B.
Sources of finance
1. Long-term sources of finance:
Long-term sources are usually repaid between 5 - 20 years.
a. Ordinary shares may be issued to finance a major expansion such as the building of a factory overseas. The
board of directors must convince the existing shareholders or attract investors to subscribe to the new issue. The
shareholders will expect a dividend and a capital gain on their investment. The proposed expansion must therefore
be profitable or else the investors will be disappointed.
b. Retained earnings are profits, which are ploughed back into the business to create growth. This form of
finance is suitable for organic growth as the pace of the expansion can be matched to the funds available. The
shareholders have to give up some or all of their dividends but, if growth is a success, the value of their shares will
increase.
c. Long-term loans are borrowed from financial institutions and must be repaid with interest within five to twenty
years. If repayments can be met, borrowing allows the business to grow without introducing any new owners who
would have a share of all future profits. Dunnes Stores, one of Ireland's leading retail chains, remains a private
company and does not look for shareholder funds when expanding. Instead it uses borrowings and retained
earnings. This means that a small family group retain absolute control of the business.
d. Venture capital. A special type of financial institution has been formed to help firms grow. Venture capital
companies provide money for a limited period of time, usually in the form of a minority equity stake. It is hoped
that at the end of this time the company will have grown large enough to achieve a stock exchange quotation. This
allows the venture capital company to sell its shares for a large profit.
2. Medium-term sources of finance
Medium-term sources are usually repaid between 1 - 5 years.
a. Medium term loans: The business borrows an agreed amount, which is advanced at the start of the loan. A
repayment schedule between one and five years is agreed. Interest is charged in line with general interest rates
and the category of the borrower is taken into consideration. The business will normally have to provide security
for the loan but, with the cash raised, they can avail of cash discounts when buying assets.
b. Hire purchase: This form of finance allows a business to buy a particular asset. For example, if a business buys
a car using this form of finance it will purchase the car from a garage. A finance company will pay the garage the
full amount and the business then repays the finance company in regular instalments over a fixed period of time.
The interest charged is higher than on a medium-term loan but no security is needed as the car belongs to the
finance company until the last instalment is paid.
c. Leasing: This form of finance allows a business to use an asset without having to raise the full price. In
essence, the business rents the asset from a financial institution. The advantage to the business is that it allows
the business claim a tax deduction for the full leasing payments over the life of the lease. The downside is that the
asset is not owned unless the business decides to buy out the lease. Leasing is appropriate for IT equipment, which
may have to be changed every two to three years.
3. Short-term sources of finance
Short-term sources are repaid within one year.
a. Bank overdraft: This involves negotiating a credit limit with the bank manager. The business may then spend
money up to this limit. In return, the business must have funds in their current account for at least 30 days within
the year and they pay interest on the outstanding daily balance. This gives the business great flexibility as it knows
it can pay bills even when there is no ready cash available. However, the business must remain within the credit
limit.
b. Trade credit: This involves the business buying goods or services and agreeing to pay for them at a later date.
This source of finance is widely available once the buyer proves to be creditworthy. It must be remembered that
giving up cash discounts for prompt payment can be expensive.
c. Factoring: This involves the sale of the business debtors to a financial institution known as a factor. This could
allow the expanding business to focus on its core activity while the factor managed their debtor's ledger. Services
provided by a factor include the regularisation of cash flow by paying invoices on agreed dates and the elimination
of bad debts if the business opts for factoring without recourse.
C. Factors affecting choice of finance
In the example below, the factors affecting a choice of finance are discussed in relation to choosing finance for
expansion.
• The purpose of the finance: A golden rule is that sources must be matched with uses e.g. a long-term
business expansion plan is not financed by a bank overdraft.
• The cost of the finance: In return for providing equity capital, the owner expects a return in the form of
a share of profits (dividends in the case of shareholders). In return for providing loan capital, a financial
institution will charge interest on the amount borrowed (a flat rate of interest) or on the amount
outstanding (a true rate of interest).
• The control of the business: Issuing new voting shares in a company could lead to a change of power in
the board of directors if the existing shareholders are unable to buy part of the issue. Using retained
earnings does not affect control but may upset the owners if their dividends are reduced. The use of loan
capital will not affect voting control but the financial institution may take control of fixed assets or impose
conditions (e.g. restricting dividend payments) as part of the loan agreement.
• The tax benefits: The payment of dividends is not deductible against the corporation's tax on profits
whereas the interest on a loan is deductible.
The exposure to risk: Equity exposes the company to less risk as the share capital only has to be repaid when
the company closes. If no profits are available, dividends do not have to be repaid. A loan on the other hand will
have a repayment schedule for both the capital and the interest, which must be met if the company is to avoid
receivership or liquidation.
Sources of funds
A company might raise new funds from the following sources:
• The capital markets:
i) new share issues, for example, by companies acquiring a stock market listing for the first time
ii) rights issues
• Loan stock
• Retained earnings
• Bank borrowing
• Government sources
• Business expansion scheme funds
• Venture capital
• Franchising.
Ordinary (equity) shares
Ordinary shares are issued to the owners of a company. They have a nominal or 'face' value,
typically of $1 or 50 cents. The market value of a quoted company's shares bears no
relationship to their nominal value, except that when ordinary shares are issued for cash, the
issue price must be equal to or be more than the nominal value of the shares.
Deferred ordinary shares
are a form of ordinary shares, which are entitled to a dividend only after a certain date or if
profits rise above a certain amount. Voting rights might also differ from those attached to other
ordinary shares.
Ordinary shareholders put funds into their company:
a) by paying for a new issue of shares
b) through retained profits.
Simply retaining profits, instead of paying them out in the form of dividends, offers an important,
simple low-cost source of finance, although this method may not provide enough funds, for
example, if the firm is seeking to grow.
A new issue of shares might be made in a variety of different circumstances:
a) The company might want to raise more cash. If it issues ordinary shares for cash, should the
shares be issued pro rata to existing shareholders, so that control or ownership of the company
is not affected? If, for example, a company with 200,000 ordinary shares in issue decides to
issue 50,000 new shares to raise cash, should it offer the new shares to existing shareholders,
or should it sell them to new shareholders instead?
i) If a company sells the new shares to existing shareholders in proportion to their existing
shareholding in the company, we have a rights issue. In the example above, the 50,000 shares
would be issued as a one-in-four rights issue, by offering shareholders one new share for every
four shares they currently hold.
ii) If the number of new shares being issued is small compared to the number of shares already
in issue, it might be decided instead to sell them to new shareholders, since ownership of the
company would only be minimally affected.
b) The company might want to issue shares partly to raise cash, but more importantly to float' its
shares on a stick exchange.
c) The company might issue new shares to the shareholders of another company, in order to
take it over.
New shares issues
A company seeking to obtain additional equity funds may be:
a) an unquoted company wishing to obtain a Stock Exchange quotation
b) an unquoted company wishing to issue new shares, but without obtaining a Stock Exchange
quotation
c) a company which is already listed on the Stock Exchange wishing to issue additional new
shares.
The methods by which an unquoted company can obtain a quotation on the stock market are:
a) an offer for sale
b) a prospectus issue
c) a placing
d) an introduction.
Offers for sale:
An offer for sale is a means of selling the shares of a company to the public.
a) An unquoted company may issue shares, and then sell them on the Stock Exchange, to raise
cash for the company. All the shares in the company, not just the new ones, would then become
marketable.
b) Shareholders in an unquoted company may sell some of their existing shares to the general
public. When this occurs, the company is not raising any new funds, but just providing a wider
market for its existing shares (all of which would become marketable), and giving existing
shareholders the chance to cash in some or all of their investment in their company.
When companies 'go public' for the first time, a 'large' issue will probably take the form of an
offer for sale. A smaller issue is more likely to be a placing, since the amount to be raised can
be obtained more cheaply if the issuing house or other sponsoring firm approaches selected
institutional investors privately.
Rights issues
A rights issue provides a way of raising new share capital by means of an offer to existing
shareholders, inviting them to subscribe cash for new shares in proportion to their existing
holdings.
For example, a rights issue on a one-for-four basis at 280c per share would mean that a
company is inviting its existing shareholders to subscribe for one new share for every four
shares they hold, at a price of 280c per new share.
A company making a rights issue must set a price which is low enough to secure the
acceptance of shareholders, who are being asked to provide extra funds, but not too low, so as
to avoid excessive dilution of the earnings per share.
Preference shares
Preference shares have a fixed percentage dividend before any dividend is paid to the ordinary
shareholders. As with ordinary shares a preference dividend can only be paid if sufficient
distributable profits are available, although with 'cumulative' preference shares the right to an
unpaid dividend is carried forward to later years. The arrears of dividend on cumulative
preference shares must be paid before any dividend is paid to the ordinary shareholders.
From the company's point of view, preference shares are advantageous in that:
• Dividends do not have to be paid in a year in which profits are poor, while this is not the case
with interest payments on long term debt (loans or debentures).
• Since they do not carry voting rights, preference shares avoid diluting the control of existing
shareholders while an issue of equity shares would not.
• Unless they are redeemable, issuing preference shares will lower the company's gearing.
Redeemable preference shares are normally treated as debt when gearing is calculated.
• The issue of preference shares does not restrict the company's borrowing power, at least in
the sense that preference share capital is not secured against assets in the business.
• The non-payment of dividend does not give the preference shareholders the right to appoint a
receiver, a right which is normally given to debenture holders.
However, dividend payments on preference shares are not tax deductible in the way that
interest payments on debt are. Furthermore, for preference shares to be attractive to investors,
the level of payment needs to be higher than for interest on debt to compensate for the
additional risks.
For the investor, preference shares are less attractive than loan stock because:
• they cannot be secured on the company's assets
• the dividend yield traditionally offered on preference dividends has been much too low to
provide an attractive investment compared with the interest yields on loan stock in view of the
additional risk involved.
Loan stock
Loan stock is long-term debt capital raised by a company for which interest is paid, usually half
yearly and at a fixed rate. Holders of loan stock are therefore long-term creditors of the
company.
Loan stock has a nominal value, which is the debt owed by the company, and interest is paid at
a stated "coupon yield" on this amount. For example, if a company issues 10% loan stocky the
coupon yield will be 10% of the nominal value of the stock, so that $100 of stock will receive $10
interest each year. The rate quoted is the gross rate, before tax.
Debentures are a form of loan stock, legally defined as the written acknowledgement of a debt
incurred by a company, normally containing provisions about the payment of interest and the
eventual repayment of capital.
Debentures with a floating rate of interest
These are debentures for which the coupon rate of interest can be changed by the issuer, in
accordance with changes in market rates of interest. They may be attractive to both lenders and
borrowers when interest rates are volatile.
Security
Loan stock and debentures will often be secured. Security may take the form of either a fixed
charge or a floating charge.
a) Fixed charge; Security would be related to a specific asset or group of assets, typically land
and buildings. The company would be unable to dispose of the asset without providing a
substitute asset for security, or without the lender's consent.
b) Floating charge; With a floating charge on certain assets of the company (for example,
stocks and debtors), the lender's security in the event of a default payment is whatever assets
of the appropriate class the company then owns (provided that another lender does not have a
prior charge on the assets). The company would be able, however, to dispose of its assets as it
chose until a default took place. In the event of a default, the lender would probably appoint a
receiver to run the company rather than lay claim to a particular asset.
The redemption of loan stock
Loan stock and debentures are usually redeemable. They are issued for a term of ten years or
more, and perhaps 25 to 30 years. At the end of this period, they will "mature" and become
redeemable (at par or possibly at a value above par).
Most redeemable stocks have an earliest and latest redemption date. For example, 18%
Debenture Stock 2007/09 is redeemable, at any time between the earliest specified date (in
2007) and the latest date (in 2009). The issuing company can choose the date. The decision by
a company when to redeem a debt will depend on:
a) how much cash is available to the company to repay the debt
b) the nominal rate of interest on the debt. If the debentures pay 18% nominal interest and the
current rate of interest is lower, say 10%, the company may try to raise a new loan at 10% to
redeem the debt which costs 18%. On the other hand, if current interest rates are 20%, the
company is unlikely to redeem the debt until the latest date possible, because the debentures
would be a cheap source of funds.
There is no guarantee that a company will be able to raise a new loan to pay off a maturing
debt, and one item to look for in a company's balance sheet is the redemption date of current
loans, to establish how much new finance is likely to be needed by the company, and when.
Mortgages are a specific type of secured loan. Companies place the title deeds of freehold or
long leasehold property as security with an insurance company or mortgage broker and receive
cash on loan, usually repayable over a specified period. Most organisations owning property
which is unencumbered by any charge should be able to obtain a mortgage up to two thirds of
the value of the property.
As far as companies are concerned, debt capital is a potentially attractive source of finance
because interest charges reduce the profits chargeable to corporation tax.
Retained earnings
For any company, the amount of earnings retained within the business has a direct impact on
the amount of dividends. Profit re-invested as retained earnings is profit that could have been
paid as a dividend. The major reasons for using retained earnings to finance new investments,
rather than to pay higher dividends and then raise new equity for the new investments, are as
follows:
a) The management of many companies believes that retained earnings are funds which do not
cost anything, although this is not true. However, it is true that the use of retained earnings as a
source of funds does not lead to a payment of cash.
b) The dividend policy of the company is in practice determined by the directors. From their
standpoint, retained earnings are an attractive source of finance because investment projects
can be undertaken without involving either the shareholders or any outsiders.
c) The use of retained earnings as opposed to new shares or debentures avoids issue costs.
d) The use of retained earnings avoids the possibility of a change in control resulting from an
issue of new shares.
Another factor that may be of importance is the financial and taxation position of the company's
shareholders. If, for example, because of taxation considerations, they would rather make a
capital profit (which will only be taxed when shares are sold) than receive current income, then
finance through retained earnings would be preferred to other methods.
A company must restrict its self-financing through retained profits because shareholders should
be paid a reasonable dividend, in line with realistic expectations, even if the directors would
rather keep the funds for re-investing. At the same time, a company that is looking for extra
funds will not be expected by investors (such as banks) to pay generous dividends, nor over-
generous salaries to owner-directors.
Bank lending
Borrowings from banks are an important source of finance to companies. Bank lending is still
mainly short term, although medium-term lending is quite common these days.
Short term lending may be in the form of:
a) an overdraft, which a company should keep within a limit set by the bank. Interest is charged
(at a variable rate) on the amount by which the company is overdrawn from day to day;
b) a short-term loan, for up to three years.
Medium-term loans are loans for a period of from three to ten years. The rate of interest
charged on medium-term bank lending to large companies will be a set margin, with the size of
the margin depending on the credit standing and riskiness of the borrower. A loan may have a
fixed rate of interest or a variable interest rate, so that the rate of interest charged will be
adjusted every three, six, nine or twelve months in line with recent movements in the Base
Lending Rate.
Lending to smaller companies will be at a margin above the bank's base rate and at either a
variable or fixed rate of interest. Lending on overdraft is always at a variable rate. A loan at a
variable rate of interest is sometimes referred to as a floating rate loan. Longer-term bank loans
will sometimes be available, usually for the purchase of property, where the loan takes the form
of a mortgage. When a banker is asked by a business customer for a loan or overdraft facility,
he will consider several factors, known commonly by the mnemonic PARTS.
- Purpose
- Amount
- Repayment
- Term
- Security
P The purpose of the loan A loan request will be refused if the purpose of the loan is not acceptable to the
bank.
A The amount of the loan. The customer must state exactly how much he wants to borrow. The banker
must verify, as far as he is able to do so, that the amount required to make the proposed investment has
been estimated correctly.
R How will the loan be repaid? Will the customer be able to obtain sufficient income to make the necessary
repayments?
T What would be the duration of the loan? Traditionally, banks have offered short-term loans and
overdrafts, although medium-term loans are now quite common.
S Does the loan require security? If so, is the proposed security adequate?
Leasing
A lease is an agreement between two parties, the "lessor" and the "lessee". The lessor owns a
capital asset, but allows the lessee to use it. The lessee makes payments under the terms of the
lease to the lessor, for a specified period of time.
Leasing is, therefore, a form of rental. Leased assets have usually been plant and machinery,
cars and commercial vehicles, but might also be computers and office equipment. There are two
basic forms of lease: "operating leases" and "finance leases".
Operating leases
Operating leases are rental agreements between the lessor and the lessee whereby:
a) the lessor supplies the equipment to the lessee
b) the lessor is responsible for servicing and maintaining the leased equipment
c) the period of the lease is fairly short, less than the economic life of the asset, so that at the
end of the lease agreement, the lessor can either
i) lease the equipment to someone else, and obtain a good rent for it, or
ii) sell the equipment secondhand.
Finance leases
Finance leases are lease agreements between the user of the leased asset (the lessee) and a
provider of finance (the lessor) for most, or all, of the asset's expected useful life.
Suppose that a company decides to obtain a company car and finance the acquisition by means
of a finance lease. A car dealer will supply the car. A finance house will agree to act as lessor in
a finance leasing arrangement, and so will purchase the car from the dealer and lease it to the
company. The company will take possession of the car from the car dealer, and make regular
payments (monthly, quarterly, six monthly or annually) to the finance house under the terms of
the lease.
Other important characteristics of a finance lease:
a) The lessee is responsible for the upkeep, servicing and maintenance of the asset. The lessor
is not involved in this at all.
b) The lease has a primary period, which covers all or most of the economic life of the asset. At
the end of the lease, the lessor would not be able to lease the asset to someone else, as the
asset would be worn out. The lessor must, therefore, ensure that the lease payments during the
primary period pay for the full cost of the asset as well as providing the lessor with a suitable
return on his investment.
c) It is usual at the end of the primary lease period to allow the lessee to continue to lease the
asset for an indefinite secondary period, in return for a very low nominal rent. Alternatively, the
lessee might be allowed to sell the asset on the lessor's behalf (since the lessor is the owner)
and to keep most of the sale proceeds, paying only a small percentage (perhaps 10%) to the
lessor.
Why might leasing be popular
The attractions of leases to the supplier of the equipment, the lessee and the lessor are as
follows:
• The supplier of the equipment is paid in full at the beginning. The equipment is sold to the
lessor, and apart from obligations under guarantees or warranties, the supplier has no further
financial concern about the asset.
• The lessor invests finance by purchasing assets from suppliers and makes a return out of the
lease payments from the lessee. Provided that a lessor can find lessees willing to pay the
amounts he wants to make his return, the lessor can make good profits. He will also get capital
allowances on his purchase of the equipment.
• Leasing might be attractive to the lessee:
i) if the lessee does not have enough cash to pay for the asset, and would have difficulty
obtaining a bank loan to buy it, and so has to rent it in one way or another if he is to have the
use of it at all; or
ii) if finance leasing is cheaper than a bank loan. The cost of payments under a loan might
exceed the cost of a lease.
Operating leases have further advantages:
• The leased equipment does not need to be shown in the lessee's published balance sheet,
and so the lessee's balance sheet shows no increase in its gearing ratio.
• The equipment is leased for a shorter period than its expected useful life. In the case of high-
technology equipment, if the equipment becomes out-of-date before the end of its expected life,
the lessee does not have to keep on using it, and it is the lessor who must bear the risk of
having to sell obsolete equipment secondhand.
The lessee will be able to deduct the lease payments in computing his taxable profits.
Hire purchase
Hire purchase is a form of instalment credit. Hire purchase is similar to leasing, with the
exception that ownership of the goods passes to the hire purchase customer on payment of the
final credit instalment, whereas a lessee never becomes the owner of the goods.
Hire purchase agreements usually involve a finance house.
i) The supplier sells the goods to the finance house.
ii) The supplier delivers the goods to the customer who will eventually purchase them.
iii) The hire purchase arrangement exists between the finance house and the customer.
The finance house will always insist that the hirer should pay a deposit towards the purchase
price. The size of the deposit will depend on the finance company's policy and its assessment of
the hirer. This is in contrast to a finance lease, where the lessee might not be required to make
any large initial payment.
An industrial or commercial business can use hire purchase as a source of finance. With
industrial hire purchase, a business customer obtains hire purchase finance from a finance
house in order to purchase the fixed asset. Goods bought by businesses on hire purchase
include company vehicles, plant and machinery, office equipment and farming machinery.
Government assistance
The government provides finance to companies in cash grants and other forms of direct
assistance, as part of its policy of helping to develop the national economy, especially in high
technology industries and in areas of high unemployment. For example, the Indigenous
Business Development Corporation of Zimbabwe (IBDC) was set up by the government to
assist small indigenous businesses in that country.
Venture capital
Venture capital is money put into an enterprise which may all be lost if the enterprise fails. A
businessman starting up a new business will invest venture capital of his own, but he will
probably need extra funding from a source other than his own pocket. However, the term
'venture capital' is more specifically associated with putting money, usually in return for an
equity stake, into a new business, a management buy-out or a major expansion scheme.
The institution that puts in the money recognises the gamble inherent in the funding. There is a
serious risk of losing the entire investment, and it might take a long time before any profits and
returns materialise. But there is also the prospect of very high profits and a substantial return on
the investment. A venture capitalist will require a high expected rate of return on investments, to
compensate for the high risk.
A venture capital organisation will not want to retain its investment in a business indefinitely, and
when it considers putting money into a business venture, it will also consider its "exit", that is,
how it will be able to pull out of the business eventually (after five to seven years, say) and
realise its profits. Examples of venture capital organisations are: Merchant Bank of Central
Africa Ltd and Anglo American Corporation Services Ltd.
When a company's directors look for help from a venture capital institution, they must recognise
that:
• the institution will want an equity stake in the company
• it will need convincing that the company can be successful
• it may want to have a representative appointed to the company's board, to look after its
interests.
The directors of the company must then contact venture capital organisations, to try and find
one or more which would be willing to offer finance. A venture capital organisation will only give
funds to a company that it believes can succeed, and before it will make any definite offer, it will
want from the company management:
a) a business plan
b) details of how much finance is needed and how it will be used
c) the most recent trading figures of the company, a balance sheet, a cash flow forecast and a
profit forecast
d) details of the management team, with evidence of a wide range of management skills
e) details of major shareholders
f) details of the company's current banking arrangements and any other sources of finance
g) any sales literature or publicity material that the company has issued.
A high percentage of requests for venture capital are rejected on an initial screening, and only a
small percentage of all requests survive both this screening and further investigation and result
in actual investments.
Franchising
Franchising is a method of expanding business on less capital than would otherwise be needed.
For suitable businesses, it is an alternative to raising extra capital for growth. Franchisors
include Budget Rent-a-Car, Wimpy, Nando's Chicken and Chicken Inn.
Under a franchising arrangement, a franchisee pays a franchisor for the right to operate a local
business, under the franchisor's trade name. The franchisor must bear certain costs (possibly
for architect's work, establishment costs, legal costs, marketing costs and the cost of other
support services) and will charge the franchisee an initial franchise fee to cover set-up costs,
relying on the subsequent regular payments by the franchisee for an operating profit. These
regular payments will usually be a percentage of the franchisee's turnover.
Although the franchisor will probably pay a large part of the initial investment cost of a
franchisee's outlet, the franchisee will be expected to contribute a share of the investment
himself. The franchisor may well help the franchisee to obtain loan capital to provide his-share
of the investment cost.
The advantages of franchises to the franchisor are as follows:
• The capital outlay needed to expand the business is reduced substantially.
• The image of the business is improved because the franchisees will be motivated to achieve
good results and will have the authority to take whatever action they think fit to improve the
results.
The advantage of a franchise to a franchisee is that he obtains ownership of a business for an
agreed number of years (including stock and premises, although premises might be leased from
the franchisor) together with the backing of a large organisation's marketing effort and
experience. The franchisee is able to avoid some of the mistakes of many small businesses,
because the franchisor has already learned from its own past mistakes and developed a
scheme that works.
