ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Nutritional and Nutraceutical Properties of Millets:

A Review
Himanshu1, Manish Chauhan2, Sachin K. Sonawane3, S. S. Arya2
1
 Independent Researcher, Radaur, Haryana, India, 2Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Institute
of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, Maharastra, India, 3Department of  Food Science and Technology,
School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, D. Y. Patil University, Navi Mumbai, Maharastra, India

ABSTRACT

Millets are one of the underutilized groups of cereal grains. In spite of the presence of high nutritional and nutraceuticals
components, these are still considered as food of poor people. Millets are considered as rich source of energy, carbohydrate,
and protein and are comparable to other cereals but have more fat, calcium, iron, dietary fiber, and Vitamin E (tocopherols
and tocotrienols) content. These are found to be rich sources of phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, catechins,
phytic acid, and phytosterols. Researchers have reported that the presence of dietary fiber and phenolic compounds help in
the prevention of many diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cataractogenesis. These phytochemicals are
reported to have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties also.

Key words: Antioxidants, diabetes, millets, nutraceuticals, nutrition, polyphenols

INTRODUCTION (Panicum miliaceum), barnyard millet (Echinochloa spp.),

kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), and little millet

M
illets are small-seeded grasses that are hardy and (Panicum sumatrense).
grow well in dry zones as rain-fed crops, under
marginal conditions of soil fertility and moisture. NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION
They account for <1% of global cereal production and 3% of
coarse cereal production. African countries account for 59% Millets are rich in valuable nutrients such as carbohydrates,
of the global area under millets and 55% of global production. proteins, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. Protein content
Asian countries are the second most important block of millet is very much comparable to other cereals, but carbohydrates
producers, accounting for 38% of the global area and 42% are present in lower amounts. Fat content of common millet,
of the global production. As per the FAOSTAT, global millet foxtail millet, and barnyard millet is very high and is one of
production for the year 2016 was 30.35 million tonnes. the reasons of reduction in storage stability. Millets are rich
Indian millet production is ~10 million tons and in that small in ash content showing a higher amount of inorganic matter.
millet production is 467 thousand tons. Millets are consumed Finger millet is known as the richest source of calcium
primarily as food in most of the developing countries. It is [Table 1].
highly nutritious, high energy food, and in recent years, an
important component of processed foods. Carbohydrates
The millet carbohydrate in the milled grains consists of free
Major millets are sorghum and pearl millet. Among the millets, sugars (2–3%), non-starchy polysaccharides (15–20%), and
small millet comprises finger millet (Eleusine coracana), starch (60–75%). Among the free sugars, glucose, fructose,
foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet or white millet and sucrose are prominent. The non-starchy polysaccharides,

Address for correspondence:

S. S. Arya, Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai- 400 019
E-mail: shalu.ghodke@gmail.com

© 2018 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

which are regarded as dietary fibers comprises of cellulose, fractions followed by albumin + globulin fractions. Prolamin
hemicellulose, and pectinacious material. Flatulence causing in pearl millet range from 22.8 to 31.7(%), finger millet have
oligosaccharides such as arabinose and stachyose are absent. 24.6–36.2 (%), and foxtail have 47.6–63.4 (%) of the total
Negligible amounts of β-glucans and lignin-like materials are protein fraction. Glutelin is higher in case of finger millet
present. Out of total dietary fiber, 90% is insoluble dietary 12.4–28.2 (% of total protein) then foxtail (6.7% of total
fiber contributed by aleurone layer and cell wall matter of protein). Albumin + globulin fraction ranges from 11.6 to
the kernel. Millet starch contains amylose and amylopectin 29.6 % in these millets.[7,8] Essential amino acid composition
in ratio 25:75 as contained in other cereals also. Millets are of millets is given in Table 3. Of all millets, pearl millet
known as high amylose grains and some waxy varieties are has highest average protein (6.9–12%) whereas fonio and
also cultivated in China. Starch granules are compacted in the finger millet tend to have lowest protein values (5.1–10.4,
cellular matrix and a major portion of endosperm is of vitreous 4.9–11.3%), respectively. Lysine content of finger millet is
nature.[1] The nutrient composition is shown in Table 2. 5.5 g/100 g of protein. Teff (2.0–4.0/10 0g protein) and kodo
millet (3.0–3.5/100 g proteins) are high in lysine. Proso
Studies by Subramanian and Jambunathan,[2] Subramanian and Japanese millets have the poorest essential amino acid
and Jambunathan,[3] Murty et al.,[4] Wankhede et al.,[5] and composition.[9] True digestibility of millet proteins varies
Becker and Lorenz[6] have revealed that total sugars (g/100 g) from 95 to 99.3 lowest for foxtail and barnyard millets
in pearl millet (2.16–2.78) are higher followed by finger while highest for common millet.[10] Biological value and
millet (0.59–0.69) and foxtail millet (0.46).[2-6] Raffinose and net protein utilization of pearl millet protein (BV = 58.8–
stachyose are also higher in pearl millet. Sucrose is major 65.6 and NPU = 55.7–62.9) is higher than in minor millets
sugar (g/100 g) in finger millet (0.20–0.24), foxtail millet (BV = 48.4–56.5 and NPU = 46.3–54.5), whereas digestible
(0.15), and proso millet (0.66). energy of minor millets (95.6–96.1) is higher than pearl
millet (85.3–89.9).[10,11]
Proteins
Millets have been reported to have albumins, globulins, Lipids
cross-linked prolamin, glutelin-like, glutelin, etc., type of The fat content of the millets ranges from 1% to 5%, lowest in
protein fractions. Millets are richer in prolamin and glutelin finger and kodo millet (1%) and highest in pearl, foxtail, and
proso millets (5%). The fat is distributed in bran as well as in
the endosperm. The fat generally consists of more than 60%
Table 1: Phenolic content and reducing capacity of unsaturated fatty acids including linolenic acid.[1] Common
millets millet contains 1.8–3.9% lipids. The embryo contains about
Millet Phenolic Reducing 24% of the total grain fat. The fatty acid profile showed the
content (%) capacity (%) total amount of saturated fatty acids present is 17.9–21.6%
Finger millet 7.2±0.57 5.7±1.15 while unsaturated fatty acids content is 78–82%.
Foxtail millet 2.5±0.56 4.8±1.15
Lipids extracted from millets when calculated on seed dry
Proso millet 3.4±0.58 2.6±0.20 weight basis found to be 7.2%. This fraction consisted of
Khodo millet 10.3±1.15 4±1.73 neutral lipids, phospholipids, and glycolipids amounted as
Source: Rao et al., (2011) 85%, 12%, and 3%, respectively. 85% of the total neutral

Table 2: Nutrient composition of millets (per 100 g edible portion, Dry weight basis)
Source Carbohydrates (g) Crude Protein (g) Fat (g) Crude fiber (g) Ash (g) Energy (kcal)
Pearl millet 60.0–76.0 12.0 –14.0 4.8 –5.7 2 –2.5 2.0–2.2 363–412
Finger millet 60.0–80.0 7.0–10.0 1.3–1.8 3.6–4.2 2.6–3.0 328–336
Foxtail millet 59.0–70.0 11.2–15.0 4.0–7.0 4.5–7.0 2.0–3.5 330–350
Kodo millet 66.0–72.0 8.0–10.0 1.4–3.6 5.0–9.0 4.0–5.0 309–353
Little millet 60.0–75.0 10.0–15.0 5.0–6.0 4.0–8.0 2.5–5.0 329–341
Barnyard millet 55.0–65.0 6.0–13.0 2.0–4.0 9.5–14.0 4.0–4.5 300–310
Proso millet 55.0–70.0 10.0–13.0 1–3.5 2.0–9.0 2.0–4.0 330–340
Teff 70.0–73.0 10.0–11.0 2.0–4.0 1.0–2.0 2.8–3.1 330–340
Fonio* 75.0–82.0 7.0–9.0 0.5–2.0 2.0–3.5 1.0–4.0 360–370
*Wet weight basis. Sources: McWatters et al. (2003), Gebremariam et al. (2014), Sadik et al. (2012), Gopalan et al. (1989), Saldivar, (2003),
Ravindran (1991), Hulse et al. (1980), and National Research Council (US), Board on Science and Technology for International
Development (Eds.)(1996)

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 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

Table 3: Mineral composition of millets (mg/100 g)

Minerals Pearl Finger Foxtail Little Proso Kodo
K 440–442 408–570 250–400 129–370 250–320 144–170
Na 10.0–12.0 7.0–11.0 4.6–10 6–8.1 8.2–10 4.6–10
Mg 130–137 110–137 100‑130 120–133 117–153 130–166
Ca 10.0–46.0 240–410 10.0–30.0 12.0–30.0 20–23 10.0–31.0
P 350‑379 240–320 270–310 251–260 230–281 215–310
Mn 1.15–1.8 5–5.5 2.19–26 1.0–20.0 0.6–1.81 1.10–2.9
Zn 2.95–3.1 2–2.3 2.14–9 3.5–11 1.4–2.4 0.7–1.5
Cu 0.62–1.06 0.4–4 1–3.0 1.0–4.0 0.83–5.8 1.6–5.8
Fe 7.49–8.0 3.9–7.5 3.26–19 13–20 4.0–5.2 0.7–3.6
Sources: Varriano‑Marston and Hoseney, (1980), Serna‑Saldivar et al., (1991), Hulse et al.,(1980), Serna‑Saldivar and Rooney, (1995),
Pore, and Magar, (1979), Lorenz et al., (1976), Chung, (1991), Barbeau, and Hilu, (1993), Chavan, (1989), and Chavan, et al. (1989)

lipids were found to be triacylglycerols and rest contains were found to contain calcium 294–390 mg/100 g.[14] Joseph
a small fraction of mono- and diacylglycerols, free fatty et al., 1959 conducted studies on replacement of rice-based
acids, and sterols. Campesterol and stigmasterol were found diet to finger millet, in the diet of 9–10-year-old girls showed
to occur in same proportion in both free and esterified that it improved calcium retention along with maintaining
form. Lysophosphatidylcholine (42%) was the major positive nitrogen balance. Thus, finger millet could be used
phospholipid present in millet seeds. Smaller amounts of in place of rice to overcome the calcium deficiency.[15]
lysophosphatidylethanolamine (21%), phosphatidylcholine
(24%) and traces of phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylglycerol, The iron content of little millet and barnyard millet was
phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidylserine were also very high 9–12%, whereas kodo millet and common millet
present. The major glycolipids were sterol glycoside, were rich in copper content. The total mineral matter or
esterified sterol glycoside, cerebrosides (ceramide ash content was higher in common, little, foxtail, kodo,
monohexosides), monogalactosyldiacylglycerol, and and barnyard millets than most commonly consumed
digalactosyldiacylglycerol.[12] cereal grains including sorghum. The above-stated millets
have highly fibrous hull and dehulling is a usual practice
Vitamins before consumption. However, dehulling was found to
The millets are rich sources of Vitamin E and B-complex lower the content of mineral matter significantly, and this
vitamins (except Vitamin B 12). Total niacin content present loss is variable and dependent on millet species. Dassenko
is 10.88 mg. However, only 13% of the total niacin present observed significant losses of calcium, magnesium, and
was cold-water extractable. Matured grains of millets have sodium but not of iron and potassium on milling pearl
shown low levels of Vitamin C. The tocopherol content millet to flour with an extraction rate of 67%.[16] Millets are
of millets is less than that found in soybean and corn oil. a rich source of phosphorus which is an important mineral
The α-tocopherol content in millet seeds is very low and for energy production. It is an essential component of ATP
the tocopherols are mostly present as γ-isomer. Vitamin – the energy currency of the cell. It also forms a part of
activity of α-tocopherol is very high as compared to other the nervous system and cell membranes. A well-cooked cup
tocopherols. Vitamin E activity of γ-tocopherol is <10% of millet gives 26.4% daily need for magnesium and 24%
that of α-tocopherol.[13] The unrefined fat is extracted using daily need for phosphorus. Magnesium from millets helps
the kernel of common millet and was found to contain in relaxing blood vessels and maintains the blood pressure,
Vitamin A equivalent (8.3–10.5 mg) and Vitamin E (87– enhances nutrient delivery by improving the blood flow and
96 mg) per 100 g. When refining is carried out, it was found thus further protects the cardiovascular system. Millet is
that vitamin A has lost its activity and losses in Vitamin E such a grain that should be listed as heart-healthy choices
were also significant. In little millet, total niacin is quite because of its importance as a good source of magnesium.
higher compared to other cereal grains. Magnesium increases insulin sensitivity and lowers
triglycerides. It also acts as a cofactor for more than 300
Minerals enzymes.
Mineral content of millets is quite comparable to other cereals
such as sorghum, but the content of calcium and manganese Bioavailability of Nutrients from Millets
was found to be very high [Table 3]. High-yielding varieties Despite the potential of having a huge number of beneficial
and some high protein (8–12.1%) varieties of finger millet nutrients, there are some hindrances in its availability.

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 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

Bioavailability of nutrient present in millets is low due Phenolic Compounds

to the presence of antinutritional factors. Some of these Phenolic compounds encompass a wide variety of compounds
are phytates and tannins. High fiber content of millets is characterized by the presence of an aromatic ring consisting
also responsible for its lower bioavailability. Phytates and of one or more hydroxyl groups and a variety of substitutes.
tannins affect the bioavailability of minerals. Rao et al., Main phenolic compounds are generally categorized as
1983 studied the absorption pattern of iron in humans from phenolic acids, flavonoids, and lignans. These compounds
millets and compared with that of rice and wheat.[17] They mainly exist as glycosides linked to various sugar moieties
found that absorption from millets was lower than from rice or as other complexes linked to organic acids, amines, lipids,
and wheat. In vitro studies on commonly cultivated or highly carbohydrates, and other phenols. Chethan and Malleshi
pigmented finger millets showed poor bioavailability of iron (2007) reported considerable differences, with respect to the
due to their tannin content. Iron content can be enhanced polyphenol contents of the finger millet varieties with brown
as ionizable iron either by grain germination or removal/ varieties having 1.2–2.3g% and white 0.3–0.5g%.[23] They
reduction of tannin by extraction with solvent. White grain are important source of antioxidants and work in multiple
varieties of finger millet with no-tannin showed that iron ways to prevent disease associated with oxidative stress,
availability is higher in terms of ionizable iron content.[18] such as cancer and CVD and are well-known antioxidants
Thus, the advantage of the presence of micronutrients in compounds.
millet in higher content is nullified by lower bioavailability.
There is a need to find different methods of cooking Studies had reported that bound polyphenols (1% HCl
to examine micronutrients bioavailability including extractable) were highest in kodo millet (81.64±0.15),
minerals and B vitamins through in vivo studies. Effects followed by foxtail (11.59 ± 0.23), little millet (9.64±0.28),
of physiological status such as pregnancy, lactation, age, pearl millet (9.14 ±0.17), finger millet (3.83 ± 0.18), and proso
and nutritional status on bioavailability should also be millet (2.21±0.01).[24] Bound phenolic content in rice samples
investigated. Vitamins and minerals are absorbed based on was less than that of millet samples, thus indicating it as a
body’s demand. better source of nutraceutical concentrate. Bound phenolic
compounds have antioxidant, antiobesity, antidiabetic,
Fibre antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and antiviral
Kamath and Belavady found that total dietary fiber in pearl properties with a potential to inhibit the growth of variety of
millet (20.8%) and finger millet (18.6%) was higher than organisms as well as HIV and influenza virus. It also prevents
that in sorghum (14.2%), wheat (17.2%), and rice (8.3%).[19] lipid oxidation radical-mediated DNA cleavage (reference. If
Emiola and De La Rosa found that in pearl millet water- the study is specific to disease only it can be claimed). From
soluble non-starch polysaccharides accounted for 0.66% of this, it can be concluded that 1% acidic-methanol extract
grain weight and water-insoluble non-starch polysaccharide of different millets is a potential source of health beneficial
for 3.88%.[20] Muralikrishna et al. found that hemicelluloses polyphenols.
A in little, kodo and barnyard millets was a non-cellulosic
beta-glucan and hemicelluloses B was composed of hexose, The potential of phenolic compounds to work as antioxidants
pentose, and uronic acid.[21] Wankhede et al. reported that in arises from their inherent ability to donate hydrogen atoms
finger and foxtail millet, the pentosans content was 6.6 and to electron-deficient free radicals through hydroxyl groups
5.5%, respectively.[5] on benzene rings and in turn form a resonance-stabilized and
less reactive phenoxyl radical. Polyphenols show inhibition
Health benefits of dietary fiber are correlated with a reduction of the activity of digestive enzymes such as amylase,
in blood cholesterol, sugar, and good bowl movement. glucosidase, pepsin, trypsin, and lipases.[25] Pietta reported
With fibers, millets are rich in health-promoting fraction that polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoids, phenolic
of phytochemicals such as polyphenols, phytosterols, acids, and proanthocyanidins are of great interest for the
phytoestrogens, lignin’s, and phytocyanins. These chemicals radical scavenging activity and are expected to be effective
protect against age-related degenerative diseases (for in the prevention of many diseases and morbid states.[26]
example, cardiovascular diseases [CVD], diabetes, cancer, Phenolic compounds in the diet may provide health benefits
etc.) as they function as antioxidants, detoxifying agents, associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases.[27]
immune modulators, etc.[22]
The synergy between phenolics may play a role in mediating
NUTRACEUTICALS amylase inhibition, and therefore, have the potential to
contribute the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, which
The term nutraceuticals (like pharmaceuticals) is used for shows high blood glucose levels.[28,29] Being the inhibitors
such bioactive compounds from food sources which are of amylase and glucosidase (similar to acarbose, miglitol,
having a protective effect against degenerative diseases in its and voglibose), polyphenols result in the decrease in post-
isolated form. prandial hyperglycemia.[30]

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 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

Phenolic Acids polymers of flavan-3-ols (catechins) or flavan 3, 4 diols

Phenolic acids are aromatic compounds with one benzene (leucoanthocyanidins) while most hydrolyzable tannins are
ring and a carboxylic acid function. Many of the phenolic glucose or polyhydric alcohol esterified with gallic acid
acids are either derivatives of benzoic acid (C6-C1 (gallotanins) or hexahydrodiphenic acid (ellagitannins).
structure), and they can be subdivided into two major groups,
hydroxybenzoic acid and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. Flavonoids such as catechin, quercetin, anthocyanin, tannin,
Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives include hydroxybenzoic, etc., are health beneficial components. They are important for
protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, and gallic acids. These human health because of their pharmacological activities as
components are commonly present in the bound form and are radical scavengers.[37] The antioxidant potential of flavonoids
typically components of complex structures such as lignins depends on the number and arrangement of the hydroxyl
and hydrolyzable tannins. groups across the structure and the presence of electron
donating and electron withdrawing groups. Studies conducted
Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives include p-coumaric, by Miller et al., 2000 show that whole grains have almost
caffeic, ferulic, and sinapic acids. They are mainly present equivalent antioxidant activity (AA) to fruits and vegetables
in the bound form, linked to cell wall structural components (per serving basis).[38] Reports are there on the presence of
such as cellulose, lignin, and proteins through ester bonds. flavones only out of all the flavonoids. Finger millet leaves are
The common phenolic acids found in finger millet grains found to contain eight types of flavones: Vitexin, isovitexin,
include ferulic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, saponarin, violanthin, orientin, isoorientin, lucenin-1, and
and p-coumaric acid.[31] tricin.[39] Reichert detected glucosylvitexin, glucosylorientin,
and vitexin in pearl millet in the ratio of 29:11:4; these were
Ferulic acid [Figure 1b] (trans-4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic found to be the cause for the yellow–green discoloration
acid) is one of the most common phenolic acids found in occurring at basic pH in millet flour.[40] Japanese barnyard
finger millet grains.[32,33] It is abundant in the aleurone, millet was reported to have luteolin and tricin.[41] Apigenin
pericarp, and embryo cell walls of various grains but occurs and luteolin was reported in fonio in the concentration
only in trace amounts within the starchy endosperm.[34,35] of 150 mg/kg and 350 mg/kg, respectively.[42] Out of this
concentration, 10% of apigenin and 80% of luteolin were
Flavonoids found to be present in free form while rest of other percentages
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites with of those compounds was bound as O-glycosylflavones.
a general structure of 15-carbon skeleton. It consists of two
phenyl rings and one heterocyclic ring. Flavonoids are plant Finger millet is the sole millet reported to have condensed
pigments that are synthesized from phenylalanine[36] and tannins. Brown finger millets contain tannins 0.12–3.47%
have a basic C6-C3-C6 structure. These comprise a large catechin equivalents in comparison with white finger millets
group of polyphenolic compounds that are characterized by (0.04–0.06% catechin equivalents.[43] Reports on structural
a benzo-y-pyrone structure such as anthocyanin pigments, characterization of millet proanthocyanidins are lacking.
flavonols, flavanols, and isoflavones, which are ubiquitous
in vegetables and fruits. They occur mostly as glycoside Phytic Acid
except for the flavanols which tend to polymerize to Phytic acid is chemically known as myoinositol 1,2,3,4,5,6
condensed tannins. The tannins could be classified either hexakis-dihydrogen phosphate [Figure 1d]. Its concentration
as condensed or hydrolyzable. Most condensed tannins are in foods ranges from 0.1 to 6.0%.[44,45] Reddy et al., 1982

a b d

c
Figure 1: Structure of molecules (a) Phytosterols (b) Ferulic acid (c) Alpha-tocopherol (d) Phytic acid

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 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

found that it is present in bran region of the cereal grains and functional components of plant cells. As their structure
or in cotyledon of oilseeds or legumes inside the protein [Figure 1a] is very much similar to cholesterol, they show
bodies.[44] Lorenz reported the phytate content of common significant lowering in the serum cholesterol levels by
millet varieties range between 170 and 470 mg/100 g whole altering the rate of uptake of both dietary and endogenously
grain and also shown 27–53% reduction in phytate content on produced cholesterol. Phytosterol esters have the potential to
dehulling.[46] Dehulling causes phytic phosphorus content to reduce blood serum LDL cholesterol levels up to 14% but no
decrease by 12% in common millet, 39% in little millet, 25% effect on HDL levels.[49]
in kodo millet, and 23% in barnyard millet.
Daily consumption of phytosterols reduces the risk of heart
Carotenoid and Tocopherols diseases up to 40% that depends on age and some other
Food sources are rich sources of pigments and carotenoids factors. However, the presence of sterols reduces absorption
are one of them. There are more than 600 of them have been of alpha and beta-carotene and also of Vitamin E.[50]
identified. Carotenoids are well known for their provitamin-A Etherification, emulsification, and solubilization mechanisms
activity. However, carotenoids are among those important adversely affect their bioavailability. Sterol content of finger
compounds which protect against various diseases because millet was reported to be 0.149% on seed weight basis,[51]
they act as antioxidants. Carotenoids structurally consist of whereas other millets contain only trace amount. Phytosterol
isoprenoid units with a long polyene chain containing 3 to content of sorghum and corn was reported to be 0.5 mg/g and
15 conjugated double bonds. The position of double bonds 0.9 mg/g.[52]
determines their absorption spectrum. Carotene is cyclized
product where cyclization exists at one or both ends, while Arabinoxylans
xanthophylls are formed on addition of oxygen. Some Arabinoxylans is a class of hemicelluloses which are found
modifications based on isomerization, chain elongation, or as components of plant cell wall both primary and secondary
degradation also occur. cell wall. These contain a chain of 1,4-linked xylose with
2,3-linked arabinose residues.[53,54] These components
Recent report by Asharani et al. have shown that values as non-digestible are regarded as dietary fibers. Dietary
for total carotenoids content in edible millet flour varied fiber provides bulk to the diet and has a positive effect on
from 78 to 366 µg/100 g with an average of 199, 78, 173, cholesterol regulation. Xylooligosaccharide content in finger
and 366 µg/100 g in finger, little, foxtail, and proso millets, millet bran was estimated at level of 15.60%, wheat bran at
respectively.[47] The carotenoid values obtained for millets 40%, and corn bran 9.33%.[55]
were are comparable with the carotenoid content of wheat
(150–200 µg/100 g) and sorghum (180–230 µg/100 g) but These arabinoxylans undergo enzymatic hydrolysis to yield
significantly less than maize (1800–5500 µg/100 g) and their arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides (AXOS), which consists
varieties (2400- 3200 µg/100g).[48] of arabinoxylooligosaccharides and xylooligosaccharides
(XOS). This reaction occurs during the processing of cereals,
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble component widely found in nature or in the making of bread and beer, and in the colon by
consists of a family of eight different molecules. These fermenting bacteria. These compounds (AXOS and XOS)
molecules differ each other structurally but have a chromanol shown to have a prebiotic effect in the colon of humans and
ring and 12-carbon aliphatic side chain in common. This side animals through selective stimulation of beneficial intestinal
chain contains two methyl groups in the middle as well as at microbiota.[56] Studies have shown positive effect of dietary
the end. The family constitutes of 4 saturated tocopherols and fibers on chronic diseases such as type II diabetes,[57,58]
4 tocotrienols with three double bonds. Both tocopherols and CVD,[59,60] and gastrointestinal cancer[61] on the basis of large-
tocotrienols have four different variants, namely, alpha, beta, scale prospective studies.[62]
gamma, and delta. These variations are due to the number of
methyl groups present in the chain. Vitamin E analyzed by MILLETS AND HEALTH EFFECTS
HPLC indicated a higher proportion of γ- and α-tocopherols
[Figure 1c] and lower levels of tocotrienols in the millets. Total Epidemiological studies conducted on the diets rich in plant
tocopherol content in finger (3.6–4.0 mg/100 g) and proso foods, especially those including whole grains protect us
(3.6–4.0 mg/100 g) millet varieties were higher than foxtail from non-communicable diseases as they are rich in health-
and little millet varieties (~1.3 mg/100 g). Vitamin E acts as promoting nutrients and phytochemicals. Millets which are
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, decrease superoxide production rich in its hidden treasure of highly potent health-promoting
in mitochondria, and anti-atherosclerotic compound. phytochemicals are regarded as functional foods.

Phytosterols Diabetes
Phytosterols are desmethyl sterols, which share a common Epidemiological studies have shown a lower incidence of
ring structure with cholesterol. These are essential structural diabetes in millet consuming populations.[63] Kumari and

6 Clinical Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics  •  Vol 1  •  Issue 1  •  2018

 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

Sumathi (2002) studied the effect of consuming finger millet The lipid peroxide concentration and skin antioxidant status
on hyperglycemia in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus were also monitored during the study. In hyperglycemic rats
(NIDDM). It was found that glycemic index of finger millet fed with finger millet diet, the healing process was hastened
was lower than that of rice and wheat. The reason of lower with an increased rate of wound concentration. Interestingly,
glycemic response may be due to the presence of polyphenols the index of oxidative stress, thiobarbituric acid reactive
in whole finger millet flour. These are known to reduce the substances (TBARS) was elevated in the wound tissues of
starch digestibility and absorption. Finger millet polyphenols all the groups, when compared to normal (unwounded) skin
(FMP) were extracted in acidified methanol and then tissues. However, in diabetic rats, the TBARS levels of both
investigated for their ability to inhibit the activities of porcine normal and wounded skin tissues were significantly elevated
pancreatic α-amylase and rat intestinal α-glucosidase. This as compared with control and diabetic fed with FM. Impaired
shows that these phenolics have huge potential for managing production of NGF, determined by ELISA, in diabetic rats
hyperglycemia.[64] Tadera et al. reported that the starch was improved upon FM feeding and further confirmed by
digestive enzymes were inhibited by naringenin, kaempferol, immunocytochemical observations reflecting the increased
luteolin, apigenin, (+)-catechin/(–)-epicatechin, daidzein, expression of NGF in hyperglycemic rats supplemented with
and epigallocatechin gallate which are present in millets. FM-enriched diet. Histological and electron microscopical
The potential for inhibition of these enzymes is dependent on evaluation revealed the epithelialization, increased synthesis
the presence of number of hydroxyl groups in flavonoids.[65] of collagen, activation of fibroblasts, and mast cells in FM fed
Kinetic studies on interaction between seed coat phenolics animals. Thus, increased levels of oxidative stress markers
and enzymes of starch digestion showed non-competitive accompanied by decreased levels of antioxidants play a vital
inhibition of the two key enzymes α-glucosidase and role in delaying wound healing in diabetic rats. Reports show
pancreatic amylase.[32] finger millet feeding to the diabetic animals, for 4 weeks,
controlled not only the glucose levels but also improved the
Cataractogenesis Inhibition antioxidant status, which hastened the dermal wound healing
Western countries are facing problems of retinopathy and process. They are reported to improve aortic fragility and
cataract as a major cause of blindness worldwide. Diabetes elasticity by attenuating elevation of blood pressure and they
is one major and quite a significant risk factor in retinopathy increase vasorelaxation.[67]
and cataract. The prevalence of blindness in India is 15/1000
while cataract alone accounts for 80% of this blindness. In AA
diabetes-induced cataract, there occurs an accumulation of As being rich in antioxidants, fiber and complex carbohydrates
sorbitol. This accumulation is mediated by the action of a millets have beneficial effects against cancer, cardiovascular
key enzyme aldose reductase (AR). Binding of glucose to disease, and aging. These diseases are caused due to the
protein molecule a form of non- enzymatic glycation that generation of harmful oxygen species such as free radicals
is induced during diabetes is regarded as the key factor for and peroxides which damage the cells. Millets are reported
aldose reductase-mediated sugar-induced cataract. Chethan to protect us from oxidative stress. Studies have been
et al. evaluated FMP for AR inhibiting activity to show their conducted on phenolic acids extracted from milled fractions
antidiabetic and antioxidant potential. Phenolic constituent of finger millet for the evaluation of their antioxidant and
in FMP such as gallic, protocatechuic, p- hydroxybenzoic, antimicrobial properties.[68] Milled fractions (whole grain,
p-coumaric, vanillic, syringic, ferulic, trans-cinnamic acids, flour, and seed coat) were found to be rich in polyphenols
and the quercetin inhibited cataract eye lens effectively.[32] in acidic methanol extracts. Major phenolic acids identified
Structural and functional analysis of phenolics revealed that the are daidzein, gallic, coumaric, syringic, and vanillic acids.
presence of -hydroxyl group at the 4th position was important Daidzein content was found to be highest. Seed coat extracts
for the aldose reductase inhibitory property. Furthermore, the have shown reducing power significantly (P < 0.05) higher
presence of O-methyl group neighboring to –OH group in than the whole flour extract. Carotene–Linoleic acid assay
phenolics denatured the aldose reductase activity. was carried to determine AA of seed coat extract and whole
flour extract, and it was found that in case of seed coat AA is
Wound Healing and Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) 86%, whereas later has AA only up to 27%. Asharani et al.,
Production 2010 reported the total antioxidant capacity of edible flours
Rajasekaran et al. reported the role of finger millet feeding of millets such as finger (15.3 + 3.5 mM TE/g), little (4.7
on skin antioxidant status, NGF production, and wound + 1.8 mM TE/g), foxtail (5.0 + 0.09 mM TE/g), and proso
healing parameters in healing impaired early diabetic rats. millets (5.1 + 1.0 mM TE/g). Chandrasekara and Shahidi
Hyperglycemic rats received 50 g finger millet per 100 g also reported that soluble as well as bound fractions of kodo,
of diet.[66] Full-thickness excision skin wounds made after finger, proso, and other millets grains are rich in phenolic
2 weeks prior feeding of finger millet diet. The rate of compounds with antioxidant, metal chelating, and reducing
wound contraction and the levels of collagen, hexosamine, power.[24] Rao et al. also reported the phenolic content and
and uronic acid in the granulation tissue were determined. reducing power of small millets with higher activity for

Clinical Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics  •  Vol 1  •  Issue 1  •  2018 7

 Himanshu, et al. Millets: A Nutritional source of booster

finger and kodo millet from whole grain extracts [Table 1].[22] CONCLUSION
Table 1 shows that kodo has highest phenolic content and
foxtail has lowest, whereas reducing capacity is highest for Millets are important crops in semiarid and tropical
finger millet followed by foxtail. regions of the world due to their resistance to pests and
diseases, short-growing season, and productivity under
Ferulic acid exists in bounded form is major phenolic heat and drought conditions when major cereals cannot
acid in millets. It is commonly known to exist as an ester be relied upon to provide sustainable yields. Of the total
linked mainly to arabinoxylans and hence influences their millet produced in the world about 90% is utilized in the
physicochemical properties.[69] Ferulic acid is supposed developing countries and about two-thirds of millets
to have a number of health benefits from decrease in total produced are consumed as food. They are consumed
cholesterol level, increase in Vitamin-E bioavailability, and traditionally as health and vitality foods by the poor segment
increase in the vitality of sperms and to act as protective of the population. Nutritive potential of millets in terms of
agent against UV radiation-induced skin damage. Ferulic acid protein, carbohydrates, and energy values are comparable to
exhibited very strong antioxidant, free radical scavenging, the popular cereals such as rice, wheat, and barley. Most of
and anti-inflammatory activity[70] and shows effects against the health benefits associated with the millets are generally
cancer and tumor.[71] due to the presence of phytochemicals such as polyphenols,
tocopherols, phytosterols, and dietary fiber and also due to
The chemical reaction between the aldehyde group of the abundant presence of some of the minerals, vitamins,
reducing sugars and the amino group of proteins termed non- and trace elements. Many healthful effects are attributed
enzymatic glycosylation, a major factor responsible for the to millets and some of these effects have more scientific
complications of diabetes and aging. Proteins like collagen support. The strongest evidence for health effects of millets
have a long half-life and slow turnover are at an increased risk comes from animal studies and evidence from human
of undergoing glycation in vivo. Earlier reports have shown studies (epidemiology and experimental) is still limited.
the role of oxygen in cross-linking and chemical modification Some epidemiological studies have shown that regular
of collagen by glucose. Free radicals play a vital role in the consumption of millet grains and their products is associated
non-enzymatic glycosylation and crosslinking of collagen. with reduced risk of developing chronic diseases such as
Antioxidative conditions and free radical scavengers inhibit diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and all-cause
these reactions.[33] mortality. Therefore, dietary modification by increasing
the consumption of a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and
Celiac disease millets are non-glutinous so they are being millet grains daily is a practical strategy for consumers to
used by the people suffering from celiac disease and gluten optimize their health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
allergy. It can be replaced in place of wheat in diet. When Although millet foods are considered among the healthiest
consumed, they do not form acid in the digestive tract and food choices that are available, their consumption remains
hence easy to digest. They are also non-allergenic.[63] well below in developed countries where diet-related
chronic diseases are alarming. It is necessary to increase
Other health beneficial effects: Millets because of its high production and lower cost by introducing revolutionary
amount of fiber and antioxidants have shown lowering improvements in production techniques. There is also a lack
of serum lipid profile along with the lowering of blood in the processing techniques, machinery, and standardization
sugar. Studies showed that increased consumption of proso of products. People still consider millets as poor man’s
millet and its products are associated with reduced risk of food. Many processed products need to be optimized to give
chronic diseases, such as elevated serum cholesterol.[72] proper benefits to the consumer. Millets have a potential
Shobana et al. reported hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, for the preparation of healthy foods. Because of their health
nephroprotective, and anticataractogenic properties by benefits, these grains do need a great promotion to reach
feeding a diet containing 20% millet seed coat matter to heights of the major cereals in terms of their utilization.
streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.[73] Liver studies have
shown that proso millet can be considered as preventive food
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