Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice - 13(4) • 2079-2085

©
2013 Educational Consultancy and Research Center
www.edam.com.tr/estp
DOI: 10.12738/estp.2013.4.1702

The Contributions of Attachment Styles, Irrational

Beliefs and Psychological Symptoms to the Prediction
of Cognitive Flexibility
a
Bülent GÜNDÜZ
Mersin University

Abstract
In this research, the contributions of styles of attachment, irrational beliefs and psychological symptoms to
the prediction of cognitive flexibility were analysed. The sample consists of 436 students studying in various
departments and faculties in Mersin University. The Cognitive Flexibility Scale, Relationships Scale, Irrational
Beliefs Scale and Short Symptom Inventory were applied. Multiple-regression analysis and stepwise regres-
sion analysis were used to analyse the data. According to the results of the research, it was found out that all
of the independent variables explained approximately 41% per cent of the cognitive flexibility; according to the
stepwise regression analysis, it was found out that the students’ cognitive flexibility was predicted most by the
variables of irrational beliefs, obsessive attachment and anxiety.

Key Words
Cognitive Flexibility, Styles of Attachment, Irrational Beliefs, Psychological Symptoms.

The common emphasis of the research in which the and he feels competent for the new situations
psychological variables are analysed is the fact that (Bilgin, 2009b; Martin, Anderson, & Thweatt, 1998;
the technological developments and the changes Martin & Rubin, 1995). The people whose cognitive
resulting from these developments both increase the flexibility is at satisfactory level can deal with new
quality of life and require the adaptability process. and difficult situations; they can produce alternative
As Freud (1999) indicates, this dialectical process is opinion and ideas (Altunkol, 2011; Stahl & Pry,
one of the indicators of uneasy civilizations. It can 2005). The cognitive flexibility, which has positive
be said that the people who can adjust and whose effects on the potential for coping with internal and
processes of intellectual adjustment are fast are external stressors and positive effect on the adults’
healthier. welfare in the family interaction environment
(Koesten, Schrodt, & Ford, 2009) has a key role on
The cognitive flexibility which is defined as adjusting
the individuals’ forming competency belief related
to specific situations, the ability to pass from one
to their developing healthy life style (Martin et al.,
idea to another idea or the capacity to consider
1998). The children who are not flexible enough
various problems in terms of multi-dimensions
repeat the same mistakes by behaving rigidly and
(Stevens, 2009) means the fact that the individual is
have difficulties in adjusting to new situations
aware of his options, he can adjust to new situations
(Anderson, 2002).

a Bülent GÜNDÜZ, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of Educational Sciences. His research interests include
stress and burnout, irrational beliefs, self-efficacy and abuse. Correspondence: Assist Prof. Bülent GÜNDÜZ,
Mersin University. Education Faculty, Educational Sciences Department, Yenişehir, Mersin, Turkey. Email:
bgunduz27@yahoo.com Phone: +90 324 341 2815.
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

The cognitive flexibility, which hinders children’ experiences while forming new relationships.
automatic responses and which is seen as While the internal working models related to others
the capacity to manage the current situation include features such as whether the person caring
independently (Ciairano, Bonino, & Miceli, 2006) for the baby are caring, supportive and reliable, the
is seen as the subdimension of a wider structure internal models related to ego consists of the beliefs
which is neuropsychologically called as executive and expectations about whether he is worthy of
function. Other subcategories of executive care, attention and affection (Fraley, 2002).
functions are intuition, choosing an aim, planning,
The internal working models about ego and
restricting, self-organization, working memory,
others are shaped by the experiences which are
focusing, attention and feedback (Anderson; 2002;
repeated in secure and insecure attachment
Blair, Zelazo, & Greenberg, 2005; Hughes, 2002;
environment (Bretherton, 1992). Thus, the people
Rennie, Bull, & Diamond, 2004; Stevens, 2009).
make different types of attachment which are
The executive functions start to develop from the
reflected from different inter-personal relationships
first age. These developments continue developing
(Pietromonaco & Barrett, 2000). Bartholomew and
during childhood and adolescence and they
Horowitz (1991) base internal working models
reduce in adulthood (Anderson, 2002; Stahl & Pry,
on the four-attachment models, which are secure,
2005). The children and the old people have lower
obsessed, afraid and negligent.
performance compared to young adults (Zelazo,
Craik, & Booth, 2004). In this context, it can be The researches indicate that attachment styles are
said that the communication manners which the related to cognitive functions and psychological
individuals form at the beginning of their lives symptoms. According to Lippe, von der Eilertsen,
influence executive functions, cognitive flexibility Hartmann, and Kille (2010), the secure attachment
and psychological symptoms. The attachment types relationships peculiar to mother influence the
which start to develop at infanthood and whose childrens’ development of secure attachment styles
bases depend on the mental structures related to and mental executive functions positively. Focusing
themselves and others influence psychological on the relationship between cognitive flexibility and
health. According to Spann et al. (2012), the belief of competency, Cabeldue and Boswell (2012),
individuals whose executive functions are exposed to indicate that there is a negative relationship between
physical exploitation and negligence are influenced shy and anxious attachment and beliefs of competency.
negatively and their cognitive flexibility declines. The representations or internal working models,
However, the individuals’ healthy attachment have which the child form towards himself and others
a positive relationship with their welfare (Kart, can be related to cognitive schemes organizing our
2002; Terzi & Cihangir Çankaya, 2009; Towler & behaviour and experiences. Rothbard and Shaver
Stuhlmacher, 2013). (1994 as cited in Çeri, 2009) suggest that there are four
According to Bowlby, the human beings come elements of working models which are connected
to the world with an instinctive and behavioural with each other. These are (a) autobiographic
inclination which start with the birth and help memory (b) beliefs and attitude (c) aims and motives
them form a bond with the people who will provide (d) behaviour strategies. According to Cognitive
them with their vital needs from birth to death Theory, these elements also comprise the concept
(Bretherton, 1992; Johnson, Dweck, & Chen, 2007). of cognitive scheme. The deviance or irrationality of
According to Attachment Theory, the babies whose the beliefs and attitudes deviated from these schemes
needs are provided in a satisfactory and balanced are important concepts which influences the
way start to form first relationship figures and individual’s welfare and adjustment to others. It can
develop structures related to themselves and others. be predicted that attachment types, flexibility and
Accordingly, it is stated that the first relationships irrational beliefs influence the behaviours interacting
which are formed with the caring person form with others when they are considered within the
the mental representations related to the ego and framework of the schemes and metal structures. The
others and these mental representations guide secure attachment and functional beliefs (Doron,
the close relationships which will be formed later Moulding, Kyrios, Nedeljkovic, & Mikulincer, 2009;
(Ditommaso, Brannen-McNulty, Ross, & Burges, Stackert & Bursik, 2003); the negative correlation
2003). The structures called internal working findings between non-functional beliefs and general,
models develop with the processes that Piaget names social and emotional adjuestment support this
Cognitve Development. The people act according prediction (Hamamcı & Esen-Çoban, 2010; Hamidi
to the models depending on old memories and & Hosseini, 2010).

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The basic approach of The Rational Emotive Method

Behavior Terapy, which Ellis pioneers is that the
This study, which analyses the contribution
people come to the earth with rational and irrational
of irrational beliefs, styles of attachment, and
tendencies and these beliefs are in the centre of our
psychological symptoms to predicting cognitive
emotional reactions. The tendencies which start
flexibility is a descriptive study in a relational
to exist from the birth are strengthened by the
scanning model. The sample of the study was chosen
relationships with family, friends, school and other
by simple random sampling. The sample consisted
social relationships (Abrams & Ellis, 1994; Corey,
of 247 female students and 189 male students
2001; Ellis, 1973; Nelson-Jones, 1982; Sharf, 1999).
studying in Mersin University. The total number of
The excess of irrational beliefs makes the people’s
students in the sample were 436 voluntary students.
lives difficult; it enables different psychological
The students’ ages were between 18 and 34.
symptoms to come out (Bilge & Arslan, 2000;
Gündüz, 2006; Kılıçarslan, 2009; Lorcher, 2003;
Robert & Harnish, 2010; Sava, Maricuţoiu, Rusu, Data Gathering Instruments
Macsinga, & Vîrgă, 2011). According to Burns
and Fedewa (2005), the negative perfectionism The Cognitve Flexibility Scale: The Cognitive
related to irrational beliefs weakens the structure Flexibility Scale, which consists of 19 items (CFS)
of thinking and it causes incongruous behaviours is developed by Bilgin (2009a). CFS is composed of
in stress reactions. Similarly, according to Shafran adjective pairs. (For example, “I do, I can’t do”, “I
and Mansell (2001), there is a correlation between am successful, I am unsuccessful”) etc. The points
perfectionism and psychopathology. gained from the scale change between 19 and 95.
The increase of the points in the scale means that
As the cognitive flexibility is a new term which is the individual comes closer to the individual’s
studied in the frame of psychological adjustment, cognitive flexibility. 19 items in CFS explain 51%
there is only few research on this concept, especially of the variance. Another reliability analysis study
in Turkey. Altunkol (2011) states that there is a of the scale is carried out and in this study criteria
negative correlation between stress level perceived validity is determined by Non-Functional Attitude
and cognitive flexibility. Similarly, Diril (2011) finds Scale and the correlation between two scales are
out that there is a negative correlation between the determined to be .-44. In the reliability analysis
continuous anger and cognitive flexibility and a studies of the scale, it is found out that Cronbach’s
positive correlation between control of anger and Alpha of the whole scale is .92, item total correlation
cognitive flexibility. According to the research made of the items are between .49 and .63.
by Bilgin (2009b), it is determined that the variables
predicting cognitive flexibility meaningfully are Irrational Beliefs Scale-Short Form (IBS-S):
expectations of social competency, the attitude IBS-S, which is developed by Türküm (2003) and
of authoritative father-mother and the skills of which is composed of 15 items, measures tendencies
problem solving. According to Bilgin, the fact that of irrational beliefs. IBS-S, is the short form of
the styles of mother-father attachment are studied Cognitive Distortion Scale which includes 29 items
separately and that the relationship between (Türküm, 1999). IBS-S is a Likert Type Scale whose
cognitive flexibility and behavioural disorder are intervals range from “definitely inappropriate (1)”
analysed will have an important contribution to “definitely appropriate (5)”. The lowest score that
to the explanation of the structure. Moreover, it can be gained from the scale is 15, the highest score
is expected that the determination of variables of the scale is 75. The high score gained from the
predicting cognitive flexibility, especially in the scale means that irrational belief level is high. Item
context of school based psychological counselling total correlation of the scale is between .50 and .52.
services, will support the professionals’ applications The internal consistency of the scale is .75. The
serving student and parents. reliability score gained by means of reapplication of
the test is .81.
Does the styles of attachment, irrational beliefs
and psychological symptoms predict the cognitive Brief Symptom Inventory-BSI: BSI, which has 53
flexibility meaningfully and what are their items and which is a Likert Type self-evaluation
contributions to the prediction? scale is used to scan psychological symptoms. SSI
is shortened by Deragotis (1992 as cited in Savaşır
& Şahin, 1997) and its adaptation to Turkish, its
reliability and validity analysis are carried out by
Şahin and Durak (1994). It is found out that the scale

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consists of 5 factors, which are Anxiety, Depression, of anxiety is added and total variance increases to
Negativ Ego, Somatization and Hostility. The 38%; in the seventh step, subscale of depression
Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficients is added and total variance increases to 39% and
gained from total points of the scale are between .96 in the last step, subscale of negative ego is added
and .95. The coefficients gained from the subscale and total variance increases to 40%. According
are between .55 and .86. to multiple and stepwise regression analyses, it is
found out that 30% per cent of cognitive flexibility
Relationship Scale Survey (RSS): This scale is
are explained by the variables of irrational beliefs,
developed by Griffin and Bartholomew (1994 as
obsessed attachment and anxiety. When the results
cited in Sümer & Güngör (1999) and it is translated
are analysed in terms of the course (direction) of the
into Turkish by Sümer ve Güngör. RSS, which has 30
relationship between the variables and flexibility, it
items and four subscales measure four attachment
can be said that the excesses of these three variables
styles that are composed of the styles of secure,
cause the cognitive flexibility to decline.
obsessed, negligent and afraid. Every item in the
scale has seven intervals and every item enables a
person to indicate the degree to which he defines
Discussion
himself and his attitudes in close relationships. In the
reliability analysis, the reliability coefficients between In this study, in which styles of cognitive flexibility,
the subscales are between .41 and .71; the test-rest irrational beliefs and psychological symptoms
reliability of the scale is between .54 and .78 and are analysed, it is found out that each of the three
internal consistency coefficients are between .27 and. structures has important predictive effect on
61. As Sümer (2006) quotes, the researches in which flexibility. According to the findings, all of the
RSS are used to provide the proof for the fact that the independent variables explain approximately 41%
reliability of the subscales are at a relatively low level of the cognitive flexibility. According to the result
but their construct validity are at a sufficient level. of stepwise regression analysis, the most important
predictive contribution results from the variables
of irrational beliefs. When the variables except
The Process and Data Analysis the variable of irrational beliefs are categorized
according to their contribution to the prediction
The required permission to apply data gathering
(from the highest to lowest), they can be put into
instruments of the research was obtained from the
order in this way respectively: obsessed attachment,
university administration. Most of the data were
anxiety, somatization, negligent attachment, secure
collected by the researcher. In the research, 17th
attachment, depression and negative ego. When the
version of SPSS programme was used to analyse
total explanation percentage of cognitive flexibility
the data and multiple and stepwise regression
are considered from a different viewpoint, it is
analyses were used to analyse the predictive effect
found out that irrational beliefs and styles of
of independent variables on the cognitive flexibility.
attachment explain more than half of the variance.
When it is considered that cognitive flexibility is
Results the capacity to consider (envisage) the problems
According to the multiple regression analysis, with multidimensional strategies (Stevens, 2009),
all of the variables except hostility and afraid this study’s result about the fact that irrational
attachment predict points of cognitive flexibility beliefs predict cognitive flexibility has a parallelism
meaningfully. According to the findings of stepwise with Bilge and Arslan’s (2000) finding that there is
regression analysis, it is found out that the variables a negative relationship between irrational beliefs
of irrational beliefs explain 12% per cent of total and problem solving skills. According to Ellis, our
variance. In the second step, subscale of negligent beliefs, evaluations and comments about the events
attachment is added to prediction and total variance influence our reactions (Capuzzi & Gross, 2003). The
increases to 14%; in the third step, subscale of secure excesses of irrational beliefs influence the individual’s
attachment is added to the prediction and total relationships; the individual becomes more depressed,
variance increases to 16%; in the fourth step, the aggressive, anxious, bored and has similar problems
subscale of somatization is added to the prediction (Burger, 2006; Kılıçarslan, 2009; Lorcher, 2003).
and total variance increases to 20%; in the fifth step, According to the findings, another important
subscale of obsessive attachment is added and total variable which explains cognitive flexibility is
variance increases to 30%; in the sixth step subscale attachment styles. Like irrational beliefs, attachment

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styles influence the individual’s processes of According to the results of the regression analysis,
problem solving and adjustment related to himself another structure which predicts cognitive flexibility
and others; and they also have relationship with is psychological symptoms. In Bilgin’s study (2009b),
different variables such as depression (Kamkar, social competency and problem solving skills
Doyle, & Markiewicz, 2012; Liu, Nagata, Shono, & are seen to be important variables which predict
Kitamura, 2009), anger (İmamoğlu, 2003), stress cognitive flexibility. According to Martin, Staggers,
(Kart, 2002), welfare (Landen & Wang, 2010). and Anderson (2011), the people who are more
flexible have higher points and they are better in
It can be said that the results related with the
terms of tolerating conflict, boldness, interpersonal
fact that irrational beliefs and attachment styles
communication competence and belief of sensitivity
predict the cognitive flexibility are convenient
and communication competence and their oral
and meaningfully related to the theoretical bases
and indirect aggressiveness are lower. According to
indicated at the introduction part of this article.
Stevens (2009), the higher degree of flexibility causes
As Bilgin (2009b) states, cognitive flexibility is a
less problematic behaviours to be displayed.
concept used for interpersonal relationships. The
mental processes which the human beings use The findings indicate that irrational beliefs,
in interpersonal relationships are shaped with attachment styles and psychological symptoms
birth and they are developed with experiences. have an effect on cognitive flexibility. According to
According to the cognitive approach which Ellis Cognitive Theory, the individuals come to the world
pioneers, the tendencies of the man who comes to with an inclination of rationality and irrationality
the world with rational and irrational inclinations (Ellis, 1973) and their relationship with the person
are reinforced with family, school, peers and other who cares for them while they are babies influence
social relations (Nelson-Jones, 1982; Sharf, 1999). their subsequent behaviours and relationships to
a great extent. It can be said that having irrational
According to findings of the research, while the
beliefs less, communicating with secure attachment
fact that there is a negative relationship between
styles and having less psychological symptoms can
cognitive flexibility and obsessed attachment and
make cognitive flexibility easier.
positive relationship between cognitive flexibility
and secure attachment is evaluated as a normal In addition to the variables used in this research,
result, the fact that there is a positive relationship negligence in the childhood and the effects of
between negligent attachment and flexibility is exploitation flexibility and cognitive structures
thought provoking. This finding isn’t compatible can be studied. This study is carried out with
with İmamoglu’s (2003) linear relationship the university students who don’t have any
findings between negligent attachment and anger psychological or psychiatric problems. The similar
and with Keskingöz’s (2002) finding that the studies can be done with the participants who have
people who have negligent attachment have more psychiatric symptoms and also the participants
non-functional eating patterns. However, in the with psychiatric symptoms can be compared with
literature, there are studies which have parallelism the participants who don’t have any psychiatric
with this study related to negligent attachment. For symptoms. Moreover, the studies including parents
example Kart (2002) in his study indicates that the and children can be done together.
people who have secure and negligent attachments
Although there is theoretically a deterministic
have lower stress than people who have obsessed
viewpoint about the fact that the schemas which are
attachment. According to Attachment Theory, in
formed by the relations in the childhood influence
negligent attachment, which is related to the fact
subsequent relationships, Bowlby suggests that the
that the individual evaluates himself positively
individual’s intellectual capacity on inner working
while evaluating others negatively, the individual
model can be increased, corrective and therapeutic
attach importance to his autonomy as he expects
relationships can be formed and some changes
that other will give harm to him. Based on the
can take place in this way (Hazan & Shaver, 1994).
research finding, this state of being autonomous
Furthermore, descriptive and practical studies
including positive perception of ego have an effect
about cognitive schemas focusing on flexibility
on the capacity of solving the problems alone. In
and attachment of parents and children within
other words, the preference of being autonomous in
the context of school based counselling services.
terms of coping with different situations can enable
The individuals who do not have inappropriate
a person to increase the capacity to deal with the
attachment and flexibility can be provided with
similar situations more flexibly and differently.
counselling services and they can be helped to

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develop corrective relationships. Finally, the fact that Diril, A. (2011). Lise öğrencilerinin bilişsel esneklik düzeylerinin
the variables increasing anxiety can be studied and sosyodemografik değişkenler ve öfke düzeyi ile öfke ifade tarzları
arasındaki ilişki açısından incelenmesi (Yüksek lisans tezi,
intervened can strengthen adjustment processes. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana).
http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ adresinden edinilmiştir.
Ditommaso, E., Brannen-McNulty, C., Ross, L., & Burges,
M. (2003). Attachment styles, social skills and loneliness in
young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(2),
303-312.
Doron, G., Moulding, R., Kyrios, M., Nedeljkovic, M., &
Mikulincer, M. (2009). Adult attachment insecurities are
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