Wind energy development and policy in

India: A review
Author links open overlay panelPrem KumarChaurasiyaVilasWarudkarSirajAhmed
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Highlights
•
The recent Wind energy potential of world and India is shown.

•
The status and progress of offshore wind energy development in India has been
discussed.

•
Wind energy potential of North Eastern states of India at 100 m height is
shown.

•
The support policy and program offered by the government of India is shown.

•
The constraints in the development of wind energy and steps to mitigate this
constraint is presented.

Abstract
India is blessed with immense renewable energy resources in general and wind energy
resources in particular. Evaluating the potential of wind energy resources in changing
the energy scenario in the country is vital for development of wind
turbine installations in near future. About 34605 MW capacity wind power plants are
 installed so far as up to September 2018. In the wind energy conversion/utilization,
India stands on fourth position in the world. This paper presents the status and
development of wind energy in India. This paper discusses the challenges and
opportunities in the development of wind energy in the country and also different
approaches to increase and expand the utilization of wind resources.
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Keywords

Wind energy
Wind power
Potential
Installed capacity
Policy
Electricity generation

1. Introduction
Energy demand is a key factor in the economy of a country. The energy demand in
India increased rapidly to an average of 6.4% during 1990–2010, thanks to the
significant economic growth in this period [1]. As a consequence of this drastic
increase in energy demand, the conventional sources of energy are depleting very fast.
An ill-effect of usage of conventional energy sources to meet the demand, is the loss
to environment and public health. The result of pollution like global warming, skin
cancer, etc., has forced the scientific community all over the world to focus on
alternative source of energy which can be renewed and should cause considerably less
damage to the environment. Use of renewable energy sources results in less emission
of greenhouse gases and other harmful gases such as SO2, different oxides of nitrogen
and by-products of fossil fuel which are responsible for the environmental
degradation, health problem etc. [2,3]. The continuous attention and increased use of
renewable energy may restrict the dependency of country on imported fossil fuel and
will lead India toward self-sufficiency and energy independence. Hence, it is
necessary to expand and utilize the renewable energy sources like wind, solar,
biomass, hydro power, waste to energy etc. [3].
Wind is air in motion. The uneven temperature distribution due to solar radiation
and earth's rotation are the two main causes of wind. Wind energy is a renewable,
inexhaustible and non polluting source of energy. It is an environment friendly,
developing and popular alternative source of clean energy [4]. As a source of power,
the potential of wind energy is huge. This is clear from the rapid increase in
cumulative global capacity, reaching 539 GW at the end of 2017 representing 10.7%
of cumulative market growth [5].
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India and several
state governments have been at the forefront of providing the necessary policy support
and a facilitative regulatory system for the fast and orderly growth of the sector. The
MNRE took various initiatives to promote cooperation with other countries and
funding authorities, like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) in the field of renewable energy.
Under National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) program the ministry has taken up
initiatives of wind resource assessment in new and uncovered areas to assess the
potential at 100 m level and 500 new wind monitoring stations across the country. The
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy along with the National Institute of Wind
Energy (NIWE) has announced Indian's Offshore Wind Policy and also started
planning to encourage a demonstration project. The government is keen for the
growth of wind energy sector in India.

2. Global scenario of wind energy

International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that in 2015 the wind power supplied
more new power generation than any other technology [6]. China is a leading nation
in wind power installed capacity and has grown rapidly, from 300 MW in 2000 to
188,232 MW last year and today accounts for 35% of the world's total wind power
capacity [1,5]. Table 1 shows the cumulative installed capacity of top 10 countries. In
2016, the wind energy sector experienced a decline in global installation. Fig. 1 shows
the cumulative wind energy capacity globally whereas Fig. 2 shows the global annual
installed capacity along with the capacity increase in annual installation.
 Table 1. Top 10 countries cumulative installed capacity 2011–2017 [[5], [6], [7], [8]].

S. Top 10 MW MW MW MW MW MW MW %
No. Country (2011) (2012) (2013) (2014) (2015) (2016) (2017) Share
1 PR China 62,364 75,324 91,412 114,609 145,362 168,690 188,232 35
2 USA 46,919 60,007 61,091 65,879 74,471 82,184 89,077 17
3 Germany 29,060 31,308 34,250 39,165 44,947 50,018 56,132 10
4 Indiac 16,084 18,421 20,150 22,465 25,088 28,700 32,848 6
5 Spain 21,674 22,796 22,959 22,987 23,025 23,074 23,170 4
6 UK 6540 8445 10,531 12,400 13,603 14,543 18,872 3
7 Canadae 5265 6200 7803 9694 11,205 11,900 12,239 2
8 France 6800 7564 8254 9285 10,358 10,740 13,759 3
9 Italyab 6737 8144 8552 8663 8958 9257 9479 2
10 Brazild 1431 2508 3466 5939 8715 10,740 12,763 2

a
Rank 6 up to year 2011.

b
Rank 7 up to 2013.

c
Rank 5 up to year 2014.

d
Rank 8 by the end of 2017.

e
Rank 9 by the end of 2017.
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Fig. 1. Global cumulative installed wind capacity 2005–2017.

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Fig. 2. Annual installed wind capacity 2005–2017.
The top ten leading countries contribute almost 90% of share in wind installation and
the remaining 10% were added by the rest of the countries. In 2017 nine countries had
more than 10,000 MW of cumulative installed capacity, whereas 26 countries added
more than 1000 MW installed capacity, which includes 17 European countries, 4 in
Asia-Pacific, 3 in North America and 1 in Latin America and African countries.
Asia continued to precede in the regional market of cumulative installation with
capacity addition of nearly 24.5 GW followed by Europe, where Germany is a leading
country with the capacity addition of 6.5 GW in the last year whereas U.S ended the
year with 8.9 GW market and continued to lead in North America. In Latin America
and Caribbean region, Brazil continues to be the promising market for wind energy
with a capacity addition of 2.7 GW. The Africa and Middle East region added another
621 MW in the last year, however, in 2017 Australia was only the single country to
add another 245 MW in the Pacific regions to take its total installed capacity to nearly
5 GW [5].
Table 2 below shows the leading countries fulfilling electricity demand by wind
power in 2015.
Table 2. Top countries supplying electricity demand by wind power in 2015 [6].

S.No Country Number of Electricity demand covered by wind Employment

. Turbines power (%) provided
1 Uruguay 614 19.5 500
2 Germany 26,774 12 150,000
3 United 6680 11 30,000
Kingdom
4 Poland 2600 6.22 8400
5 Turkey 2114 6 –
6 Netherland 2174 5.6 10,150
7 Canada 6066 5 73,000
8 Australia 2062 5 2200
9 France 5696 4 12,520
10 USA 48,500 4.7 88,000
11 Brazil 4360 3.5 41,000
12 PR China 92,981 3.32 280,000

Energy policy plays a vital role to mitigate the impacts of global warming and crisis
of energy availability. It is noticed that energy policy could help increasing wind
power generation as well as stimulating the energy industry. It may be stated that
without specific energy policy, a country would not be able to solve the acute
problems like reducing green house gases (GHGs) emission, scarcity of energy, etc.
The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties,
 incentives to investment, the country's targeted energy generation, guidelines for
energy conservation, strategies to stimulate the energy industry, taxation and other
public policy techniques as well as the focus on new (usually renewable) energy
sources. A variety of policies like pricing laws, quota requirements, production
incentives, tax credits, trading systems, etc. have been developed and implemented to
promote the use of renewable energy (RE) [9]. The main objectives of these strategies
are, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, reducing the environmental impacts of the
energy sector and encouraging new industrial development [10]. Some of the wind
energy support policies in different countries are discussed below in Table 3.
Country Principal Investment Sales or Public Legislation Target R&D Strength
Support Support energy tax loans/financing (e.g. implementation Suppor (highlight)
(FIT/RPS) (e.g. exemption CO2 emission) t
subsidies)
USA RPS Yes Yes Yes Yes (25%, Yes (25% of Yes Investment &
2025) supply, 2025) production
tax credit
Canada FIT Yes – Yes Regulatory Yes (12 GW, Yes Production
framework in 2016) incentive of
2008 1cent/kWh
for the first
10 years
Denmar FIT (1993) Yes Yes – Yes (50%, Yes (200 GW, Yes Schemes for
k 2030) 2030) technology
development
and offshore
wind
German FIT (1991) Yes – Yes Yes (20%, – Yes Electricity
y 2020) feed in tariff
Turkey FIT (2005) Yes – – – License upto – Schemes to
10 GW join
European
Union
Australia FIT Yes – Yes Yes (60%, Yes (10 GW, Yes National
2050) 2020) Clean Energy
Target
China – Yes Yes Yes – Yes (total – Domestic
capacity 30 GW, made
2020) component
Japan RPS Yes – – – – Yes Market
(2003) incentives
and subsidy
Country Principal Investment Sales or Public Legislation Target R&D Strength
Support Support energy tax loans/financing (e.g. implementation Suppor (highlight)
(FIT/RPS) (e.g. exemption CO2 emission) t
subsidies)
Korea FIT (2002) – – – – – Yes –
Egypt FIT Yes – Yes – Yes (7.2 GW, – Guarantee a
2020) long term
power
purchase
agreement
Algeria FIT Yes – Yes Yes (40%, Yes (10–12%) – CSP Global
2020) market
initiative
Table 3. Summary of Wind Energy policy in different countries [[9], [10], [11]].

3. Wind power potential in India

The growth of wind energy in India is enormous and proves to be an option to
mitigate the challenges to meet electricity demands, environmental
pollution, greenhouse gas emission and depleting fossil fuel etc. India has the second
largest wind market in Asia after China and fourth amongst the global cumulative
installed countries of the world after USA and Germany [4]. During this year,
4148 MW wind projects were commissioned. Wind Energy contributes the major
portion of 64.09% of total renewable energy capacity of the country [5].
The Indian government is also focusing on policy development to attract investor in
wind energy sector. Recently in October 2015, the Government of India, along with
the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) formulated and announced the policy
framework for the first offshore wind development in India. National Institute of
Wind Energy, formerly known as Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET)
located in Chennai serves as a research focal point in the improvement and
development in the entire spectrum of the wind energy sector in India [13]. NIWE
also coordinate wind energy assessment program and initially estimated 49 GW of
wind potential at 50 m hub-height and on further survey, at 80 m hub-height, wind
potential grows as much as 102 GW assuming 2% land availability for all states
except Himalayan states, North-eastern states and Andaman and Nicobar Islands
where 0.5% of land availability was assumed for energy estimation at both heights,
however land availability significantly effects the potential in windy area and recently
in 2015, using the advanced meso-micro coupled numerical wind flow model, and
with the corroboration of almost 1300 actual measurements spread all over India,
NIWE announced estimated wind potential at 100 m hub-height i.e. 302 GW
assuming actual land availability [13]. Table 4 below shows the state-wise estimated
potential at 80 m and 100 m hub-height.
Table 4. Estimated Potential at 80 m and 100 m height (MW) [12,14,15].

S.No. State/UTs 80 m (#$) 100 m

RANK I RANK II RANK III TOTAL
1. Andaman & Nicobar 365 4.12 3.43 0.88 8.43
2. Andhra Pradesh 14497 22525.5 20538.1 1165 44228.6
3. Arunachal Pradesh* 236 – – – –
4. Assam* 112 – – – –
5. Bihar 144 – – – –
6. Chhattisgarh* 314 3.24 57.03 16.31 76.59
7. Diu Damn 4
8. Gujarat 35071 52287.59 32037.83 105.09 84431.33
9. Goa – 0 0.08 0.76 0.84
10. Haryana 93 – – – –
11. Himachal Pradesh* 64 – – – –
12. Jharkhand 91 – – – –
13. Jammu & Kashmir* 64 – – – –
14. Karnataka 13593 15202.36 39802.59 852.4 55857.36
15. Kerala 837 332.63 1102.56 264.38 1699.56
16. Lakshadweep 16 3.5 3.4 0.77 7.67
17. Madhya Pradesh 2931 2216.39 8258.55 8.93 10483.88
18. Maharashtra 5961 31154.76 13747.43 492.15 45394.34
19. Manipur* 56 – – – –
20. Meghalaya* 82 – – – –
21 Nagaland 16 – – – –
22. Odhissa 1384 1666.2 1267.06 160.22 3093.47
23. Pondicherry 120 69.43 79 4.4 152.83
24. Rajasthan 5050 15414.91 3342.62 12.96 18770.49
 S.No. State/UTs 80 m (#$) 100 m
RANK I RANK II RANK III TOTAL
25. Sikkim* 98 – – – –
26. Tamil Nadu 14152 11251.48 22153.34 394.82 33799.65
27. Uttarakhand* 534 – – – –
28. Uttar Pradesh 1260 – – – –
29. West Bengal* 22 – – – –
30. Telangana – 887.43 3347.52 9.34 4244.29
Total (MW) 102788 153019.59 145742.59 3489.31 302251.49

Note: For 80 m ∗Wind potential has yet to be validated with actual measurements.

#
 Estimation is based on meso scale modelling (Indian Wind Atlas).
$
 As actual land assessment is not done on a conservative consideration 2% land availability for all states
except Himalayan & North eastern states, Andaman Nicobar Islands and Poor windy states has been assumed.
In other area 0.5% land availability has been assumed.

The 100 m potential assessment has been carried out with realistic and practical
assumptions and by using a very high spatial resolution of 500 m, using advanced
meso-micro coupled numerical wind flow model along with the corroboration of 1300
actual measurement from all over India. In addition, this study also includes actual
estimation of land availability using NRSC 56 m resolution Land Use Land Cover
(LULC) Data (AWiFS) 1:250K scale and with consideration of 6 MW/sq. Km. The
development land features such as roads, railways, Airport, etc., land area with
elevation more than 1500 m and slope exceeding 20° have been excluded. The present
potential assessments at 100 m has been prepared considering Capacity Utilization
Factor scale more than 20% and have been classified into 3 ranks (Rank I: Wasteland,
Rank II: Cultivable Land and Rank III: Forest Land). The considerable weightage has
been considered for potential assessment i.e. 80% to Rank I, 30% to Rank II and 5%
to Rank III.
More than 95% of the wind potential is concentrated in five states in southern and
western India [2]. This scenario made it possible to identify the suitable areas for
harnessing wind power for electricity generation. Table 5 shows the installed wind
energy potential up to 2017 along with state–wise share of wind energy in total wind
power capacity, Table 5 also shows the tentative state–wise break up of 60 GW wind
power to be attained by 2020.
Table 5. State wise wind power capacity (MW) [16,17,and18]].

S. State 2014 2015 2016 2017 % Tentative by

No (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) Shar 2020
e
2017
1. Tamil Nadu 7276 7515 7694 7970 24.2 11,900
2. Maharashtra 4098 4638 4666 4778 14.5 7600
3. Gujarat 3414 3877 4441 5537 16.8 8800
4. Rajasthan 2820 3866 4217 4282 13.0 8600
5 Karnataka 2409 2872 3154 3793 11.5 6200
6 Andhra Pradesh 753 1155 2092 3835 11.6 8100
7 Madhya 439 1126 2288 2498 7.6 6200
Pradesh
8 Kerala 55 35 43 51 0.15 –
9 Telangana - – 99 101 0.31 2000
10 Others - 4 4.30 4.30 0.013 600
Total 21,264 25,088 28,700 32,848 100 60000

Wind energy continues to dominate renewable energy industry in India. The Indian
government in its 12th five-year plan (2012–2017), had planned to add 15,000 MW of
wind power in this period. The Ministry is keen with the objective to carry out wind
resource assessment studies at North-Eastern Region for the development of wind
energy sector. The Ministry has also allocated the separate budget for the wind energy
system and energy parks. During the year 2015–2016, four 50 m level wind
monitoring stations were installed in the region, so far 72 monitoring stations have
been installed at 20 m, 25 m and 50 m level to assess the realistic potential of the wind
resource in the region with the joint efforts of NIWE and state nodal agencies. A
cumulative capacity of 413 kW Small Wind Energy Hybrid Systems had been
installed in North Eastern region including Sikkim by the end of 2017. The state-wise
break-up capacity is shown in Table 6 [19].
Table 6. Cumulative installed wind power capacity (kW) of North Eastern states [19].
 S. No State Cumulative
Installed Capacity
1. Arunachal Pradesh 7
2. Assam 6
3. Manipur 140
4. Meghalaya 201
5. Sikkim 16
6. Tripura 2
7. Nagaland 20
8. Mizoram 21

The Ministry has adopted plans to carry out realistic assessment of wind resource in
North Eastern region by installing 200 wind monitoring stations, ranging from 50 m to
80 m height. Fig. 3 below shows the 50 m wind monitoring station installed at
Rombagre, Meghalaya. Fig. 4 shows the cumulative installed capacity and year wise
installed capacity of wind power for the ten years.

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Fig. 3. Wind monitoring station installed at Rombagre, Meghalaya [13].
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Fig. 4. Cumulative and year wise wind power installed capacity (MW).

3.1. Offshore wind power status in India

India is blessed with a 7517 km of coastline, the distance 5423 km belongs to

peninsular India and 2904 km to the Andaman Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Island, is
beginning to discover offshore wind energy as a premeditated energy resource to
mitigate energy crisis as well as to fulfil future energy demands [20]. The initial
assessment and wind resource data collected along the coastline of Rameshwaram and
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and Gulf of Khambat in Gujarat have shown a promising
potential for the development of offshore wind power. A preliminary measurement
suggests a possible potential to establish around 1 GW capacity wind farm along the
coastline of Tamil Nadu and in Gujarat (see Fig. 5). The various advantages of
offshore wind have been discussed by Singh M [20].
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Fig. 5. Offshore wind density at 50 m height.
Facilitating Offshore Wind in India (FOWIND) project report has identified two
important maritime areas to harness the offshore wind resources.

•
Indian territorial waters, approximately up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from the
baseline
•
Beyond 12 nm and 200 nm (Exclusive Economic Zone).

The FOWIND is an association led by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). The
other associated partners are Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy
(CSTEP), the Gujarat Power Corporation Limited (GPCL) and the World Institute of
Sustainable Energy (WISE). National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) joined the
consortium as knowledge partner. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy will
play role as a nodal ministry and government entities for the development and use of
Maritime zone under Exclusive Economic Zone and will also look upon overall
monitoring of offshore wind energy, preparation of guidelines. The National Institute
of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai is a nodal agency and will carry out resource
assessment, surveys and studies in EEZ. NIWE will also play a major role to facilitate
developers in obtaining clearance and NOCs from different Ministries and
Departments of concern [13]. The initial studies and an EU funded study have
indicated potential for offshore wind energy in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu coast, still it
requires validation through actual measurement.
India has made progress by identifying eight zones in the coast of Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu. Accordingly, a LiDAR based offshore measurement campaign is initiated in the
Gulf of Khambhat, Off Gujarat cost. Additionally, NIWE has installed meteorological
mast along the coastline for preliminary assessment on the offshore potential. Further,
various agencies, like Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Service explored
estimates based on the data available. The NIWE has also published an interim report
showing the preliminary short-term measurement result of offshore wind in India.
Based on the satellite data/analysis offshore potential need to be validated or re-
checked by long term measurement to take efficient decision for identifying and
notifying the zones/sub-zones as per offshore policy. The detail of the selected site at
Gulf of Khambhat is tabulated below in Table 7 [21].
Table 7. Identified site details.

Site Gulf of Khambhat (Zone -B)

District/State Amerli/Gujarat
LiDAR Location 20°45′19.10″ N, 71°41′10.93″E
Distance from coast 23 km
Nearest Airport Diu
Nearest Port Pipavav/Jaffrabad
Nearest Electric substation Ultratech 220 kV
CRZ (as per 2011 notification) Zone IV

The major challenges in India to develop offshore wind power are high capital cost,
the data required for the calculation of wind potential of suitable sites is not available,
unavailability of bathymetric data, regulatory and policy framework (see Fig. 6).
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Fig. 6. Photographic image of 100 m MAST and LiDAR installed at Dhanuskodi, Tamil
Nadu.

4. Wind power support program in India

During 2016–17, MNRE had taken various policy initiatives in wind energy sector
that include policies like Introduction of Bidding in wind energy sector, Re-Powering
policy, Draft Wind-solar Hybrid policy, New Guidelines for development of Wind
power project, etc [22]. A financial outlay of $44.79 million has been expensed in
R&D in wind energy sector by the government of India in its 11th five-year plan. In
12th five-year plan (2012–2017), government has approved an outlay of $539 million
for New and Renewable Energy Programmes. Fig. 7 shows the various support
policies announced by the government of India to promote wind energy development.
This support policy has increased the attention of investors and industrialists for the
deployment of wind energy utilization in the country to fulfil the country's electricity
demand. To achieve the target electricity demand of the country the government
launches the various programs to support the growth of renewable energy such as
wind, solar etc. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the support policies have increased
wind energy capacity from time to time and has promoted the country to the fourth
position globally.
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Fig. 7. Time line of policy announcement.
S.N Singh et al. [23] discuss several schemes and policies such as financial assistance
etc. initiated by the government for promoting, developing and support the use
of renewable energy source. The government has come up with some schemes they
are discussed below:
a) Generation based incentive scheme: The Generation Based Incentive (GBI)
scheme was discontinued in March 2012, but again reintroduced in August 2013. This
scheme has been designed to accomplish 15,000 MW target during the 2012 to 2017
period. The main objectives of GBI includes the broadening of investor base,
incentivize actual generation with the help of a outcome based incentive and to
facilitate entry of large Independent Power Producer and Foreign Direct Investment to
the wind power sector. Under this scheme, wind electricity producers will receive INR
0.50 per unit of electricity fed into the grid for a period not less than four years and
not higher than ten years with a capital of INR 100 Lakhs per MW. The total
 reimbursement in a year will not go beyond one-fourth of the maximum limit of the
incentive during first four years. GBI scheme is applicable to the wind
turbines commissioned on or before 01.04.2012, for entire 12th plan. This scheme has
raised Foreign Direct Investment to 100% in wind energy sector. In 2011, the country
added 2300 MW of wind power capacity, but the discontinuation of GBI in 2012 led
the down fall in the wind energy sector and the figure came down to 1700 MW, but by
reinstating GBI the capacity addition of 15,000 MW in next plan may be achieved.
According to IREDA, between March 2010 to March 2012, 2021 MW capacity of
wind projects availed the benefits of GBI scheme, reaching a total allocation of
4000 MW [13]. More than 5000 MW of new capacity was installed during the fiscal
years 2010/11 and 2011/12, but only 2000 MW projects registered for the GBI
benefits. This scheme above the tariff approved by the Electricity Regulatory
Commissions and disbursed on a half-yearly basis through IREDA [24,25]. Fig.
8 shows the fund allocated for wind power development under generation based
incentive scheme.

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Fig. 8. Fund released for wind power programme under GBI scheme [9].
b) Accelerated Depreciation: The Accelerated Depreciation (AD) was introduced in
1994, with a depreciation rate of 100%. In 2002 the depreciation rate was reduced to
80% and the scheme was withdrawn completely in March 2012. In August 2014, the
AD was reinstated at the rate of 80% for the wind power plants installed on or after
April 1, 2014. The wind energy industry has been the primary beneficiary, due to the
relative maturity of the technology, resource availability and pre-existing experience.
The AD tax benefit provided the necessary financial advantage to attract different
private sector investment in the wind energy sector, and facilitated the ingress of a
new class of investors comprised of high net worth individuals (HNIs), corporations,
and small and medium sized enterprises. The rising number of installations also
promoted the growth of domestic wind equipment manufacturing and other linked
services sectors. The AD increases the depreciation on the assets during the initial
years, which allows the asset owner to write off more of the worth asset during the
initial years of ownership, thereby decreasing the greater fraction of taxable income.
The AD does not directly provide any monetary assistance to wind power project
developers. However, there are significant post-tax benefits for the investors, in terms
of the timing of cash flows. Reducing tax liability in the premature years of a useful
life period increases profits in the near term, albeit at the cost of higher taxation in the
longer term. This represents a circuitous benefit in terms of the net present value
(NPV) of a project.
Under this scheme the wind power producers intending to avail the benefit were
required to submit all the documentary proof and register with the Indian Renewable
Development Agency (IREDA). IREDA issues a certificate of eligibility for availing
the AD benefit from the Income Tax Department and a Unique Identification Number
for each wind turbine. Once in process, developers had to provide their generation
data to IREDA. The details of depreciation availed by the companies are required to
submit in Income Tax Department as part of their annual financial accounts. Fig.
9 shows the structure of the AD scheme [25,26].
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Fig. 9. Accelerated Depreciation scheme structure.
c) Tariff Design for Wind Power: The State Electricity Regulatory Commission
(SERC) in line with CERC and similar industry expectations espouse an approach on
a cost plus basis for designing tariff for the electric energy from wind. The SERC has
announced different tariffs for the procurement of power from wind power projects in
different states. Tariffs for some of the key states are discussed in detail below
in Table 8 [23].
Table 8. Feed in Tariff across different states [18].

State Feed in Tariff (INR) PPA Third Capital subsidy/other incentives

Tenure Party Sale
(Years) And
Captive
usage
Andhra 3.50 25 Permitted Industrial status. Reactive power: 10
Pradesh paise per kVARh up to 10% & 25
paise per kVARh above 10%.
 State Feed in Tariff (INR) PPA Third Capital subsidy/other incentives
Tenure Party Sale
(Years) And
Captive
usage
Gujarat 4.23 25 Permitted Reactive power <10% energy
exempted, then 10 paise/kVARh.
Reactive power >10% of energy
exported, then 20 paise/kVARh.
Haryana 6.14 25 Permitted –
Karnataka 3.70 10 Permitted No electricity duty or 5 Years.
Reactive Power: 40 paise per
kVARh.
Kerala 3.64 20 Permitted Depreciation: 5.83% p.a. for the first
12 years and remaining spread over
useful life.
Madhya 4.35 25 Permitted No Electricity Duty for 5 years.
Pradesh Reactive Power: 27 paise for
kVARh. Reactive Power: 25 paise
per kVARh.
Maharashtra Wind Zone I- 5.67 13 Permitted Power evacuation arrangement,
(without AD), 4.86 (with approach road, electricity duty, loan
AD) to cooperative societies.
Wind Zone II- 4.93
(without AD), 4.23 (with
AD)
Wind Zone III- 4.20
(without AD), 3.60 (with
AD)
Wind Zone IV- 3.78
(without AD), 3.24 (with
AD)
Odisha 5.31 (without AD), 5.36 13 Permitted –
(with AD)
Punjab 5.96 (w/o AD) 5.36 (with 10 Permitted –
AD)
Rajasthan 5.18 (without AD), 4.90 25 Permitted Exemption from electricity duty
(with AD)-for projects in @50% for 7 years. Reactive power
Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and 5.75 paise per KVArh with
Barmer districts. escalation of 0.25 paise per year.
5.44 (without AD), 5.14
(with AD)-for other
districts
Tamil Nadu 3.51 20 Permitted Reactive power: 25 paise per kVARh
 State Feed in Tariff (INR) PPA Third Capital subsidy/other incentives
Tenure Party Sale
(Years) And
Captive
usage
up to 10% & 50 paise per VARh
above 10%.
Uttarakhand Wind Zone I – 5.15 25 Permitted
(without AD), 4.75 (with
AD)
Wind Zone II – 4.35
(without AD), 4.00 (with
AD)
Wind Zone III – 3.65
(without AD), 3.35 (with
AD)
Wind Zone IV – 3.20
(without AD), 2.90 (with
AD)
West Bengal 5.70 10 Permitted Reactive power: 20 paise per kVARh

Wind FIT values on the basis of wind zone, as determined by the central commission for financial years,
2014–15, 2015–16 and 2016–17 is shown in Table 9.

Table 9. Wind zone FIT value in India [18].

Wind Zone Annual WPD (W/m2) Feed in Tariff value (INR/kWh)

2013–14 2014–15 2015–16
Wind Zone 1 <200 6.03 6.36 6.57
Wind Zone 2 201–250 5.49 5.78 5.98
Wind Zone 3 251–300 4.83 5.08 5.26
Wind Zone 4 301–400 4.02 4.24 4.38
Wind Zone 5 >400 3.77 3.97 4.11

Recent amendment in tariff policy provides no inter-state transmission charges as well

as the charges generated due to the loss of wind power during selling of wind power
to facilitate the inter-state transmission from one state to another are also waived of
under certain conditions.

•
 The waiver is applicable for wind power projects which get commissioned till
March 31, 2019 and for 25 years from the date of commissioning of the
projects. Further, the waiver is also available for projects having power
purchase agreements (PPAs) with discoms for fulfilment of RPO.

•
The ISTS charges is only applicable for wind projects awarded through a
competitive bidding process.

The elements which play a significant role in determining tariff are capital cost,
operation and maintenance cost, plant life, capacity utilization factor, depreciation,
return on equality, interest on debts, debt-equality ratio and interest on working
capital. The tariff design process for the state of Madhya Pradesh is shown below as
an example [27]. Table 10 below discusses the parameter and various factors for the
design of feed in tariff.
Table 10. Structure of tariff calculation for wind power in Madhya Pradesh, India.

System Factor Involved Value decided by

commission
Capital Costs (Rs. Cost of land, plant and machinery, civil 596
Lacs/MW) including cost works, erection, commissioning, cost of
of power evacuation power evacuation and other related expenses
Capacity utilization Factor Wind regime of the site, quality, capacity 20
(%) and age of machines installed, height of the
hub, length of blade (swift area) etc.
Operation & Maintenance Comprise manpower expenses, insurance 1% of capital cost in 1st year
Expenses (Rs.Lacs per expenses, spares and repairs, consumables with an escalation of 5.72%
annum) and other expenses (statutory fees etc.). for each year thereafter
Plant Life (years) 25 – 25
Depreciation (%) – 7% per annum for first 10 yrs
and balance 20%
Return on Equity (%) – 20% pre-tax
Interest on Debt (%) per – 12.75
annum
Debt-Equity Ratio 70–30
Interest on working capital O&M expenses for 1 month 13.25
on (%)
Receivables equivalent to 2 months of
energy charges based on normative CUF
 System Factor Involved Value decided by
commission
Maintenance spares @15% of O&M
expenses
Discounting rate (%) – 10.2

d) Renewable Energy Certificate Scheme (REC) and Renewable Purchase

Obligation (RPO): Government of India launched the renewable energy certificate
(REC) mechanism to relieve states with high share of wind power in their grid,
wherein, renewable project developers can vend power to host utilities at tariff
corresponding to their average procurement price and to obtain tradable certificates
(REC). REC mechanism has encouraged the windy states to deploy additional
capacity by reducing the procurement cost of wind. It began in February 2011 and
almost 52% of total capacity of 4470 MW wind power received REC registry. The
issuance fee of an REC has been reduced from INR 10 to INR 4 per certificate by
the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC). The new fee is effective from
1 April 2014. The Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) varies from state to state
and is generally in the range of 3–12% and can go higher depending on the orders of
SERCs (for the year 206–17). However, there are some states which are not able to
achieve RPO levels required by the SERCs. A major problem in RPO and REC
provision has been the failure of the regulators to enforce these provisions. The REC
market has not taken off, though institutionally it is established [25,28].
e) Forecasting and Scheduling Mechanism: The CERC has notified a policy for the
mechanism of scheduling and forecasting in case of inter-state transmission of wind
power. The state of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, has already
notified regulatory draft for intra-state transmission of wind power. The state
of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, and Rajasthan has finalized
their regulations. The forecasting and scheduling exercise has been already conducted
in Tamil Nadu recently by NIWE, Chennai which resulted in 12 Billion Unit of wind
power evacuation during 2016–2017 compares to around 7 Billion Unit earlier. For
accurate forecasting and scheduling, it is essential to put in a metering and
communication infrastructure at every pooling station for real time generation of data.
f) Repowering Policy: In order to optimally utilize the wind energy resources,
repowering is crucial. The ministry has drafted a repowering policy for Wind turbine
generators of capacity 1 MW and below for repowering. Under this policy, IREDA
will provide an additional interest rate rebate of 0.25% for repowering projects. As per
the repowering policy, all other benefits are also available to the repowered wind
projects, i.e. accelerated depreciation or GBI are applicable. Additional generation
could either be purchased by discoms at Feed-in-Tariff applicable in the state at the
time of commissioning of the repowering project or allowed for third party sale [28].
g) Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: MNRE issued the draft of Wind–Solar Hybrid Policy
with the objective of providing a framework for promotion of large grid connected
wind-solar PV system for optimal and efficient utilization of transmission
infrastructure and land, reducing the variability in renewable power generation, and
achieving better grid stability. The objective of this policy is to achieve wind-solar
hybrid capacity of 10 GW by 2020 and to encourage new technologies, methods and
way-out involving combined operation of wind and solar PV plants [28].
h) Wind Bidding Scheme: To enable discoms of non-windy states to fulfil their non-
solar RPO obligation through purchase of wind power at a tariff determined by
transparent bidding process. This scheme was sanctioned by MNRE on June 14, 2016
for setting up of 1 000 MW Inter-State Transmission System (ISTS) connected Wind
Power Projects. The wind bidding guidelines under Section 63 of Electricity Act,
2003 issued by the Ministry of Power, enables the states to bid for wind power
projects. The first wind bidding was concluded at low tariff of INR 3.46 per kWh of
wind energy. The SECI issued letter of allocation (LoA) to the selected five bidders
on April 5, 2017, and the projects under this Scheme are likely to be commissioned by
September 2018. The wind tariff in India touched the lowest level of INR 2.64 per
kWh in the second wind auction (1000 MW) conducted by SECI on October 4, 2017
[28].
i) Offshore Wind Energy Policy: This policy promotes optimum exploitation of
offshore wind power generation. The government of India is targeting to have a
generating capacity of 100 GW by 2022 through this mission. The policy supports the
development of offshore wind energy through fiscal incentives, allowing Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) participation, Public Private Partnership, and international
collaborations. The National Offshore Wind Energy Policy offers various fiscal
incentives like relaxation in custom duty, excise duty exemption for the purchase of
technology and equipment and also offers exemption from service tax for conducting
service such as resource assessment, use of survey vessel and installation of vessels
and on studies conducted by third parties (oceanographic and environmental impact).
The policy also indicates Tax holiday scheme offered for the first ten years of wind
power generation from offshore. The major objective of offshore wind policy is
tabulated below (see Table 11) [13].
Table 11. Objectives of the policy for development of offshore wind farm.

S.No Objectives Essential Components

.
1 To Explore and Promote Deployment Preliminary Resource Assessment and preliminary
of Offshore Wind Farms in the oceanographic & bathymetric studies for demarcation of
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of blocks
the country, including those under
Public Private Partnership.
2 To Promote Investment in Energy Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) study of proposed
Infrastructure Offshore Wind Farms regarding aquatic life, fishing etc.,
studies relating to navigation, undersea mining and related
Exploration/exploitation activities and other users of the
sea.
3 To Promote Spatial Planning and Detailed studies & surveys - These studies will determine
Management of Maritime Renewable the construction costs for special foundations, special
Energy Resources in the Exclusive ships for both operation and maintenance requirements.
Economic Zone of the country through
suitable incentives.
4 To Achieve Energy Security and to Sea Bed Lease Arrangement. Statutory Clearances and
reduce carbon emission. NOCs.
5 To Encourage Indigenization of the Grid Connectivity and Evacuation of Power (both
Offshore Wind Energy Technology. offshore and onshore).
6 To Promote Research and Technology, Financing and Insurance and Incentives.
Development in the Offshore Wind
Energy Sector.
7 To facilitate development of Project Security of offshore installations and confidentiality of the
EPC and Operation & Maintenance data collected during studies and surveys.
with regard to offshore wind industry.
8 To develop coastal infrastructure and Oversee working and to provide necessary support to the
supply chain to support heavy Nodal Agency i.e. NIWE for smooth functioning.
construction & fabrication work and
the Operation & Maintenance
activities.

j). Green Energy Corridors: The maximum wind power potential is concentrated in

7–8 wind resource-rich states wherefrom wind power is evacuated. This requires
strengthening of intra-state as well as interstate transmission infrastructure. The Green
Energy Corridors Project plays a significant role in setting up transmission
requirement for renewable power capacity addition. Under this scheme the various
intra-state transmission infrastructure projects of total cost over 10,000 crore, in eight
states, has already been approved and the central government is providing 40% of the
project cost as grant from National Clean Energy Fund and another 40% of the project
cost is available as soft loan through the German Bank [28].
Additionally government with an aim to attract wind power component manufacturing
industry, has increased concession on Basic Customs Duty from 5% to 10% of forged
steel rings used in the production of bearing of wind-operated generators. The Excise
duty was brought down from 12% to Nil on forged steel rings used in the manufacture
of bearings of wind-operated electricity generators [29]. The government launched
various attractive scheme called as Tax holiday to promote wind energy sector, under
this scheme any wind project generating power before 31 March 2013 are allowed to
accept tax holiday for the first ten years under section 80 I A of the Income-Tax,
Government of India. This scheme has been deployed to the undertakings which
started distribution, generation and transmission of power by 31 March 2016.

5. Power purchase agreement

PPA is a contract between two parties, one which generates electricity (the seller) and
one which purchase electricity (the buyer). The PPA defines all the commercial terms
for the sale of electricity between the two parties, including when the project will
begin commercial operation, schedule for delivery of electricity, penalties for under
delivery, payment terms, and termination. A PPA is the principal agreement that
defines the revenue and credit quality of a generating project. Standard provisions as
part of the PPA includes the following [30].
•
As the PPA period influences the tariff by determining the period over which
the investment is returned to the investor, longer PPA is favoured for lower
tariffs. The PPA period should not be less than 25 years from the date of the
SCD or from the date of full commissioning of the projects, whichever is
earlier. The PPA may be further extended on such term and conditions as
 mutually agreed between the parties signing the PPA and approved by
Appropriate Commission.

•
The WPG will declare the annual CUF of its Project at the time of signing PPA
and will be allowed to revise the same once within first year. The declared
annual CUF should not be less than 22% in any case. In case, the project
supplies energy less than the energy corresponding to the minimum CUF, the
WPG will be liable to pay penalty to the procurer for the shortfall in availability
of energy. However, this will be relaxable to the extent of grid non-availability
for evacuation, which is beyond the control of WPG. In case, if the WPG
generates more power more than the delivered CUF than the WPG will be free
to sell it to any other entity provided first right of refusal will vest with the
Procurer(s).
•
The WPG will be free to re-power their plants during the PPA duration.
However, the Procurer will be obliged to buy power only as per terms of PPA.

•
The PPA shall contain provisions with regard to force majeure definitions,
exclusions, applicability and available relief on account of force majeure as per
the industry standards. The WPG shall intimate the Procurer about the
occurrence of force majeure within 15 (fifteen) days from the start of force
majeure and the Procurershall take a decision on his claim within 15 days of the
receipt of the intimation.

•
Generation Compensation for Off-take Constraints: The Procurer may be
constrained not to off-take the power scheduled by WPG on account of Grid
unavailability or in the eventuality of a Back-down. The WPG and the Procurer
shall follow the forecasting and scheduling process as per the regulations
notified by Appropriate Commission. The Government of India, as per Clause
5.2(u) of the Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC), encourages a status of
‘must-run’ to wind power projects. Accordingly, no wind power plant duly
 commissioned should be directed to back down by a Discom/Load Dispatch
Centre (LDC). In case, such eventuality of Back down arises like consideration
of grid security or safety of any equipment or personnel or other such
conditions, the WPG shall be eligible for a Generation Compensation from the
Procurer.
•
Payment Security: Case 1. Direct procurement by Distribution licensee from
WPG: The Distribution licensee shall provide payment security to the WPG
through Revolving Letter of Credit (LC) of an amount for a period not less than
1 (one) months' average billing from the Project under consideration and
Payment Security Fund, which shall be suitable to support payment for at least
3 (three) months' billing of all the Projects tied up with such fund or in addition
to a) & b) above, the Procurer may also choose to provide State Government
Guarantee, in a legally enforceable form, ensuring that there is adequate
security to the WPG, both in terms of payment of energy charges and
termination compensation if any.
Case 2
Intermediary-Procurer procures from the Wind Power Generator and sells to the
Distribution licensee: a) The Intermediary Procurer shall provide payment security to
the WPG through Revolving Letter of Credit (LC) of an amount for a period not less
than 1 (one) months' average billing from the Project under consideration and
Payment Security Fund, which shall be suitable to support payment of at least 3
(three) months' billing of all the Projects tied up with such fund. b) The Distribution
licensee shall provide payment security to the Intermediary Procurer through
Revolving Letter of Credit (LC) of an amount not less than 1 (one) months' average
billing from the Project(s) under consideration and State Government Guarantee, in a
legally enforceable form, such that there is adequate security, both in terms of
payment of energy charges and termination compensation if any.

6. Advancement in technology
With the modern technology incorporated in the wind turbines, wind power
generation limits have been uplifted. Hence, penetration level of wind power has
 become more significant and is leading to more complex, sophisticated and
reliable interconnection requirements. Initially, wind power did not have any serious
impact on the power system control, but now due to its size, wind power has to play a
much more active part in grid operation and control. The unit size of machines has
gone up to 3.00 MW. Over 50 different models of wind turbines are being
manufactured by more than 20 different companies in India. The technology used in
wind turbines is based on a squirrel-cage induction generator connected directly to the
grid. Power pulsations in the wind were almost directly transferred to the electrical
grid by this technology [31]. The top 10 WT manufacturers in 2015 and their priority
generator technologies are illustrated in Fig. 10 [32].

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Fig. 10. Top 10 Wind turbine manufacturers in 2015.
a) Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG): It gives a variable speed controlled
wind turbine with a Wound Rotor Induction Generator (WRIG) and partial scale
power converter on the rotor circuit. In this configuration, stator is directly connected
to the grid, while a partial scale power converter controls the rotor frequency and
the rotor speed. The power rating of this partial-scale frequency converter defines the
speed range. Moreover, this converter performs reactive power compensation and
provides a smooth grid interconnection. The smaller frequency converter makes this
concept attractive from an economical point of view. In this case, the power
electronics is enabling the wind turbine to act as a dynamic power source to the grid.
However, its main drawbacks are the use of slip-rings and the protection
schemes/controllability in the case of grid faults [31].
b) Fixed speed Induction Generators (FSIG): The fixed speed induction generator
(FSIG) consists of squirrel cage induction generator that is coupled through
a gearbox to the wind turbine rotor. The advantages of FSIG are, it is robust, easy and
relatively cheap for mass production. It enables stall-regulated machines to operate at
a constant speed when it is connected to a large grid, which provides a stable control
frequency. Although, the stall control method is usually used in combination with the
fixed speed FSIG for power control, the active stall control or pitch control have also
been applied. The various disadvantages of FSIG are lack of control possibilities of
both active and reactive power, gearbox breakdown due to large mechanical loads and
the large fluctuations in output power. Due to these reasons, wind turbine
manufacturers are increasingly interested in variable speed devices [31].
c) Synchronous Generators (SG): Synchronous generators (SG) are considered one of
the most-promising technologies for multi-mega watt (MW) wind energy conversion
systems. The synchronous generators can be classified into the electrically excited
synchronous generator (EESG) and the permanent magnet synchronous generator
(PMSG). Excitation is provided either with rotor windings or permanent magnets.
Hence, full scale power converters (FSCs) are needed, and a reduced scale converter
for the excitation is required for synchronous machines without permanent magnets
[31].
d) Maximum Power Point Tracking Technique (MPPT): To ensure the
higher operational efficiency of wind energy conversion system using DFIG
and power electronic converter the suitable maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
technique is required to compensate unknown or time-varying parameters, which are
causes of poor efficiency. The principle aim of MPPT controller is to maximize the
generated output electric power and generator efficiency without a low speed or high-
speed shaft encoder, eliminating concern about sensor reliability. The various possible
 MPPT techniques which are currently in practice are identified as Power system
stabilizers (PSS) in DFIG system, which improves the damping of oscillations in the
network, adjusting the DC/DC converter duty cycle, Power Signal Feedback (PSF)
control for dynamic stability control, matrix converter in DFIG [32].
Fig. 11 shows the evolution of wind turbine technologies and power electronics
showing how the evolution of techniques has added the capacity addition in wind
energy potential. Today, due to the latest technology wind turbines and wind power
plants have increased both in size and number which has increased the power
production.
7.
Barriers in development of wind energy technology in India

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Fig. 11. Wind turbine evolution and trend of power electronic conversion (blue indicates
power level of converters) in the last 30 years [33]. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
The principle of extracting wind energy is converting the kinetic energy of wind using
rotating turbine and by using a generator further converting it into electrical energy. It
seems simple but there are various barriers in developing the wind energy sector,
which include social, environmental and techno-economic impacts [34]. Fig.
12 shows the immediate issues which need to be overcome in harnessing wind power.
 Some of the key challenges in the development of wind energy in India have been
discussed below.

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Fig. 12. Nation-wide immediate issues in harnessing wind potential.
a. Lack of Evacuation and Transmission Infrastructure: The lack of adequate
evacuation and transmission infrastructure is one of the biggest barriers in harnessing
the wind energy potential. For instance, attractive potential wind sites in Rajasthan,
Gujarat, and coastal Tamil Nadu remain less tapped because of lack of adequate grid
evacuation capacity and transmission infrastructure. Power evacuation system, which
includes sub-stations, transformers and transmission links are not adequate to carry
the power generated from high wind areas to load centres. The other part is that
frequent fluctuation in wind generation leads to frequent unscheduled interchanges at
the state level and from a grid discipline and grid security point of view it becomes a
major issue. The issue of evacuation and transmission infrastructure has been dealt in
detail in subsequent sections on states including lack of communication network in
distant areas, regarding water and roadways in order to carry towers, larger and
heavier components to wind farms. Transmission and distribution lines are not
sufficient for power evacuation which restricts the wind farm to get connected and
grid integration requires serious attention [35,36].
b. Inadequacy of GBI and Uncertainty to its Continuity: The industry is still
recovering from the recent experience of withdrawal of both AD and GBI. At the state
level also there have been frequent changes in policies on open access, cross subsidy
surcharge, banking and wheeling, group captive etc. These changes are often made
with utter disregard towards projects that have been built and invested in, based on
certain assumptions of policy. Such changes can make businesses completely
unviable. These changes in policies also have a detrimental impact on investors’
overall investment. Refusal to allow open access to generation projects within the
state or a heavy cross subsidy burden on third-party sales are such state policies which
are not publicised but are implemented. Such curbs have slowed down project
development at state level significantly [36,37].
c. Incoherent Resource Assessment: A number of state nodal agencies are not able
to establish and maintain a technical library, a data bank, or an information centre or
collect and correlate information regarding wind energy potential. In the past, the
National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE), Chennai, has initiated a various resource
assessment, but the basic data on the actual generation volume of wind energy is not
realistic as can be seen from the case of Tamil Nadu where the actual installed
capacity has already surpassed the estimated potential [38].
d. Land Availability: The land availability issue is a challenge for wind power
generation in India. The conversion of land (if available) from agricultural to non
agricultural and receiving clearance (for protected area) from authorities is time-
taking process and difficult task. There is a need to analyse the land use and land
cover data of India to identify the region most suitable for wind farm development
[37,38,and39]].
e. RPO: RPO compliance has not been strictly enforced or properly monitored,
directly affecting the REC mechanism. Although many projects have been registered
under the REC and an increasing number of RECs has been issued, the prices have
been low with a majority of RECs being sold at the floor price or not sold at all
[38,39].
f. Inadequate Forecasting Tools and Grid Management: In the existing regulatory
framework, resource-rich states are expected to take higher wind purchase obligation
and buy power at a preferential tariff. That is why states like Tamil Nadu and
Rajasthanare increasingly finding it difficult to absorb higher quantum of wind power
during the higher windy season and low demand period. It is partly due to outdated
and often inadequate infrastructure and in part due to a lack of penalization for non-
compliance with forecasting and scheduling requirements. In this regard, linking of
the Southern Grid with the National Grid, freely allowing open access and third party
sale within and outside the state/region as well as improving forecasting tools will be
critical for further harnessing the potential of wind power in the country [37].
g. Effect of Legal proceedings or Investigations: Anti-corruption practices and
issues, commercial disputes, criminal or civil proceedings, and other integrity
legislation have a negative effect on wind power projects. There is considerable
damage to the company's reputation if there is violation in rules and regulation and
could result in fines or penalties, the suspension or shutdown of ongoing operations.
The time period to integrate the legal proceedings results in delays or failure in
completion of project [38,39].
h. Uncertainty And Divergence In Feed-In Tariffs Approved By SERCs: Different
states have different laws and regulations which imposes inflexible standards and
requirement and potentials liabilities. Because of the difference in approach, there are
wide variations in the tariffs (as can be seen from Table 8), leading to uncertainty for
the investors as well as non-viability of the projects in certain states in India. For
instance, it is observed that feed-in tariffs of INR 3.50/kWh in the state of Andhra
Pradesh is low, leading to lack of capacity addition in the state in spite of the high
wind potential in the state. It should be noted that the feed-in tariff in Andhra Pradesh
based on the tariff regulation approved by CERC is INR 4.63/kWh as compared to Rs.
3.50/kWh approved by APERC. Further, the issue of longer control period and delay
in RE tariff revisions at the state level are also a matter of concern [37,38].
i. Supply chain Issues: The supply chain issue plays a significant role in retarding the
development of wind energy sector. Wind power developers have to stay focussed in
identifying suppliers that can provide special equipment and quality material on time.
The potential risk factors that may be the cause of crisis in supply chain are (1) delays
and inflexibility of supply source, (2) systems information infrastructure breakdown,
(3) procurement and exchange rate risk, (4) receivables and number of customers,
(5) inventory holding cost, demand and supply uncertainty, (6) capacity, (7) service
suppliers, (8) key component manufacturers, (9) procurement and environment.
Managing supply chain risks are complicated because sometime risks are often
interconnected. Disruption caused in supply chain refers to the risks which affect the
movement of efficient process of information, materials and products [36,39].

7. Measures to increase wind penetration

a. Resource Assessment: The correct assessment of wind resource potential at higher
heights, sustainability of the project over the designed life time, project feasibility will
indirectly boost the energy generation through wind. It is required to make sure the
quality of the data recorded at a particular site. The new commercially
available remote sensing instrument such as Sonic Detection and Ranging (SODAR)
and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) can play a vital role in accurate
assessment of wind resources at higher heights. Both SODAR and LiDAR work on
the Doppler-shift principle. The SODAR send acoustic pulses into the atmosphere and
LiDAR instrument transmits a light beam into the atmosphere. Both instruments
receive the backscattered signals and compare the Doppler-shifted frequency between
the transmitted and the reflected signal [40]. The remote sensing technology has
proven its ability to measure wind characteristics [41,42].
b. Repowering: Many of India's wind farms were set up during the early 90s. Thus,
the best wind power sites in India, older turbine models of smaller rotor diameters and
lower hub heights with lattice structure towers were used. New WTG models are able
to reach higher efficiency levels due to better rotor and airfoil designs. IEC Class III
turbines with larger rotor diameters and better control systems allow increased energy
capture and turbine reliability. Keeping all this in mind, an active repowering strategy
and policy is very much required in the country. Repowering of old wind farms would
lead to significantly increase in annual energy yield from the same patch of land
where old wind turbines are functioning. It is assessed that Repowering potential is of
the order of 5000 MW and with the passage of time more and more wind farms could
possibly qualify for Repowering [28].
c. Grid Integration: To achieve high penetrations of wind, one would not only need
strengthening and expansion of grid but also operations and management would have
to be completely revamped. The responsibility to resolve grid problems rests both
with the utilities and the project developers and technology providers. In order to
achieve the goals of scaled up capacity addition, these issues would have to be
resolved in a phased manner. Renewable Energy incursion in the grid does throw up
some formidable problems to the grid in the lower management on account of
unpredictable wind power generation. However, an effective and efficient way of Grid
Management can definitely offset the minor challenges posed by wind power. The
electricity regulatory commission order should be strictly followed for strengthening
grid network connectivity and evacuation arrangement. An accredited certify authority
should approve all wind turbines for the compliance of grid regulation including
power quality, low voltage ride, active/reactive power control and other requirements
as rules and standards [23].
d. Certainty of Support Policy: There is a need for uniform policies across the
country as much as possible and these policies should be applicable over a reasonable
period of time (5 years) to achieve fruitful results. Changes in tariffs and any other
charges should be transparent and there should be a long-term visibility.
Wind projects should be considered as critical assets to minimise thefts and related
damage as the installations are located in inhospitable/sparsely populated far flung
areas.

Wind power projects need to be exempted from obtaining “Consent to Establish” from
individual departments as the allotments are made by the single window Nodal
Agency of the states. There is a specific need for separate legislative enactment in the
form of Renewable Electricity Act in the quickest possible time [24].
e. Availability of Land: The process of making land dedicated for windfarms should
be made simpler. Also approvals and clearances such as land title conversion should
be examined in detail to find ways of streamlining acquisition and usage of lands for
the development of wind farms [36]. The following measure may be adopted for land
availability.
• Easing of forest area land acquisition formalities and expediting the same.
•Exemption from wildlife zone applicability, migratory bird route limitations,
air flight path restrictions. Not to be applicable for wind power.
• No ceiling limitation for land acquisition under wind projects
f. Central Procurement: One of the ways of enhancing capacity addition in
windfarms and also investments in sector is to identify large wind zones for wind
parks or wind-solar hybrid parks that are initially developed by the state government
or in PPP mode. Electricity generated can be procured by a central government
agency and then made available to state governments. Such projects can be connected
to PGCIL. Wind parks or wind – solar hybrid parks with central procurement of
electricity and initial development by the State government could be one of the ways
to minimise risks in wind power projects and to attract investments [28].
f. RPO Compliance and Real-time Monitoring: To encourage and attract the local
population to adapt renewable energy it is necessary to focus on net metering policy
and real-time monitoring. The installation of Availability Based Tariff (ABT) meter
with telecommunication facility at substation can play a significant role in accurate
metering. The important grid parameters on real time basis should be prudently sent to
state/regional load centre. Binding of RPO compliance will immediately result in
much relief to a large number of IPPs and will pave the way for more investments.
•
Enactment of renewable energy Act will mitigate difficulties of RPO
implementation.

•
States should fulfil RPO in line with NAPCC Targets.

•
REC offtake should have a good incentive formula for fillip in the market.

•
Procurement of REC by a central agency at CERC determined tariff.
g. Offshore wind power development: The estimated offshore wind power
contribution in term of electricity supply is higher. The share of wind energy would
increase to a large extent in total renewable energy capacity of the country through the
development of offshore wind power technology. The regulatory authorities should
formulate policy framework and support program in a manner that it should attract
investors, academician, research personal and public sectors. The policymakers can
consider designing an Energy Standard policy that includes an offshore wind set-
aside. The set-aside can provide direct support to a newer market segment in a boarder
way by supporting offshore wind investment.
h. Streamlining Permit Processes: Policymakers can support wind investment
through centralizing review and permitting of wind projects. Streamlined permitting
involves limiting the number of agencies engaged to reduce the burden on developers
to contact and receive permits from many different agencies. Further, to support
streamlined permitting and approvals, fully informing and integrating local
communities into wind development decision-making processes is critical, even when
conducted at the regional or national level [28].
i. Hybrid Technologies: The interconnection of wind energy with other renewable
energy (like solar energy) and storage technologies in line with the policy issued by
state/central government may result in efficient utilization of transmission
infrastructure and may increase capacity utilization factor.

8. Conclusion
Wind energy is friendly to the surrounding as compared to fossil fuels, as the latter
disturbs the environment by releasing carbon dioxide. When combined with solar
electricity, wind energy becomes great source for the developing countries which
provides reliable and steady supply of electricity. Wind energy is one of the solutions
for rising energy demand. It has great potential and easy to manage. Every wind
turbine lasts for 20–25 years and as long as the wind blows, the wind turbine can
harness the wind to create power. Though wind turbines can cause complaints and
fatalities of wildlife, it is one of the energy solutions. India has huge potential
of renewable energy sources and due to government involvement there is sudden
growth in renewable energy sector. The strategy for achieving this enhanced goal
depends on the participation of NGOs, manufacturers, R&D institutions and
entrepreneurs.
In this study both actual and provisional scenario for wind energy in India has been
discussed. The above discussion shows that the condition of wind system is
satisfactory in India but requires additional attention for better growth. Although, the
cost diminution and technological development of systems in recent years has been
encouraging. To allow the widespread application of emerging technology such
as remote sensing techniques for resource assessment in complex, hilly terrain and in
offshore region, there is a need for further R&D improvements. Accurate and
consistent measurement in lieu with better policy will encourage the investors in the
development of offshore wind energy sector in India. The country will reach “Grid
Parity” in wind energy in 2022. For further development it is essential to focus on a
specific technological system, accurate measurement, domestic manufacturing and
logistics which requires better policy measurement and requires more effort of the
government.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology for
providing the facility to carry out this study.

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Indian wind energy & its development-

policies-barriers: An overview
Author links open overlay panelShubhamSharmaaSunandaSinhab
Show more

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2019.100003 Get rights and content

Under a Creative Commons license
open access

Abstract
Harnessing the energy of the wind to obtain some useful work like grinding grains,
pumping water and sailing boats has been there for a very long time. In modern times,
wind energy is being used to generate electricity. Wind energy is one of the clean
sources of energy and India has a huge potential for wind energy resources
(102 GW at 80 m height and 302 GW at 100 m height). This vast potential has
remained unexplored which can be achieved through well framed policies. This paper
presents a detailed study of the fiscal incentives and development schemes offered by
 Indian government in expanding wind energy business. Wind energy policies of India
have been keenly studied and obstacles to the success of these policies and
programmes have also been discussed in this paper. The outcomes of this paper
reiterate the work that has been conducted by Indian government (Central and State)
in wind energy sector indicating lower renewable energy prices, improved financial
incentives, opportunities in offshore wind energy and a steady market growth.

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Keywords

Wind energy
Indian market
Policies
Barriers

1. Introduction
India is highly reliable on conventional sources for energy production. More than 60%
of energy production in India is carried out with the help of thermal energy powered
by fossil fuels. Energy generation through fossil fuels such as coal has environmental
issues and its rapid depletion in next few decades will cause hinderance in energy
generation. Renewable energy resources (wind, solar, biomass etc.) have transpired as
a strong option to replace the currently used energy generation methods in near future.

Wind energy has risen as one of the most promising resource which has its own
advantage of being an eco-friendly energy source. Urbanisation, industrialisation,
need for sustainable development and energy security has helped wind energy to grow
worldwide (Ishugah et al., 2014; Kaygusuz, 2012). India is the first country to have
ministry in the field of renewable energy. In 1992, Department of Nonconventional
Sources (DNES) became Ministry of Nonconventional Sources (MNES) aimed at
research and development in renewable energy sector (Rajsekhar et al.,
1999; History/Background and Minis, 2018). Wind energy in India saw an enormous
growth under the guidelines and policies framed by MNES, as wind energy market
grew from 41 MW (1992) to 968 MW (1998) in terms of installed capacity (Rajsekhar
et al., 1999). MNES, after 2006 was renamed as Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) (History/Background and Minis, 2018). The objective of MNRE is
to ensure energy security, to promote renewable energy resources and to achieve
energy accessibility, affordability and equity. Under the efforts of MNRE India has
achieved grid connected wind power of 34.4 GW (till 30th July 2018) (Physical
Achievements and Mi, 2018). Effective policies and programmes have been launched
by MNRE, Gov. of India to enhance wind energy production in the country.
Monitoring stations have been set up throughout the country to assess the wind
resources under the purview of MNRE to promote renewable energy.
The contributions of this research are three-fold. Firstly, this study explores the
paradigms of wind energy development in India which highlights many important
events marked in the history of Indian wind market. Secondly, an attempt has been
made through this study to understand the wind market dynamics and policy
framework adopted by various governmental organisations and their role in the
development of renewable energy projects for meeting up with the clean energy
targets. Third part of this paper reveals the various technical, economic,
environmental and socio-economic obstructions that are faced by the policies as well
as wind project development. This paper comprehensively presents a brief review of
the policies, development programmes and current status of wind market in the
country.

The paper is organized as: Section 2 provides the details on current status of wind
energy in India; Section 3 describes the development pattern of wind energy in Indian
market; Section 4 explains the necessity of wind energy policies, while
Section 5 enlists the energy policies and programmes framed by various
Governmental bodies in order to expand the renewable energy market. The hindrance
in the path of the development of wind energy has been discussed in Section 6 and the
paper is concluded in Section 7 along with the policy implications for future
decisions.

2. Current status of wind energy in India

India holds 4th position worldwide in wind energy production after China, United
States and Germany. Wind energy in India has a potential of 102 GW at 80 m hub
height (Press Information Bureau et al., 2016). The effective output of wind power
projects depends upon many factors such as wind speed (m/s), wind power density
(W/m2), availability of the site etc. National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) was set
up by MNRE in Chennai, is a self-sufficient Research and Development Centre which
conducts wind assessment programmes in the entire country and has successfully
drawn Indian wind energy maps at different mast heights. By NIWE, 859 wind
monitoring stations in various Indian states (at height levels 20,25,50,80 and 100 m)
has been set up till 30th June 2018 (National Institute of Wind Energy, 2018a). Out of
which only 69 stations are in operating condition. 11 monitoring stations has been
successfully mounted on telecom towers (height ranging from 40 to 60 m) in three
north-eastern states – Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram in the year 2018 (National
Institute of Wind Energy, 2018a; National Institute of Wind Energy, 2018b).
Fig. 1 shows that major portions of the states including Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan have wind speeds greater
than 6 m/s. At 100 m, Indian wind energy potential is estimated to be 302 GW, out of
which Gujarat has the highest potential of 44.23 GW. Wind energy potential of
different states of the country corresponding to 100 m level is shown
in Table 1 (National Institute of Wind Energy, 2018c).
1. Download : Download full-size image
Fig. 1. Wind speed map at 100 m level.
[Source: Report on India’s Wind Power Potential; Hossain and Sharma, 2015].
Table 1. State-wise wind potential at 100 m height.

State Rank 1* Rank 2* Rank 3* Total

Andaman & Nicobar 4.12 3.43 0.88 8.43
Andhra Pradesh 22525.50 20538.10 1165.00 44228.60
Chhattisgarh 3.24 57.03 16.31 76.59
Goa 0.00 0.08 0.76 0.84
Gujarat 52287.59 32037.83 105.09 84431.33
 State Rank 1* Rank 2* Rank 3* Total
Karnataka 15202.36 39802.59 852.40 55857.36
Kerala 332.63 1102.56 264.38 1699.56
Lakshadweep 3.50 3.40 0.77 7.67
Madhya Pradesh 2216.39 8258.55 8.93 10483.88
Maharashtra 31154.76 13747.43 492.15 45394.34
Odisha 1666.20 1267.06 160.22 3093.47
Puducherry 69.43 79.00 4.40 152.83
Rajasthan 15414.91 3342.62 12.96 18770.49
Tamil Nadu 11251.48 22153.34 394.82 33799.65
Telangana 887.43 3347.52 9.34 4244.29
West Bengal 0.03 2.04 0.01 2.08
Total in MW 153019.59 145742.59 3489.31 302251.49
Total in GW 153 146 3 302

[Source: National Institute of Wind Energy]

Different ranks have been used in Table 1 to specify land conditions. Rank-1 denotes
Waste land, Rank-2 is used for land that can be cultivated, while Rank −3 denotes
Forest land (National Institute of Wind Energy, 2018c).
Nearly 5502 MW of wind energy addition was made to the installed capacity, while
32.3 GW was total installed capacity in the year 2017 (Jethani, 2017). From the year
2002–2018, the growth of wind energy in India can be shown with the help
of Fig. 2 (Physical Achievements and Mi, 2018).
1. Download : Download full-size image
Fig. 2. Cumulative installed capacity of wind energy in India (in MW).
[Source: MNRE].

Total installed capacity of grid connected wind power in India is 34.4 GW and around
55% of the total electricity production through renewable energy in the country is
obtained from wind resources. It is estimated that by the year 2022 India will have
60 GW of wind with nearly 22.7 GW capacity addition in last five years (from 2017 to
2022).

From keenly observing Table .1 and Fig. 3 it can be seen that Andhra Pradesh in the

year 2017, added more than 2000 MW capacity to its wind power generation. Gujarat,
although, ranks at the top in terms of estimated potential, but, Tamil Nadu has
successfully surpassed Gujarat in terms of Installed capacity. The progress on the
impressive and sudden development of wind energy in Tamil Nadu is due to the
policies formulated by State Gov. of Tamil Nadu under the initiatives of MNRE.

1. Download : Download full-size image

Fig. 3. Installed wind capacity of Indian states (2017)
[Source: “Wind Power Development in India: An overview”; J.K. Jethani; MNRE].

3. Development of wind energy in Indian market

In 1952, Maneklal Sankalchand Thacker, a renowned engineer, in association with
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) started a project to study and
determine wind energy possibilities in India. Under this initiation, a Sub-Committee
to analyse the wind resources of the country was formed (Wind Power in India, 2018).
Oil crisis of 1970’s causing fuel price rise and demand-supply imbalance had a large
impact on renewable energy development worldwide. Commission for Additional
Sources of Energy (CASE) was established by Gov. of India in the year 1981 with an
aim of making and implementing policies for increasing R&D activities in renewable
energy sector for technical progress. In 1983–84, in order to carry out resource
assessment, wind energy projects were demonstrated in various parts of the country
the country (Sangroya and Kumar Nayak, 2015). Wind energy development enhanced
on a large scale in the year 1986 in India. In 1985, 600 wind monitoring stations were
set up in 25 Indian states for the quantitative assessment of wind resources. Indian
government gave green signal to generate grid quality wind power during 7th five-
year plan (1985–1990) in order to benefit local businessmen seeking to establish grid
connected wind turbines. The initial investment on wind energy projects was quite
huge comprising 60–70% of the overall cost. Thus, Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA) was set up by DNES to provide financial aid (in the
form of loans) to the renewable energy projects. This gave a sudden boost to the
development of wind energy market in the country, as privatisation in wind sector was
increased. 8th National plan (1992–97) became the golden period for wind energy
growth in India (Rajsekhar et al., 1999). National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
was institutionalized by MNES in 1998. Wind farms of 282 MW capacity were
established in Tamil Nadu alone during 1995–96. India achieved 4th rank in wind
installations worldwide with installed capacity of 992 MW (September, 1998). During
1994–1996 nation saw a steady growth in wind energy sector. Interest of private
investors in wind energy sector of India dropped and there was a decline in wind
energy growth during the end of the 20th century due to the new tax policies of
Government (Sangroya and Kumar Nayak, 2015; Gulagi et al., 2017). MNRE, after its
establishment in 2006 (History/Background and Minis, 2018), pushed the renewable
energy development in country in a highly impressive manner and as a result, several
wind energy projects were launched in windy states of the country and wind market
grew in an exponential manner [Fig. 2]. India by 2022, targets to achieve 175 GW of
renewable energy (out of which 60 GW is the share of wind energy). It is estimated
that renewable sources will provide 54% of the overall electrical energy production in
India, by 2022 (Gulagi et al., 2017). National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) and
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) are two supporting pillars
of wind energy development in India.

3.1. List of top wind turbine manufacturers in India –

Wind turbines having capacity from 250 kW to 2.5 MW are being manufactured in
India. Top companies of Indian market are listed below in Fig. 4 –
1. Download : Download full-size image
Fig. 4. Top companies of Indian wind market (ELE Times, 2017; Vestas India
(2018); RegenPowertech India (2018); Suzlon Energy Limited (2018); Windworld India
(2018); GE Wind Energy, 2018; Indowind Energy Limited (2018); Orient Green Power
Company Limited (2018); INOX WIND, 2018; SIEMENS Gamesa Renewable Energy
(2018). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)

3.2. Top windy states with their wind development government agencies and
wind energy projects –

a)
Andhra Pradesh

➢
Nodal Agency - New & Renewable Energy Development Corporation of
Andhra Pradesh Ltd. (NREDCAP) is a company owned by state government.
1738.62 MW capacity of wind projects had been commissioned till 2016
(Government of India, 2018b).
➢
Projects - Anathapuramu district has highest ongoing wind projects. Suzlon
Energy Ltd. in a joint venture with Axis Energy group have been sanctioned
4000 MW capacity of wind project in different districts of the state
(Government of India, 2018b).
b)
Gujarat

➢
Nodal Agency - Gujarat Power Corporation Ltd is the government body which
takes care of wind energy projects in the state (Government of India, 2018c).
➢
Projects - As Gujarat is situated along the Arabian sea coast of India, the state
has a huge potential for off-shore wind development. In 2018, 1000 MW of off-
shore wind energy projects are proposed to be commercialised by the Gov. of
India (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 2018).
c)
Maharashtra

➢
Nodal Agency - Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) was set
up by state government with the help of MNRE.

➢
Projects - 11.09 MW capacity demonstration projects were installed by MEDA
in Maharashtra. For energy projects, 50 different wind power developers are
associated with MEDA (Government of Maharashtra, 2018).
d)
Rajasthan

➢
Nodal Agency - Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Limited (RRECL) is
the state nodal agency (Rajasthan Renewable Energ, 2018).
➢
Projects - Suzlon, Enercon (world Wind India) and Inox have been appointed
by the government to develop a major number of projects in the state (Mathur,
2012).
e)
Tamil Nadu

➢
Nodal Agency - Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation
(TANGEDCO) is the state nodal agency.

➢
Projects - A subsidiary of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board has commercialised
17.550 MW capacity projects in the state, while private sector has successfully
achieved 6530.340 MW installation (Tamil Nadu Energy Develop, 2018).
f)
Karnataka
 ➢
Nodal Agency - Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Ltd., owned by
state government.

➢
Projects - 4654.835 MW wind projects have been commercialised till 30th
April 2018 (Government of India, 2018a).
g)
Madhya Pradesh

➢
Nodal Agency - Madhya Pradesh Urja Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MPUVN).

➢
Projects - MPUVN has set up many monitoring stations in the state, out of
which four stations are fully operational. Devas and Dhar districts of Madhya
Pradesh have highest number of wind farms in the state (Wind energy
programme in M.P, 2018).

4. Necessity of wind energy policies

Economic stability of a country depends on its energy resources. If Indian economy
maintains a growth rate of 9% every year then, in coming 20–25 years, the financial
problems of India would be fully eliminated (Sholapurkar and Mahajan, 2015).
Although research and development in the sector of renewable energy began in 1980’s
in India but due to lack of public awareness and limited technology, it could not gain
popularity during that period (Chaudhary et al., 2015). As the Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
emission was increasing exponentially and Indian Government’s concern about
climate change, energy scarcity and energy security made it possible to develop
renewable energy policies in the country. After the wind resource assessments carried
out in the late 20th century, several wind energy projects were demonstrated in many
windy regions of the country. Thus, wind energy started to grow in India. This growth
was not much remarkable because conventional resources were highly reliable and
awareness about the climate change was low among the common people. State
governments were also least bothered about the wind energy promotion programmes.
So, in order to promote wind energy and spread awareness about the advantages of
using wind power for electricity generation, Central Government of India with the
help of MNES (Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources) formulated policies.
These policies were launched with the aim of achieving better control and progress in
wind energy development. To ensure proper participation of State government,
several state nodal agencies have been opened in different states of the country and
thus, policies differing from state to state on the basis of available potential sites,
resource assessment, grid connectivity etc. have been drafted by the respective
agencies under the guidelines of MNRE (Rajsekhar et al., 1999).

5. Indian wind energy policies and programmes

The period from 1994 to 1996 is called the period of ‘wind-rush’ in Indian history, as
Indian wind market saw an impressive growth because there was an increase in
private investments. This became possible due to the fiscal incentives introduced by
Central Government which provided zero-tax planning opportunities to the private
investors. In 1995, ‘Guidelines for Clearance of projects for the wind energy
development’ were formed by MNES and modification in the guidelines occurred in
1996 so that all the state level agencies were loaded with following additional charges
which included proper examination of the individual projects before approving them,
notifying capacity additions in every six months, keeping a check on already installed
and commissioned projects (Information and National Institute of Wind Energy,
2018). The growth in wind energy sector slowed down after 1997, as the investors
which seek Indian wind market as a tax saving investment went through a major
shock as government proposed to impose a minimum alternate tax of 12.9% on them.
Profit from marginal tax credit was also reduced to 35% in 1997, which earlier was
43–46% (Rajsekhar et al., 1999).

5.1. Electricity Act (2003) –

Indian Parliament enacted this act to integrate all the laws related to electricity
generation, transmission, distribution, sales and utility to promote electricity. It
comprised of National Electricity Policy and Plan, under which Central government
had to timely publish and revise electricity and tariff policies with full participation
and consultation of State government. A policy on stand-alone system in rural areas,
was introduced under this act (Ministry of Law and Justice, 2003). Feed-in tariff for
renewables in the country was also an initiative under this act. Renewable Purchase
Obligation (RPO) was issued with the help of Electricity Act to obtain a minimum
described share of total electricity generation from renewables. State Electricity
Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) have essentially defined their RPO levels, having a
range of 3–12% for the year 2016/17 (Jethani, 2017).

5.2. Integrated Energy policy (2006) –

In 2006, Planning Commission of India formed energy policy which integrated all the
sources of energy with the aim of achieving sustainable development. The emission
problems from fossil fuels were highlighted and renewable energy promotion through
strong policies was proposed. Some noteworthy steps were (Policy and Integrated
Energy, 2006; Policy, Integrated Energy, 2005) -
❖
To build strong network of grid connected power through renewables, subsidies
were provided that ensured maximum output (power generation and profit)
from the proposed projects.

❖
Capital subsidies, which were non-productive investments, were proposed to be
eradicated by the end of the 10th National plan.

❖
For promotion of wind power, a policy on utilising a private land for setting up
wind farms was also recommended.

❖
Tradable Tax Rebate Certificates (TTRCs) and capital subsidy on stand-alone
systems could be linked to earn benefits, as stand-alone systems in rural areas
could not be benefitted by Feed-in tariff policy.

❖
 Some institutional improvements were proposed such as giving individual
status to Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) by de-linking
it from MNES and conversion of IREDA to a National apex Institution for
renewables which will help tackling financial issues in renewable energy sector
in an effective way.

5.3. Generation based incentive (GBI) –

In December 2009, MNRE launched a scheme in which Generation based incentive @

Rs. 0.5 per unit wind electricity generation. The wind energy projects providing
electricity to the grid for minimum 4 years and maximum 10 years with a capital of
Rs. 1 Crore per MW were to take advantage of this scheme. This plan was supposed
to continue till the end of the 11th National plan but it was discontinued in 2011
(Sholapurkar and Mahajan, 2015). But in September 2013, GBI was extended to the
12th five-year plan as well (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 2013).
Accelerated depreciation at 80% (Jethani, 2016a) although was not eliminated, but it
was also provided along with GBI.

5.4. Renewable energy certificates (REC) –

Renewable Energy Certification in India was introduced in the year 2010 by Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) under the Electricity Act, 2003. A new
renewable market was formed in India through REC trading, and enhancement of
investments in renewable energy also hiked. This also occurred due to increment in
Forbearance and Floor prices of RECs (Sholapurkar and Mahajan, 2015; Energy
Alternatives India, 2018). In the year 2012, an average growth of 96% (each month)
occurred in the distribution RECs to wind energy projects (Energy Alternatives India,
2018).

5.6. National Clean Energy Fund –

In Finance budget 2010–11, considering the problems related with coal, a National
Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) was proposed in order to finance and support a clean
energy drive in the nation. A great initiative ‘Green Energy corridor’ is growing under
the financing scheme of NCEF (Government of India, 2010-11). Green Energy
Corridor project aims at improving the inter-state and intra-state electricity
transmissions by connecting the power generated by wind energy. In eight windy
states of the country a whopping amount of INR 10000 Crore has been sanctioned for
improving transmission network. For transmission infrastructure strengthening
projects Indian Government, through NCEF, is providing 40% of the total cost
associated with the project as grant and a German bank is also helping by giving other
40% in the form of soft loan (Jethani, 2017).

5.7. National wind-solar hybrid policy –

This policy was drafted by MNRE in June 2016. It was found that wind and solar
resources complement each other and thus, their hybridisation would be helpful in
achieving better grid stability. Already established wind and solar farms had enough
space for hybrid plants, so, a policy on hybrid plants was essential. The fiscal
incentives which were provided for independent solar and wind projects were also
available for hybrid projects (Jethani, 2018). The primary objective of the policy is to
provide a framework for the development of grid connected hybrid projects. The aim
of this policy is to develop 10 GW capacity of wind-solar hybrid projects by 2022.
Two states (Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh) have also launched the hybrid policy. A
hybrid system comprising of small wind turbines and aero generators or small wind
turbine and solar panels financial aid of INR 1,00,000 per kW will be given to those
planning to install small hybrid systems.

5.8. Wind bidding scheme –

A scheme was sanctioned by MNRE in June 2016, according to which wind projects
of 1 GW capacity connected with Central Transmission utility (CTU) were proposed
to be set up by Gov. of India (Jethani, 2016a). The main highlights were –
➢
Digitalisation through e-bidding options.

➢
Transmission of wind generated electricity to least windy states.
 ➢
Declaration of SECI (Solar Energy Corporation of India) as the nodal agency.

➢
Helping the windy states in achieving their RPO targets from non-solar
resources.

5.9. Policy for repowering of wind energy projects –

This policy was introduced in 2016. The aim of the policy is to ensure the optimum
usage of wind resources by providing better framework for repowering. An additional
partial refund with an interest rate of 0.25% was decided to be provided by IREDA for
repowering projects (Jethani, 2016b). State level nodal agencies played an important
role in implementation of repowering projects.

5.10. Offshore wind energy development –

National Offshore Wind Energy Policy was approved by MNRE in the year 2015.
Under this initiative, resource assessment was carried out in coastal areas of Gujarat
and Tamil Nadu. For promotion and development of offshore projects in Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZ), NIWE was declared as the Nodal Agency (Upadhyay, 2015).
NIWE is also a knowledge partner with Fowind (Facilitating offshore wind in India),
an initiative of Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) for starting and boosting
offshore wind energy in India. Resource assessment before implementing the projects
was conducted in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. A pre-feasibility test was
conducted with considering the wind farm capacities of 150 MW and 504 MW for
design in Tamil Nadu (FOWIND, 2015). Selection of zones included various
technical factors comprising a foundation screening study, a wind farm electrical
concept study, installation considerations (ports, vessels and logistics and installation
methodologies) and operation and maintenance considerations. A Major finding of
this study was southern and southwestern coastal zone of Tamil Nadu has better
resources for offshore wind development than Gujarat’s coastal area. Despite this,
India’s first 1 GW offshore wind project has been proposed in Gujarat on 7th August
2018 (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 2018) which can be attributed to
various reasons including enthusiastic policy implementation and participation of the
state government.

5.11. State-wise wind energy tariff policy –

State nodal agencies under the guidelines of MNRE have fixed tariff for purchase of
wind power (National Institute of Wind Energy, 2018d) (Table 2).
Table 2. Windy states with their wind energy tariffs.

State Tariff
Andhra Pradesh Rs. 3.50 (fixed for 10 years)
Gujarat Rs. 3.56 (fixed for 20 years)
Haryana Rs. 4.08 (escalation 1.5% base year 2007–08
Karnataka Rs. 3.7 (fixed for 10 years)
Kerala Rs. 3.14 (fixed for 20 years)
Madhya Pradesh Rs. 4.03–3.36 (reducing at a constant rate of 0.17% every year)
Maharashtra Rs. 3.50 (escalation of 0.15% for 13 years after commissioning of project)
Punjab Rs. 3.66 (5% escalation for 5 years upto 2012)
Rajasthan Rs. 4.50 for some districts and Rs. 4.28 for others
Tamil Nadu Rs. 3.39 (levelised cost)
West Bengal Rs. 4.00 (variable form project to project)

[Source: National Institute of Wind Energy]

6. Hinderance in the path of the development of wind energy

302 GW wind energy potential is enough to meet a major portion of the daily energy
needs of Indian market. But exploration of wind resources remains a really hard task
since environmental, technical, economic and social factors put a limit to the
development task. Thus, wind energy growth has its own limitations, and barriers in
its way can be explained as:

6.1. Technical barriers –

➢
 Technological barriers occur in developing countries because of the lack of
infrastructures and institutions to carry out R&D.

➢
The wind turbine technology in India is based on the European technology. The
Indian market lacks local standards in turbine manufacturing and thus, a
mismatch in the self-manufactured items and imported components is likely to
occur (Kulkarni and Anil, 2018).
➢
Modern wind turbines are quite efficient, but when a wind farm is concerned,
the performance of individual turbine is adversely affected by the other
turbines. Thus, overall wind harnessing efficiency of a wind farm is less than
what could have been achieved if all the turbines were individually and
independently functioning (Manwell et al., 2010).
➢
Grid stability and connectivity of wind projects has been promoted through
several policies and schemes nationwide, as mentioned in Section-5 of this
paper. But sometimes, it is not possible for grid to absorb wind generated
electricity when the penetration levels are very high. Due to this reason, wind
farms of Tamil Nadu used to remain shut when the generation was at its peak
and thus, loss of useful energy occurred (Jagadeesh, 2000).
➢
12 Billion Units of power was obtained by wind clusters/farms of Tamil Nadu
in the financial year 2017/18, while only 7 Bn. Unit power was generated in
2016/17 (Jethani, 2017). This was achieved by implementing proper
forecasting and scheduling techniques. Thus, monitoring stations need to have a
daily basis metering arrangement. So that problems occurring due to the
variable nature of wind power systems could be tackled.

6.2. Financial barriers –

➢
 Initial investment on the wind energy projects is quite high and a risk factor is
always involved questioning the confirmed profitability of the project (Kumar
et al., 2016).
➢
Debt and equity problems arise due to non-uniform interest rate and inflation
rate. Distribution companies create obstacles by sometimes not being capable
of buying the excessive energy generated by plants and sometimes by delaying
the already due payments (Mehra and Hossain, 2016).
➢
Refinancing a project is seen as a risk due to low benefits in the beginning
period of the projects.

➢
Competition among different energy sources causes obstruction in each others’
business.

6.3. Environmental barriers –

Although wind energy is considered as clean source of energy, it has some negative
impacts on the environment as well. Environmental problems associated with wind
farms include (Manwell et al., 2010; Bajoji, 2016)-
➢
Risk to wildlife – Life of birds, passing through the wind farms, is always at
stake. Electrocution of birds through transmission lines and collision with the
turbines are two major reasons of bird mortality associated with the
commissioning of a wind farm. Other problems faced by wild species include
habitat loss, change in practices of migration, nesting, breeding etc.

➢
Visual problems – Visual disturbances are caused by the wind farms located
nearby the roadways. Shadow flickering caused by the rotating blades and
flashing caused by the reflection of sunrays from the shining blade surface,
both are responsible for irritation in eyes.
 ➢
Noise pollution – More the number of turbines in a wind farm, more will be the
noise level. This unwanted sound (noise) causes nuisance, sleeping problems,
hearing problems etc. in human beings.

➢
Other problems – Climatic changes occur over the sites where wind farms are
situated. Rotation of blade causes mixing of hot air with vapour and thus,
certain undesired meteorological changes occur (Bajoji, 2016). Harmful wastes
are produced and their improper disposal has detrimental effects on
environment.

6.4. Socio-economic barriers –

Socio-economic barriers are the major obstacles in the path of wind energy
development. Sometimes, a wind project may face public opposition, if a cultural or
historically important land is being occupied by a wind farm. As transportation of
heavy parts of wind systems is quite a task and requires accessibility to roadways,
sometimes developing a wind farm has associated expenditure of transportation
facility as well. Public accessing the sites and thus endangering their health.
Stakeholders have different shares in their respective wind projects and thus, problems
arise due to the uneven profit distribution and bad mutual understanding (Bajoji,
2016). Policy uncertainty or change in policies have adverse effects on wind energy
development programmes (Mehra and Hossain, 2016).

7. Policy implications and conclusion –

The success of government’s initiation to promote wind energy projects can be seen
by the trend of exponential growth in the yearly capacity additions of the country.
New policies introduced in recent years have emerged as a strong agent in the
phenomenal growth of wind energy market in India. Renewable purchase obligation
(RPO) mandate the consumers to utilise renewable energy resources. The introduction
of Generation based incentive (GBI) and Renewable energy certification schemes
turned out to be necessary steps which have resulted in the decline of wind energy
prices drastically and thus, giving a tough competition to the conventional sources.
Indigenous manufacturing can be encouraged by providing incentives and subsidies
on locally manufactured products which will ultimately lower down the cost of wind
turbine components.

E−bidding of the wind projects require 3 months and a period of one and a half year is
utilised in completing the project. As the bidding process has been recently
introduced, its outcomes are still not known. But bidding scheme is seen as a path
breaking step, as it has eased the business and thus, increment in investments is
expected. However, compared with the existing wind potential, the growth and
achievements seem to be insignificant. For successful implementation of policies, the
technical, environmental, economic and socio-economic barriers along with policy
issues and uncertainties need to be eliminated. Offshore wind energy has remained
untouched in India till 2015 and not much has been gained in this sector. Offshore
wind projects are one of the most effective way to utilise wind energy. Thus, strong
policies and resource assessment to commercialise offshore projects should be taken
under consideration. Indian government targets to achieve 60 GW installed wind
capacity by 2022. As from the previous trends, the capacity addition per year is not
more than 4 GW and to achieve 60 GW, almost 6 GW annual capacity addition is
required. This can only be possible with better integration of management, technology
and infrastructure in energy sector. To promote research and innovation,
establishment of financially stable institutionalised research centres in each windy
state could be advantageous. The monitoring and regular inspections of prevailing
projects should be carried out more often. Repowering of projects, an initiation which
can help in achieving the desired target needs independent policy framework. New
steps taken by the government, although have long-term effects, but need to be clearly
observed and policy implementation should also be ensured by the government to
accomplish the task of achieving 60 GW by 2022. A strong grid connected network,
attractive incentives on projects, effective policy implementations, modifications in
energy prices and policies with ongoing market trends and devoted research centres
can set Indian wind market ahead of the other leading countries.

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