (2010). BG

265 are a minor component of the wheat dietary fibre and modest variations were observed, particularly

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266 as a function of the wheat variety, highlighting the genotypic determination of this parameter. Data

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267 obtained for AX and BG are in accordance with those reported previously for different durum

268 wheat genotypes (Gebruers et al., 2010).

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269 The results evidenced that genotype, fermentation and the kernel stage maturation had a great

270 impact on the amount of the fiber components in bread. Their interactions with each other was also

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highly significant. We observed that SOUR process decrease the amount of BG as reported also by
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272 Johansson (2007), and this decrease is probably due to the modification of the solubility of BG
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273 which became more available for degradation by endogenous enzymes. Marklinder and Johansson

274 (1995) hypothesized that the degradation of BG by endogenous β-glucanases, before the pH of
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275 sourdough drop during fermentation, can be related to the duration of the lag phase of lactic acid
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276 bacteria. If the lag phase of lactic acid bacteria is prolonged, BG are degraded. Another

277 possibility could be that the starter cultures had different abilities to degrade BG. In fact, it has also
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278 been demonstrated that 22% of the lactobacilli found in the digestive tract of piglets were able to

279 degrade BG (Jonsson and Hemmingsson, 1991). The increase of AX in SOUR samples is in
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280 accordance with Lappi (2010) who found that sourdough fermentation increase AX solubility and

281 protein content, whereas it decreases postprandial glucose and insulin responses. Likewise, on

282 previous study (Andersson, Fransson, Tietjen, & Aman, 2009), the baking process did not

283 significantly change the AX content, as the amount observed with HT is quite similar to the LT in

284 KAMUT® khorasan samples. Probably the low content found in durum wheat can be related to the

285 presence of less extractable AX. Kavita, Verghese, Chitra, & Prakash (1998) reported that RS

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286 decrease in fermented products, which agrees with our results. Comparable results were also

287 reported by Liljeberg, Akerberg, & Björck (1996), demonstrating that the application of a high

288 temperature led to a better release of RS. They hypothesized that RS in long-time baked products

289 required solubilisation in alkali to make these available to amylases, indicating the presence of

290 retrograded starch. It seems that heat is related to a decrease in the hydrolysis limit of

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291 pancreatic α-amylase and increased production of RS (Franco, Ciacco, & Tavares, 1995). The

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292 amount of FRUT was higher in KAMUT® khorasan wheat (2.1 g/100 g), even in comparison with

293 rye bread, that is known as the richest source of fructans (1.94 g/100 g) (Whelan et al., 2011). This

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294 finding supports the previous findings about a positive effect of KAMUT® khorasan of gut

295 microbiota in comparison to standard wheat (Saa, et al., 2014). Andersson, Fransson, Tietjen, &

296
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Aman (2009) showed that the presence of sourdough and yeast in most of the breads can result in
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297 significant degradation of rye fructans. Similar findings for FRUT have been reported by
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298 Karppinen, Myllymaki, Forssell, & Poutanen (2003) for Finnish rye crisp breads and soft breads,

299 that attributed the variance in FRUT content in different breads due to the function of fermentation,
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300 quantity and quality of the flour. Several findings also supported the decrease in FRUT
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301 during various steps in the bread-making process (Hansen et al., 2002). De Gara, de Pinto,

302 Moliterni, & D’Egidio (2003) observed that during wheat kernel maturation protein and starch
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303 content increased. However, the mono and di-saccharides content varied during the same time,

304 diminishing from the milky to anthesis stage and increasing from this latter stage to maturation. The
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305 inulin degradation during heating has been investigated by Christian, Manley-Harris, Field, &

306 Parker (2000). Based on fructose quantification after acid hydrolysis, a decrease of the inulin

307 content between 33 and 43% was found in inulin-containing breads after dough preparation,

308 fermentation and baking. In general, heating of inulin under water-free conditions at temperatures

309 higher than 135 °C induced a degradation of long-chain saccharides (Böhm, Kaiser, Trebstein, &

310 Henle, 2005).

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311 4. Conclusion

312 In general, industrially fermented breads retained a better qualitative and quantitative profile of the

313 bioactive molecules under study, except for the AX. The combination fully ripe flour/industrial

314 fermentation provides a generally higher content of FRUT and RS in KAMUT® khorasan than in

315 durum wheat, but not of BG. When a sourdough process was adopted a more complex scenario

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316 appeared. In fact, the maturation stage influenced the two flours differently, resulting in the

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317 different thermal characteristics of the bioactives present in each breads. In particular, for the fully

318 ripe flours, the HT process of SOUR bread generates lower impact over FRUT content in

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319 KAMUT® khorasan when compared to durum wheat bread. Therefore we could suppose that

320 bioactive molecules analysed here changed their chemical and physical properties (including

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thermal sensitivity) according to the maturation degree. These differences are not always detectable
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322 by the official analytical methods. However the distinct behaviour of bioactives during the process
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323 can probably be ascribed to any one of those differences. These findings may be very useful for

324 food industry to design the right formulation and set up the best process suitable to maximise the
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325 bioactive concentration of beneficial molecules expected in foods for the human body.
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326 5. Acknowledgments
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327 This work was supported in part by a grant from the Kamut Enterprises of Europe (KEE)

328 Oudenaarde, Belgium.

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329 6. References
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493 1562.

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495 Figure captions:

496 Figure 1: (a) amount of BG on KAMUT® khorasan wheat and durum wheat based on the MAT; (b)
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497 on the FER; (c) GEN based on the interaction MAT:TEMP. MAT = Maturation stage; FER =
498 Fermentation; GEN = Genotype; TEMP = Baking Temperature.
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499 Figure 2: (a) amount of AX on KAMUT® khorasan wheat and durum wheat based on FER; (b)
500 FER:MAT interaction; (c) GEN based on the interaction MAT:TEMP. MAT = Maturation stage;
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501 FER = Fermentation; GEN = Genotype; TEMP = Baking Temperature.

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502 Figure 3: (a) amount of RS on KAMUT® khorasan wheat and durum wheat based on FER; (b)
503 FER:MAT interaction; (c) GEN based on the interaction MAT:TEMP. MAT = Maturation stage;
504 FER = Fermentation; GEN = Genotype; TEMP = Baking Temperature.
505 Figure 4: (a) amount of FRUT on KAMUT® khorasan wheat and durum wheat based on the
506 fermentation (FER); (b) FER:MAT interaction; (c) GEN based on the interaction MAT:TEMP.
507 MAT = Maturation stage; FER = Fermentation; GEN = Genotype; TEMP = Baking Temperature.
508 Figure 5: HE plot of CDA using the variable genotype. RS = Resistant
509 Starch, BGLU = Beta-glucans; FRUT = Fructans; ARAX = Arabinoxylans.

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Table 1. Characterisation of the flour obtained from milky and full ripe grain.

Claudio (T. turgidum ssp. durum) Kamut® khorasan wheat

Milky Fully ripe Milky Fully ripe

Starch** 60.80 ± 1.72 (c) 68.68 ± 0.49 (a) 62.1 ± 2.52 (b, c) 67.54 ± 0.86 (a,b)

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Amylose* 27.82 ± 1.53 (a,b) 31.11 ± 0.74 (a) 26.83 ± 0.08 (b) 30.55 ± 0.65 (a)

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Resistant starch* 0.61 ± 0.05 (b) 0.66 ± 0.01 (ab) 0.59 ± 0.02 (b) 0.71 ± 0.01 (a)

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Arabinoxylans** 3.17 ± 0.17 ns 3.38 ± 0.24 ns 3.76 ± 0.16 ns 3.44 ± 0.02 ns

β-glucans** 0.35 ± 0.01 (b) 0.44 ± 0.01 (a) 0.30 ± 0.01 (c) 0.29 ± 0.01 (c)

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standard deviation). **Starch, arabinoxylan and β-glucans contents are expressed as g/100 g dry
weight (± standard deviation). Different letters in a row indicate mean values significantly different
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Effect of sourdough fermentation and baking process severity on bioactive fiber compounds in

immature and ripe wheat flour bread

Highlights
• Dietary fiber components of flours obtained from different wheat plants are different.
• The best combination of genotype and maturation based on dietary fiber compounds was

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done.
• The best processing for bread making needed to exploit beneficial fiber components was

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