INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATIONS Issue 2, Volume 4, 2010

A Modified Location Aided Routing Protocol

for UWB MANET
Jazyah Y. and Hope M. D.

Abstract— The Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a I. INTRODUCTION

conventional ad hoc network; nodes within the network are
mobile, where each node is equipped with a transmitter and
receiver, antenna, and a local battery. Each node may operate
W IRELESS Local Area Networks (WLANs) provide
wireless access to different types of mobile hosts such
as personal digital assistants (PDA), laptops and cellular
as a router to relay message from sender to receiver. Nodes
phones. These nodes are equipped with short range
within MANET are organized in different manners, they can
transmitters and receivers, and antennas which may be
be hierarchical or flat, they can move in any direction and
speed, and communicate to each other by means of wireless omnidirectional (broadcast), highly-directional (point-to-
routing protocols. point), or some combination of the two [1].
Now it is the time for Ultra-WideBand (UWB) to be given In a WLAN environment, routing protocols then enable
more attention due to its great capability in high data rate, nodes to relay data packets if they are within transmission
large Band Width (BW), and low power consumption. range, or if they can communicate directly. If they are away
Currently, hosts are equipped with UWB system in order to from each other, intermediate nodes are required to establish
achieve short range communication and exploit the previous a multihop route between the sender and receiver. The
mentioned advantages, besides UWB has the ability to wireless routing protocols that provide this key functionality,
measure distance between hosts accurately. As a result, in general, are classified as either topological based or
researchers have been encouraged to design new routing position based.
protocols for UWB networks to make it suitable for hosts to
exploit features of UWB, but still needs more and more work • Topological based routing protocols use the existing
to overcome drawbacks of network such as network overhead, information about links in network to flood (or forward)
power consumption, unreliable route, etc… packets. There are two main routing strategies classified
The goal of this work is to design and implement a new as topological based; proactive [2] that maintains routing
routing protocol for UWB network; the new scheme aims to information for each node in the network and stores this
increase the life time of network, reduce network overhead, information in routing tables, such as Destination-
and achieve route reliability. The new protocol is based on
Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) [3], Cluster-head
LAR scheme 1 and exploits the request zone technique by
Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR) [3], Wireless Routing
defining several request zones in advance in order to find
route to destination. Protocol (WRP) [4], and Optimized Link State Routing
QualNet is used as environment to develop and implement Protocol (OLSR) [5]. The second type is reactive routing
the new protocol. Results from simulator indicate that the protocols which maintain a route on demand, such as Ad
new protocol outperforms the comparable protocols (AODV hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) [6], Dynamic
and LAR1); it enhances the life time of network, reduces the Source Routing (DSR) [7], Temporally Ordered Routing
network overhead, and increases the throughput as discussed Algorithm (TORA) [4], and Associativity-Based Routing
later in this research. (ABR) [3]
• Position based routing protocols exploit positional
Keywords—MANET, UWB, Routing protocol, LAR. information to direct flooding towards the destination in
order to reduce overheads and power consumption,
Location Aided Routing Protocol (LAR) [8], GRID [9],
Compass [10], and Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
(GPSR) [11] are examples of position based routing
protocols.
Manuscript received September 30, 2010. This work was a contribution of
research in the field of data communications and networks at the University of
Salford, UK. J. Yazyah is a postgraduate student at the University of Salford and Ultra-WideBand (UWB) [12][13] is a radio technology that
a member of the Centre for Network and Telecommunications Research, Salford, has been proposed for use in Personal Area Networks (PAN)
UK. (e-mail: y.h.jazyah@edu.salford.ac.uk).
and appears in the IEEE 802.15.3a draft PAN standard. UWB

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systems consume very low energy levels, and can be used in signals because Multipath cancellation happens when a
short-range, high-bandwidth (BW) communications systems multipath signal arrives at the receiver partially or totally out
where the BW > 500 MHz, at 20% of the center frequency. of phase with the direct signal, which produces a reduced
UWB is defined to operate between 3.1–10.6 GHz and is amplitude response. With short duration pulse signals, direct
restricted to a maximum allowable power spectral density of signals come and go before indirect signals arrive.
41.3 dBm / MHz corresponding to average transmitted power The main disadvantage of UWB is like other RF
of 0.5 mW. Therefore, UWB provides relatively short radio technologies, suffers from trade-offs in signal-to-noise ratio
range but given the spectrum available very high data rates in versus bandwidth [21].
excess of 100 Mbps can be achieved, (with bit rates of 55, 110 UWB radios can provide relatively good accuracy in line-
& 200 Mbps [14]). of-sight (LOS) short baseline conditions, performance
UWB is best used for ad-hoc and sensor networks [15], it is degrades with distance and even more so with non-line-of-
used as part of location systems and real time location sight (NLOS) measurements. UWB power levels must be low
systems such as hospitals and healthcare, short broadcast enough to ensure that operation would not cause performance
time, “see-through-the-wall” precision radar imaging degradation in existing devices [21].
technology [16], and replacing cables between portable UWB high-data-rate (HDR) signal formats proposed within
multimedia Consumer Electronics (CE) devices and in the the IEEE 802.15.3a Task Group are the impulsive direct-
next-generation of Bluetooth Technology devices [17]. sequence UWB (DS-UWB) and the nonimpulsive multiband
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (MB-OFDM)
The two most common UWB signal structures are impulse [22].
UWB (IR-UWB) and multicarrier UWB (MC-UWB) [18]. For the UWB low data rate (LDR) IEEE 802.15.4a
Impulse UWB signals [18] (e.g. nanosecond long Gaussian standard, the signal format is the impulsive time hopping
pulses) is used in indoor applications where it does not use a (TH) UWB [23].
modulated sinusoidal carrier (or carrierless) to transmit This paper proposes a new routing protocol for the UWB
information; instead, information is sent through a series of MANET and is based on the conventional Location Aided
baseband pulses, the duration of these pulses is so short, and Routing protocol, scheme 1 (LAR1). The new approach
so, this typically results in a bandwidth on the order of proposes a dynamic and static request zone at the same time,
gigahertz. in order to consider power as a metric when a route is
Multicarrier UWB signals [19] (e.g. Orthogonal Frequency selected.
Division Multiplexing, OFDM) use a set of subcarriers that Three regions of request zones are assigned; the first zone
must be overlapping. A major advantage of multicarrier UWB represents a rectangle where the source and destination lie in
signals is their ability to minimize interference because the opposite corners of the rectangle, see Fig. 1.
subcarriers can be chosen to avoid interfering with bands used
by other systems sharing the spectrum. Expected Zone
MC-UWB [20] (or frequency domain UWB) transmitted
signal s(t) has the following complex baseband form.
Destination

(1)
Request Zone

Where N is the number of subcarriers is the symbol

that is transmitted in the rth transmission interval over the
nth subcarrier, Tp is signal duration, and A is a constant that Source

controls the transmitted power spectral density and

determines the energy per bit. The fundamental frequency is Fig. 1 LAR, scheme 1.

(2)
The second and third zones, see Fig. 2, represent rectangles
with dimensions that are dependent on the dimension of the
The type of application determines which part of the
first zone, (this is explained later in more detail).
spectrum UWB uses. UWB transmission has been limited to a
In order to achieve reliability and increase the probability
range from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz, specifically to avoid interference
of finding route, when each node within a request zone
with GPS and other essential services operating below 3.1
receives a Route Request (RREQ), they respond by
GHz.
transmitting a Route Reply (RREP) according to the
There is fewer multipath cancellation effects with UWB

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following criteria: discovery procedure which causes a huge amount of routing

overhead. Destination lies in a circular region of certain
• In each region, a threshold value of residual battery power radius centred at a position at certain time, known as the
is assigned Expected Zone, which indicates which zone of the network
should be reached by RREQ packets. Global Positioning
• The threshold of region 1 (Th1) is greater than that of System (GPS) enabled terminals to know its own position and
region 2 speed, while dissemination is performed by piggybacking
location information in all routing packets.
• The threshold value of region 2 (Th2) is greater than that There are two proposed schemes of LAR: [25]
of region 3. First assumption (LAR1) defines request zone that includes
sender and receiver on opposite corner of a rectangle as
shown in Fig. 1. The rectangle dimensions are estimated
Region3 Th3 according to the receiver average speed at a certain time.
Nodes within this zone respond to the RREQ of sender by
Region2 Th2
forwarding the RREQ to their nieghbors. This scheme
Destination
reduces network overhead but causes delay.
Another LAR scheme (LAR2) is proposed depending on
Region1 the calculated distance between source location and the
Th1
estimated position of destination. Each node receives the
RREQ calculates the distance toward destination, if the
distance is less than of the distance from the previous sender
node to destination, it forwards the packet. In this scheme,
Source intermediate receiving node may be the closest node to
Th1>Th2>Th3 destination, and so the algorithm reaches a dead-end.

Fig. 2 Request zones B. Location-Aware routing Protocol with Dynamic

Adaptive of Request Zone (LARDAR)
LARDAR [26] is a location-based routing protocol. It uses
The basic operation of the protocol is as follows: a) the destination's position to form a triangle or rectangle
request zone in order to reduce the traffic, b) dynamic
The initial RREQ is flooded over the request zone. When a adaptation of request zone technique in order to adapt the
node within one of the three zones receives a RREQ, it checks precision of the estimated request zone and reduce the
the header of RREQ for the threshold and dimensions of each searching range, and c) increasing-exclusive search approach
region (it should be noted here that positional information is to redo route discovery by a progressive increasing search
known by all nodes). If the node is within one of the zones, angle basis when route discovery failed and reduce routing
and has a residual battery power above the threshold of that overhead.
zone, it forwards the RREQ and so on until RREQ reaches to LARDAR utilizes the GPS information of destination
destination which replies to the first received RREQ using the node’s location, timestamp (location information obtained
reverse path. time), and velocity which can be calculated using the traveled
The rest of paper is organized as follows: section 2 distance and the time needed for traveling that distance.
summarizes related work, section 3 presents the proposed LARDAR improves the drawbacks of LAR and Distance
routing protocol, section 4 presents simulation results, and Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM) [2]. It
the summary in section 5. utilizes the location and expected zone in LAR, location
update frequency of DREAM, and uses energy aware and
II. RELATED WORK AND MOTIVATION geographical informed neighbour selection to reduce network
The new routing protocol exploits the advantages of LAR1 overhead which is the number of control packets transmitted.
routing protocol besides power issue in Location-Aware In LARDAR, increasing the angle of the triangle-zone
routing Protocol with Dynamic Adaptive of Request Zone shape depends on some factors; it can be improved by genetic
protocol (LARDAR). Below are more details about LAR1 and algorithm. When the expected zone is extended, source
LARDAR. forwards RREQ with the same sequence number, when
intermediate nodes receive the RREQ again, they discard it.
A. Location Aided Routing Protocol (LAR)
This could be a problem; these nodes could be the only ones
Location Aided Routing (LAR) [24] is an on-demand that can relay RREQ to the other nodes within the extended
routing protocol. LAR uses the modified Dijkstra's Algorithm zone.
to find the shortest path; it relies on a flooding-based route

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LARDAR saves power and lengthen system lifetime. calculated as follows:

Pr = Pt – N (3)
C. Power-Aware Routing
Since mobile hosts depend only on local power supplied by Where: Pr is received power, Pt is the transmitted power,
batteries, power aware is an important issue which must be and N is thermal noise. Whereas thermal noise is calculated
taken into account when designing wireless routing protocols. according to the following equation [32]:
Energy efficient issues, in general, are: Transmission Power
Control, Minimum Power Routing, Power-aware route N=T*k*B*F (4)
selection, and Battery-Cost-Aware Routing. [27]
Several routing techniques uses residual battery power as Where T is noise temperature in Kelvin of the input
metric to select next hop or detecting link failure, such as termination and equal to 290 K which is the standard
Minimal Battery Cost Routing (MBCR) [28] which uses
temperature, K is Boltzmann constant (= 1.379 x 10-23
battery power evenly depending on a cost function in order to
Joules/Kelvin), B is bandwidth of carrier signal in Hz, and F
select next hop node, the cost function considers only the total
cost while the route can include a node with little energy is a constant called the noise factor [33].
while the other nodes have a plenty of energy. Min-Max When source node wants to send data packets to
Battery Cost Routing (MMBCR) [28] which considers nodes' destination, it forwards RREQ based on the current
lifetime and avoid nodes that will exhaust soon when information about location and velocity of destination. First it
selecting next hop, it prolongs the lifetime of an individual establishes the expected zone based on the previous
node by introducing a new path cost, but it can set up the information stored in its routing table about the destination,
route with an excessive hop count and then consume a lot of this information includes the speed and position at certain
total transmission energy because it takes into account the time, source node assumes the destination in the center of
remaining energy level of individual nodes instead of the total circle where the radius is calculated according to the speed
energy. Max-Min Battery Capacity Routing (CMMBCR) [28] and time equation whereas the radius is the speed times the
which tries to make balance between MBCR and MMBCR, period of traveling, this period is the difference between the
the basic idea behind CMMBCR is that when all nodes on current time and the time when that information is updated in
route have remaining battery capacity above a threshold, a routing tables. Then the source establishes the first request
route with minimum total transmission power among all zone as shown in Fig. 1, then it calculates the dimensions of
routes is chosen. It maximizes the lifetime of ad hoc mobile the other two zones where the dimensions are proportional to
networks, but algorithm is very complex. AODV with Break
the dimension of first zone as shown in Fig. 2. And then the
Avoidance (AODV-BA) [29] that can avoid route breaks;
source forwards the RREQ including in the header extra
intermediate node that detects the breakage re-establishes a
new route before the route breaks. The detection of link information which are the dimensions of each region,
breakage based on threshold value which are: received radio, threshold values assigned to each region.
the residual battery power, and the density. Energy-Aware If RREP is not received within a certain time, RREQ is
AODV (EAAODV) [30] where each node receives RREQ reinitiated again; Fig. 3 shows the process of initiating
checks its residual battery power, if it is above a threshold, it RREQ.
forwards the RREQ, and otherwise, the node ignores it. And
Power Aware On-Demand (PAOD) [31] where the selection
Define Request Zone
criterion is based on two thresholds; each node Initiate RREQ
compares its residual battery power to these levels. Wait certain time for RREP
If RREP is received
When the residual battery power reaches to a certain Establish route and send data packets
Else reinitiate RREQ
level (link is going to be failed), an action is done.

III. ROUTING PROTOCOL Fig. 3 Initiating RREQ

The new proposed routing protocol exploits functionality of
When intermediate node receives RREQ for the first time,
LAR1 to improve route reliability and decrease power
it checks its position by GPS and RREQ’s header for zones’
consumption.
information (dimensions) and threshold values, if node is
A. Routing Strategy within the three regions, it compares its residual battery
Three regions are assigned, and each region has a certain power to the threshold assigned to its zone, if it is greater
threshold value of power. Each node within its region and has than the threshold, it forwards the message to its neighbors.
a residual battery power greater than the threshold responds Fig. 4 shows the process, otherwise, It ignores the RREQ.
to RREQ by retransmitting it as shown in Fig. 2. The process is keeping running until RREQ reaches its
The threshold values should be within the maximum destination.
available power and minimum received power which is

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If RREQ received for the first time

consumption, for example, when power values of batteries are
Check region big while the consumed power is low, the graphs will not
If within regions 1, 2, or 3 show the effect of modified routing protocol.
Check threshold
If greater than dedicated threshold Using frequency of 3.5 GHz (within the UWB frequency
Node adds its address range) and substituting into equations 1 and 2 yields in
Forward RREQ
If not
received power of 0.33mA, And so, the threshold values
Ignore the message should be within the range: 1.0 > Th > 0.33 (received
If outside regions 1, 2, or 3 current).
Ignore the message
If RREQ is already received Each node is equipped with GPS system which imposes an
Ignore it outdoor scenario, besides an UWB system that uses 0.5
milliWatt as transmitted power, frequency of channel is 3.5
Fig. 4 Handling of RREQ GHz (range of frequency available is 3.1 – 10.6 GHz), SNR
sensitivity is 1.0; which is acceptable ratio to enable receivers
to detect incoming signal, temperature is 290 Kelvin which is
When RREQ is received by destination, it forwards RREP the standard temperature, bit rate is 55 Mbps which is the
to source using the selected reverse path. Fig. 5 illustrates the (the minimum bit rate) and the range is up to 20 m as the
process. minimum bit rate is used which are the typical values [14].
Number of zones is three, where the dimensions of second
zone equal to 50% of the firs zone (requested zone), while the
If RREQ is received dimensions of third zone equal to 30% of the requested zone.
Initiate RREP and forward it using reverse path
Constant Bit Rate (CBR) is selected to be used as traffic
generator; it is a UDP-based client-server application which
sends data from a client to a server at a constant bit rate,
Fig. 5 Handling of RREQ by destination whereas 100 packets will be forwarded by source to
destination, each packet is 512 bytes in size; all these values
Each node has routing tables that stores routing are applied to QualNet simulator.
information which is updated whenever it receives control
packet. When RREP is received by intermediate node that is A. Static Mode Results
located on the reverse path, it updates its routing table This section shows the results of modified protocol in
according to the information included in the header of the compare to LAR1 and AODV in static mode (nodes are
received RREP, and then it forwards the RREP towards the fixed). As shown in Fig. 7, modified LAR1 has the minimum
source. Fig. 6 shows the process. power consumption (system aggregation) in transmission
mode and LAR1 has the maximum amount, while AODV has
an intermediate value between them. This is an indicator that
If RREP received modified LAR1 protocol generate less RREQ packets than the
If nodeIfaddress
node address
appearsappears in header
in header of RREPof other two protocols because the only nodes which have
RREPcache
Update
Update cacheRREP
Forward residual battery power over than the threshold can forward
IfForward
not RREP the RREQ and data packets as well despite the fact that the
If not Ignore it
Ignore it
flooded area of modified LAR1 is greater than that of LAR1,
which indicates that the modified LAR1 increases the life
time of the network as a whole in case of transmission mode.
Fig. 6 Handling of RREP
Fig.s 8 and 9 show the broadcast packet sent and received
IV. NETWORK ENVIRONMENT AND SIMULATION RESULTS to channel respectively. They represent the amount of
received and transmitted RREQ packets, which is a meter to
The proposed scenario considers a network of 20 hosts
network overhead; whereas the modified LAR1 has the
where the positions of nodes are selected randomly based on
minimum value of both received and transmitted signals,
the standard normal distribution, the scenario represents an
LAR1 has the maximum value, and AODV has an
outdoor network, each host has a certain level of battery
intermediate value. An explanation of the result is that the
power which is selected randomly, and nodes in this network
requested zone of LAR1 does not cover the destination and so
scenario are static. and threshold values are selected to have
source resorts to flooding over the whole network as a method
reasonable values regarding the maximum and minimum
to find route to destination, this means that RREQ is
battery power of nodes which ranges from 1.0 mAhr and 0.1
retransmitted more than once by the same some nodes (nodes
mAhr. Lower values are selected rather than the real one
within the requested zone), AODV uses flooding directly to
whereas selecting large values will not affect the results, but
cover the whole network, and so it ignores the retransmission
the statistics graphs will not show the difference in power

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of RREQ as in LAR1, while in modified LAR1, the requested

zone is extended to three regions instead of one, the new
requested zones cover the destination, and so no need to
resort to flooding, on the other hand, not all nodes forward
the RREQ, because only nodes which have residual battery
power over a predefined threshold value forward the RREQ.
As a result, modified LAR1 forwards less number of RREQ,
which affects the number of received RREQ as well, and so
not only it reduces network overhead, but it also reduces
power consumption.

Fig. 7 Battery energy consumed in transmit mode (static mode).

Fig. 9 Broadcast received (static mode).

Fig. 10 illustrates the throughput of the three routing

protocol, it shows that the throughput is equal for all of them;
data packets are transmitted and received by the same amount,
and so the difference is in control packets especially RREQ,
that means the lower amount of consumed energy in either
transmit or receive modes does not affect the throughput and it
is not cause of data packets, on the contrary, it is at the
expenses of RREQ; because not all node participate in
forwarding the RREQ, only the nodes which have residual
battery power greater than the threshold can forward it.

Fig. 8 Broadcast packets sent to channel (static mode).

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Fig. 11 indicates the amount of packets received clearly, in

other words, how much the system is reliable; the figure
illustrates that the three protocols have the same value of
reliability; because nodes are distributed randomly over the
network and power values are assigned randomly as well, the
selected route in all cases is the same, or at least the nodes on
the active route have enough battery power to recognize logic
1 as logic 1 and logic 0 as logic 0. The effect of reliability
appears in dynamic mode as nodes move, and so not the
same nodes are selected in the active route for different
routing protocols.
B. Dynamic Mode Results
This section shows the results of modified protocol in
compare to LAR1 and AODV in dynamic mode (nodes are
moving). Fig. 12 shows the energy consumed in transmit
mode when nodes are dynamic. We notice that the modified
LAR1 has the maximum power consumption in transmission
mode and AODV has the minimum amount, while LAR1 has
an intermediate value between them; regarding modified
LAR1 protocol, as nodes move randomly in every direction
and the restrictions of selecting nodes that will forward
RREQ besides the confined area of flooding, this makes it
Fig. 10 Throughput (static mode). difficult to find suitable route quickly, on the opposite side,
AODV uses flooding over the network, which makes it easy
to find route to destination, while LAR1 is only restricted by
the confined area. Nevertheless, the three results are close to
each other as discussed later on regarding fig. 5.15
(throughput).
Fig.s 13 and 14 show the broadcast packet sent and
received to channel respectively. It represents the amount of
received and transmitted RREQ packets, which is an
indicator to network overhead. These two figures confirm the
previous results whereas most of the time and power
consumed in transmitting and receiving are due forwarding
and receiving data packets rather that control packets.
The two figures show that the modified LAR1 has the
minimum value of both received and transmitted signals,
LAR1 has the maximum value, and AODV has an
intermediate value. An explanation of the result is that the
requested zone of LAR1 does not cover the destination and so
source node resorts to flooding over the whole network as a
method to find route to destination, this means that RREQ is
retransmitted more than once by the same some nodes (nodes
within the requested zone only), AODV uses flooding directly
to cover the whole network, and so it ignores the
retransmission of RREQ as in LAR1, another point is that
RERR packet could be generated as nodes may have not
enough power to transmit and receive all the time which
forces the source to generate more RREQs to find new route
to destination. While in modified LAR1, the requested zone
is extended to three regions instead of one, the new requested
Fig. 11 Unicast packets received clearly (static mode). zones cover the destination, and so no need to resort to

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flooding, On the other hand, not all nodes forward the RREQ
because only nodes which have residual battery power over a
predefined threshold value forward the RREQ. As a result,
modified LAR1 forwards less number of RREQ, which affects
the number of received RREQ as well, and so it does not only
reduce network overhead, but also reduces power
consumption
Fig. 15 clarifies the throughput of the three routing
protocol, it shows that modified LAR1 achieves the highest
throughput of the three protocols; that is, nodes which are
selected in active route have enough power to receive and
transmit packets, and so it achieves the highest throughput,
and this is an explanation of the previous results in the last
four figures (why the modified LAR1 consumes more energy
in transmit and receive mode).
Fig. 16 represents the reliability of protocol; it indicates the
amount of packets received clearly. The figure illustrates that
the modified LAR1 protocol has the highest value than the
other two protocols, which means that it is the most reliable
compared to LAR1 and AODV routing protocols. This is
because of the strategy of route selection; where nodes of
higher power is selected rather than low power nodes, which
maintains the route and enable active nodes to receive data
packets clearly, i.e. logic 1 is received as logic 1 and logic 0 is
Fig. 13 Broadcast packets sent to channel (dynamic mode).
received as logic 0.

Fig. 12 Battery energy consumed in transmit mode (dynamic mode).

Fig. 14 Broadcast received (dynamic mode).

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Fig. 16 represents the reliability of protocol; it indicates the

amount of packets received clearly. The figure illustrates that
the modified LAR1 protocol has the highest value than the
other two protocols, which means that it is the most reliable
compared to LAR1 and AODV routing protocols. This is
because of the strategy of route selection; where nodes of
higher power is selected rather than low power nodes, which
maintains the route and enable active nodes to receive data
packets clearly, i.e. logic 1 is received as logic 1 and logic 0 is
received as logic 0.

V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In this paper, a new routing protocol for UWB MANET is
proposed which exploits functionality of conventional LAR1
in order to improve route reliability and decrease power
consumption of nodes and overhead.
In the proposed protocol, only nodes located within the
assigned region respond to RREQ by detecting its position by
GPS, determine the zone they belong to and the its threshold
by detecting RREQ’s header; if the previous conditions are
valid then the node forward RREQ to its neighbors.
The modified LAR1 protocol performs well in static and
dynamic modes, it outperforms both AODV and LAR1
protocol at all levels (network life time, network overhead,
Fig. 15 Throughput (dynamic mode). reliability); the key factor for the above results is the selection
criteria of nodes; where nodes of residual battery power above
a threshold can participate in active route, which guarantees
route reliability, network life time, and high throughput,
besides the extension of the confinement flooded area by
dividing the resulting requested zone into three zones of
different dimensions and assigning a threshold value to each
zone.
Results of dynamic mode are better than results of static
mode. In dynamic mode, nodes are moving in every and any
way, and so any protocol may stick if a node of low battery
power is selected in active route, running out the node’s
power will cause a link failure and affect the performance of
routing protocol, modified LAR1 does not stick in such
problem as nodes of residual battery power above a threshold
are always selected, which guarantees a high performance
even in dynamic mode.

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