Chapter 7: Sentences

1.5 Punctuation

Definition: Punctuation
The marks, such as full stop, comma and brackets used in writing to separate
sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning.

Punctuation is used to show when a sentence has come to an end. The type of
mark used to end a sentence also indicates its function.
Punctuation is also used to provide structure within sentences by linking groups
of words or separating parts of the sentence so as to aid its meaning.
The following punctuation marks are used in English.

Punctuation mark Symbol Use

Full stop . To end a statement.
Question mark ? To end a question.
Exclamation mark ! To end an exclamation
Comma , Single commas are used to signal a natural
pause in a sentence.
Pairs of commas are used to insert a
supporting statement into the main one.
Brackets () To insert a supporting statement into the
main one.
Semicolons ; Used to divide sentences into longer parts
so as to produce a balance between the
parts of a sentence.
Colons : Used to divide sentences into longer parts
where the meaning of the second part flows
from the first. Also used to introduce lists.
Apostrophe ‘ To indicate that letters are missing from a
word.
To construct possessives
(Never to form a plural)!
Quotation marks “x” To indicate direct speech or in other words
to indicate that what is contained between
the pair of inverted commas is what a
person actually said.
Hyphens - Used to create compound nouns by linking
two words together or linking words to a
prefix (an element placed at the beginning
of a word to change its meaning).

Longer sentences need more punctuation.

The very long sentences often found in the classic novels of English literature
written in a bygone age are much less common in modern writing.

© Emile Woolf International 279 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Functional English

Illustration: The following sentence is from the preface to “Bleak House” by Charles
Dickens.
“A few months ago, on a public occasion, a Chancery judge had the kindness to
inform me, as one of the company of some hundred and fifty men and women not
labouring under any suspicions of lunacy, that the Court of Chancery, though the
shining subject of much popular prejudice (at which point I thought the judge’s eye
had a cast in my direction), was almost immaculate “

This sentence has 67 words and is quite long by modern standards. We will use it
later to illustrate some points of punctuation. (Victor Hugo’s Les Miserable
(written in French but translated into many languages including English) has a
sentence that is 823 words long separated by 93 commas and 51 semicolons)!
Apostrophes and the use of the hyphen have been dealt with in previous chapters
and quotation marks will be covered later. This chapter is about sentences and
will continue to explain those elements of punctuation used to construct
sentences.
The use of the full stop, question mark and exclamation mark is straightforward
and will not be explained further.

Commas
Commas are used in three main ways.
 Commas are placed between items in a list.
 Single commas are used to mark natural pauses in a sentence.
 Pairs of commas are used around words inserted into the sentence as a
kind of side comment.

Commas in a list
When a sentence contains a list of words a comma is inserted between each item
in the list except the last two items where and is used.

Example: Commas in a list

We bought books, food, bottles of water and a pen.
He was brave, fast, strong and trustworthy.

Single commas
Single commas are inserted to mark a natural pause in a sentence. This is
typically where there is a break in the flow of meaning of the sentence. However,
the inclusion or omission of a comma can change the whole meaning of a
sentence.

© Emile Woolf International 280 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

 Chapter 7: Sentences

Example: Single commas

A panda eats shoots and leaves.
This tells us that a panda eats both shoots and leaves. The phrase
shoots and leaves is the object of the verb eat.

A panda eats, shoots and leaves.

This tells us that a panda eats then shoots (presumably the panda has
a gun) and then leaves the scene.

A woman, without her man is nothing.

This expresses the view that a woman is nothing if she does not have
her man.

A woman, without her, man is nothing.

This expresses the view that man is nothing without a woman.

Compound sentences contain two parts joined by a conjunction (this was

explained briefly in chapter 1 and is covered in more detail later in this chapter).
Sometimes a comma is used before the conjunction but not always. A comma is
only used where there is a break in the flow of the meaning that would be
reflected in a pause when the sentence was spoken.
No comma is required if the sentence is continuous in sense. This usually
concerns sentences where the conjunction is and.
A comma is required when the conjunction signals a natural pause in the flow of
the sentence. Often this is the case when the conjunction is but.

Example: Single commas

Sentence with a continuous I opened the door and walked into
sense and no break in the flow so the room.
no comma.

Sentence with a natural pause I am going to Australia in the

that needs a comma. Summer, and I would imagine that
the weather is going to be quite
hot.
I am not very clever, but I am good
at exams.

Different writers might disagree over whether a comma is needed or not needed
at particular point. We would offer the following advice.
Speak your sentences aloud (or imagine doing so). This will often give you a
good idea of the natural pauses in a sentence.
Pairs of commas
A pair of commas is used to enclose a group of words that forms a part of a
sentence that is in addition to the main idea. The sentence should make sense if
the words within the commas are omitted.

© Emile Woolf International 281 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

Functional English

Example: Pairs of commas (returning to the earlier illustration)

“A few months ago, on a public occasion, a Chancery judge had the
kindness to inform me, as one of the company of some hundred and fifty
men and women not labouring under any suspicions of lunacy, that the
Court of Chancery, though the shining subject of much popular prejudice
(at which point I thought the judge’s eye had a cast in my direction), was
almost immaculate “
“A few months ago, on a public occasion, a Chancery judge had the
kindness to inform me, as one of the company of some hundred and fifty
men and women not labouring under any suspicions of lunacy, that the
Court of Chancery, though the shining subject of much popular prejudice
(at which point I thought the judge’s eye had a cast in my direction), was
almost immaculate “

Brackets can be used in the same way as a pair of commas.

Reminder
Chapter 3 explained whether a comma is needed when a relative pronoun is
used to link a relative clause to a main clause.
There are two types of relative clause:
 restricting (defining) relative clause;
 non-restricting (non-defining) relative clauses
A restricting relative clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence and can
be introduced using either that or which with no need for a comma.
A restricting relative clause cannot be removed from a sentence without affecting
its basic meaning.
Examples were given in chapter 3.

Semicolons and colons

Semicolons are used to divide long sentences into parts where there is close
connection between the parts of the sentence that might be lost if the sentence is
split into two separate sentences.
It is difficult to tell when a semicolon should be used instead of a comma. There
are no hard and fast rules but a semicolon indicates a stronger break in the flow
of a sentence than the type of break that indicates the use of a comma but this is
down to judgment.
A semicolon can be used between two main clauses that balance each other and
are too closely linked to be made into separate sentences without losing some of
the meaning of the sentence. They almost take the place of a conjunction (and or
but).

© Emile Woolf International 282 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan

 Chapter 7: Sentences

Example: Imperative sentences

Yasin likes cricket; Sabir likes hockey.

This could be written as two sentences but this might lose the link
between Yasin and Sabir.
Yasin likes cricket. Sabir likes hockey.

This could be written as:

Yasin likes cricket but Sabir likes hockey.

Semicolons are not used much in modern writing and it is recommended that you
avoid trying to use them. When in doubt use a comma or conjunction instead.

Colons
A semicolon is a break in a sentence that is stronger than a comma but not as
final as a full stop but a colon is used to provide a pause before introducing
related information.

Uses Illustration
To introduce a list For a perfect evening you need three things: good food,
good company and fine weather.
To introduce a Wombat: Short-legged, muscular quadrupedal marsupials,
definition native to Australia, approximately 1 metre in length with a
short, stubby tail

1.6 Classification of sentences

Sentences can be classified according to their structure or function.
Classification
of sentences

By function
By structure
(see later)

Simple Multiple
sentences sentences

Compound –
Complex Compound
complex
sentences sentences
sentences

© Emile Woolf International 283 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan