Women, Work, and Welfare: Is There a Role for Social Work?

Author(s): Jan L. Hagen

Source: Social Work , January 1992, Vol. 37, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 9-14
Published by: Oxford University Press

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 Women, Work, and Welfare: Is There a
Role for Social Work?
Jan L. Hagen vatives and as the most sweeping revi
THE SOCIAL
interest WORK issues
in poverty profession's
and in sion in the nation's welfare system in
work with poor families and individu Is there a role for the profession of social50 years. The act passed Congress with
als has diminished during the work past
and social work practitioners in overwhelming bipartisan support fol
two decades (Gummer, 1979; Wyers, public assistance policy and programs? lowing two years of congressional hear
1980, 1983). Explaining this ebbing Today's public welfare environment isings, debates, and joint sessions. The
interest requires consideration drivenof sociby the nation's most recent varia strong bipartisan support more accu
etal and professional developments. tion on welfare reform as embodied inrately reflects skillful political compro
One reason for social workers' reluc the Family Support Act of 1988. Thismise between liberals and conserva
tance to work with poor families and article reviews the Family Support Act, tives in Congress rather than a new
individuals has, like poor people,focusing
al on the welfare-to-work pro consensus on welfare. This new con
ways been with us—working with grams, and discusses the implications sensus has not been replicated in state
poor people does nothing to enhance of this legislation for social work roleslegislatures struggling to pass the en
the professional's status. The quest in public welfare. Roles are delineated abling legislation required for states to
for professional status by social work
in direct practice, management, policyparticipate in the FSACLurie & Sanger,
ers began early in this century andanalysis,
is staff development, advocacy, 1991).
reflected today in the continual and research. The act is not a radical departure
struggle for increased credentials and from previous AFDC legislation; rather,
in social workers' identifying them it extends and builds on earlier legisla
selves as psychotherapists (Lubove, Is there a role today for the social
tion that provided for child support
1980; Moss, 1990; Trattner, 1989). work profession and practitioners in enforcement and welfare-to-work ini
Developments in public policy and public assistance policy and programs? tiatives. The legislation emphasizes the
in policymakers' regard for social Does the profession have a responsibil short-term, temporary nature of public
work also explain the withdrawal ofity to reinvest and recommit its reassistance. The latitude given to states
the social work profession from public sources and expertise in working within welfare-to-work programs begun
welfare, particularly from public public assistance recipients? As a pro
under the Omnibus Budget Reconcili
ation Act of 1981 and the new federal
assistance. One critical developmentfession, social work has always accepted
was the perceived failure of social its responsibility to advocate for poorism are maintained by reserving to
work to keep its promise of reducingpeople. But beyond the profession's callstate discretion the composition of pro
Aid to Families with Dependent Chil to address poverty issues and the policygram components and the method of
dren (AFDC) caseloads by providinganalyses of a few social work scholars service delivery. What is new is a rec
casework services in the early 1960s such as Abramovitz (1988a), Miller ognition that all parents, regardless of
(Trattner, 1989). Another factor was (1989), and Ozawa (1982,1986,1989), income, have an obligation to finan
the federal requirement in the 1970swhere does social work fit in today's cially support their children. The legis
that public welfare separate income public welfare environment? lation sends a clear message to AFDC
maintenance functions from social Today's public welfare environment mothers that even those with preschool
services (see Benton, 1980; Hoshino, is driven by the nation's most recent children are expected to work if child
1972). Along with other factors, this variation on welfare reform, embodied care is available.
separation opened the door to de in the Family Support Act (FSA) of FSA's major provisions are to pro
classification of positions in public 1988. This article reviews the FSA vide transitional child care and Medic
welfare that once had been considered with a focus on welfare-to-work aidpro
benefits for 12 months to families
professional social work positions who become ineligible for AFDC
grams. The implications of this legisla
(Karger, 1983; Pécora & Austin, tion for the role of social work in through
public increased earnings or loss of
1983). Other factors included the welfare are considered. income disregards (income not consid
withdrawal of training and education ered in AFDC benefit calculations); to
monies for social workers and the further the enforcement of child sup
Family Support Act of 1988
removal of social workers from policy port; and to establish job opportunities
making positions in public welfare Passed at in October 1988, the FSA and basic skills (JOBS) training pro
all levels of government (Trattner, was hailed as a "new consensus" on grams to provide education, training,
1989). welfare reform by liberals and conser and employment to AFDC recipients.
CCC Code: 0037-8046/92 $3.00 © 1992, National Association of Social Workers, Inc.

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AFDC-UP (AFDC-unemployed par- Beginning in 1994, however, imme- tionally, states must provide at least
ents) programs, to be provided in all diate wage withholding will be re- two of the following: group and ind
states under the FSA, would provide quired for all support orders, whether vidual job searches, on-the-job tra
two-parent families with at least six or not the Office of Child Support En- ing, work supplementation, and corn
months of AFDC support and for Med- forcement is involved. Thus, automatic munity work experience,
icaid coverage as long as the family is wage withholding will become univer- Unless they are exempted or th
financially eligible. AFDC-UP pro- sal for all court orders of child support. JOBS program is not available in their
grams currently operate in 23 states Further, guidelines previously estab- political subdivision, all AFDC reci
and represent an important legislative lished by the states for child support ents are required to participate if child
initiative to address one of the long- awards are now presumptive. Other care is available. In a significant d
standing inequities of the AFDC pro- policy issues that remain are the ad- parture from previous legislatio
gram. However, the legislation allows equacy and equity of the formulas mothers with children three years o
states to require that at least one par- developed by states for establishing older (or one year or older at stat
entinan AFDC-UP family engage in a child support awards, the resulting option) are required to participate if
work activity such as on-the-job train- inequities across states, and the provi- child care is available. Mothers under
ing or a workfare program for at least sion of a state-guaranteed minimal 20 years who have not completed hi
16 hours a week in exchange for ben- benefit for each child regardless of pa- school or its equivalent are required to
efits. The new legislation also focuses rental earnings. participate in educational activities,
on reducing welfare dependency and A less obvious issue is the effect of regardless of their child
targets services to those at high risk for child support enforcement on family States must guarantee ch
long-term welfare dependency. relationships in poor families. For poor is necessary for an adult
families, the benefit of automatic wage participate in the JOBS program
Transitional Benefits withholding for child support is ques- care may be provided directl
tionable. AsAbramovitz(1988b)noted, tracted for with providers, or pro
The provision of child care and for poor fathers, this provision "may be indirectly by cash paym
Medicaid benefits for up to 12 months more like squeezing blood from a stone" ers to recipients. Federa
following ineligibility for AFDC recog- (p. 239). Further, this additional de- child care is open-ended
nizes the need for a transition period mand on an already limited income at the Medicaid rate for
between receipt of full benefits and may impair the relationship between which ranges from 50 to
cessation of benefits. These transi- the parents. A negative or adversarial To encourage states to f
tional benefits are envisioned as a relationship between parents has the most likely to become lo
bridge for JOBS participants between potential for disrupting ties with the fare recipients and to
welfare dependency and economic extended kin network, thereby cutting ing" (the provision of ser
self-sufficiency. Important issues re- off the mother and her children from with the fewest barri
main unresolved regarding ensuring important sources of informal instru- ment), the law specifies that 55 per
access to these benefits and charging mental and emotional support. cent of the funds be spent on three
premiums in the last six months of target groups: (1) families in which
Medicaid eligibility. Job Opportunities and Basic the Pffjjf?
Skills Training Program completed high school
Enforcement of Child Support p * T, TrmQ or no work exp
Program Outline. The JOBS pro- ing year, (2) families m which the
The new child support enforcement gram is the major vehicle by which youngest child is within two years
provisions extend previous legislation FSA seeks to increase the economic becoming ineligible because of age, a
by mandating immediate wage with- self-sufficiency of AFDC recipients. By (3) families who have received a
holding for all cases served by the Of- October 1990, all states were required tance for 36 or more months in
ficeofChildSupportEnforcement.This to implement a JOBS program to en- past five years. The JOBS legislati
provision of the FSA should have some sure that needy families with children establishes overall participation rates
advantages for many women who re- obtain education, training, and em- for state JOBS programs. Seven pe
tain custody of their children following ployment to help them avoid long-term cent of the nonexempt caseload mus
divorce. The economic consequences of welfare dependence. Placing primary participate in fiscal years 1990 a
divorce on women and their children responsibility for JOBS with the state's 1991; 20 percent must participate by
have been well documented (Duncan & welfare agency, the FSA requires states 1995 if states are to receive matching
Morgan, 1979; Weitzman, 1981), and to offer educational activities includ- funds authorized under JOBS,
the lack of adequate child support pay- ing high school or equivalent educa- More money than before is bein
ments is one of the critical factors that tion, basic and remedial education, allocated to this welfare employm
contribute to the poor economic status English proficiency education, job skills program. The cap on federal entitle
of divorced mothers and their children training, job readiness activities, and ment funding for JOBS is $800 millio
(Garfinkel & McLanahan, 1986). job development and placement. Addi- in 1990 and will rise to $1.3 billion i

10 Social Work / Volume 37, Number 1 / January 1992

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1995, for a total funding package of Training, education, and child care Direct Practice
approximately $3.5 billion over five are also a necessary part of the strat
years. egy to improve the well-being of The most obvious direct practice role
Challenges Faced. Can JOBS women and their children. Achieving for social work is
bring about meaningful changes in the this potential rests with the willing- provided for
lives of AFDC mothers? Stoesz and ness and ability of states to commit States have th
Karger (1990) concluded that the like- their own resources to JOBS, as well managers
lihood of "significant change in the as the ways states choose to imple- ticipating i
welfare system is virtually nonexist- ment the JOBS programs. models for case management and roles
ent" (p. 147). Miller's (1989) analysis of The implementation of the JOBS of case managers will be developed at
previous work programs led her to program presents a major challenge to the state and local levels. Social work
predict state and local governments. Will the could have an instrumental role in
JOBS requirements penetrate welfare developing models that
marginal welfare savings, strongincen- agencies, and will agencies have the participant
fives for marriage, the perpetuation of capacity to implement the ambitions AFDC mothers
women's dependence, and the contin- of this legislation? Will the education, and advocate on
ued denigration of "welfare mothers" training, and support services pro- necessary sup
because when the programs fail to meet vided to recipients produce increased vices may exten
expectations, administrators and politi- employment and reduced welfare de- and training p
cians blame the participants—not the pendency? Whether JOBS produces elude the oth
design of the programs (the real culprit), these outcomes depends not on the families may n
This "failure" will serve capitalism, pa- AFDC mothers but on the design and A range of cas
triarchy, and white supremacy by, once administration of services by state are currently in
again, preserving a cheap pool of labor and local welfare agencies. case management is viewed as moni
and by, once again, proving that women, toring of client progress on paper only,
especially black women, cannot make it n i r o ■ íw i a function sometimes performed by
, i / r»/A\ rvoics lor dociHi w orKGrs 11 ■ -it i , op t .-i
on their own. (p. 20) specially trained clerical staff In other
Some states have begun to propose instan
These clearly are the dangers. And and implement strategies
by itself, JOBS, at its best, can have with welfare mothers. T
only a minimal effect on the poverty of are examples of such
AFDC mothers and their children. • New designs for reducing
Nichols-Casebolt and McClure (1989) fragmentation are being
accurately stated that most welfare including New York City
reform proposals, including JOBS, do munity-based initiative
not consider the availability of jobs or cial services where peo
the structure of the labor market. 1990). state welfare agencies to develop indi
About one-third of the full-time jobs • Administrators are beginning to vidualized em
open to women do not pay enough to expect that income maintenance vices for part
support a mother and two children workers will provide some of the social tial assessm
above the poverty line. The projected services families need. work experience, employment skills,
area of growth for jobs in the next • Case management systems are family circumstances, and supportive
decade will be low-wage, low-skills being attached to some states'compre- services needs including child care. At
jobs (Nichols-Casebolt & McClure, hensive employment and training pro- state option, the assessment may also
1989). Additionally, sexual and racial grams (Greenberg & Levin-Epstein, include the needs of the children. To
discrimination continue to character- 1989). develop meaningful employability
ize the job market, further limiting • Iowa is targeting comprehensive plans, t
opportunities for women, particularly social services interventions to multi- compreh
women of color (Nichols-Casebolt & problem families (Bruner, 1990). client as a
McClure, 1989). These examples represent areas decisions must be made about such
Although constraints in the where social workers have expertise; issues as child care arr
economy and the structure of the labor some are initiatives that represent the what family circ
market must be recognized and ad- profession's traditional functions, tute deferral from t
dressed, JOBS does offer the potential Roles for social workers in the imple- Social workers
for providing new opportunities for mentation of JOBS programs exist in conduct a tho
poor women to obtain the education direct practice, management, staff de- assessment.
and training necessary to compete for velopment and training, policy analy- The increased atten
meaningful jobs in the "labor market, sis and advocacy, and research. offers additional opp

Hagen / Women, Work, and Welfare 11

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workers. The legislation requires that ment information systems. JOBS re- Staff Development and Training
child care be guaranteed if required for quires increased communication and
an individual to participate in JOBS coordination of services within welfare The changes called for by JOBS re
programs. In arranging child care, the agencies because income mainte- quire extensive staff development and
individual needs of the child must be nance, education and training ser- training extending beyond knowledge
considered. Funding is available to vices, and child care services must be about the new rules and regulations,
improve state child care licensing re- linked for the participant to effectively Staff must assume new roles and func
quirements and to allow for monitor- engage in JOBS. Welfare agencies and tions that are more client focused. Given
ing of child care to AFDC children. their personnel will be required to de- this change in expectations for front
Vosler and Ozawa's (1990) prelimi- velop new mechanisms for organiza- line workers, social workers may be
nary findings from an evaluation of tional operations; they can no longer uniquely qualified to provide staff train
two pilot welfare-to-work programs in afford to separate these units. JOBS ing in areas related to practice and
St. Louis suggest the importance of also requires coordination and coop- human behavior,
social work activity at the neighbor- eration with numerous other agencies, For example, a critical role will be
hood and community level. Their find- including child care providers, Job played by the income maintenance
ings suggest that a proactive and sup- Training Partnership Act agencies, workers who determine eligibility of
portive community is a critical variable educational programs, and providers AFDC benefits and provide access ser
in enabling AFDC mothers to enter the of training. The scope of this state and vices (Hagen, 1987). As JOBS is
work force. The neighborhood-based local coordination will challenge the implemented, it is anticipated that in
approach incorporates central tenets most able administrator. What social come maintenance workers will be
of social work practice and is charac- work brings to this challenge is an called on to provide access services
terized by "targeting change at mul- awareness that it is the client who is to and, possibly, to conduct initial assess
tiple system levels, focusing on en- be served, not the bureaucracy. ments. To perform these functions, in
ablingboth personal and family system A key issue in previous welfare em- come maintenance workers must have
reorganization, empowering personal ployment programs has been their ca- knowledge about human development
choice as the path to change, and a pacity to process program participants and human functioning, an under
program based on grassroots leader- in a timely manner. Often, partici- standing of cultural and ethnic vari
ship development and mutual self-help" pants' progress was delayed as they ables, and information about the ef
(Vosler & Ozawa, 1988, p. 20). Vosler attempted to move from one program fects of poverty and associated
and Ozawa (1990) argued for educat- component to another. Some of the socioeconomic conditions on indi
ing social work practitioners skilled at barriers to service continuity are par- vidual and family functioning. They
interventions on multiple systems lev- ticipant barriers (for example, a change also need skills to engage the client in
els who can connect practice knowl- in family circumstances). Others are appropriate referral activities, knowl
edge, policy analysis, and human be- organizational barriers. Managers edge of agency and community re
havior in providing service to "already must develop methods to process cli- sources, and case advocacy skills,
vulnerable women and children" (p. ents from one component to another, as
12) participating in JOBS programs. well as to logically sequence program p ai* , . ,
components so they remain accessible y y y
w . to participants. Social work's policy analysis and
8 Many states must develop new in- advocacy roles are needed as JOBS is
Perhaps the major administrative formation systems to meet the federal implemented. The policy analysis m
challenge facing welfare managers is reporting requirements. In designing continue to point out the soc
to change the culture of the welfare these systems, consideration must be tors that restrict the ability of in
organization from an emphasis on fi- given to going beyond mere compliance als to be economically self-suff
nancial support and fiscal accuracy to with federal requirements. A well-de- Social work must continue to hig
an emphasis on service delivery. Or, as signed system should be able to pro- such factors as the geographic re
Kosterlitz (1989) described the chai- vide state policymakers with informa- tions of job availability, the e
lenge, "States are struggling to get tion about the effects of the programs, which full-time work fails to sup
welfare agency officials to act more like patterns of use, availability of services, family, pay differentials by gen
social workers and less like accoun- and so forth. In addition, the system ethnicity, and the lack of soci
tants" (p. 2943). should be useful to the frontline work- ports for dependent care. The vision
Agencies face at least three addi- ers who provide services to clients. A presented must be the alleviation of
tional management challenges in good system must incorporate data- poverty, not the reduction of welfare
implementing JOBS that merit the bases on educational programs, train- dependency.
attention of social work managers: (1) ing programs, and child care options, Policy analysis must also focus on
intraorganizational and interorgani- as well as other information important AFDC and the new JOBS programs,
zational linkages, (2) intensity and in designing individualized programs The inadequacy of welfare benefits,
continuity of services, and (3) manage- for each mother and her children. the inequities caused by maintaining

12 Social Work / Volume 37, Number 1 / January 1992

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state discretion in determining stan- social workers have an obligation to sparked many social action crusades
dards of need and levels of benefits, become involved and to be a voice for that anticipated the reform programs
and the potentially punitive compo- disadvantaged and poor people in soci of the following decade" (p. 252).
nents of the new legislation must be ety. This obligation includes ensuring
highlighted. that each client receives quality ser References
Thoughtful and comprehensive vices responsive to her and her family's
Abramovitz, M.
policy analysis in keeping with the needs and also informing the(1988a).
public Regulating t
profession's values and commitment to and policymakerslives
about of the
women: Social welfare polic
limitations
disadvantaged people will frame the of welfare-to-work from colonial times
programs. to the present. B
The dan
ton: South End Press.
profession's advocacy agenda at the ger of JOBS is that AFDC mothers will
Abramovitz,
national and state levels. This advo- be blamed should M. (1988b,fail,
the program September 26).
cacy agenda must include increasing Workmustbeginnowtopreventblam
Why welfare reform is a shame. Nation,
AFDC benefits, expanding the earned ing the victim. 236-240.

income and child care tax credits, pro- Although the obligation Aid to Families with Dependent
is clear and Chil
viding government-subsidized depen- the knowledge base dren, 42 U.S.C. §§ the
matches 601-617 (1990).
need,
dentcare,guaranteeingaccesstohealth the probability Benton, B. B., Jr. (1980).
of increased Separation re
involve
care, developing parental leave poli- ment in public welfare visited. by
Public Welfare,
social 38, 15-21.
work is
cies, and establishing pay equity. It not immediately Bruner, C. (1990).
likely. The Iowa's family grant
current
also must include advocating for inten- reality of publicprogram integrating family
bureaucracies coupledsupport and
sive education and training services with a conservative climate and the education with welfare-to-work (photo
that will enable AFDC mothers to ob- profession's focus on restricted praccopy available from author).
tain jobs that provide good salaries and tice technologies does not lend itself Buder,
to L. (1990, April 26). Dinkins offers
benefits. predictions of increased social work a plan to better social services. New
involvement. York Times, p. B3.
n , However, the profession does have a Duncan, G. J., & Morgan, J. N. (Eds.).
itGSGfll*Cn . 7
national association that continues to (1979). Five thousand American fami
Social work also has a role to play in advocate for some social policies benlies: Patterns of progress (Vol. 4). Ann
the research on the JOBS programs. In eficial to AFDC mothers and their Arbor,
chilMI: Institute for Social Research.
evaluation studies conducted on the dren. The association's National Cen Family Support Act of 1988, 42 U.S.C.
welfare-to-work programs, little atten- ter for Social Policy and§1305. Practice has
tion has been given to their effects on begun research on the implementationGarfinkel, I., & McLanahan, S. S. (1986).
program participants, their lives, and of JOBS and its effects onSingle AFDC mothers
fami and their children.
their families. The technology has been lies. Afew social work researchers Washington, andDC: Urban Institute.
developed to measure the net benefits advocates are investing significant Greenberg,M.,& reLevin-Epstein, J. (1989).
from welfare-to-work programs. Re- sources into evaluating and The JOBS
monitorprogram: Good ideas and
search that includes client assessments ing the implementation ofconcerns
some JOBS in inthe first round of state
of the program's strengths and limita- various states. And manyplans. Washington,
social work DC: Center for Law
and Social
tions is critical if welfare-to-work pro- ers, regardless of their fields Policy.
of prac
grams are to be understood. tice, witness the effects of public wel Gummer, B. (1979). Is the social worker
Social work researchers must iden- fare policies on the lives of their clients,in public welfare an endangered spe
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Hagen, J. L. (1987). Income maintenance
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that hinder and interfere with develop- workers contribute to creating more workers: Technicians or service provid
ment and functioning. As the JOBS progressive social welfare policies, ers? Social Service Review, 61, 261-271.
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Job Training Partnership Act P.L. No. 97
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who participate. Perhaps the 1990s will parallel the 30, 29 U.S.C.A. §1501 et seq. (1982).
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characterized as devoid of social re there a future in public welfare for the
Conclusion
trained
form. Clarke Chambers (1963, cited in social worker? Social Work, 28,
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vides renewed opportunities for the "seedtime of reform" in Kosterlitz,
which "socialJ. (1989, December 2). Devil in
the details.
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2946.
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Lubove,
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progres
ist: Thethey
policy and programs. As a profession, siveness and the New Deal; emergence of social work

Hagen / Women, Work, and Welfare 13

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The latest surrender in the war on pov welfare state. New York: Free Press.
Jan L. Hagen, PhD, ACSW, is Associ
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440-446. social work practice at multiple system

THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK

DOCTORAL
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PREPARE FOR TEACHING, RESEARCH, AND PRACTICE IN:
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Professor Sheila B. Kamerman, Chair
Doctoral Program
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK
622 West 113 Street, New York, N.Y. 10025

14 Social Work / Volume 37, Number 1 / January 1992

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