The Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the Earth between atmosphere and solid
Earth crust (lithosphere), including oceans, seas and water surface on the land.
In broader sense the hydrosphere composition includes subsurface waters, ice, and
snow of Arctic and Antarctic as well as atmospheric water and water contained in living
organisms.
The major part of the Earth water concentrates in seas and oceans, the second in
volume is ground water, and the third is ice and snow of Arctic and Antarctic. Surface
water, atmospheric and bio-related water amounts some percent of the whole volume of
the hydrosphere water.
The Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle is a water cycle that describes how water is exchanged (cycled) through
Earth's land, ocean, and atmosphere. Water always exists in all three places, and in many
forms—as lakes and rivers, glaciers and ice sheets, oceans and seas, underground aquifers,
and vapor in the air and clouds.
The water cycle consists of three major processes: evaporation, condensation,
and precipitation.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process of a liquid's surface changing to a gas. In the water cycle,
liquid water (in the ocean, lakes, or rivers) evaporates and becomes water vapor.
Water vapor surrounds us, as an important part of the air we breathe. Water vapor is
also an important greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases such as water vapor and carbon
dioxide insulate the Earth and keep the planet warm enough to maintain life as we know
it.
The water cycle's evaporation process is driven by the sun. As the sun interacts with
liquid water on the surface of the ocean, the water becomes an invisible gas (water
vapor). Evaporation is also influenced by wind, temperature, and the density of the body
of water.
Condensation
Condensation is the process of a gas changing to a liquid. In the water cycle, water
vapor in the atmosphere condenses and becomes liquid.
Condensation can happen high in the atmosphere or at ground level. Clouds form as
water vapor condenses, or becomes more concentrated (dense). Water vapor
condenses around tiny particles called cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). CCN can be
specks of dust, salt, or pollutants. Clouds at ground level are called fog or mist.
Like evaporation, condensation is also influenced by the sun. As water vapor cools, it
reaches its saturation limit, or dew point. Air pressure is also an important influence on
the dew point of an area.
Precipitation
Unlike evaporation and condensation, precipitation is not a process. Precipitation
describes any liquid or solid water that falls to Earth as a result of condensation in the
atmosphere. Precipitation includes rain, snow, and hail.
Fog is not precipitation. The water in fog does not condense sufficiently to precipitate, or
liquefy and fall to Earth. Fog and mist are a part of the water cycle called suspensions:
They are liquid water suspended in the atmosphere.
Precipitation is one of many ways water is cycled from the atmosphere to the Earth or
ocean.
Other Processes
Evaporation, condensation, and precipitation are important parts of the water cycle. However,
they are not the only ones.
Runoff, for instance, describes a variety of ways liquid water moves across land. Snowmelt, for
example, is an important type of runoff produced as snow or glaciers melt and form streams or
pools.
Transpiration is another important part of the water cycle. Transpiration is the process of water
vapor being released from plants and soil. Plants release water vapor
through microscopic pores called stomata. The opening of stomata is strongly influenced by
light, and so is often associated with the sun and the process of
evaporation. Evapotranspiration is the combined components of evaporation and transpiration,
and is sometimes used to evaluate the movement of water in the atmosphere.
The Atmosphere
Atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the Earth that is held in place by Earth's gravity. We
live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere, a layer of gases surrounding
our planet. Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in dry air,
with argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon, and other gases making up minute portions.
Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth’s atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very
different atmospheres, and some have no atmospheres at all.
Troposphere
The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface
and extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9
miles). This part of the atmosphere is the most
dense. Almost all weather is in this region.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the
troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31
miles) high. The ozone layer, which absorbs
and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in
this layer.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere starts just above the
stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53
miles) high. Meteors burn up in this layer
Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts just above the
mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372
miles) high. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
Ionosphere
The ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons
and ionized atoms and molecules that stretches
from about 48 kilometers (30 miles) above the
surface to the edge of space at about 965 km (600
mi), overlapping into the mesosphere and
thermosphere. This dynamic region grows and
shrinks based on solar conditions and divides
further into the sub-regions: D, E and F; based on
what wavelength of solar radiation is absorbed. The
ionosphere is a critical link in the chain of Sun-Earth
interactions. This region is what makes radio
communications possible.
Exosphere
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to
10,000 km (6,200 mi).
Weather and Climate
Weather is the instantaneous or current state of the atmosphere and is measurable in
terms of temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction,
cloudiness and precipitation.
Climate is the state of the atmosphere over long time periods, such as over years,
decades, centuries or greater. In general, the weather that impacts the surface of the
Earth and those that live on the surface takes place in the troposphere. Weather
parameters are measured with different instruments. Atmospheric temperature is
measured with a thermometer.
Biosphere
The biosphere is the global ecosystem that part of the earth inhabited by living organisms,
including land, ocean and the atmosphere in which life can exist.
The Hierarchy of Biological Organization
Subatomic (particle)
• units of matter below the size of an atom
Atom
basic unit of matter
Molecule
electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by
covalent chemical bonds
Macromolecule
• very large molecule, composed of hundreds or thousands of atoms
• DNA or protein, esp. a polymer,
Organelle
• Specialized part of a cell having some specific function
Cells
• Basic unit of life
Tissue
• a group of cells that perform a
similar function
Organ Systems
is a group of organs that work together to perform a certain task.
Organism
A single individual
Population
A group of organisms of the same type (species) living in the same area.
Community
Populations that live together in a given area.(Human population, House Elf
population, Bacteria population)
Ecosystem
Communities and the nonliving surroundings. (Urban Ecosystem)
Biodiversity in Changing World
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, it includes
all organisms, species, and populations; the genetic
variation among these; and their complex
assemblages of communities and ecosystems.
Why does it matter?
Biodiversity conservation provides substantial
benefits to meet immediate human needs, such as
clean, consistent water flows, protection from floods
and storms and a stable climate.
Biographic Explorations of Plant and Animal Diversity
Biodiversity in Plants
The diversity of plants on the planet earth is an
important resource for food, shelter, and
agriculture. About thousands of plant crop
species have been identified, developed, used
and relied on for the purpose of food and
agricultural production in human history. These
plants include bushes, grasses, herbs, shrubs,
trees, vines, ferns, and mosses. Through the
process of photosynthesis, plants provide us
with the oxygen which we breathe and the
sugars that provide the primary fuel for life.
There is a great variation in the biodiversity,
resulting from human and ecosystem interaction
for certain food and development for the survival
of human populations regardless of the pests,
climate fluctuations, diseases, droughts and
other unexpected environmental events.
Currently, there are only a few crop species
which provide us with food and essential energy
requirements for the total human population all
around the world. These crop include rice,
wheat, maize, cereals, pulses, etc. As per the requirement on this moderately small number of
crops for global food security, it will be essential to maintain a continuity of these plants species
along with the increasing environmental stress and to provide an opportunities for the farmers to
breed more amount of crops that can be cultivated under unfavorable conditions such as poor
soil, salinity, drought, flooding, and extreme temperatures.
Biodiversity in Animals
Similarly to the plants, the biodiversity of animals is vast and there are several animal species
which have been trained, domesticated and used for the food production, for the agriculture and
are the primary biological capital for livestock development. This plays a vital role in food safety
and also in maintaining the rural development. Yet, its management has been terrible. There
have been a lot of animals that have gone extinct over the past few years and this is a matter of
great sorrow.
Therefore, the conservation of biodiversity of both plants and animals is the need of the hour.
Cultural Geography
Introduction to Cultural Geography of Modern World
Cultural geography is the study of the many cultural aspects found throughout the world and
how they relate to the spaces and places where they originate and then travel as people
continually move across various areas.
What Is Cultural Geography?
Some of the main cultural phenomena studied in cultural geography include language, religion,
different economic and governmental structures, art, music, and other cultural aspects that
explain how and/or why people function as they do in the areas in which they live.
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%20English/Tab2/Tab/Hydrosphere.pdf
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrologic-cycle/
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/atmosphere-layers2.html
https://www.ess.uci.edu/~yu/class/ess5/Chapter.1.composition.all.pdf
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/atmosphere/
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/pdf/245893main_MeteorologyTeacherRes-Ch2.r4.pdf
https://www.hcs.stier.org/Downloads/chapter03_section017.pdf
http://www.unesco.pl/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/BIODIVERSITY_FACTSHEET.pdf
Briney, Amanda. "An Overview of Cultural Geography." ThoughtCo, Jan. 23, 2020,
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