Class 12 NCERT History Chapter 7

Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

• Karnataka Samrajyamu: Historians used the term
Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it as
the Karnataka Samrajyamu.

• Gajapati: Literally means the lord of elephants. This was

the name of a ruling lineage that was very powerful in
Odisha in the fi fteenth century.

• Ashvapati: In the popular traditions of Vijayanagara the

Deccan Sultans are termed as ashavapati of the lord of
horses.

• Narapati: In Vijayanagara Empire, the Rayas are called

narapati or the lord of men. Instagram
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• Yavana: It is a Sanskrit word for the Greeks and
other peoples entered the subcontinent from the
north-west.

• Shikara: The top or very high roof of the temples is

called Shikhar. Generally, it can be seen from a
reasonable distance by the visitors of the temples.
Under Shikhar we fi nd the idol of main God or
Goddess.

• Garbhgrah: This is a central point of the main room

located at a central position of the temple. Generally,
every devotee goes near the gate of this room to pay
respect and feelings of devotion to his main duty.
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Key concepts in nutshells
• The Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans – Harihara and Bukka asserted their independence of
the Delhi sultanate and established the kingdom of Vijaynagar on AD 1336.
• Kings and trading class – The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The
Portuguese settled on the west coast of India in attempted to establish their trading and
military stations.
• The climax and decline of Vijay Nagar empire – Krishadeva Raya was an able
administrator, He built dams for irrigation. He builds magnificent places and temples. Its
ruler Rama Raya was miserably defeated on the battlefield of (Rakshasi – Tangadi)
Talikota in A.D.1565. The victorious armies plundered and destroyed the city of
Vijaynagar.
• Vijaynagar Hampi Architecture – The Vijaynagar architecture (Hampi Architecture) of the
period (1336-1365) was unique building style evolved by the imperial Vijaynagar empire.
• Hampi Bazar – Portuguese travellers Paes and Nuntiz visited Hampi in the mid 1500
century. They give an account of Hampi Bazar thus “in this street lived many merchants
and there you will find all sorts of rubies, diamonds pearls and cloths that you may wish
to buy.
• Building and places – we know today about the Vijaynagar palaces and buildings are
derived from the archeological excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have
survived.
• Kings royal enclosure – Another important building at Hampi is the kings royal
enclosure. Paes tells against the gate there were two circles in which there were the
dancing women richly arrayed with many jewels of gold and diamonds and many pearls.
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• Mahanavami dibba – The Mahanavami dibba is located on one of the highest
points in the city. It is a very large platform rising from a base of about 11000
feet to height of a 40 feet. It seems that is supported a wooden structure.
• Forts of Vijay nagar – in the constant struggle for power, fort and fortified
settlements were a potent symbol of authority. The rulers of Vijaynagar
empire created the cities with the main object of protection against invasions.
The city itself was a fortress and designed as such in every manner.
• Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of the both a city and an
empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century.
• In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.
• One of the most prominent water work to be seen among the ruins in the
Hiriya canal.
• In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in
evidence.
• Best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gate ways that often dwarfed
the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple
from a great distance.
• The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes.
• Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organized and used,
how they were built, with what materials and techniques.
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History of Vijayanagara 
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire
was founded in the fourteenth century. In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently
deserted. Although it fell into ruin in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries it remained in
the memories of people living in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, as Hampi, a name
derived from that of the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.
1.  The Discovery of Hampi: The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an
engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. An employee of the
English East India Company, he prepared the fi rst survey map of the site. Much of
the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the
Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
2. Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans: According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two
brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. This
empire included within its fl uctuating frontiers peoples who spoke different
languages and followed different religious traditions. The Vijayanagara kings
competed with contemporary rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan and the
Gajapati rulers of Orissa – for control of the fertile river valleys. The rulers of
Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas.
3. The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The Portuguese settled on the
west coast of India in attempted to establish their trading and military stations.
4. Trade in Vijaynagar: Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices,
textiles and precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such
cities, which boasted of a wealthy population that demanded high-value exotic
goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
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The climax and decline of Vijaynagar empire: 
1. The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till
1485. They were supplanted by the Saluvas, who were replaced by the
Tuluvas in 1503.
2. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was
characterised by expansion and consolidation.
3. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and
adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples.
4. Strain began to show within the imperial structure following
Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529. His successors were troubled by
rebellious nayakas or military chiefs.
5. During this period, as indeed earlier, the military ambitions of the
Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments. Eventually this led
to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara.
6. Although the armies of the Sultans were responsible for the destruction
of the city of Vijayanagara, relations between the Sultans and the rayas
were not always or inevitably hostile.
7. In fact the Vijayanagara kings were keen to ensure the stability of the
Sultanates and vice versa.
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The rayas and the nayakas:
1. Nayakas were military chiefs who usually controlled forts
and had armed supporters. They moved from one area to
another, and in many cases were accompanied by
peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle.
They usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas
submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but
they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military
action.
2. The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation
of the Vijayanagara Empire. They were military
commanders who were given territories to govern by the
raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants,
craftspersons and traders in the area.
3. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an
effective fighting force with which they brought the entire
southern peninsula under their control.
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Vijayanagara – The Capital and its Environs
Vijayanagara, was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building style:
1. Water Resources: Vijayanagara had the natural basin formed by the river
Tungabhadra which fl ows in a north-easterly direction. A number of streams fl ow down
to the river from the granite hills. Embankments were built along these streams to
create reservoirs of varying sizes. For the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate
arrangements had to be made to store rainwater. The most important such tank was
built in the early years of the fi fteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram
tank. One of the most prominent waterworks to be seen among the ruins is the Hiriya
canal.
2. Fortifications and roads: Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia
to Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in the fi fteenth century, was greatly impressed by
the fortifi cations, and mentioned seven lines of forts which encircled not only the city
but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. What was most signifi cant about this
fortifi cation is that it enclosed agricultural tracts. The archaeologists have also found
evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. This
tract was serviced by an elaborate canal system drawing water from the Tungabhadra.
A second line of fortifi cation went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a
third line surrounded the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was
surrounded by its own high walls. Roads generally wound around through the valleys,
avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads extended from temple
gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
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3) The urban core: Archaeologists
have found evidence of the houses of ordinary
people along the road. Fine Chinese porcelain were
also found from Muslim residential quarter. 

Tombs and mosques were located there but

had their architecture like that of the mandapas
found in the temples of Hampi. 

Field surveys indicate that the entire area was

dotted with numerous shrines and small temples
which proves a variety of cults existed and were
supported by different communities.
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The Royal Centre
The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. About thirty
building complexes have been identified as palaces. One difference between these
structures and temples is that the latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the
superstructure of the secular buildings was made of perishable materials.
1. The mahanavami dibba: The “king’s palace” has two of the most impressive
platforms, usually called the “audience hall” and the “mahanavami dibba”. The
entire complex is surrounded by high double walls with a street running between
them. The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close
and regular intervals. Located on one of the highest points in the city, the
“mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft
to a height of 40 ft. There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The
base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. Rituals associated with the
structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the
Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October. The
Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this
occasion.
2. Other buildings in the royal centre: One of the most beautiful buildings in the
royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by British travellers in the nineteenth
century. While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several
in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is one known as
the Hazara Rama temple.

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The Sacred Centre
1. The sacred centre was situated on the rocky northern end on the bank of the
river Tungabhadra. According to local tradition, these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom
of Vali and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
2. Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the
Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas.
3. Rulers very often encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with
the divine – often, the deity was explicitly or implicitly identified with the king. Temples also
functioned as centres of learning.
4. The rulers and others often granted land and other resources for the maintenance of
temples. temples developed as significant religious, social, cultural and economic centres.
5. It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the existence of
the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule
on behalf of the god Virupaksha.
6. In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features (like Gopurams and
mandapas) were in evidence.
7. The raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central
shrines, and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance.
8. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that
often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.
9. The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. While inscriptions suggest that the
earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries, it was substantially enlarged with the
establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire.
10. Just as the nayakas continued with and elaborated on traditions of fortification, so they did
with traditions of temple building. In fact, some of the most spectacular gopurams were
also built by the local nayakas. Instagram
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Conclusion:
Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organised
and used, how they were built, with what materials and
techniques. Although wooden structures are lost, and only stone
structures survive, the descriptions left by travellers allow us to
reconstruct some aspects of the vibrant life of the times. They
convey ideas which the builders or their patrons wished to project.

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1.What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the
last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have
complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha
temple?

Ans. The engineer and antiquarian Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the
ruins of Hampi to light in 1800. He worked for many years in East India
Company and prepared the first Survey maps of this site. His earlier
information were based on the memories of priest of the Virupaksha
temple and shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856 onwards, photographers
started to record the pictures of monuments. The picture of the sites
helped the scholars to study them. Dozens of inscription were collected
from Virupaksha temples and other temples situated around temples.

Historians collected information from these sources other sources such as

accounts of foreign travellers and literature composed in Kannada, Telugu,
Tamil and Sanskrit languages used by the historians so that the History of
the city could be reconstructed. These functions complemented the
information given priests of Virupaksha temple.
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2.How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?(or)
Explain how the people of Vijavanagara obtained water for their needs.

Ans. The requirement of water in Vijayanagara was fulfilled from the natural
basin formed by the river Tungabhadra. This flowed in the north-eastern
direction and was surrounded by stunning granite hills. It flowed down to the
river Tungabhadra.

So the rulers of the Vijayanagara got built large embankments to store water.
They also constructed reservoirs of varying sizes. They also make
arrangements to store the rainwater as this was the most arid zone of the
peninsula. A very large tank was found built in the fifteenth century to store
water. The water tank presently known as Kamalapuram tank. The water of
this tank was used for several Royal centre purposes.
(i)The water from the tank was used to irrigate the nearby fields.
(ii)The water of tank fulfilled the needs of the Royal centre.
(iii)The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra river
which was used for irrigation.
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3.What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing
agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?

Ans. Advantages of enclosing agriculture land within fortified area:

(i) It had an elaborate canal system which drew water from the
Tungabhadra to provide irrigation facilities.
(ii) It enclosed agricultural tracts, cultivated fields, gardens and forests.
(iii) This enclosure saved crops from being eaten by wild animals.
(iv) In the medieval period, sieges were laid to starve the defending
armies into submission. These sieges lasted for many months or many
years. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted and elaborated a strategy to
protect the agricultural belt and built large granaries.
Disadvantages
(i)This system was very expensive.
(ii)During adverse, circumstances this system proved inconvenient to the
farmers.
(iii)The farmers had to seek the permission of gate-keeper to reach their
field.
(iv)If enemy encircled the field the farmer could not look after their field.
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4.What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the
mahanavami dibba?

Ans. The mahanavami Dibba was the King’s palace in Vijayanagara though there is
no definite evidence. From the available source we can guess that it had very
beautiful wooden structure with base of the platform was covered with relief carvings.
The Mahanavami Dibba had a very impressive platform known as “the audience
hall”. It was surrounded by high double walls a street running between them.
Many rituals were associated with the Mahanavami dibba. Here the Hindu Festival
Mahanavami or Navaratri were celebrated with a great pomp and show in the
months of September-October. This festival continued for 9 days. The rulers of
Vijayanagara Empire displayed their power, prestige and suzerainty. On this
occasion several ceremonies were performed this included:
(i)Worship of the different gods and goddesses
(ii)Worship of the state horse.
(iii)The sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.
(iv)The main attraction of this occasion were:
(a)Dances
(b)Wrestling matches
(c)Processions of horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers.
All these ceremonies presented before the king and his guests. On the last day of
the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the nayakas of the army. He also
accepted gift from the nayakas. Instagram
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6.Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for
the part of the city for which it is used.

Ans.The term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the
city for which it is used because the Royal center had more than 60
temples. Most of these temples were constructed by the ruler of
Vijayanagara Empire to express their supremacy. The royal centre had 30
palaces. These were made of perishable material. A brief description of the
building of Royal centre are as given below:

(i) One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus
Mahal. It was named by British travellers in the nineteenth century.
While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what
the building was used for. One suggestion, found in a map drawn by
Mackenzie, is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where
the king met his advisers.

(ii) Most temples were located in the sacred centre. One of the most
spectacular of these is the Hazara Rama Temple. This was probably
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Q) What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us
about the rulers who commissioned them?(or)
Attempt a brief note on Lotus Mahal and elephant stables.(or)

What does the architecture of building like Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the
rulers who commissioned them?(or)
Give a brief description of Lotus Mahal, situated in Royal centres of the Vijayanagara a Empire.

Ans. The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us that the
rulers had adopted Indian traditional symbol, signs and totems. They were Hindu by faith but
they were liberal by nature.
Lotus Mahal: Lotus Mahal was so named by the British travellers in the 19th century.
Historians have different opinions regarding the use of this building. According to a few this
building was used as a council of chamber where the king met his advisers.

In this regard, they gave the evidence of a map drawn by Colonel Colin Mackenzie. This building
is constructed in Indo-Islamic style of architecture. The pillars and arch were built in Muslim style
while the wall and roof were constructed in Indian style wood and stone figures were engraved
on the walls and roof to give them a decorative appearance with the passage of time to the most
part of this building got destroyed, hence it is difficult to guess its grandeur.
Elephant stables: The Rayas (rulers) of the Vijayanagara maintained a very large army and
troops. There were a large number of elephants in the army. To keep these elephants, Elephant
stable was constructed near the Lotus Mahal in which a number of rooms were lined.
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Q) What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of
Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?

Ans. The rulers of Vijayanagara were known for their many innovations in the
sphere of architectural traditions. They built many new temples which presented
their architectural skills. They also added many new features in the temple
architecture. For example, they built gopurams and royal gateways. The towers of
the central shrines signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. But
the royal gateways surpassed the kings. They showed that the kings had full
command over the resources, techniques and skills.

Other distinctive features of architectural style includes the constructions of

mandapas or pavilions and pillared corridors that ran around the shrines. There
were two main temples. The Virupaksha temple and the Vitthala Temple.
The Virupaksha temple was constructed in the 9th-10th centuries. But after the
establishment of Vijayanagara Empire, it was substantially enlarged. Krishnadeva
Raya built one of the most powerful ruler of the empire, built a hall in front of the
main shrine to mark his accession to the throne. It was decorated with delicately
carved pillars. Many temple complexes had chariot streets. These streets extended
from the temple gopuram in a straight line. They were paved with slabs of stone
and lied with pillared pavilions. In which merchants have set up their shops. In
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Q) What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull from the
various descriptions in the chapter?

Ans. Ordinary people were those people who did not take part in power structure. They
spoke different languages and follow different religious traditions. They consisted of small
traders and local merchants. They use to live in cities, trade centres, port , towns and
villages. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants
participated in exchanges.

People such as peasants, workers, slaves, etc. were also included in ordinary people.
The workers were known as “Vipra viodin”. This group of ironsmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters,
sculpture-makers, etc. Who often quarrelled mutually for their right. It seems that during that
period, need was felt to frame laws for the society to execute social justice.
Kaikkol known as the weavers were in large numbers. They lived near temples. They played
significant role in running the administration of the temple. In Vijayanagara state there were
Gadarias known as Kambalattar. They followed the customs of polyandry. The special
characteristic was that the wife was elder to the husband. Their women had physical
relations with the husband’s kinsmen like father, brothers were prevalent.
There was an orthodox bigot section in Vijayanagara called as reddis who owned the land.
They had enough influence in the Telugu region of Vijayanagara. In the society there were a
few low class people, who were non-influential. They were Domber, Marva,Jogi, Paraiyan,
Boi Kallaar, etc. Some low caste people converted into Christianity under the influences of
Portuguese.
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Q) On an outline map of the world, mark approximately Italy,
Portugal, Iran and Russia.

Ans.Followed by routes to reach Vijayanagara from Italy and

Portugal:
The travellers crossed the Red Sea, Arabian Sea and then,
they taken land route to reach South India.
Atlantic Ocean touching the Cape of Good Hope and then
Indian Ocean to reach Malabar of India. From here they took
land route to reach Vijayanagara.
The Italian travellers crossed the Arabian Sea and then Indian
Ocean and through Malabar coast they reached Vijayanagara.
From Iran via Afghanistan and modern Pakistan they would
have taken land route upto Karnataka, India.
Russian came to India via Afghanistan. They crossed modern
Punjab in Pakistan, central India crossing Vindhyachal, Satpura
to Karnataka.
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