CONFUCIANISM

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Confucius
“Confucius” is the name by which English speakers know
Kong Qiu 孔丘, born near a small ducal state on the Shandong
Peninsula in 551 BCE. Centuries earlier, a strong royal state, known
as the Zhou (founded in 1045 BCE), had sent members of its high
aristocracy to rule regions of its empire as hereditary lords, subjects
of the Zhou king, but, so long as they remained loyal, masters of their
local domains. In 771 BCE, raids by non-Zhou nomadic peoples led
to the death of the Zhou king and the removal of the Zhou capital;
from that time on, the Zhou kings had become weak, and the feudal
lords had become de facto sovereigns over essentially independent
states and statelets. Three themes of Confucius’s day were incessant
warfare, which had been pervasive among the feudal lords since the devolution of power into
their hands, the further devolution of power from the Zhou-appointed feudal houses into the
hands of subordinate families that managed to accumulate power locally, and the rising fluidity
of social mobility which this type of open competition for power encouraged, as intelligence and
warrior skills in their assistants proved more valuable to competing power-holders than did
hereditary pedigree.
Confucius’s father was a member of the low aristocracy of the medium sized state of Lu
魯. According to our best sources, he was an important aide to a major aristocratic, or “grandee”
family. During his prime, this family had served the greatest power holders in Lu by controlling
a domain assigned to them on Lu’s southern border, near a small, non-Zhou cultural area called
Zou 鄹. Shortly before Confucius’s birth, the family’s domain was relocated to the north, but
Confucius’s father, having by his primary wife and his concubines produced no healthy sons to
carry on his line, and being now an older man, chose at this time to take as a concubine a woman
of Zou. She soon gave birth to Confucius. Three years later, Confucius’s father died, and
Confucius apparently grew up with his mother’s family in the border region between Lu and
Zou. Reaching adulthood, he traveled to the feudal center of Lu to seek social position, based on
his father’s standing and connections.
The state of Lu took pride in the fact that the lineage of its rightful lords, the dukes of Lu,
had begun with a famous brother of the Zhou dynastic founder, a man known as the Duke of
Zhou. Treasuring Zhou traditions with which he was associated, after the decline of the Zhou
royal house the state of Lu had become known as the purest repository of Zhou aristocratic
culture. But during the sixth century, these traditions were undermined, as powerful warlord
families gained increasing control of government and resources in Lu, gradually marginalizing
the legitimate ducal house, and distorting the norms of government form and ceremonial ritual
that had made Lu distinct.
When Confucius sought his fortune in Lu, he probably appeared there as a semioutsider,
the son of a “mixed” union between a man of Lu, who had long resided in Zou, and a woman of
that non-Zhou place. But Confucius made his reputation as a strong advocate of a puristic revival
of Zhou traditions in court conduct, religious ceremony, and every aspect of ordinary life. He
became expert in these traditions, and it was on the basis of this knowledge and the
persuasiveness of his claim that the way to bring order back to “the world” was to recreate early
Zhou society through its ritual forms, or “li,” that Confucius became known. The details of what
Confucius saw as legitimate Zhou culture and why he thought its patterns were tools for building
a new utopia are the principal subjects of the Analects.
His mastery of Zhou cultural forms allowed Confucius to become a teacher of young
aristocrats seeking polish, and through their connections, he was able to gain some stature in Lu.
Ultimately, he and some of his followers attempted to implement a grand restorationist plan in
Lu that would have shifted power back to the ducal house. Shortly after 500 BCE, when
Confucius was about fifty, the plan failed, and Confucius was forced to leave his home state. For
about fifteen years, he traveled with a retinue of disciples from state to state in eastern China,
looking for a ruler who would employ him and adopt the policies he advocated. The Analects
pictures some key moments in these travels, which ultimately proved fruitless. A few years
before his death, one of Confucius’s senior disciples, a man named Ran Qiu, arranged to have
Confucius welcomed back to Lu, where he lived out his days as a teacher of young men, training
them in the literary, ritual, and musical arts that he saw as central to the culture of the Zhou.
Mencius (371–289 B.C.): The Defender of Confucianism
A century after Confucius died, life in China had gotten even
worse. States assembled huge armies and were constantly at war with
one another. The debate among the Hundred Schools continued. A
new voice arose to defend Confucianism.
Meng Zi (known in the West as Mencius) was born in 371
B.C. Growing up in a small state neighboring Confucius’ home state,
he studied the Five Classics and the Analects to become a Confucian
scholar. Like Confucius, he traveled from one state to another,
teaching and holding government offices.
Mencius talked with many state rulers. He sought to find one who would put the needs of
the people first. He grew impatient when the rulers seemed interested only in personal pleasures
and military glory. After 40 years of travel, he returned home to teach and write for the rest of
his life.
 Mencius adopted the teachings of Confucius, but he put forward new ideas on economics,
government, and human nature. Like Confucius, he claimed he was a transmitter. But like
Confucius, he was creating new interpretations.
He made specific proposals on agriculture. He believed that eight families should farm a
square of nine fields. The families will help one another and "live in affection and harmony."
Each family will have its own field but first must work the center field. The produce from the
center field will go to the ruler. "If the seasons for farming are not interfered with, the grain will
be more than can be eaten."
Confucius never addressed human nature in detail. Mencius, however, taught that all
humans were born for goodness. He illustrated his point by telling the story of how anyone
seeing a child about to fall into a well would feel alarmed. Mencius argued:
The feeling of compassion [toward the child] is the beginning of humaneness (ren). The
feeling of shame is the beginning of dutifulness (yi). The feeling of modesty and yielding is the
beginning of ritual (li). The sense of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom.
Mencius believed that all these feelings are naturally within us, but they need to be
developed. He thought the feelings of goodness were weak, and a person’s baser desires could
easily overwhelm them. After all, he saw examples of selfishness and immoral behavior
everywhere. Mencius concluded: "Those who follow the part of themselves that is great are great
men, and those who follow the part of themselves that is small are small men."
If people developed their good nature, society would greatly benefit. But Mencius did not
argue that people should develop it for this reason. Instead, they should develop it because it is
what makes us human:
Man differs from the birds and beasts only slightly. Most people cast aside what makes us
different. The superior person preserves it.
Mencius believed that a ruler should be an example to his people and help them develop
their humaneness (ren). The ideal ruler would be a sage. People would be drawn to him, love
him, and support him. He would never have to fear rebellion or military defeat.
The ideal ruler would put the people first. According to Mencius:
The people are to be valued most, the state of the grain and the land next, the ruler least.
Hence winning the favor of the common people you become emperor. . . .
In a radical twist to Confucianism, Mencius introduced the idea that if any ruler acted as
a tyrant and oppressed his people, the people had the right to revolt and even kill him. He
justified this by arguing that a tyrant was not acting like a ruler. Therefore, he was not a ruler.
When Mencius was asked whether it is ever permissible to murder a ruler, he replied:
One who robs humaneness (ren) is called a robber; one who robs duties (yi) is called a
wrecker; and one who robs and wrecks is called an outlaw. I have heard that the outlaw Zhou [a
tyrannical ruler] was put to death. I have not heard that this was murdering a ruler.
 Mencius never found a ruler who acted on Confucian virtues. After Mencius died in 289
B.C., his disciples assembled the Book of Mencius on his teachings. It later became another
classic work of Confucianism.
Confucianism Through the Centuries
For centuries, Confucianism went in and out of favor in China. By the beginning of the
Song Dynasty in A.D. 960, Daoism and Buddhism, a religion originating in India, were gaining
popularity over Confucianism. A new movement of scholars, however, revived the teachings of
Confucius and Mencius. The greatest Neo-Confucian scholar was Zhu Xi (1130–1200). He
called on the Song emperor to set a proper moral example and thus end the widespread
corruption that was weakening his empire. Angry advisors to the emperor struck back by
labeling Zhu and other Neo-Confucians a "rebel clique of false learning."
A hundred years later, however, the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty made Zhu’s own
interpretations of Confucianism mandatory reading for the civil service exams. Zhu’s influence
on the exams for government service remained until 1905 when the Qing Dynasty abandoned
them. The Qing was the last Chinese imperial dynasty. After a revolution replaced it with a
republic in 1912, the new leaders rejected Confucianism because its focus on the past ignored
20th century science, technology, and democracy.
Following the Communist takeover of China in 1949, Mao Zedong attempted to root out
all remnants of Confucianism. He viewed its emphasis on the wisdom of the ancient sages as a
threat to Communism’s own "sages": Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and himself.
Today’s Chinese Communist leaders have adopted Confucianism’s elusive ideal of a
harmonious society as their own goal. After 2,500 years, the ideas of Confucius are still alive in
China.

SCRIPTURES OF CONFUCIANISM
Confucius and his disciples collected, edited, and interpreted the writings of earlier
Chinese philosophers and teachers. His disciples also collected the sayings of Confucius himself.
There are two collections which constitute the Scriptures of Confucianism. They are the Five
Classics and the Four Books.
The Five Classics
1. The Book of Changes, or Yi Ching- is a manual of divination, to assist in seeing future
events. It consists of a series of ancient diagrams, together with later commentaries upon
them.
2. The Book of History, or Shu Ching- is a collection of documents ascribed to Emperors
from Yao down to the early Chou dynasty. It is a moral and religious narrative which
teaches the lesson that Heaven blesses only virtuous rulers with peace and prosperity.
3. The Book of Songs, or Shih Ching- is a collection of three hundred short poems, most of
which belong to the Chou period in which Confucianism lived.
 4. The Book of Rites, or Li Ki- is a code of rulers about worship, and about social and
family relationships. It remains to this day the authoritative guide for Chinese morality
and ethics.
5. The Annals of Spring and Autumn- records events in the state of Lu over three hundred
years.
The Four Books
These were put together in the eleventh century AD, the time of the Sung Dynasty. These
works formed the basis of the education of the ruling class, and the text of the examinations by
which government officers were recruited.
1. The Analects- the sayings of Confucius, which were compiled by his disciples.
2. The Mencius- the sayings of the most prominent of his successors, Mencius (371-298
BC). He made philosophical comments on Confucius’ teaching.
3. The Doctrine of the Mean
4. The Great Learning- part of the treatises of the Book of Rites.

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

• Confucius gave advice that was precise and wise
• Encouraged people to act with virtue, with empathy and justice
• Confucius took no credit for his wisdom. He said he got it from studying the ancients.
• Nature and acting within its laws are encouraged (like Taoism)
• Self-improvement and learning from the ancestors are encouraged (way of heaven)
• Humans have a duty to act as guardians of heaven’s creation

6 Beliefs and Practices of Confucianism

1. Silver Rule of Behaviour
• The rule is simple, and it implies that what you do not wish to choose for yourself, never
impose it on someone else.
2. The Five Virtues: Confucius taught five virtues a gentleman should practice every day to live
a healthy, harmonious life.

• Jen – human heartedness; goodness; benevolence, man-to-man-ness; what makes a man

distinctively human (that which gives human beings their humanity).
• Yi – righteousness; the moral disposition to do good (also a necessary condition for jen or
for the superior man).
 o zhong - doing one’s best, conscientiousness, loyalty; and
o shù - reciprocity, altruism, consideration for others, and Confucius’ early version
of the Golden Rule, “what you don’t want yourself, don’t do to others.”
• Li – (1) concrete guide to human relationships or rules of proper action that genuinely
embody jen and (2) general principle of social order or the general ordering of life.
• Chih – moral wisdom; the source of this virtue is knowledge of right and wrong. Chih is
added to Confucianism by Mencius (muhn shoos) who believed that people are basically
born good.
• Hsin – faithfulness and trustworthiness; being dependable to others and living up to one’s
word.
3. The Five Relationships: the way things should be done in social life; none of the
relationships are transitive. (Note that 3 of the 5 relations involve family; the family is the basic
unit of society).
• Father and Son - (loving / reverential)
• Ruler and Citizen - (benevolent / loyal)
• Husband and Wife - (good / listening)
• Older Brother and Younger Brother - (gentle / respectful)
• Friend and Friend - (considerate / deferential)
• Ancestor Veneration – honouring and remembering the members of one’s family who
have died. Ancestors are not seen as gods. Instead, remembering is seen as an important
act of Hsin (faithfulness).

Milestones and Symbols

4. Birth
• At birth, the spirit of the fetus (Tai-shen) protects the mother from harm
• Mother is given one month of complete rest after the birth
• Family members provide for the baby’s needs for the first year
5. Marriage
There are six separate things that happen during the marriage rituals, these include:
 • Proposal: Both sides of the relationship share the hour, day, month, and year of their
birth. If any upsetting events happens within the bride-to-be's family within the next three
days, it is believed that she has rejected the proposal.
• Engagement: After the couple decides the date of the wedding, the bride announces the
wedding with invitations and gifts of cookies shaped like the moon.
• Dowry: A dowry is a transfer of parental belongings when their daughter is getting
married. Gifts equal in value after given to the bride and groom.
• Procession: The groom proceeds to the bride’s home, and brings her back to his place,
with much happiness and excitement.
• Marriage: The couple recites their vows that will bond them together for a lifetime, toast
each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet consisting of friends, and
the families of both the bride and groom.
• Morning After: The bride serves breakfast to the groom’s parents, and then the parents
do the same.
6. Death
• Relatives cry loudly to inform the community of the death
• The deceased is placed in a coffin with food and significant objects
• The family of the deceased wear clothing of course material
• Visitors bring incense and money to the funeral
• A willow branch is carried behind the coffin on the way to the cemetery.
• Later, the willow branch is placed on an alter in a shrine in the family home to signify the
presence of the spirit of the deceased
• A public worship (called a Liturgy) is performed on the seventh, ninth, and forty-ninth
days after the burial, along with the first and third year anniversary of the death.

The Teachings of Confucius about Life

The Meaning of Benevolence
The central idea of the confusion ethic is expressed in a sentence from the Great
Learning. This describes the goal of life to be the discovery of ‘The way of cultivating the self,
managing one's household, governing the nation, and establishing world peace’. Thus the way to
bring happiness once home, nation, and the entire world, is by taking care of one's own personal
character and conduct.
Confucianism teaches that there are 5 virtues: benevolence, righteousness, propriety,
wisdom, and trustworthiness. Among this benevolence, or Jen in Chinese, is the greatest.
Confucius did not give any theoretical definition of these virtues. His definitions are descriptions
of virtue in action. For instance, Confucius gave different answers to the questions raised by
disciples about the nature of Jen.
Chung-Kung asked, ‘What is Benevolence?’
The Master said: ‘…to treat people as though we were at the attending a high sacrifice;
not to do unto others what we would not that they should do unto us; To breed no wrongs in the
state and breed no wrongs in the homes.’ (Analects, XII, 2).
Fan Chih asked: ‘What is Benevolence?’
Confucius said: ‘He who can practice five things in dealing with the Empire may be
accounted to have benevolence.’ The five things are ‘Politeness, liberality, good faith, diligence,
and generosity. Being polite, you will not be slighted; being liberal you will win the people;
having good faith, you will be trusted by others; having diligence, you will be successful; being
generous, you will be worth it to employ others.’ (Analects, XVII, 6)
Filial Piety (The respect of a son for his father)
In Confucianism, particular regard is given to the family as the basic unit of society. It is
recognized as the foundation of the whole political and social structure of any human in
community.
Confucianism teaches that there are five basic human relationships. These are: ruler and
subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger, and friend and friend. Out of these
five, three have to do with the family. In the family the father-son relationship is the foundation
of all others, and depends upon the son’s proper respect for his father. This sort of respect,
therefore, is the keystone of the Confucian teaching about behavior. In China even loyalty to the
ruler is understood in the same way.
The duties of sonship have two forms, the physical and spiritual. To fulfil his physical
duties, a son should pay due attention to the bodily needs of his parents; he should care for his
own body as a legacy received from his ancestors; and he should rear children to provide for the
family continuity. To fulfil his spiritual obligations, a son should obey his parents, remember
them after death by annual sacrifices, and win success and honor to bring glory to the family
name.
The duty of sonship includes not only obedience to living parents, but also service to the
dead. People pay homage to the departed by holding appropriate ceremonies. At this point the
duties of sonship are a bridge between practical duties in this world, and the concerns of religion
for a life beyond this one.
Optimism
Mencius taught that human nature is good, because man is the embodiment of Tao which
is good. According to his teaching, evil is due either to environment or to education. This was the
basis of Confucian optimism in ethics.
Chu-Hsi (AD 1130-1200), the founder of Neo-Confucianism, reaffirmed Confucian
optimism Chu-Hsi believed that the whole universe is based on Li, or principle. According to
him, a man’s nature or character is his Li, which is part of the Li of the Universe, and is the same
in all men. But each man’s Chi, or substance, is different, and individual differences depend on
the differences of Chi.
According to this teaching people’s appearances differ, but the basic nature of all people
is the same, for all possess the same Li, which is good. This basic Li shows itself in the Five
Virtues: Benevolence, Righteousness, Propriety, Wisdom, and Trustworthiness. Man’s basic
nature is good.
According to Chu-Hsi, unenlightened people are those who fail to allow their basic nature
to be revealed, because of their craving for things. This is due to impurity of their Chi. Therefore,
it is necessary for people to rid themselves of wrong appearances, and return to their basic
nature, or Li. This is why the Great Learning is important: it helps people to do this. Thus
Confucian teaching is optimistic: it teaches that people are basically good.

SOCIO CULTURAL CONTEXT OF CONFUCIANISM

The Confucianism tradition places great emphasis on properly ordered human
relationships through the "five lasting relationships" in the rectification of names. Such ordered
relationships help maintain harmony in the home, the community, and the larger society. To the
modern mind schooled in Western democracy, the hierarchical nature of Confucian relationships
is troubling, even oppressive. While Confucian societies are stable and close-knit, their
oppressive tendency have led to two major revolutions in China just during the past century, as
well as to a generation gap between young people and their parents in Japan and South Korea.
Such a generational hierarchy may have contributed to currently very low birth rates in Japan,
South Korea and Taiwan.
According to traditional Chinese patriarchy, women belonged to the bottom of the
Confusion hierarchy. Men could have multiple wives and concubines, while women not
permitted contact with men who were not their husbands or immediate relatives. Women were
never expected to function as independent beings free of male domination.
Moreover, women in a model Confucianism family were counted upon to exhibit
obedience without question at all stages of life. Unmarried girls were to obey their fathers;
wives, their husbands; and widows, their grown-up Confucian tradition asserted that women
fulfilled their spiritual potential by becoming dutiful wives and mothers.
 During the Han dynasty, the syncretism of Confucianism with Daoist cosmology by the
scholar Dong Zhongshu (179-104 B.C.E.) led to the gender dichotomy of men as yang (active
and powerful) and women as yin (passive and weak): "Yang takes the lead; yin acts in concert.
The male acts; the female follows."
The Confucian prescription for ultimate transformation is an anthropocosmic vision - a
commitment to cosmic humanism that places human well-being and flourishing as the central
aim of life. Being innately good, human beings who are fully committed can achieve perfection
through individual effort: education, performance and appreciation of the arts, responsibility
toward others, personal integrity, and a serious attitude in one's conduct and character.
The golden rule "Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself" meaning
that it should be regarded as the first principle or the basic way of human moral and conduct.
Confucianism as a Religion
There are opposing views as the weather Confucianism is actually a religion. Some
people say that it is not, because it is chiefly concerned with the behavior in this world.
Whenever Confucius was questioned about other worldly matters, he drew the questioner's
attention to the affairs of this world. When he was asked about serving the spirits of the dead, he
answered, ‘While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?’ Asked about
death itself, he answered again, ‘While you do not know life, how can you know about this?’
(Analects, XI, 11). Confucius shifted the emphasis from heaven to earth, from other-worldliness
to this-worldliness.
Confucius, however, never denied the existence of ‘Heaven’, or Shang Ti, The Supreme
Ruler. For him heaven was the power on which everything depends. Life and death, wealth and
honor, are all in heaven's hand. The following story illustrates Confucius’ attitude;
The master was affrighted in Kwang, he said, ‘Since the death of King Wen,
has not this been the home of good order? If heaven had condemned good
order, later mortals would have missed their share in it. If Heaven upholds
good order, what can the men of Kwang do to me?’ (Analects, IX, 5).
Confucius put strong emphasis on the importance of human relationships, but he based
his teaching on the ancient belief in heaven. Although it has no creed or ecclesiastical
organization, Confucianism is still a religion to the Chinese. This is not only because it is based
on the belief in Heaven, but also because it points towards important principles which give
meaning and direction to their lives.
There are, however, religious practices which are related to the teachings of
Confucianism. They are these: The worship of Heaven or Shang Ti, the ceremony in praise of
Confucius, and ancestor worship.
The Worship of Heaven
Confucius’ name has been associated with the cult which was established as the state
religion of China in the 2nd century BC, and held this position until 1912, when dynastic rule in
China came to an end. The center of the state religion was Heaven or Shang Ti. Chinese people
thought of Shang Ti as the personal god who has a righteous purpose in governing the world.
The emperor made the annual offering to Shang Ti.
The worship of Shang Ti expresses the belief that the state is built upon the pattern of the
family. The emperor was regarded as the son of heaven. He was appointed by heaven to rule the
world, and so heaven was his father whom he had to serve as a son. Therefore, the emperor had
to make an annual offering to Heaven.
Cult of Confucius
Confucius never considered himself the founder of the new religion. The Chinese never
made him a god but respected him as their great teacher or sage. In due time, however, people
gave such reverence and devotion to the memory of Confucius that it gradually became like a
religion. In the 5th century AD, for example, a temple was erected at the site of Confucius’ tomb.
In 630 the emperor of Tang dynasty made a decree that all districts in the empire should build
temples to confuse shoes period this spread the cult of Confucius in China. At the same time, in
the capital, they established imperial colleges in which the Confucian classics were taught. From
then on the people gave Confucius the title of Supreme Saint, and worshiped him at annual
ceremonies.
Ancestor Worship
Ancestor worship is at the center of Chinese religion. There are 2 reasons for ancestor
worship: one is the son’s respect for his father which is the Central virtue in Chinese teaching,
and the other is the belief that people continue to live with their ancestors. The Chinese believe
that the world of living people and the world of those who have died are not to worlds but one.
During China's long history ancestor worship has passed through many changes, but the
basic structure of it remains the same.
Ancestor worship centers about the tablet, the funeral, and the grave. Among these the
tablet occupies the most important place. The tablet, upon which the names of ancestors are
written, is kept in the main hall of the house for four generations. Offerings which consist of
food, incense, flowers, and candles, are placed before the tablet. The manner and time of offering
varying, but a basic pattern can be observed. The head of the house lights three sticks of incense
and places them in the incense burner; he then bows three times and asks for a blessing.
Formal offerings are made on the anniversary of the birth and death of the departed. The
most important offerings are on the last day and the first day of the year, when the whole family
gathers together. This is a time of reunion of the living and the dead.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONFUCIANISM IN CHINA AND OTHER COUNTRIES
Confucianism in Korea
By the 2nd century BCE Confucianism was the official state religion of Han
Dynasty China. During the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) temples were established in the name
of Confucius at all administrative capitals and the study of classic Confucian texts became an
essential part of the education of every member of the elite classes and they were tested on their
knowledge of it in the examinations set for those wishing to join the state's civil service. Then
Confucianism was given even greater importance by the subsequent Song dynasty (960-1279
CE). This pattern would be repeated when Confucianism was passed on to Korea, a long-time
Chinese trade partner, probably via the Chinese commanderies which controlled the northern
territories, especially Lelang, up to the 4th century CE.

In 372 CE a Confucian Academy was established in the Goguryeo kingdom of northern

Korea. Queen Seondeok of Silla appointed Confucian scholars to her court in 636 CE. A little
later, in the Unified Silla Kingdom, which now controlled all of the Korean peninsula, a
National Confucian Academy (Gukhak) was founded in 682 CE which was decorated in 717 CE
with a number of portraits of Confucius and prominent philosophers brought especially for the
purpose from China. In 750 CE it was renamed the National Confucian University. Besides
studying at home, many young men of aristocratic families were sent to study in China where
they acquired the necessary knowledge of the Confucian classic texts to enter and pass Chinese
administration examinations and gain valuable diplomatic experience which they could bring
back to Korea and so further their career there.

In 788 CE an examination for state administrators based on Confucian texts was

introduced in Korea on the Chinese model. Questions in these papers were largely based on
the Analects and the Classic of Filial Piety, both of which contain conversations and sayings
attributed to Confucius; especially relevant would have been those regarding proper behaviour
and attitudes to superiors and the importance of human relationships to good government. By the
11th century CE 12 private academies, called the Twelve Assemblies (Sibi to), had been
established which further spread Confucianism. One teacher, in particular, gained great fame,
Choe Chung (984-1068 CE), who became known as 'the Confucius of Korea' and who, in 1055
CE, set up the first private Confucian school called the 'School of Nine Studies'
(Kujae haktang) because there were nine areas of study.

Government and education were the main theatres of Confucian thought, albeit with
some application to family roles and responsibilities, especially rituals of ancestor worship in the
family shrine within each home. Buddhism, however, remained the official state religion, with
shamanism and nature worship the main popular religions, largely pursued by the lower and
more rural classes.

The adoption of Confucianism was not only an indicator of ancient Korea's willingness to
adopt elements of Chinese culture but its very principles of filial piety and duty to one's superiors
perpetuated a long-standing cultural admiration of all things Chinese and certain political
subservience to its large and powerful neighbour. In return, China recognised Korea as 'a country
of gentlemen' where 'gentlemen' here is termed junzi, as in the Confucian Analects text.
Confucianism in Japan
Although not practiced as a religion, Confucianism from China has deeply influenced
Japanese thought. In essence, Confucianism is the practice of proper forms of conduct, especially
in social and familial relationships. It is derived from compilations attributed to the fifth-century
B.C. Chinese philosopher Kong Fuzi or Kongzi (Confucius; in Japanese, Koshi). Confucian
government was to be a moral government, bureaucratic in form and benevolent toward the
ruled. Confucianism also provided a hierarchical system, in which each person was to act
according to his or her status to create a harmoniously functioning society and ensure loyalty to
the state. The teachings of filial piety and humanity continue to form the foundation for much of
social life and ideas about family and nation.
Neo-Confucianism, introduced to Japan in the twelfth century, is an interpretation of
nature and society based on metaphysical principles and is influenced by Buddhist and Daoist
ideas. In Japan, where it is known as Shushigaku (Shushi School, after the Chinese neo-
Confucian scholar Zhu Xi--Shushi in Japanese), it brought the idea that family stability and
social responsibility are human obligations. The school used various metaphysical concepts to
explain the natural and social order. Shushigaku, in turn, influenced the kokutai (national polity)
theory, which emphasized the special national characteristics of Japan.
Confucianism in Vietnam
Confucianism was firmly implanted in Vietnam during the thousand years of its
occupation by China and mirrored its development. As in China, an intellectual elite developed,
and the principles of obedience and respect for education and authority were instilled throughout
society, profoundly influencing the family structure and creating a tightly defined social
hierarchy.
In Hanoi in 1070, the establishment of the Van Mieu (Temple of Literature), a temple of
learning dedicated to Confucius, marked the emergence of Confucianism as a cult. Like China, it
reached a peak during the 15th century – the ‘golden age’ of King Le Thanh Tong, then steadily
decayed into decadence and corruption opening the door for the French invasion.
 IMPORTANT PLACES IN CONFUCIANISM
Temple of Confucius

Also known as a Confucian temple, a temple of Confucius is a temple that is used for the
worship of Confucius as well as other important figures in the religion. Initially, these temples
were used in China and Vietnam to administer an imperial examination. Consequently, these
temples had schools as well as other necessary studying amenities. For this reason, these temples
have also been described as Temples of Literature or Temples of the Sage of Literature in
countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, and Korea. In Japan, these temples are also known by other
names such as the Halls of the Sage or simply Temples.
Dating as far back as the Tang Dynasty, these temples were erected in county and
prefectural schools on either the front side of the school or the side. With a front gate called the
Lingxing Gate, the temples had three or two courtyards. One temple in Qufu, China, has an
incredible nine courtyards. Inside the temple, several structures existed such as the Dachengmen
or Dachengdian, which means the Hall of Great Perfection, Hall of Great Completion, or the Hall
of Great Achievement. Other structures include the Shrine of Adoring the Sage, the Apricot
Pavilion, and others. The temples had no images inside although some temples, especially
official ones, had an image of Confucius. Emperor Taizu later banned the images completely due
to a lack of similarity in the likeness of Confucius among the temples. Some of the acts of
worship included offering sacrifices to the spirit of Confucius and dances such as the Eight-Row
Dance.
Cemetery of Confucius

The Cemetery of Confucius is a cemetery in the town of Qufu in China’s Shandong

province. Belonging to the Kong Clan, the cemetery holds the remains of Confucius, some of his
disciples, and plenty of his descendants. Since 1994, the cemetery has been a UNESCO World
Heritage Site alongside the Temple of Confucius and the Kong Family Mansion.
Located north of Qufu, the cemetery sits on about 183.33 hectares of land and has a
perimeter wall with a length of about 18343.18 feet. Some of the oldest graves date as far back as
the Zhou Dynasty. The first tomb to be built in honor of Confucius had the shape of an ax and is
located on Sishui River’s bank. Aside from the ax shape, the tomb also had an altar of sorts for
sacrificial purposes. Today, the tomb has a shape similar to a cone. The other tombs for his
descendants, including extra stelae, were added soon after. Most of the descendants of Confucius
were noble people who had power and authority. Accordingly, the tombs of these people were
marked to show their ranks. Tombstones were not used until the arrival of the Han Dynasty.
Today, the cemetery features more than three thousand stone tablets that date as far back
as the imperial period of China. An official count of the tablets states that 22 belong to the Song
Dynasty, six belong to Jin, Ming has 506, Yuan has 45, and an incredible 2,626 belong to the
Qing Dynasty. Aside from these, there are 568 more belonging to the period of the Republic of
China while 50 are from the modern era of the People’s Republic of China. An extra 180 cannot
be dated although the total gets to 4,003. With more than 10,000 trees, the cemetery looks like a
forest.
Kong Family Mansion

This house is also located in Shandong province’s Qufu, which was the hometown of
Confucius himself. The mansion was the place of residence of Confucius’s descendants. Most of
the surviving structures of the residence are mostly from the Qing and Ming Dynasties. From this
base, the family would look after the two other sites of Confucianism. The family was tasked
with a number of roles including taking charge of ceremonies like honoring the dead and
harvests.
Located on the eastern side of the temple, the mansion has a traditional Chinese layout
with a Yamen for the separation of official spaces. Aside from the Yamen, the mansion has a
study on the east and the west as well as a garden at the back. In line with the Confucian belief of
order, the partitions were according to gender, seniority, and status. The central part was for the
eldest person while family meals were taken in the western study. Currently, the house has 152
buildings with 148 rooms and an area of about 134,200 square feet.
Mount Tai

Mount Tai, known as Taishan in Mandarin, is one of the holiest mountains in China. It is
a UNESCO World Heritage site and is revered by Buddhists, Taoists and Confucianists alike.
According to the UNESCO website, Confucius (551-479 B.C.) was one of many renowned
scholars known to have “composed poetry and prose” on the mountain. Besides its important
association with the rise of Confucianism, Taishan is also well known for Heaven and Earth
ceremonies that take place there. The first such ceremony took place in 219 B.C. after Emperor
Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty climbed the mountain and had an altar built on top to offer
sacrifices to heaven.

WORLDVIEW
At this point it might be useful to raise the question: What is religious about
Confucianism? Isn't it really just a social-political system of ethics? One hears this often, both
from scholars and from others who have only a passing familiarity with Confucianism. It is a
good question, because it compels us to think more deeply about the nature of religion. The
answer depends, of course, on how we define "religion." If religion is defined according to the
Judeo-Christian model, one might be justified in saying that Confucianism is not a religion. It is
not based on worship of a single, all-powerful creator god; its ideas about life after death are
incidental to its central message; and it does not have an organized priesthood.
Confucians believe that Tai Chi is the Ultimate, an integrated energy of Yin and Yang,
which is evolved from Wu Chi (void energy) and can be transformed into various forms. The
ultimate source of all energy and knowledge is called Tao, which is a continuum without
boundaries in time and space, infinite, formless, and luminous (I-Ching).
 In Confucian philosophy, the system of Yin and Yang was conceived as a way of
explaining the universe. It is a purely relativist system; any one thing is either Yin or Yang in
relation to some other object or phenomena, and all things can be described only in relation to each
other. The Yin and Yang are the negative and positive principles of universal force and are
pictorially represented by the symbol of Tai Chi. The Yin and Yang together constitute the Tao,
the eternal principle of heaven and earth, the origin of all things human and divine. The Tao
produced the Chi (Qi, energy or life force). Human nature was good; however, negative and
endless human desires may lead to systems become unbalanced, which can produce problematic
situations.
In contemporary terms, the Yin-Yang theoretical worldview can be defined as a school of
transformation that is research-oriented and employs an approach that is multidimensional, cross-
cultural, multilevel, multimodal, multi systematic and comprehensive. It is a way of life or an art
of living that aims to synchronize the systems of the universe to achieve both individual and
collective fulfillment.
Below is a list of basic concepts indispensable to making sense of the Confucian worldview.
dao (tao): ‘way,’ in the sense of path or road. Zhang Dainian writes ‘The concept dao is perhaps
the most important concept in Chinese philosophy.
Dao is primarily rendao: ‘a way of becoming consummately and authoritatively human.’ In
Confucianism, one is concerned with properly ascertaining the way of life of one’s cultural
predecessors (Confucius said he ‘did not forge new paths’). Coming to understand this dao allows
one to properly perform li (one might say dao, like ren, is manifest in li) in one’s own life and
thereby continue transmission of what is vital within tradition.
de (te): virtue, power, integrity, moral/spiritual charisma, excellence. Originates with tian, and is
evidenced in the non-coercive or nonviolent power or effects one has on others as a consequence
or by-product of one’s virtues, of one’s personal ethical excellence and exemplification
junzi (chün tzu): gentleman; noble person; exemplary person; virtuous individual. Prior to
Confucius, junzi meant ‘son of a lord,’ denoting aristocratic rank, the male child of a noble family.
Li: ritual, rites, etiquette, customs, conventions, social norms, propriety. An early instance of li is
in reference to a bronze cauldron used in sacred ceremonies. Later it refers to holy rituals, such as
sacrifices to the ancestors or divination practices.
Another character for li originally meant the lines running through a piece of jade and came to
denote ‘good order,’ ‘principle,’ and ‘reason.’ It became very important in the historical
development and philosophical articulation of Confucianism (see Cua in the bibliography).
ming: ‘command’ ‘to name’ ‘mandate,’ or fate, thus, in the latter senses, that which is
determined independently of human agency or volition. In the Shang dynasty, ming is the name
for that kind of speech invoked in divination and in some ceremonial actions (e.g. of investiture).
Later, ming is sometimes employed in the sense of ‘mandate,’ for instance, ‘we are mandated by
Heaven [tian] to do X, and if we do X then the order desired by both Heaven and man will be
obtained’ (Michael Puett).
ren (jen): benevolence; humaneness; goodness; perfect virtue; authoritative conduct; love. Ren is
the sum of uniquely human ethical virtues, an all-encompassing ethical if not spiritual ideal,
crystallized in the practice of benevolence and compassion.
shengren (or simply sheng): sage; in the moral and spiritual hierarchy of ideal figures the sage is
closest to, if not the embodiment of, perfection. The sage acts in full harmony with the patterns
and processes of nature and tian. In other words, the way (dao) of the sage is one with both
the dao(s) of the natural world and the dao of heaven.
Ru: prior to Confucius refers, first, to dancers and musicians in religious ceremonies or holy
rituals. Secondly, it came to mean those who themselves were masters of religious rituals and
ceremonies.
Shi: soldier, scribe, bookkeeper, minor administrator, government official, lower level functionary
of a lord, retainer, servant, scholar-apprentice.
Tian (tian): very roughly, ‘heaven.’ With Ames and Rosemont, I think this term is best left
untranslated, as there is no satisfactory equivalent term in English.
Wen: originally, line or pattern; to inscribe, to embellish; the arts or culture; generally speaking,
wen makes reference to the patterned regularity or symmetry, harmony and beauty found in (the
dao of) tian (Heaven), in (the dao of) the natural world, and (the dao of) a properly humane culture.
wen: originally, line or pattern; to inscribe, to embellish; the arts or culture; generally
speaking, wen makes reference to the patterned regularity or symmetry, harmony and beauty found
in (the dao of) tian (Heaven), in (the dao of) the natural world, and (the dao of) a properly humane
culture.
Confucius and his followers were well known for reciting the three hundred odes, playing them
on strings while singing and dancing to them. His devotion to the Odes exemplifies his
understanding of wen. The Odes had variegated epistemic, political, ethical, aesthetic,
psychological, and cultural functions in ancient China, only some of which we’ll mention here
(see the excellent treatment in Nylan’s The Five ‘Confucian’ Classics, 2001). Not surprisingly, ‘all
traditions portray the Odes’ vital importance as a cultural repository of eminent utility and as a
teaching tool for the social graces’ (Nylan). The Odes could arouse the emotions of others, allow
for the acute perception of others’ feelings, enhance a fraternal sense of community,
‘diplomatically’ express grievances or critiques so as not to offend or humiliate their targets, serve
as a display of character and erudition. Formally or stylistically speaking,
xiao: filial piety, meaning a strong sense of loyalty and respect toward one’s parents. This ethical
obligation or moral duty, in the words of Liu, “is one that has penetrated Chinese culture the
most.”
Xin¹ (hsin¹): faithfulness; trustworthiness; ‘living up to one’s word’ or ‘making good on one’s
word;’ one of the necessary conditions for personhood (Analects 2.22). xin¹, as a character trait,
assumes, in the words of Hall and Ames, ‘that one has acquired the ability, acumen and resources
to enact and make real what one says.’
 Xin² (hsin²): mind and/or heart but probably best as ‘heart-mind;’ also, thoughts and feelings, as
Chad Hansen explains, ‘the common translation of xin as “heart-mind” reflects the blending of
belief and desire (thought and feelings, ideas and emotions), into a single complex dispositional
potential.’
Many Confucians believe that tian (t’ien) has endowed humanity with the heart of the Way
(daoxin), with the inherent potential and inclination to strive for the good. According to Hansen,
both Confucius and Mozi (Mo-tzu or Mo Di) ‘assume that we actualize the [xin’s²] disposition by
internalizing culture, by language.’ For Mencius (Mengzi), on the other hand, xin’s² dispositions
are innate, intrinsic to human nature and as such, distinguish us from ‘beasts.’
Yi: right (in the sense of correct or proper); duty; morality; righteousness; the quality of an action
that makes it fitting or appropriate; the quality of a person disposed to such acts.
Zhi: knowledge; wisdom; to know or to realize; the term connotes some continuity or indissoluble
connection between knowledge and action: ‘to know is to authenticate in action,’ that is, one’s
knowledge is tried or tested in the crucible of experience.

CURRENT ISSUES IN CONFUCIANISM

Sexism
The position of women in Chinese culture can be traced from prehistoric times
onwards. Archaeological evidence shows engravings from scapulimancy rituals, we know that
women were used as coinage during the Shang dynasty. Confucius’ thought is constantly
dwelling in the past, searching for answers to his moral questions in the deeds of distant
noblemen. For this reason, maybe ancestral traditions, motivate some of his ideal social
organization supporting Confucius’ sexism. Confucius himself barely mentions women explicitly
in his text. It is undeniable that women’s position in Confucianism is inferior in relation to men.

It is often said that Confucianism is sexist. The most famous (or infamous) saying of
Confucius about women is “Shaoren and girls are difficult to handle. If you get familiar with
them they cease to be humble. If you keep them away, they get resentful.” (Analects 17:25) This
sure sounds insulting to women. Over time Confucian teachings were expanded upon. A well-
known sexist Confucianism commandments is “Since the age of seven, men and women should
not share a room or food” and “When young, a woman should obey the father, when married, the
husband, when old, the son” are creations of later generation of Confucian scholars who
developed a greater sexist tendency since the Tang dynasty era (618-907 C.E.).

Neo-Confucian Inspired Sayings:

• “A woman’s duty is not to control or take charge.”
• “Woman’s greatest duty is to produce a son.”
• “A woman ruler is like a hen crowing.”
• “A husband can marry twice, but his wife must never remarry.”
• “We should not be too familiar with the lower orders or with women.”
• “The woman with no talent is the one who has merit.”
• “Disorder is not sent down by Heaven, it is produced by women.”
• “Those who cannot be taught, cannot be instructed. These are women and eunuchs.”
• “There are three unfilial acts: the greatest of these is the failure to produce sons.”
• “Women are to be led and to follow others.”
• “Women’s nature is passive.”
• “A woman should look on her husband as if he were Heaven itself, and ever weary of thinking
how she may yield to him.”

The essence of knowledge is, having it, to apply it; not having it, to confess your ignorance.
- Confucius