University of Nebraska Omaha

DigitalCommons@UNO
School K-12 Service Learning

5-2000

Research on K-12 School-Based Service-Learning:

The Evidence Builds
Shelley Billig

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slcek12

Part of the Service Learning Commons

Recommended Citation
Billig, Shelley, "Research on K-12 School-Based Service-Learning: The Evidence Builds" (2000). School K-12. Paper 3.
http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slcek12/3

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Service
Learning at DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in
School K-12 by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO.
For more information, please contact unodigitalcommons@unomaha.edu.
,.

Research on K-12
School-Based
Service-Learning
The Evidence Builds
Practitioners and policy
makers are curious about
service-learning and its
effects. Ms. Billig details for
Kappan readers what
research tells us about
service-learning today and
suggests the kinds of questions
that still need to be answered.

BY SHELLEY H. BILLIG
EARLY a decade ago, Dan
Conrad and Diane Hedin
wrote a synthesis of there-
search in service-learning.
They cited a growing trend
toward the adoption of ser-
vice-learning in K-12 schools
because of two perceived needs: the refonn
of youth and the reform of education.
At that time, young people seemed to
be growing increasingly alienated from
their communities and from society as a whole. They were less likely than other learning, Conrad and Hedin concluded that
SHElLEY H. BIWG is vice president, RMC age groups to vote or to volunteer, and "the case for community service as a le-
Research Corporation, Denver. This anicle was their top goal was to be well off finan- gitimate educational practice receives pro-
written with supponfrom thew. K. Ke/kJgg Foun- cially. Test scores were said to be declin- visional support from quantitative, quasi-
dation 's Learning In Deed Initiative, but the ing in schools, and the U.S. education sys- experimental studies and even more con-
opinions expressed are the author's own. She tern was said to be less competitive inter- sistent affirmation from the reports and testi-
wishes to thank the following researchers and nationally. Service-learning offered a pow- mony of participants and practitioners."'
practitioners who reviewed early drafts: James erful pedagogical alternative that allowed Advocacy for service-learning has grown
Kielsmeier; Chris Kwak, Lisa »Yatt Knowlton, students to gain a greater understanding of in the past decade, but many of the issues
Andy F~, T~rry Pickeral, Shaun Hi~chl, Bar- concepts while they contributed to their com- raised by Conrad and Hedin remain current
bara WeiSS, Mrke Brugh, Joseph Martmez. Dan ..
Jesse, Jill Conrad, Deborah Watson, Kristin · ffiWllties_. . • As service-learning has become more pop-
Kleimann, Jill Blair; Betsey McGee, Alan Mel- Servtce-leammg, though, was stdl an ular, both its advocates and its detractors
chior; Leslie Herge11, Nancy Murphy, and Su- "unproven" educational approach. Review- have begun to ask difficult and serious ques-
san Oliver. ing the research on the impact of service- tions. Just what is service-learning? Is it a

658 PHI DELTA KAPPAN Illustration by Karen Stolper

 model, a program, a pedagogy, or a phi- a strategy for education reform. of a community;
losophy? What key elements need to be • is coordinated with an elementary
in place for a program to claim to be ser- school, secondary school, institution of
vice-learning? What does "best practice"
Public Support higher education, or community-service
program and with the community;
look like? What are the effects and impacts While service-learning is not widely
• helps foster civic responsibility;
of service-learning? Do the characteristics known or understood by the public, it is • is integrated into and enhances the
(for example, grade level, age, socioeco- supported where it is known. A media (core) academic curriculum of the stu-
nomic status) of the participants matter? scan conducted recently by theW. K. Kel- dents, or the educational components
Do the characteristics of and relationships logg Foundation showed that more than of the community-service program in
with the service recipients influence out- half of the articles written about service- which the participants are enrolled; and
comes? Do school characteristics matter? learning in the popular media were favor- • provides structured time for the
Does the sponsorship or the service target able.4 Those that addressed K-12 service- students or participants to reflect on the
make a difference? Ten years of research learning typically focused on civic edu- service experience.'
and practice can shed some light on many cation and positive youth development. Fo-
of these questions. cus groups conducted by the same research While disagreement about the defini-
group showed that parents and teachers in tion of service-learning persists, there is
particular liked the potential for service- general consensus that its major compo-
Prevalence of Service-Learning learning to impart practical experience, im- nents include "active participation, thought-
In the past decade, service-learning has prove academic performance, create better fully organized experiences, focus on com-
grown by leaps and bounds. From 1984 citizens, and aid in personal development. munity needs and school/community co-
through 1997, the numberofK-12 students Many respondents, though, were somewhat ordination, academic curriculum integra-
involved in service programs rose from concerned about whether service-learning tion, structured time for reflection, oppor-
900,000 to 12,605,740, and the percent- would distract schools from the "basics" tunities for application of skills and knowl-
age of high school students participating or subordinate the role of parents in teach- edge, extended learning opportunities, and
in service-learning nationwide increased ing values. They also expressed concern development of a sense of caring for oth-
from 2% to 25%. In 1984, 27% of all high about student safety and mandatory ser- ers."8 The disagreements arise when peo-
schools in the U.S. offered some type of vice, calling the latter "involuntary servi- ple try to distinguish service-learning from
service program, and 9% offered service- tude." other experiential education approaches,
learning.2 According to a report issued by such as volunteer and community service,
the National Center for Educational Sta- internships, field studies, and cross-age peer
tistics in 1999, 64% of all public schools
Definitions of Service-Learning tutoring. Robert Sigmon and James Toole
and 83% of public high schools now organ- As many articles and at least two books and Pamela Toole, for example, believe
ize some form of community serviCe for explain, service-learning has been a popu- that precision in defining terms is critical
their students.3 Nearly a third of all schools lar educational philosophy for a very long if the field is to establish clear goals and
and half of public high schools provide ser- time. 5 Most trace its roots to the writings standards for high-quality practice.9 These
vice-learning programs. This nationally rep- of John Dewey and Jean Piaget, and some researchers suggest a typology that distin-
resentative survey also found that elemen- even go back as far as Alexis de Tocque- guishes service-learning from its closely
tary schools are more likely to have school- ville. These philosophers believed that learn- related program types by defining the for-
wide or gradewide service-learning pro- ing occurs best when students are actively mer as a program in which the service and
grams, while middle and high schools are involved in their own learning and when learning goals are of equal weight, each en-
more likely to have individual classes or the learning has a distinct purpose. hancing the other for all participants. An-
electives in service-learning. The most com- Service-learning, though, is variously drew Furco elaborates by pointing out that
mon reasons cited for the adoption of ser- defined, and discussion of its definition is service-learning is intentionally designed
vice-learning included helping students to often the source of disagreement among "to equally benefit the provider and the
become more active members of the com- proponents. The National Society for Ex- recipient of the service as well as to ensure
munity, increasing student knowledge and periential Education, for example, defines equal focus on both the service being pro-
understanding of the community, meeting service-learning as "any carefully moni- vided and the learning that is occurring." 10
real community needs, and encoUraging stu- tored service experience in which a stu- Differences in definition reflect a di-
dents' altruism and caring for others. dent has intentional learning goals andre- vision of opinion in the field regarding
Service-learning programs exist in every flects actively on what he or she is learn- whether service-learning is a philosophy
state in the Union. Many states, such as ing throughout the experience."6 The Cor- of education, a curricular tool, or a program
California and Maryland, have established poration for National Service has a nar- design. Those who believe that it is a phi-
service-learning goals for all students, and rower definition. losophy often discuss it in terms of edu-
several cities, such as Chicago and Phila- cation reform. Service-learning is viewed
The term "service-learning" means
delphia, either strongly encourage or actu- a method under which students or par- either as a way to reinvigorate the central
ally mandate service-learning for their stu- ticipants learn and develop through ac- role that schools can play in developing
dents. In some states, such as South Caro- tive participation in thoughtfully organ- responsible, caring citizens who deeply un-
lina, Delaware, Kentucky, and Vermont, ized service that: derstand democracy and the meaning of
service-learning is strongly promoted as • is conducted in and meets the needs civic responsibility" or as a way to opera-

MAY 2000 659

 . ..,.
·"~-
.

tionalize constructivist theories of learn- from the fact that there is a body of evi- the major findings of the studies that sup-
ing.12 Those who view it as a curricular dence that is building to support the field. port it. For details on each study, readers
tool see its potential as a powerful, active are urged to consult the original sources.
form of reciprocal teaching and learning Limitations of the Research
and discuss the need for service-learning
The Impact of Service-Learning on
to be fully integrated into the curriculum Readers should be aware of the limi-
and aligned with standards. 13 Those who Personal and Social Development
tations of the research. Most of the "re-
view service-learning as a program are more search" that exists and is presented here Service-learning has a positive ef-
likely to operationalize it as an elective comes from service-learning program eval- fect on the personal development or
for high school students, an after-school uations. One of these, the Brandeis study public school youths.
program, or a short-term activity that em- of "quality" Learn and Serve programs, • Middle and high school students who
phasizes promoting caring and making con- is an evaluation that is national in scope, engaged in high-quality service-learning
nections to the community through the pro- featuring surveys and observations at mul- programs showed increases in measures of
vision of a service. tiple sites with students who are tracked personal and social responsibility, commu-
over two years and matched with a con- nication, and sense of educational compe-
Standards for Quality trol group of students. 16 Even with a strong tence.•'
While there are strong disagreements effort to select programs for quality, how- • Students who engaged in service-learn-
ever, the programs that are actually evalu- ing ranked responsibility as a more impor-
about the definition of service-learning,
there is relative consensus on standards ated vary greatly in implementation. Some tant value and reported a higher sense of
for quality. Most of the writing on service- of the studies, such as those by Daniel responsibility to their school than did com-
Weiler and colleagues and by Joseph Foll- parison groups. 211
learning refers to the standards for quali-
ty established by the Alliance for Service- man, are state-level evaluations. 17 Weiler • Students perceive themselves to be
Learning in Educational Reform (ASLER and his colleagues selected "quality" pro- more socially competent after engaging in
standards) or the Essential Elements of Ser- grams in California to evaluate and used service-learning.21
vice_-I..eaming, a version of these standards multiple methods, but they also found great • Students who engaged in service-learn-
updated by 13 service-learning organiza- variation in implementation that was not ing were more likely to treat one another
tions.•• (See the sidebar "Essential Ele- controlled in the study. Follman used a kindly, help one another, and care about
ments," page 663.) five-item self-report survey, administered doing their best. 22
California and Maryland have also es- to all Learn and Serve program coordina- • Students who engaged in service-learn-
tablished standards for service-learning, tors in Florida. It is not clear whether these ing were more likely to increase their sense
and other states are expected to follow suit. data can be validated. Most of the other of self-esteem and self-efficacy.23
Standards for service-learning address both studies are evaluations of particular ser- • Male middle-schoolers reported in-
vice-learning programs, some of which are creased self-esteem and fewer behavioral
content and performance and are typically
stated in terms of what students will know internationally implemented models, some problems after engaging in service-leam-
and be able to do as a result of their par- of which are unique programs offered at ing.:u
multiple sites, and some of which are sin- • No differences were found between
ticipation. For example, California speci-
fies th8t students will understand how com- gle-site models. Still other evaluations ex- service-learning and control group partici-
munity needs are identified, the relation- arnined the effects of participating in any pants on measures of personal or social re-
type of service-learning program. sponsibility.25
ships between schools and communities,
and the significance of their service ex- Very few of the studies used control Students who participate in service-
perience. They will demonstrate curricu- groups, and very few tracked whether the learning are less likely to engage in
lar know ledge and skills and civic respon- impacts were sustained over time. Many ''risk" behaviors.
of the studies used self-reports or infor- • Students in service-learning programs
sibility.•'
mation from surveys administered before in elementary and middle schools showed
and after a service experience. Some used reduced levels of alienation and behavioral
Evidence of Impact
qualitative methods and case stud,ies. Few, problems. 26
Research in the field of service-learn- if any, tested hypotheses or cited the the- • Students who engaged in service-learn-
ing has not caught up with the passion that oretical foundations under which the pro- ing were less likely to be referred to the
educators feel for it. What research is grams were being operated. The field is office for disciplinary measures.27
available, though, is beginning to build a clearly a messy one, and far more and bet- • High school and middle school stu-
case for the impacts that practitioners be- ter research is needed. Still, the body of dents who were engaged in service-learn-
lieve to be true. The summary of research evidence to date is promising, and much ing were less likely to engage in behav-
findings below presents the past decade of the evidence cited here is supported by iors that lead to pregnancy or arrest. 28
of research on service-learning in K-12 similar results for service-learning found • Middle school students who engaged
schools. For purposes of this review, ser- in the higher education Iiterature. 18 in service-learning and experienced a struc-
vice-learning is defined as "a teaching The information is organized here by tured health curriculum were less likely to
Strategy that explicitly linkS community- the broad areas on which service-learn- engage in unprotected sexual activity or
service experiences to classroom instruc- ing has an impact. First, there is an um- violent behavior.29
tion." The power of the summary derives brella summary statement, followed by • No differences were found between

660 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

 participants in service-learning and con- • Students who engaged in service-learn- and test scores in readingllanguage arts and
trol groups on such risk behaviors as use ing increased their understanding of how in math and were less likely to drop out
of alcohol, illegal drugs, or weapons. 30 government works. 411 of school. ' 2
Service-learning has a positive ef- • No differences were found between • Students who engaged in service-learn-
fect on students' interpersonal devel- service-learning participants and others ing came to class on time more often, com-
opment and the ability to relate to cul- on measures of civic responsibility!1 pleted more classroom tasks, and took the
turaUy diverse groups. Service-learning provides an av- initiative to ask questions more often.53
• Middle and elementary school students enue for students to become active, pos- • Elementary and middle school stUdents
who participated in service-learning were itive contributors to society. who participated in service-learning had
better able to trust and be trusted by oth- • High school students who participat- improved problem-solvi~g skills aild in-
ers, to be reliable, and to accept respon- ed in service-learning and service activi- creased interest in academics. 54
sibility. 31 ties are more likely to be engaged in com- Students who participate in service-
• High school students who participat- munity organizations and to vote 15 years learning are more engaged in their stud-
ed in high-quality service-learning pro- after their participation than those who ies and more motivated to learn.
grams were more likely to develop bonds did not participate!2 • Students who participated in high-qual-
with more adults, to agree that they could • High school students from five states ity service-learning showed greater gains
learn from and work with the elderly and who participated in high-quality service- in measures of school engagement and in
disabled, and to feel that they trusted oth- learning programs increased their politi- mathematics achievement than control
ers besides parents and teachers to whom cal attentiveness, political knowledge, and groups.".
they could turn for help. 32 desire to become more politically active. 43 • Students at all levels felt that they
• Students who engaged in service-learn- • Students who engage in service-learn- learned more in service-learning classes
ing showed greater empathy and cognitive ing feel that they can "make a difference.''" than in other classes.56
complexity than did comparison groups. 33 • Over 80% of participants in high-qual- Service-learning is associated with
• Students who engaged in high-quali- ity service-learning programs felt that they increased student attendance.
ty service-learning programs reponed great- had made a positive contribution to the • Schools that sponsor service-learn-
er acceptance of cultural diversity. 34 community.4S ing programs reported that attendance in-
• Students who engaged in service-learn- creased each year over a three-year peri-
ing showed increases over time in their od.S7
The Impact of Service-Learning
awareness of cultural differences and in • Students engaged in service-learning
their attitudes toward helping others. 3'
On Academic Learning had higher attendance rates than their peers
• Students who participated in service- Service-learning helps students ac- in control groups. 51
learning enjoyed helping others with proj- quire academic skills and knowledge.
ects, became more dependable, and felt more • Students in more than half of the The Impact of Service-Learning on
comfortable communicating with ethnically high-quality service-learning schools stud- Career Exploration and Aspirations
diverse groups. 36 ied showed moderate to strong gains on
Service-learning helps students to be-
achievement tests in language arts or read-
ing, improved engagement in school, an come more knowledgeable and realistic
The Impact of Service-Learning about careers.
improved sense of educational accomplish-
On Civic Responsibility ment, and better homework completion. 46 • Students who participated in service-
learning reported gaining career skills and
Service-learning helps develop stu- • Participation in service-learning was
communication skills, along with increases
dents' sense of civic and social respon- associated with higher scores on the state
47 41 in knowledge of career possibilities. 59
sibility and their citizenship skills. test of basic skills and higher grades.
• Students who engaged in high-qual-
• Students who engaged in high-qual- • Students who participated in service-
. ity service-learning showed an increase ity service-learning developed positive worlc:
learning earned higher standardized test
attitudes and skills.60
in their awareness of community needs, scores on Indiana's state assessment in third-
• Teachers believe that participation in
believed that they could make a differ- and eighth-grade math and English than
ence, and were committed to service now 49 service-learning increases career aware-
those who did not participate. ness.61
and later in life. 37 • Elementary school students who par-
• High school students who participat- ticipated in service-learning scored higher
ed in high-quality service-learning devel- on state tests that measure reading for in-
The Impact of
oped more sophisticated understandings formation and mathematics than nonpar- Service-Learning on Schools
of sociohistorical contexts, were likely to ticipating students.so Service-learning results in greater
think about politics and morality in soci- • Eighty-three percent of schools with mutual respect between teachers and
ety, and were likely to consider how to ef- service-learning programs reported that the students.
fect social change. 38 grade-point averages of participating stu- • Teachers and studentS in schools with
• Elementary and middle school stu- dents improved 76% of the time.'1 high-quality service-learning programs re-
dents who participated in service-learn- • Middle and high school students who ported an increase in mutual respect. 62
ing developed a greater sense of civic re- participated in service-learning tutoring pro- • Service-learning bUilds cohesiveness
sponsibility and ethic of service. 39 grams increased their grade-point averages and more positive peer relations (among

MAY 2000 661

•
••
students and among teachers), along with gests a newer model for service-learning.* tions are not sufficient to produce other out-
more positive relations between students When service-learning meets an authen- comes. What is needed for each of these
and teachers. 63 tic community need and includes meaning- is a constellation of additional factors.
Service-learning improves the over- ful planning, service, reflection, and cele- • To achieve stronger academic out-
all school climate. bration, it typically succeeds in engaging comes, program designs must include in-
• Educators and students in schools with students in the learning task. Most studies tentional integration with specific subject
strong service-learning programs reported attribute this outcome to the nature of ser- matter in the curriculum (e;g., building a
more positive school climate as a result vice-learning as an activity that students playground or wheelchair ramp needs to
of a feeling of greater connectedness to perceive to be relevant, interesting, mean- be explicitly connected with geometry),
the school64 as well as decreased teacher ingful, and fun. alignment with standards (since this is typ-
turnover and increased teacher collegial- While service-learning increases stu- ically what is measured in test scores, grades,
ity.65 dent engagement in the learning task, this unit tests, and other measures of achieve-
Engaging in service-learning leads effect in itself is apparently not sufficient ment), and reflection activities that use such
to discussions of teaching and learning to produce robust student outcomes. Rath- higher-order thinking skills as analysis, eval-
and of best ways for students to learn. er, a whole variety of program design char- uation, and problem solving as ways to un-
• In schools that have more than 20% acteristics appear to be necessary to shape derstand the service activity and its rela-
of teachers engaged in service-learning, the impact. These characteristics include tionship to community need. When these ad-
the activities promote dialogue about the a high degree of student responsibility for ditional factors are present, strong aca-
best ways that students learn and transfer the service, a high degree of student au- demic outcomes - as measured by en-
infomiation.e6 tonomy (students empowered to make de- hanced learning of subject matter, higher
• Educators involved in service-learn- cisions, solve problems, and so forth), a grades, or higher test scores - can result.
ing engage in ongoing reflection and anal- high degree of student choice (both in the • To achieve stronger civic responsibil-
ysis to determine how to improve educa- selection of service to be performed and ity outcomes, it is necessary for the teach-
tional services to students." in the planning and the evaluation of the er to help students make explicit connec-
activity), a high degree of direct contact tions with social or citizenship issues (e.g.,
with the service recipient (who receives connecting an analysis of why certain pop-
The Impact of Service-Learning
service of some duration, not short-term, ulations are less likely to vote with a voter
On Communities one-shot service), and high-quality reflec- registration drive or helping students un-
Service-learning leads to more pos- tion activities (reflection that connects the derstand cultural views of aging when they
itive perceptions of schools and youths experience with content, skills, and values). are working with the elderly). When stu-
on the part of community members. In addition, well-prepared teachers who dents go through this process, strong civic
• Community members who participate serve as active partners and knowledge me- responsibility outcomes -e.g., increased
in service-learning as partners with the diators (but not as sole decision makers) likelihood of voting or serving as a com-
schools see youths as valued resources and and the quality indicators included in ..Es- munity volunteer; caring about society, the
positive contributors to the community.68 sential Elements" (page 663) are critical community, and others; and understand-
factors in determining student outcomes. ing social, economic, and political forces
The specific content of the service ac- - can result. ·
Additional Mediators tivity also shapes outcomes in that the par- • To achieve career-related outcomes,
The research literature also points to a ticular activity tends to dictate which kinds it is necessary for the program design to
variety of mediating factors that influence of impact will occur. For example, if the include intentional connections to work-
both the presence and the strength of the service is in the area of the environment, place skills, career pathways, or job knowl-
impacts that were documented. For ex- then the particular academic or civic or edge.
ample, a number of studies suggested that career outcomes will occur more often with-
the intensity and duration of a project are in a related field - for example, higher
The Need for More and
related to project outcomes.69 Several point- grades in science, better understanding of
ed out that the more responsibility, auton- ecology, greater caring about the environ-
Better Research
omy, or choice afforded to students, the ment, and better understanding of careers By following the directions outlined in
stronger the impacts.111 Others showed that in environmental science. the existing research literature, research-
direct, sustained contact with the clients was The research seems to indicate that these ers can begin to design multi-site, experi-
responsible for more robust outcomes.71 conditions are sufficient to lead to a vari- mental and quasi-experimental longitu-
Still others emphasized the need for par- ety of personal development outcomes, such dinal studies that can test the effects of
ticular kinds of reflection or teacher qual- as a reduction in negative behaviors, an various program characteristics, using struc-
ity.n increase in a sense of self-efficacy and po- tural equation modeling and other sophis-
tency (belief that one can make a differ- ticated quantitative techniques. More and
ence), resilience, social competence, and better qualitative research is also needed
Mediators and Outcomes of
related constructs. However, these condi- to provide deeper understandings and tex-
School-Based Service-Learning ture to our knowledge ofhow service-learn-
Taken as a whole, the body of research •A schematic of the model described here is ing produces its outcomes.
studies in the field of service-learning sug- available at http://www.l..eaminglnDeed.org. Researchers can derive many useful and

662 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

 testable propositions, and future research interest and funding to conduct better long- value within our schools.
can ultimately help practitioners under- tenn studies.
stand how to improve practice and pro- With more and better research in the l. Dan Conrad and Diane Hedin, "School-Based
grams. There is not enough research to next decade, the passion with which prac- Community Service: What We Know from Research
date to know which types of students are titioners pursue service-learning and be- and Theory," Phi Delta Kappan, June 1991, p. 749.
most affected, which specific program de- lieve in its outcomes can be supported in 2. Fred M. Newmann and RobertA. Rutter, "A Pro-
signs are most powerful, what type of rec- more conventional and data-based ways. file of High School Community-Service Programs,"
Educational Leadership, December-January 1985-
iprocity with service recipients is needed, A decade ago, Conrad and Hedin wrote: 86, pp. 64-71. ~ '
J•
how connected to the community the 3. Rebecca Skinner and Chris Chapman, Service-
service needs to be, what impacts occur Only time will tell whether the cur-
Learning and Community Service in K-12 Public
on the school as an organization or on the rent interest among politicians and edu- Schools (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Ed-
cators in strengthening the service eth- ucation Statistics, U.S. Department of Education,
community as an entity, and so on. Col- ic of our nation's youth will be sustained September 1999).
lecting more and better-quality data about or whether new priorities or the same 4. APCO Associates, Perceprions: Understanding
service-learning will help to establish its old pressures for higher test scores and and Responding to What People Think About Ser-
credibility as a pedagogy and its legitima- improved basic skills will keep youth vice-Learning (Battle Creek, Mich.: W. K. Kellogg
cy as a reform strategy. service on the fringes of the political Foundation, 1999).
In the past decade, service-learning has and educational agenda." 5. Vtrginia Anderson et al., "Community Service-
spread widely across the country, and the Learning and School Improvement in Springfield,
number of enthusiastic supporters has grown That conclusion still rings true. Only Massachusetts," Phi Delta Kappan, June 1991, pp.
761-64; Conrad and Hedin, op. cit.; Carol Kinsley,
dramatically. Yet, curiously, given the ac- time will tell whether service-learning will "Service-Learning: A Process to Connect Learning
tivist nature of most service-learning, few be sustain~ and whether the ethic of ser- and Living," NASSP Bullerin, October 1997, pp. l'-
researchers have been drawn to study ser- vice, combined with powerful learning 7; Robert Bhaerman, Karin Cordell, and Barbara
vice-learning and its effects. The field needs strategies, will become institutionalized as Gomez, The Role of Service-Learning in Educa-
rional Refonn (Raleigh, N.C.: National Society for
to mobilize its supporters to attract more an important philosophy, pedagogy, and Experiential Education; Needham, Mass.: Simon &
Schuster, 1998); and Timothy K. Stanton, Dwight
E. Giles, and Nadinne I. Cruz, Service-Learning: A
Movement's Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Prac-
rice, and Future (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999).
6. Partial List of Experiential Learning Tenns and
Their Definitions (Raleigh, N.C.: National Society
for Experiential Education, 1994).
7. Corporation for National Service, National and
Community Service Act of 1990.
8. Bhaerman, Cordell, and Gomez, p. 4.
9. Robert Sigmon, "Serving to Learn, Learning to
Serve," in Linking Service with Learning (Chicago:
National Institute on Learning and Service, Coun-
cil for Independent Colleges. 1994); and James Toole
and Pamela Toole, Key Definirions: Commonly Used
Tenns in the Youth Service Field (Roseville, Minn.:
National Youth Leadership Council, 1992).
10. Andrew Fwoo, "Service-Learning: A Balanced
Approach to Experiential Education," in Barbanl
Taylor, ed., Expanding Boundllries: Serving and
Learning (Washington, D.C.: Corporation for Na-
tional Service, 1996), p. 5.
11. See, for example, B. Shaffer, Service-Learning:
An Academic Methodology (Stanford, Calif.: School
of Education, Stanford University, 1993), cited in
Bhaerman, Cordell, and Gomez, op. ciL; Harry C.
Boyte, "Community Service and Civic Education,"
Phi Delta Kappan,June 1991, pp. 765-67; Benjamin
Barber, "A Mandate for Uberty," in Shirley Sagawa
and Samuel Halperin, eds., Vuion of Service: The
Future of the National and Community Service Act
(Washington, D.C.: National Women's Law Center
and American Youth Policy Forum, 1993); John I.
Goodlad, "Schools for All Seasons," Phi Delta Kap-
pan, May 1998, pp. 670-71; and Miranda Yates and
James Youniss, "Community Service and Political-
Moral Identity in Adolescents," Journal ofResearch
in Adolescence, vol. 6, 1996, pp. 271-84, cited in
James Perry, The Grantmaken' Fonun Community
and Narional Service Research Task Force Report
(Bloomington: Indiana University, 1999).

MAY 2000 663

.-
••
12. See, for example, Bhaennan, Cordell, and Go- Maryland, College Park, 1994. vice on Adolescent Attirudes Toward Learning,"
mez, op. cit; Shelley Billig and Nancy Kraft, Unk- 26. Lynn Stephens, The Complete Guide to Learn- Journal ofVolunteerAdministration, Summer 1992,
ing Federal Programs and Service-Learning: A Pkm- ing Through Community Service, Grades K-9 (Bos- pp. 5-10; and O'Bannon, op. cit.
ning, Implementation, and Evaluation Guide (Lan- ton: Allyn & Bacon, 1995); and Miranda Yates and 49. "Standardized Test Scores Impmve with Ser-
caster, Pa.: Technomic Books, 1998); Thomas Owens James Youniss, "Perspective on Community Service vice-Learning;• Civic Literacy Project, Blooming-
and Changhua Wang, Community-Based Learning: in Adolescence;' Social Development, vol. S, 1996, ton, Ind., February 2000.
A Foundation for Meaningful Educational Reform pp. 85-111. SO. Clifford Alcujobi and Robert Simmons, "An As-
(Portland, Ore.: Northwest Regional Educational 27. Follman, op. cit sessment of Elementary School Service-Learning
Laboratory, 1997); and Harold Howell, "Acting and 28. Melchior, op. cit; J.P. Allen et al., "Program- Teaching Methods: Using Service-Learning Goals,"
Understanding What Service-Learning Adds to Our matic Prevention ofAdolescent Pmblem Behaviors: NSEE Quanerly, Wmter 1997, pp. 19-28.
Academic Futule;' Education Week, 2 Apri11997, The Role of Autonomy, Relatedness, and Volunteer s1. Follman, op. cit
p.S6. Service in the Teen Outreach. Program," Journal of 52 Josie Supik, WJ1ued Youth Prutnenhips: Programs
13. See, for example, Richard Cairn, ''Another Way Community Psychology, vol. 22, 1994, pp. 617-38; in Caring (San Antonio: lnterculrural Research and
of Learning;' The GeneiTIIQr, Spring 19.92, pp. 22-23; and Shaffer, op. cit Development Association, 1996); Catherine A. Rol-
Billig and Kraft, op. cit; and The Service-Learning 29. Lydia O'Donnell et al., ''The Effectiveness of zinski, The Adventure ofAdolescence: Middle School
Planning and Resource Guide (Washington, D.C.: the Reach for Health Community Youth Service- Students and Community Service (Washington. D.C.:
Council of Chief State School Officers, 1994). Learning Program in Reducing Early and Unpro- Youth Service America, 1990); and Marty Ducken-
14. Alliance for Service-Learning in Educational Re- tected Sex Among Urban Middle School Srudents," field and Lynn Swanson, Service-Learning: Meet-
form, Srandards for School-Based and Community- American Journal ofPublic Health, February 1999, ing the Needs ofYouth at Risk (Clemson, S.C.: Na-
Based Service-Learning Programs (Alexandria, Va.: pp. 176-81. . tional Dropout Prevention Center, 1992).
Close Up Foundation, 1995); and National Service- 30. Melchior, op. cit 53. Loesch-Griffin, Petrides, and Pratt, op. cit
Learning Cooperative, E.tsential Elements of Service- 31. Stephens, op. cit. 54. Stephens, op. cit
Learning (St Paul, Minn.: National Youth Leader- 55. Melchior, op. cit
ship Council, Aprill998). 32. Morgan and Streb, op. cit
33. J. Coumeya, "An Evaluation of the Native Amer- 56. Weiler et al., op. cit; and Berlcas, op. cit
IS. Challenge issued to California school districts
ican School's Water Quality Testing Pmgrarn," in 57. Follman, op. cit; and O'Bannon, op. cit
by Delaine Eastin, state superintendent of public in-
Mary Neal, Robert Shumer, and Kathleen Gorak, 58. Shaffer, op. cit; Supik, op. cit; and Shumer, op.
sttuction, California Department of Education, Sac-
~Evaluation: The Key to Improving Service-Learn- ~t
ramento,l99S.
ing Programs (Minneapolis: Minnesota Department 59. Berlcas, op. cit; and Shelley Billig et al., An Eval-
16. Alan Melchior, Summary Repon: National Evalu- of Education and the University of Minnesota, 1994). uaricn of Jefferson County School District's School-
ation ofLearn and Serve America (Waltham, Mass.:
34. Melchior, op. cit; and Berkas, op. cit. to-Career Pannenhip Program (Denver: RMC Re-
Center for Human Resources, Brandeis University,
35. Shaffer, op. cit; and Stephens, op. cit search, 1999).
1999).
17. Daniel Weiler et al., An Evaluation of K-12 Ser- 36. Deborah Loesch-Griftin, L. A. Petrides, and C. 60. Weiler et al., op. cit
vice-Learning in California: Phase II F'mal Repon Pratt, A Comprehensive Study ofProject YES- Re- 61. Melchior, op. cit; and Billig andConrad,op.cit.
(Emeryville, Calif.: RPP International and the thinking Classrooms and Community: Service-Learn- 62. Weiler et al., op. cit; and Berkas, op. cit
Search lnstirute, 1998); and Joseph Follman, Flori- ing as Educational Reform (San Francisco: East Bay 63. Ibid
da Learn and Serve: 1996-97 Outcomes and Cor- Conservation Corps, 1995). 64. Billig and Conrad, op. cit; Weiler et al., op. cit.;
relations with 1994-95 and 1995-96 (Tallahassee, 37. Melchior, op. cit; Joel Westheimer and Joseph and Teny Pickeral, ''An Evaluation of Six K-12 Ser-
Fla.: Center for Civic Education and Service, Flori- Kabne, Repon to the Surdna Board- D. V.I. (New vice-Learning Programs in Oregon and Washing-
da State University, August 1998). York: Surdna Foundation, 2000); and Berkas, op. ton," unpublished report, 1998.
18. See, for example, Janet Eyler and Dwight Giles, cit 65. Weiler et al., op. cit
Jr., Where 's the Learning in Service-Learning? (San 38. Yates and Youniss, "Community Service and Po- 66. Billig and Conrad, op. cit; Melchior, op. cit;
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999);·and Linda J. Sax and litical-Moral Identity in Adolescents"; and Morgan and Carol Kinsley, "Elementary School Programs;'
Alexander W. Astin, "The Benefits of Service: Evi- and Streb, op. cit in Rahima Wade, eel., Community Service-Learn-
dence from Undergraduates," Educaricnal Record, 39. Stephens, op. cit. ing: A Guide to Including Service in the Public School
Sumrner-Fal11997, pp. 25-33. 40. Berkas, op. cit Curriculum (Albany: State University of New York
19. Weiler et al., op. cit 41. Lynne Ford, "Active Citizenship Today: Fmal Press, 1997).
20. James Leming, "Adding Value to Service-Learn- Evaluation Report," unpublished report, 1995; and 67. Anderson et al., op. cit; and Billig and Conrad,
ing Projects," Insights on Global Ethics, Autumn Linda Sandler and Judith Vandegrift, "Students Serv- op. cit
1998,p. 7. ing Arizona: 1994 ServeAmerica Evaluation Re- 68. Billig and Conrad, op. cit; Weiler et al., op. cit;
21. Peter Scales and Dale Blyth, "Effects of Service- port," unpublished report, 1994. Melchior, op. cit; S. F. Kingsland, M. Richards, and
Learning on Youth: What We Know and What We 42. James Youniss, I. A. McLellan, and Miranda L. Coleman, A Status Repon for KIDSNEI', Year
Need to Know," The GeneiTIIOr, Wmter 1997, pp. 6-9;F. Yates, ''What We Know About Engendering Civic One, 1994-1995 (Portland: University of Southern
O'Bannon, "Service-Learning Benefits Our Schools," Identity," American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 40, Maine, 1995); Kinsley, ''Setvice-Leaming"; and Kins-
State Education Leader, vol. 17, 1999, p. 3; and 1997, pp. 620-31; and Yates and Youniss, "Com- ley, "Elementary School Programs."
William Morgan and Matthew Streb, ''How Quality munity Service and Political-Moral Identity in Ado- 69. Melchior, op. cit; and Weiler et al., op. cit
Service-Learning Develops Civic Values," unpub- lescents." 70. Allen et al., op. cit; and Weiler et al., op. cit
lished paper, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1999. 43. Morgan and Streb, op. cit. 71. Melchior, op. cit; and Dale Blyth, Rebecca Saito,
22. Thomas Berlcas, Strategic Review of the W. K. 44. O'Bannon, op. cit.; and Cairn, op. cit and Thomas Bedcas, ''Quantitame Study of Service-
Kellogg Foundation's Service-Learning Projects, 1990- 45. Melchior, op. cit; Shelley Billig and Jill Con- Learning;' in Alan Waterman, ed., Service-Learning
1996 (Battle Creek, Mich.: W. K. Kellogg Founda- rad, An Evaluation of the New Hampshire Service- (Mahwah, NJ.: Erlbaum, 1997), pp. 39-56, cited in
tion, February 1997). Learning and Educational Reform Project (Denver: Peny, op. cit
23. Shaffer, op. cit. RMC Research, 1997); and Scales and Blyth, op. 72. Carl Fertman, Service-LearningforAll Students
24. G. Switzer et al., ''The Effect of a School-Based cit (Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational
Helper Program on Adolescent Self-Image, Attirudes, 46. Weiler et al., op. cit. Foundation, 1994); and G. Oulette, "Documenting
and Behavior," Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. 47. Anderson et al., op. cit. Learning Through Service: Cognitive and Affective
1S,l995,pp.429-S5. 48. Robert Shumer, "Community-Based Learning: Growth in a Service-Learning Pmgram," The Gen-
25. Melchior, op. cit; and Charles Ridgell, "Sru- Humanizing Education," Journal of Adolescence, erator, Spring 1992, pp. 1-2; Morgan and Streb, op.
dents' Perceptions Before and After Srudent Ser- vol. 17, 1994, pp. 357-67; Shaffer, op. cit; L. Dean cit.; Furco, op. cit; and Weiler et al., op. cit
vice-Learning," unpublished paper, University of and Sandra Murdock, ''The Effect ofVoluntary Ser- 73. Conrad and Hedin, p. 744. K

664 PHI DELTA KAPPAN