4

UNIT
Past Perfect

and Past Perfect Progressive

Nature vs. Nurture

1 Grammar in the Real World

A Have you ever reconnected with someone from your past? Read the web article
about twins who lived apart for many years. What surprised the twins when they
reconnected?

The Science of Twins

Twins, especially identical1 twins, have
always fascinated scientists. Identical twins
develop from one egg, have identical DNA,2
and are usually very similar in appearance
5 46
and behavior. There have
been many studies
of identical twins raised in
the same family.
There have also been a
10
number of studies of
identical twins separated
at birth and raised in
separate families. These studies have provided
interesting information about the impact of
15
nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) on the
development of the individual. However, some of the studies
have been controversial.3
Take the case of Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein. Elyse
and Paula were identical twins separated at birth. Both girls
20 knew that their parents had adopted them as infants, but
neither girl knew about her twin. When Elyse grew up, she
longed to meet her biological mother, so she contacted the allowed different families to adopt each twin. The agency
agency that had arranged the adoption. She had been had told the families that their child was part of a scientific
doing research on her birth mother when she made a study. However, it had never told the families the goal of the
surprising discovery. She had an identical twin. Even more study: for scientists to investigate nature versus nurture.
surprising, she learned that she had been part of a secret 1
identical: exactly the same | 2DNA: the abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic
scientific study. At the time of the adoption, the agency had acid, a chemical that controls the structure and purpose of every cell |
3
controversial: causing or likely to cause disagreement

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

When Elyse and Paula finally met as adults, they were amazed. They had many
similarities. They looked almost identical. They had both studied film. They both loved
to write. Together, the twins discovered that the researchers had stopped the study
25
before the end because the public strongly disapproved of this type of research.
Although that study ended early, many scientists today make a strong case for the
dominant4 role of nature. Schein and Bernstein agree that genetics explains many of
their similarities. However, recent research suggests that nurture is equally important. It
is clear that the nature versus nurture debate will occupy scientists for years to come.
30

dominant: more important, strong, or noticeable

4

B Comprehension Check Answer the questions.

1. What was surprising about the twins’ adoption?
2. What characteristics and interests did Elyse and Paula have in common?
3. What is the nature versus nurture debate?

C Notice Underline the verbs in each sentence.

1. Both girls knew that their parents had adopted them as infants.
2. She had been doing research on her birth mother when she made a surprising
discovery. 3. She learned that she had been part of a secret scientific study.
Which event happened first in each sentence? What event followed? Write
the verbs. What do you notice about the form of the verbs?
1. First: Then:
2. First: Then:
3. First: Then:

2   Past Perfect

Grammar Presentation
The past perfect is used to describe a completed event Nature vs. Nurture 47
that happened before another event in the past.
Elyse finally met her sister, Paula. Paula had been
married for several years. (First, Paula got married;
Elyse met Paula at a later time.)
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: Irregular Verbs: See page XX.
2.1 Forming Past Perfect
Elyse and Paula did not grow up together. They had
Form the past perfect with had + the past participle of lived with different families.
the main verb. Form the negative by adding not after They were available for adoption because their
had. The form is the same for all subjects. birthmother had given them up.
"Had she talked about the study to anyone at the time?"
"No, she hadn’t."
"What had you heard about this study before that
time?" "I’d heard very little about it."

2.2 Using Past Perfect with Simple Past

a. Use the past perfect to describe 48   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive
an event in a time period that later time earlier time
leads up to another past event or She learned that she had been part of a secret study.
time period. Use the simple past later time earlier time
to describe the later event or time The twins discovered that they had both studied
period. psychology.

b. The prepositions before, by, or until

can introduce the later time period. earlier time later time
Their mother had known about the study before her
death.
earlier time later time
Sue hadn’t met her sister until last year.
earlier time later time
Studies on twins had become common by the 1960s.
c. The past perfect is often used to give
reasons or background information reason

for later past events. She was late. She had forgotten to set her alarm clock.
background information later past event He
had never taken a
subway before he moved to New York.
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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Data from the Real World

In writing, these verbs are commonly used in the past
perfect: come, have, leave, make, and take. Had been
is the most common past perfect form in speaking and
writing.

Grammar Application
Exercise 2.1 Past Perfect
The twins had not gone to the same school as
children.
The family thought that they had made the right
decision.
Psychologists praised the study because the
researchers had been very careful in their work.
The researchers had not been aware of each
other’s work on twins until they met.
 Complete the sentences about twins who met as adults. Use the past
perfect form of the verbs in parentheses.
1. Two separate Illinois families had
adopted (adopt) Anne
Green and Annie Smith before the twins
were three days old.
2. When they met, they were fascinated by
their similarities. For
example, they (live) near each other
before
the Greens moved away.
3. As children, both Anne and Annie (go) to
the same summer camp.
4. Anne (not / go) to college, and Annie
(not/ attend) college, either.
5. Both (marry) for the first time by the age of 22.
6. Anne (get) divorced and (remarry). Annie (not/ get) divorced and was still
married.
7. Both Anne and Annie were allergic to cats and dogs and never
(own) pets.
8. Both (give) the same name – Heather – to their daughters. 9. Both
previously (work) in the hospitality industry. 10. Anne (work) as a hotel
manager. However, Annie
(not/work) in hotels; she (be) a
restaurant manager.

Nature vs. Nurture 49

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Exercise 2.2 Past Perfect and Simple Past
A Read the article about a famous twin study. Underline the simple
past forms. Double underline the past perfect forms.

The University of Minnesota is the birthplace of one of the most important twin

studies in the world. It started in 1979. Thomas J. Bouchard had already been on the

faculty of the university for some time when he began his study of identical twins.
1

Bouchard read an article about a set of twins who had been separated at birth. The twins

had recently met and had found many similarities. They found out that they had lived

near 5
 each other for years. Bouchard was amazed by the twins’ story and decided to start the

Minnesota Twins Reared Apart Study. Bouchard began to study sets of twins that had

been separated at birth. Over the years, the Minnesota Twins Reared Apart Study has

studied more than 8,000 sets of twins. The study continues today.

faculty: the people who teach in a department in a school

1

B Pair Work Compare your answers with a partner. Discuss the reason
for each of your answers.
In line 2, had been refers to the first event. Dr. Bouchard joined the faculty
before the twin study. The twin study began later. The study is the second
event, so started is in the simple past.

Exercise 2.3 More Past Perfect and Simple Past A Listen to

an interview with twins who are actors. Complete the sentences with the verbs
you hear.
Claudia Today, I’m interviewing Alex and Andrew Underhill. They appear in
the Spy Twins movie series based on the books of the same name.
How did you get the part in the first Spy Twins movie?
Alex A friend had seen (1) the advertisement
in the newspaper and later (4)
try out anyway.

50   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

(2)

(3) us about it. We any acting before to

then, but we

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Claudia How many twins were at the audition?

Andrew When we got there, we (5)
sets of twins
(6) that about five other for the audition.
Alex We also noticed that all the twins were wearing matching outfits. Until that
audition, we never (7)
(7) the
same clothes in our whole lives. We decided to run out to the nearest shopping
mall to buy some matching clothes. The audition (8) just .
when we
(8) you the Spy Twins novels
Claudia (10)
(10) (9)

before your audition? (11)

to the first audition.
Andrew Yes. The third book (12)

when we

Claudia What’s it like being twins? Are you two close? Do you do the
same things? Alex Yes, in lots of ways.
Andrew We definitely think the same way.
Alex Right! Once, we took the same test in school. Of course, we were in
the same grade, but we had different teachers. We had exactly the
same answers correct,
even though we in the same classroom!
(13)

Claudia Wow! I guess you’re a lot alike in many ways! Well, thanks, Alex
and Andrew. It’s been great talking with you.

B Listen again and check your answers.

Nature vs. Nurture 51

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 Exercise 2.4 Using Past Perfect
A Use the time line to complete the sentences about Alex and
Andrew. Use the past perfect form of the verbs in the box.

build decide graduate make record start

1986 The twins are born.

1993 The twins audition for the first Spy Twins movie.
1995 They record their first pop song and make a TV movie. 1996 The
twins start a fashion company for young men’s clothing. 1997 to 2003 The
twins make three more Spy Twins movies.
2004 They graduate from high school; they start college. 2005 The
twins decide to stop acting.
2008 They graduate from college.
2008 to present They work as fashion designers for their clothing

company. 1. By 2004, Alex and Andrew had made four Spy Twins
movies.
2. Before 1995, the twins (not) a pop song. 3. By 2006, the twins
to stop acting.
4. The twins (not) a fashion company yet in 1995. 5. The twins from high
school by 2005.
6. They a successful career before the age of 30.

B Over to You Make a time line about yourself from your birth to the
present. Write five sentences about your life. Use the past perfect with
before, by, and until.

3   Past Perfect with Time

Clauses
Grammar Presentation
The past perfect is often used with time clauses
for events that occurred in an earlier time period leading 52   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive
up to a later event or By the time Elyse discovered her sister, people had
time period. forgotten about the twin study.
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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

3.1 Order of Events

a. Use time clauses to show two separate past time
periods. Use the past perfect to signal an event that Grammar Application
occurred in an earlier time period.
Exercise 3.1 Order of Events
The time words after, before, by the time, until, and
Elyse had moved by the time the researchers
when can introduce the time clauses.
called her.

b. With before and after, the past perfect is not always After they had met, they noticed their many
necessary because the order is clear. In this case, similarities.
the past perfect emphasizes the earlier time period. Until Elyse started her research, she hadn’t
known about the twin study.
c. In time clauses with when, the use of past perfect
in the main clause usually shows a good amount of Elyse moved before she met her twin. or Elyse
time between events. had moved before she met her twin.

The use of the simple past in both clauses shows

that one event happened very soon after the When Paula met Elyse, she had already learned
other. about the research. (She learned about the
research. She met Elyse some time later.)
When Paula met Elyse, she learned about the
research. (She learned about the research very
soon after she met Elyse.)

A Read the blog entry about twin studies. Underline the past perfect form of the verbs.

Twin World by Cory Daniels

I had thought about including my twins in a study until I read about one woman’s
experience.
Ana had been interested in the study of twins all her life. Ana was a twin herself,
and she had twin boys.
Before her twins were born, she had read a lot about twin studies. After she had
5
done a little research, Ana found an early reading study for twins. It sounded like a
useful study. It looked at the role of genetics and environment in developing reading
skills. She contacted the researchers and learned that she had to wait until the twins
were four years old. When she enrolled the twins in the study, she hadn’t known that
the twins needed to give a DNA sample to prove they were twins. As soon as Ana
10
learned this, she took the twins out of the study. Ana thought that taking a DNA sample
 was an invasion of her children’s privacy.
When I read about her experience, I decided not to put my twins in a study after all. Nature vs.

Nurture 53

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B Pair Work Discuss why the past perfect is used in each case in A. Then
find the two sentences with time clauses that describe two events that
happened at the same time or almost the same time. What is the form of the
verbs in these sentences?

Exercise 3.2 Time Clauses

Complete the article about siblings1 who were separated as children. Circle
the correct time word. Write the simple past or past perfect form of the verbs
in parentheses. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
1
sibling: a brother or sister

There are many stories of

non-twin brothers and
sisters

who are separated for one

reason or another and meet

again as adults. Here are a few.

Glenn Mint and Bruce
Mathews are brothers. They
had never met until/after (1) Glenn started (2) (start)

working at the same company as Bruce. Bruce was

surprised because the new employee looked just like him.

They started asking each other questions. Before/After

(3)
they met, each man (know) that he (discover) Bruce's

(4) Glenn
had a sibling. Before/As soon as (5) (6)

birth date, he knew Bruce was his long-lost brother.

Quin Mara, 82, knew that she was adopted and that she had siblings, but she had

never met them. After/Until (7) a relative (find) a family tree,1 Quin
(8)

learned the names of her siblings and started looking for she
them. Until/By the time

saw the family tree, she (10) (9)

(not / know)

that she was the youngest of nine children. As soon as/Before (11)
she

(discover) that, she began to look for her brothers and sisters.
(12)
She was very happy because five of her siblings were still she
alive. Before/After (13)

(meet) them, she didn’t know that they had spent the last
(14)
several decades looking for each other.

54   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Exercise 3.3 Combining Sentences

Read the story about how environment affects personality. Combine the
sentences with the time words in parentheses. Use the past perfect and
simple past.
1. Diego and Shannon were married for a
few years. Then they
decided to have a baby.
(when) When Diego and Shannon
had been married
for a few years, they decided to
have a baby.
2. Diego and Shannon did not think much
about the nature
versus nurture debate. Then their first child, Mario, was born.
(until)

3. Diego and Shannon didn’t have much experience with music. Then
they became parents.
(before)

4. Three-year-old Mario saw an electronic keyboard in a shop. Then he asked

his parents to buy him one.
(after)

5. Diego and Shannon heard Mario playing the keyboard. Then they realized
their son’s musical talent.
(when)

6. Diego and Shannon realized Mario’s talent. Then they enrolled him in
 piano classes. (as soon as)

7. Diego and Shannon enrolled Mario in piano classes. Then Mario became
an excellent musician.
(after)

8. Mario took a few years of piano classes. He started composing music.

(by the time)

Nature vs. Nurture 55

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4.2 Using Past Perfect Progressive

4   Past Perfect a. Use the past perfect progressive for an action or

situation that continued up to an event or
situation in past time. This can show a reason or give
Progressive background information.

Grammar b. With some verbs such as live, play, teach,

wear, and work, use either the past perfect
Presentation or past perfect progressive. The meaning is
similar.
The past perfect progressive emphasizes the ongoing
nature of a past activity or situation leading up to a
more recent past time.

4.1 Forming Past Perfect Progressive

Living with a roommate was hard for me in the

beginning. I had been living alone for years.

56   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Form the past perfect progressive with had + been + She knew Boston well when I visited her. She’d been
-ing form of the verb. Form the negative by putting not living there for years.
between had and been or using the contraction hadn’t. When my brother visited me, I had not / hadn’t been
living there long.
He looked tired because he had been working all The twins had lived in different cities before they
night. discovered each other. or
My eyes were sore because I hadn't been wearing my The twins had been living in different cities before they
contacts. discovered each other.

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Grammar Application
Exercise 4.1 Past Perfect Progressive
Complete the story about brothers who reconnected after many years.
Use the past perfect progressive form of the verbs in parentheses.
Mark and Peter were brothers. Their parents
could not take care of them. One family adopted
Mark, and another family adopted Peter. Mark and
Peter had been dreaming (1) (dream) of finding
each other since 2005. When they finally met, they
were surprised by how much they had in common.
For most of their adult lives, their jobs had been
related, even though they had
(not / work) in the

(2) (3)
same business. Mark
(make) furniture, and Peter
(sell) furniture. Mark
(4)
(5)
 (interview) for jobs in furniture stores and decided to take a position at Mark’s
store. Peter (talk) to a customer when he
(6)

saw a man who looked like him walk into the store. Peter stopped what he
(do) and introduced himself. That first day, Peter and
(7)
Mark talked for hours. They found out that they
(8)
(not / live) in the same city, but they had attended schools in the same district for most
of their childhood. They (cross / paths) for many years
(9)

without ever meeting. They had never expected to have so much in common. Nature vs. Nurture 57

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Exercise 4.2 Past Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect,
or Simple Past?
A Complete the interview with a woman who found her three siblings after
many years. Use the past perfect progressive, the past perfect, or the
simple past form of the verbs in parentheses. Use contractions when
possible. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
Vijay Tell us how you found your family.
Paula I 'd been looking (1) (2)

(look) for my sister all my life. I

(not / have) much luck, though. Then one day, I turned on the TV. A talk
show was on. The host of the show was interviewing three siblings – two
brothers and a half
sister.1 Different families Paula They
(4)
(3) (talk) about me before I turned on the program.
years before.
The siblings had recently reunited, and they
Vijay And?
(adopt) the siblings many (5)
(search)
for a fourth sibling for the past several months. I called the TV station, and we all
finally three siblings!
(6) (meet).
Vijay So, you
(7) (look) for a sister all your life, and you found

Paula Yes, it was wonderful! We all met at one of the network offices the following week.
After we (9)
(8) (speak) for a while, it was obvious to me that (look)
they
for me all their lives, too.
1
half sister: a sister who is biologically related by one parent only

B Pair Work Discuss these questions with a partner.

• Choose sentence in A in which you can use either the past perfect or the
past perfect progressive. Why are both possible here?
• In which sentence in A is only the past perfect correct?

C Over to You Do an online search for twins, siblings, or other family

members who reunited after many years. Write five sentences about their
experiences. Use the past perfect and the past perfect progressive.

58   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

5   Avoid Common Mistakes

1.  Use the past perfect or past perfect progressive to give background

information for a past tense event.
had
I have never seen my sister in real life, so I was nervous the first time we met.
had been dreaming
I have dreamed about meeting her, and I finally did.
2. Use the past perfect or past perfect progressive to give a reason for a past
event. had been crying
Her eyes were red and puffy because she cried.
3.  Use the past perfect (not the past perfect progressive) for a completed
earlier event. arranged
They had been arranging a time to meet, but both of them forgot about it.
4.  Use the past perfect (not present perfect) to describe a completed
event that happened before a past event.
had
I have visited her in Maine twice before she came to visit me.
 Editing Task
Find and correct seven more mistakes in the paragraphs about sibling differences.
had
I have never really thought about sibling differences until my own children were
born. When we had our first child, my husband and I have lived in Chicago for
just a few months. We have not made many friends yet, so we spent all our time
with our child. Baby Gilbert was happy to be the center of attention. He
depended on us for everything.
By the time our second son, Chase, was born, we have developed a
community of 5

friends and a busier social life. We frequently visited friends and left the children
at home with a babysitter. As a result of our busy schedules, Chase was more
independent. One day I had just been hanging up the phone, when Chase
came into the room. Chase picked up the phone and started talking into it. I
thought he was pretending, but I was wrong. He had been figuring out how to
use the phone!
10

When my husband came home, he was tired because he worked all day.
When I told him about Chase’s phone conversation, though, he became very
excited. Gilbert has never used the phone as a child. At first, we were surprised
that Chase was so different from Gilbert. Then we realized that because of our
busy lifestyles, Chase had learned to be independent.
15

Nature vs. Nurture 59

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6 Grammar for Writing

Using Past Perfect to Provide Background Information and Reasons
Writers use the past perfect to provide background information and reasons for
past situations and actions. Read these examples:
I had always thought that I was an only child, but I recently discovered that I
have a sister. My parents had given me up for adoption. When I was 15, I
decided to find my
biological parents.

Pre-writing Task
1 Read the paragraph. What does the writer believe about the influence
of the environment on relationships? What example does the writer use
 to explain this?
The Effects of Friends on Sibling Relationships
I believe that the experiences that a person has outside the home can be as
influential as experiences inside the home. Examples of this are siblings who
start out very similar but become very different from one another as they grow
older. For example, Andy and Frank are two brothers who are only two years
apart. They did everything together
and were best friends until they started junior high. After Andy had been in
seventh grade 5

for a little while, he started to change. He had made new friends at school, so he
and Frank did not see each other much during the day. Frank had made new
friends, too. In fact, Andy’s new friends did not like Frank very much, so Andy did
not feel comfortable asking Frank to spend time with them. By the time Andy and
Frank were in high school, they had grown very far apart. They had made different
friends and they had developed different 10

interests. They had been similar when they were young, but Andy and Frank had
very little in common as young adults.

2 Read the paragraph again. Underline the sentences that contain both simple
past and past perfect verbs. Double underline the sentences with verbs only
in the past perfect. Circle the time clauses. Notice how the time clauses help
clarify the earlier time period.

60   Unit 4  Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

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Past Perfect and Past Perfect Progressive

Writing Task
1 Write Use the paragraph in the Pre-writing Task to help you write about
different conditions that influence people’s behavior. Give examples from
events and situations you have observed to support your opinion.

2 Self-Edit Use the editing tips to improve your paragraph. Make any
necessary changes.
1. Did you use the past perfect to give background information and provide
reasons? 2. Did you use time words and time clauses to clarify the time
periods in your
sentences or emphasize that some events happened earlier than others?
 3. Did you avoid the mistakes in the Avoid Common Mistakes chart on page 59?

Nature vs. Nurture 61

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