INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
 A research is a purposive and rigorous investigation that aims to generate/at generating
specific new knowledge.
 It is the intellectual tool of scientists which allows them to enter contexts of personal
or public interests that are unknown to them and to search for answers to their questions.
 A research is about discovery, and expanding the horizons of the known, confidence of
something, ideas and new conclusions about all aspects of life.
 As the quest for knowledge, research has been the ultimate goal of scientists
who basically seek, not only to gather useful, valid knowledge, but also to educate the
community about the status and validity of certain sources of knowledge.

TRENDS IN RESEARCH OVERTIME

 Research has been diverse and pluralistic.
 The two major forms of research within the research domain have been positivists
(qualitative and non-positivists (quantitative).
 Quantitative research became popular, and overshadowed other types of research. However,
the rise of qualitative research (during the second half of the 20th century) reduced the
popularity of positivism significantly.
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 There have been an ideological division over the quality and suitability of social research.
 Research has been associated with personal interests, social problems, ideologies and
political influence.
 Research has also served as a toll of social policy and social construction.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Science is a method (way) of knowing things (a way of generating knowledge).
- Thus, science is a systematic/logical method of knowing or generating knowledge.
- It is an objective way of knowing things.
- There is objectivity in the way knowledge is generated. That is, science is less biased.
- It is also empirical/practical/experimental, science is experienced as it is concerned with
generating knowledge about things that can be observed/seen/experienced.
In social work, we are concerned about knowledge that is scientifically generated. It is about
evidence based social work practice through the use of methods and techniques that have been
scientifically proven to be effective (through research).
Philosophy studies things in a more speculative way as opposed to observation.
- It is based on facts (there is no proof by observation)
- It is also a method of knowing or generating knowledge.
- One characteristic is that it is subjective. That is, it is biased and based on personal judgment
or experience.

TWO BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

There are two systematic methods of acquiring knowledge (or methods of investigation):

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(i) Social science
(ii) Natural science
Social workers use applied science to generate knowledge about nature of human benefits.
Applied science is the science that uses knowledge acquired to solve human problems/social
problems (problems affecting human beings/people).
Social science thus is the study of human society. The emphasis is on research methods.
Social: Relationships, that is, how people relate to each other, at individual, family, community
and organizational levels. It is also based on the type/nature of relationships and outcomes of
those relationships. For example, economical, political, social and cultural etc. In case of
economical relationships, those working and not working relate to each other.
Natural science is the study of natural phenomenon that is the physical environment.
Primarily/traditional branches include: physicals, chemistry, biology etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND NATURAL SCIENCES

- Social sciences (social work, sociology, psychology etc) are concerned with the study of
society – social structure and interrelationships.
- Physical/natural sciences deal with observable phenomenon. They mostly deal with nonliving
things. For example, physics – light, chemistry – chemical compounds.
- In terms of subject matter, natural sciences deal with matters different from social sciences.
The difference has led to social scientists to believe that social sciences, for example
sociology, sociologists such as Emile Durkheim and Max Weber to have different views.
E Durkheim introduced the issue of social facts as social reality as having an independent
existence. He used positivism which is the study of social reality objectively through the use
of scientific methods.

Max Weber argued that the subject matter of social sciences and physical sciences were
distinctive, and as such the local inquiry should be different and that you cannot use
positivism to study social reality, that is you cannot be objective. He thus argued that social
reality has got a subjectivity part to it. Thus, the methodology should employ verstehim.
You cannot avoid emotional engagements but 1be more empathetic in understanding social
reality. (Employ phenomenology as a school of thought).

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND NATURAL SCIENCES

What is common between social sciences and natural sciences?
Science is about methods of investigation. It is the systematic method (way) of generating
knowledge. They are both called sciences because they use systematic methods (ways) of
investigations in describing explaining and predicting social phenomena and events.

AIMS AND GOALS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

(i) Description
(ii) Explanation Major ones
(iii) Prediction
(iv) Understanding
(i) Description
Refers to the accurate and precise measurement and reporting of events and social phenomena,

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including characteristics of social phenomena and events so that for any given event a social
scientists is able to describe it. For example, a strike, risk of demonstration, such as who
participated, where did it take place, who took part in students’ demonstrations? What were their
characteristics? When, who, where, what are the questions.

(ii) Explanation
Involves investigation of causes underlying the existence of particular phenomenon.
Why?
Students’ demonstration; Poverty; Child abuse/defilement; HIV/AIDS; Street kids
That will lead to causes, explanation related to analysis, so that ultimately you can build the body
of knowledge.

There are two aspects:

(a) Deductive explanation
(b) Probabilistic (inductive) explanation.
(a) Deductive Explanation: are explanations based on universally established laws.

Spatio – temporal validity.

For certain explanations, truth will remain the same.
These are common in natural sciences, for example, laud of gravity, as it universally varies.
It is true across time and space.
Universal – unchanging
Spatio – space, temporal – time.
It is used to explain social phenomena. Social science have spatio-temporal validity. For
example, economics has law of supply and demand.

(b) Probabilistic (Inductive) Explanations

Explanations are not based on universally established laws but are based on generalizations
expressing tendencies observed in many instances.
XY
If X takes place, what happens to Y?
In this case, explaining social phenomena is based on what has been observed. For example,
law of supply and demand.
o Availability of goods, prices go down
o Scarcity of goods, prices go up.
This should be based on empirical observations, and make a generation. This generation is
not applicable in all situations since it lacks universality. Thus, it may not apply in all
instances. Explanations are always expressed with some probability. For example,
unemployment will lead to high crime rates.
Unemployment = Crime
You cannot have universality in terms of explanation in social sciences.

(iii) Prediction
Prediction - forecasting, projection, prophesying.
The more complete an explanation is, the more accurate is the prediction likely to be.

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A prediction based on deductive explanation is more likely to be accurate than
probabilistic explanation. For example, a law of gravity – a stone is likely to fall down,
but you cannot predict that unemployment with fall drastically. For example, all the
people will die, has universal validity.

(iv) Understanding
Means to grasp the meaning of on to comprehend something. In social sciences, we
conceive understanding by verstehen – Empathetic understanding of social phenomena as
the social sciences deal with a distinct body of knowledge with some subjective
component to it. Thus, one should try to put himself in the area of the subject of inquiry
(matter/subject under investigation).

THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

- Re-search
- Re-again (search again). That is, look at problems or situations afresh/a new.
Why?
This is the first looking at phenomenon may be misleading or it may have been error prone,
false, or inaccurate information, hence the need to look into problems again.
Research tends to go beyond common sense view of reality. In research nothing is taken for
granted (and always take a second look). There are a number of things that are taken for
granted. For example, all the street kids may be considered to be children orphaned by
HIV/AIDS, when infact not all of them. In research we go beyond what we see and try to see
what lies beneath it. By doing that, research helps us correct misconceptions about reality, and
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we get closer to new knowledge through systematic investigations. Therefore, in research never
take things for granted.
Research is thus undertaken because people want to find out more information about a problem,
or others may even question that information.

MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research is a systematic collection, analysis (or collation) and interpretation of data/information
in order to answer a question or solve a problem. Research is a systematic way of collecting,
analyzing/collating and presenting information on a certain problem or situation or event. It
involves finding out more about a certain problem so as to come up with a certain
conclusion/solution to solve a problem.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
- A research demands a clear statement of a problem. That is, identify the problem (state the
problem). What is problematic about a situation? For example, what is problematic about
alcoholic abuse?
- Research requires a plan.
- Research builds upon existing data and information and makes use of both the negative and
positive aspect that data or information.
- In every kind of research, the information that exists has to be built upon (relating to
literature review).
- New data should be collected in every research as per problem identified or defined.

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- It must be organized in such a way that it answers your questions or solves a problem.

TYPES OF RESEARCH (TWO MAIN TYPES)

(i) Pure (basic) Research

(ii) Applied Research

(i) Pure (Basic) Research

o This type of research is concerned with the production of new knowledge and with
the increase of scientific understanding of the world and not with the application of its
outcome.
o It aims purely at the discovery of knowledge. Thus, it is referred to as pure research.
In other words, pure research is the kind of research intended to acquire knowledge
for its own sake.
o It is one done for personal interest. It aims at fulfilling some academic interest. That
is, to satisfy one’s intellectual curiosity/answer questions. For example, research
done for academic fulfillment.
o Thesis/dissertation students who are doing master programme submit their research
papers to fulfill academic interest/requirement as part of the conditions set by
university.

(ii) Applied Research

o This is the type of research which places strong emphasis on application of
knowledge acquired and problem solving as opposed to the basic research.
o It also entails the personal engagement of the researcher and elements of change
(people affected by the problem) and enlightenment.
o It is usually referred to as emancipator research.

o Social impact studies, action research, evaluation research and cost-benefit analysis
are a few examples of applied research.
o In other words, applied research is the one that is intended to find solutions to
problems. It is about finding practical solutions to real world problems.
o You can also evaluate certain policies, projects and progammes. Thereafter, come up
with interventions and solutions. For example, the problem of HIV/AIDS, street
kids.
o In most cases, you want to come up with solutions that will help in improving buy
that particular problem.
Examples of Research
o Zambia Demographic and Health Survey (ZDHS)
o Living Conditions and Monitoring Survey (LCMS)
o Census which is done by Control Statistical Office (CSO)
o These are done by governments, donor agencies, NGOs to improve the quality of life
of people.

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Note Book
o There is some continuity between pure research and applied research. That is, what
begins as basic research can be applied research (from academic to applied research).

POSITIVE FUCNTIONS (USES) OF RESEARCH

- It assists in the acquisition of knowledge (as a major use).
- Solving of problems – finding solutions to problems (particular solves in applied research).
For example, commissioned research, that is, looking for data/information and come up with
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recommendations, with the view to implementing the policy. For example, street vendors in
Lusaka identified as a problem.
- Research of this nature will always give the quality of life indicators. For example;
o CENSUS - Life Expectancy
o ZDHS - Per Capita Income
o LCMS - HIV prevalence rates, enrolment rates, maternal mortality rates,
percentage of women in decision making positions.
- These indicators are a result of applied research conducted. For example, Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).

NEGATIVE USE (ABUSE) OF RESEARCH

- The use of research findings to maintain the status queue or the situation of a particular
group.
- Carry out research to prove a point.
- It is pre-conception about reality.
- Research carried out in a disordered way. For example, a particular group has low ZQ,
especially blocks. Also that HIV/AIDS originated from blocks who are related
Chimpanzees.
- Carry our research in uncondusive environment and the group on which research is
conducted comes from the disadvantaged background.
- Doctoring of data; involves a process of playing around with data so that it yields the results
that you want. For example, constitution review commission and the recommendations say
90% of Zambians want the constitution to be adopted through constituent Assembly.
However, Information Minister presides over the adequate and change the data to suit
themselves – ruling party.
- Over advocacy trap is a situation where a researcher officers advise or recommendations
based on advocacy or personal opinions and avoids empirical investigations or evidence.
- One may give personal opinion or advocacy to represent the opinion of the people to justify
their positions or situations.
- The social sciences ‘priesthood’ (after research, the information is for the benefit of the
general society to make decisions and policies).
- However, social scientists use language that makes it difficult for people/society to
understand the outcomes of the research.
- Invasion of privacy during research, ensure that you do not violate the privacy of the people
from whom you are collecting data/information so that you do not harm them. For example,
collecting information on daga, do no mention names of respondents. However, the privacy

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of people is violated.
- Unscientific sampling; researches have a tendency to sue methods of sampling/samples that
are not representative of the population and using them to make generalisations.
This becomes the abuse when generalizing the population.

SOLUTIONS TO ABUSES
- Use the language that can be understood by people, especially people who will benefit from
the research.
- Use of scientific sampling so that the results will be representative of the general population.
- Use of informed consent in order to safeguard confidentiality, ask the participants to
willingly and voluntarily give you the information and not through conversion.
Note: Only in a CNEUS, all people are required by law to give data.
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- In order to preserve the privacy of individuals, information/results generated must be
reported in form of grouped frequencies – collectively so as not to reveal the identity of
people who gave the information. For example, data on daga smoking. Do you smoke
daga/marijuana?

Male Female
Yes % %
No % %
Express the information in form of percentages (%) or numbers.

COMMON SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

- Research is primarily motivated by acquisition of knowledge.
- How do we know the things and how valid is the method or how valid is our basis of
knowledge.

VARIOUS WAYS OF KNOWING THINGS

(i) Intuition
Is the subjective way of knowing things through insights which are not based on rational
thought. It is based on lunch, premonition, “gut-feeling.” That is, it is subjective and
based on personal feelings, it is like a lunch – a idea based and feeling rather than on
facts or proof/without reasoning or proof.

(ii) Habit
o It involves believing what we do because it is tradition to do so.
o It is knowledge acquired through socialization.
o Tradition, in the sense that it is practiced through generations (opinions, beliefs,
practices and customs passed on from generation to generation).
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(iii) Common Sense

o It is about opinions that are widely held because they seem to be obvious or correct.
o Everyone believes in something even though there is no proof. For example,

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prostitutes do what they do because of poverty. Street kids are orphaned or
vulnerable because of HIV/AIDS.

(iv) Authoritarian
o This is where it is assumed that knowledge is derived from those individuals who are
politically and socially producers of knowledge.
o It is based on authority. It is the way of experts. For example, individual social
scientists.

(v) Mystical
o This is where knowledge is assumed to be solicited from prophets. It is based on
divine and supernatural powers. An example, should be in the bible that Jesus Christ
healed the blind or lame people.
o It is based on the divine, goods, mediums and other supernaturally endowed
individuals or supernaturally knowledgeable authorities. For example,
witchdoctors/finders.
o In most cases, it is accompanied by rituals and ceremonies in order to arrive at some
knowledge.
o Problem associated with thus, source is that it stands as it were on tenacious grounds
because confidence in knowledge generated diminishes as the number of
disconfirmation increases. This happens as society advances. For example, most of
the educated people would question witchcraft or the Bible.

(vi) Rationalistic mode

o Knowledge acquired through an opinion or judgement based on careful thought or
reasoning.
o Knowledge in its totality can be derived from a strict adherence to the rules and forms
of logic.
o Related to this, is the view that the human mind can understand or comprehend events
or phenomena independently of observed phenomena so that it is possible to
understand the world.
o It is possible to know things in their true essence without involving one’s emotions or
feelings.
o Completely, absolutely and objectively so that you can conceal your own knowledge.
o Knowledge can be obtained strictly through the process of reasoning.
Abstract Logic – pure mathematics characterised by values that are universal and very
compelling and absolutely certain.

(vii) The Scientific Mode

o It is based on assumption that knowledge must rely on perceptions, experiences and
observations.
o It is based on empiricism. It is knowledge derived from our senses indirectly or
directly (what you see, feel).

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o To a considerable degree, a scientific mode also tends to marry certain aspects of the
rationalistic mode – relationship between scientific mode and rationalistic mode. For
example, a lot of mathematics in social sciences such as demography and economics.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Characteristics
- In conducting of research, there must be systematic rules and procedures. Researchers
should operate on the rules or road map in the manner in which they make inferences,
observations and conclusion.
- Logical in the sense that it uses deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive
reasoning/logical involves a process of reasoning from the general to the specific. For
example, all men are mortal (general); John is a man and therefore, he is mortal (specific).
Inductive logic/reasoning involves general. That is, you start with specific instances to
general. For example, John is mortal; All men are mortal.
- Scientific method is empirical. It means that data or knowledge is derived from reality. That
is, from observations of what actually exists (observations, experiences, perceptions).
- Replicable: It means that another researcher conducting research should come up with more
or less the same research results of the other researchers using a research in similar
circumstances.
- Transmittable: having taken research, the findings of research can be in a way that findings
go beyond the research.
- The research findings should be transmitted from the sample to the whole population
(generalized to the whole population – should be representative of the larger population).
- It should be transmitted to other contexts. For example, research conducted at UNZA can be
transmitted to other universities.
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- Reductive: When you think about research you must realize, that you are dealing with
complex situation(s). That is reality which is complex/infinite. You have to focus on
realities – things that concern us so that you make your research so physical. Focus on
something that you can manage.
- Objective: Means removal of personal values and biases, away from unduly influences by
prejudices and values. It calls for suspension of beliefs. When conducting a research, make
your own reflection on the truth.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

This is a cyclical process as it moves in stages from the conception of problem to the final result.
Problem
Generalisation Hypothesis
Data Analysis Research Design
Data Collection Measurement
Deduction
Induction Verification
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Theory – Research (deductive)
Research – Theory (inductive)

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You can start with a theory (general), then do research (specification). Or start with research
(specification), then up with theory (general).
Research does not end, it is an ongoing process (it is dynamic).

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHOICE OF RESEACH PROBLEMS (TOPICS)

(i) Value and relevance in life: Investigate things that have value, relevance and meaning
in life.
(ii) Intellectual and academic interest, especially those on pure research. For Purposes of
fulfilling course requirements.

(iii) Practical Interest: This is the kind of research undertaken to find solutions to a
problem. For example, problems of street kids, street vendors. Embark on research to
find solutions.

(iv) Personal Interest: A desire to undertake research from a personal perspective. For
example, documenting strikes, boycotts or demonstrations by students. (Sometimes, may
overlap with others).

(v) Accident (Serendipity): This is covering by chance. That is, research which starts by
chance/accident. Chance research, especially through expectations. You might find
yourself deviating from your goal, for example, Rontgen discovered x-rays by accident
(German Physist). This is done more especially in natural sciences.

(vi) Social and Financial Incentives: People undertake research as it gives them the
opportunity to get money, for example, commissioned research through bids. Tenders
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and advertised, and a number of people will bid for tenders to conduct research because it
involves money.

(vii) Human Resource Capacity: Ability to conduct research. Knowledge and skills in
terms of research methodologies. Normally bid for consultancy.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

- Is the topic so problematic to warranty further investigation? For example, street vending.
- In fact, this is the first stage in the research process.
- Ask yourself questions:
o What is the problem?
o Why should it be studied?
- There should be three (3) conditions for a problem to exist on any given topic.

Three (3) conditions necessary for the existence of a problem

Whether a problem or situation exists depends on three conditions:
(i) There should be a discrepancy or perceived difference between what exists (actual
situation) and the ideal (desired situation).

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(ii) The reasons for the discrepancy or difference must be so unclear that it warrants research
questions and further investigations.
(iii) There must be more than one reason and possible answer(s) to the research question
paused.

DISCREPANCY
Identifying a problem (what is the problem).
- Ideal or desired situation
Numbers should decrease, go away from streets.
- Real or actual situation
Numbers of vendors increasing and vendors are becoming more militant.
If the actual situation equals to ideal situation, then there cannot be a problem, hence no
discrepancy.

Reasons for discrepancy (why does the problem persist)

- The reasons should lead you to investigation of the discrepancy.
- The reason or even answers must be unclear.
- There must be many reasons or more than one possible reason or answer.

Discrepancy
- Ideal or desired situation
After all efforts, the number of vendors should decrease.
- Actual or existing situation
The number of vendors is increasing.
- This scenario is the basis for the discrepancy.
- The reasons for the discrepancy are unclear, leading to the research question.
o What explains the discrepancy?
o What are the reasons for the discrepancy?
- There are many possible answers/reasons for the discrepancy:
o More customers on the streets leading to more profits
o Avoidance of market levies
o Unfair allocation of tradition space
o Ignorance/level of knowledge
o Lack of capital
o Too much competition in the markets
o Limitation of time
o Easy to trade in illegal goods
o Lack of employment
o Poverty
o Asian traders encourage these
o Influx of traders from outside Lusaka
- When doing research, openness of the mind or sense of accommodation is vital.

PROBLEM DEFINITION

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- Involves identifying and quantifying the core problem. For example, the core problem is the
increase in unregulated street trading in the streets.
- This is a situation whereby you use figures and numbers to quantity the problem in terms of
the nature of the problem itself.
- That is, ideal and actual but this time you use numbers and figures and this should lead to
distribution of the problem. For example, what is the number of street vendors?
o What are the vendors?
o Who is affected?
Then you have to use picture.
o Where are the vendors?
o When is the problem more serious?
- You have to indicate the size and intensity of the problem
o How widespread is the problem?
o How severe is it?
o What are the consequences?
- When you ask questions like these, you are concerned with occurrence, intensity and
distribution of the problem. It means defining the problem in terms of its occurrence,
intensity and distribution.
- By asking questions, you are establishing the parameter which will indicate the incidence and
prevalence of the problem. How big/prevalent the problem is?
- It will also determine the geographical areas or distribution of the problem. Is the problem
only confined to certain areas?
- You also have to know the characteristics of the population.
o Who are these vendors?
o Who is affected by this particular problem?
o Are they young, old, residents or migrants?
- Having done this, you want to know the information available about the problem. This
requires reviewing the information available, about the problem. You need some information
already available from sources.
- After defining the problem, analysis of the problem follows. Identify factors that have
contributed to the existence and persistence of the problem. For example, street vending.
This is done by clarifying the relationships between factors and the problem itself.

ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM

For example:
To make further clarification, organize factors into larger categories as it makes it easier to
narrow the base for data collection in a more systematic way:
- Social, demographic characteristics: For example, age, sex, marital status, occupation,
education etc.
- Economic factors/characteristics: Unemployment, profit, mature, poverty, customer base,
avoidance of market levies.
- Environmental Factors: Limited market, preference for open space.
- Political Factors: Political bias in the allocation of space or stands. Absence of by-laws to
regulate trade.
- Cultural Factors: Breakdown of extended family.
- Behavioral Factors: People may want to do things of their own.

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 CRITERIA IN PRIORITISATION OF THE PROBLEM
Before research, we need to know whether or not it is worth proceeding with. You have to know
the criteria of prioritizing the problem:
(i) Relevance
o Is this particular area of investigation a priority?
o Who is affected by the problem?
o How widespread is the problem? How large?
o How server is the problem? Consequences
If in terms of relevance, there is discrepancy you can proceed.
It governs the choice of investigation.
(ii) Avoidance of duplication
o Questions concerning topic – whether or not this topic has been investigated within
the same area of another area in similar circumstances, for example, street vending.
o Major questions concerning street vending, have they been answered by other
researchers and addressed the main issues adequately?
o Are the answers to the topic readily available?
o If all the questions have been answered, and answers are readily available in other
documents, and if you continue, it means you are duplicating.
o Duplication does not include replication as long as certain questions are still hanging
or no solutions are found to the questions. For example, have the questions to street
vending been answered and documented?
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o You can avoid duplication by involving literature review.
(iii) Urgency of the data needed (timeliness)
o This is a situation where you ask questions, for example, vending.
Are the results obtained needed to come up with decisions to develop some
interventions urgently? If so, proceed.
Whether or not there are other competing projects. For example, City Council, are
there other research projects, one on street vending and the other on street kids.
o Thereafter, you have to prioritize. These are decision making issues.

(iv) Political/Social Acceptability or Academic Acceptability

Does the topic chosen have the interest and support of the relevant stakeholders? For
example, street vending – financial support from Ministry of Local Government and
Housing and City Council.
(v) Feasibility
o The concern is about complexity. Is the problem too complex or big to be
undertaken?
o Always reduce a topic to the extent where it is manageable. The larger the topic, the
more complex it becomes to manage.
Questions
o How complex is this particular problem? Is it too complex?
o Are the resources available? If so, are they adequate?
Resources: Money – financial resources, human resources, manpower, and time.

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o You also consider the cooperation of respondents.
o Too complex:
 There is need to narrow the topic.
 There is also need to take into consideration the sample size (n=100)
o For large scale projects, there is need for training of human resource.

(vi) Applicability of possible results/recommendations

o Using competing interest during research.

How likely is it that the results and recommendations of the research will be applied?
If so, you can proceed.
This does not apply in all situations. For instance, in pure research but this is
considered in commissioned research or funded research.
o It is optional. For example, street vending. Is the government or Ministry of Local
Government and Housing going to accept these recommendations.
(vii) Ethical Acceptability
o The research must not violate the research subjects’ rights. So ethical considerations
are key.
o Whether or not research results are accepted to the research subjects? To what extent
are the people going to accept the research?
o Can the informed consent be obtained from the research subjects?
o Informed consent – elicit cooperation or voluntary participation of the subjects.
o Whether or not the conditions of the research being taken have been taken into
consideration.
o Whether or not the results will be shared with participants?
o Will the results improve their conditions? If so, then proceed.

LITERATURE REVIEW
- For any given research topic, it is important to read and gather information about the topic so
that you are better informed. There may be other research.
- Literature review is very important because:
o It may act as a pre-route to problem formulation
o It may inspire you to formulate a problem. That is, by refining ideas.
- It is a very dynamic process.
- Literature review consists of two aspects:
o Review of theory (theoretical framework)
o Review of empirical research.

REVIEW OF THEORY
- This involves reading books or articles about certain theory(ies) that may have a bearing on
the topic (insights about subject).
- Theories are generalizations that purport to give explanations about phenomena. For
example, law of supply and demand.

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- Thus, review of theory involves reading books/articles about certain theories that may have a
bearing on the topic or that may give insights about the subjected you are investigating. For
example, functionalist theory, conflict theory, role they and systems theory.
- Sometimes, you can use theory and subject to do empirical tests. Theories can give an
insight to understand phenomena adequately. It is used to enhance your understanding.
- You can drive some propositions from theory to help you understand subjects under
investigations and be subjected to tests.
- You can use theory to come up with conceptual organisation of the subject. For example,
crime and poverty (theory of anomie) OVCs and HIV/AIDS (systems theory or structural
functionality theory).

REVIEW OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

- Reflection of research that has already been undertaken. Make observation on certain topic
and produce reports.
Research findings in books/articles have to be revised.
- When you are doing research, it is important to review the research that has already been
undertaken.
- Important things to consider:
o Challenge previous research, that is, be very article. For example, street vending –
look at it critically. Was this research done properly?
o Is it methodologically sound?
26
o Was the sampling scientifically or correctly done? (May be it did not use
representative samples).
o Are there any other factors omitted?
- Challenge prior/previous research.
o There may be some weaknesses in methodology. For example, omission of variables.
Sampling may not be sued in order.
- Purpose of determining whether or not research findings have stood the test of time (is it
valid up today).

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

- It prevents duplication of what has already been done – prevents unnecessary duplication.
- It helps in finding out what others have done and reported on the topic (biographic indexing).
It helps you to refine the statement of the problem (anything to be modified).
- It increases your awareness and familiarity with different methodologies that might be useful
for your research (those might be better methods for tackling problems than what you have).
- Literature review provides you with convincing arguments on why the research should be
undertaken (to justify your undertaking) research, and also to clarify your weaknesses).
Sources
- Individuals, groups and organisations.
o Knowledgeable individuals or people who have written about such topics.
For example, City Council on street vending, ZINGO on parenting and parenthood.
o Groups and organisations that may have something to do with the topic/subject.
For example, organisations dealing with HIV/IDS. They may even have materials.
- Published information – books, articles, reports, abstracts and indices.

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- Unpublished information – Thesis/dissertations, research reports/proposals, databases,
statistical bulletins.

Where to Find Sources

- Libraries – articles, books
27
- Archives
- Government departments. For example, Central Statistical office (CSO). Also Ministries.
- Museums
- The Internet
- CD-Roms
- Raw data from the CSO on CBS
- From bilateral and multilateral agencies.
Other Sources
- Seminar/conference/workshop presentations.
Strategies (How to go about this)
- Identify a key person who is knowledgeable about a particular topic.
- Look up presenters/resource persons at seminars/conferences/workshops.
- Contacting librarians
- Newspapers/magazines
- Look up indexes/abstracts
- Use the internet.
Method of Reading
- Skim them
- Look at the title, paragraphs, abstracts to have a picture of what the article is all about.
- Important information to be included:
o Record the key words, for example, street vending - Economic aspect of street
tradition.
o Put down some information on the author, title of journal/book, even date of
publication.
o Purpose/objectives of the article/hypotheses.
o Methodology – Indicate study/research design. For example, descriptive
study/explanatory study.
o Sampling method – Target population, method, measurement of variables (for
example, how did they measure poverty).
- At the end of the above section, say something about, for example, appropriateness of the
methodology. In your own understanding, say if it was properly used.
28
- Conclusions/major findings
o What were the major findings/conclusion
o Focus attention on the most salient findings – that is, things that are more
important/standout.
- Indicate also the relevance of information to your own research.
- After summarising the information. Classify if for easier retrieval in whatever way
convenient. For example, historical aspects of street trading to be put together.
o Social aspect

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o Economic aspect
o Political aspect etc
Review
- After that, then review all of them by reading through them and understand the information.
o Decide the order to presentation. For example, begin with historical aspect.
o Write a coherent discussion in your own words using all the relevant information
because you have to make citations/references in order to avoid plagiarism.

ORGANISATION OF REFERENCES
Articles
Authors (surname followed by initials). Title of article. Name of journal, year, volume number:
page numbers. For example, Banda M. Drug Abuse at UNZA African Social Research, 2009,
35:200-220.
Books
Author(s) (surname followed by initials). Title of book. Edition – place: Year of publication:
Number pages.

STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS

- For any research, you have to indicate your objectives. Summarise what is to be achieved by
the study.
- Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem so that eh research, for
instance, about street vending should state the objective and show why street vending is on
the increase.
General objective(s) and specific objectives
- General objective states what the researcher(s) expect to achieve in general terms.
o It is possible to break the general objective into specific objectives.
o These specific objectives are normally smaller but logically interconnected parts of
the general objectives.
o Specific objectives tend to be more concrete than general objectives.
o Specific objectives should systematically address various aspects of the problem as
well as key factors that assume to influence or cause the problems, f or example,
street vending.
General objective
- To explore the causes and the extent of illegal street vending in Lusaka.
- To identify policies and interventions to deal with the problem.
Specific Objective(s)
- To establish eh magnitude and severity of street vending.
- To identify social, economic and political factors contributing to the problem.
o To determine………….
o To establish to which education contributes to the problem
o To establish the role of gender in the increase of street vending
o To determine the extent to which unemployment contributes to street trading.
- When talking about specific objectives, ensure that specific objectives attempt to quantify the
objective of the problem.

WHY SHOULD RESEARCH OBJECTIVES BE DEVELOPED

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- Research objectives make it possible for you to focus on the study (narrow the study to
essentials). For example, research on sports preferences – reasons why women prefer certain
sports discipline as opposed to others.
- To avoid collecting unnecessary data for understanding or solving the problem.
- To help you organize your study in clearly defined phases/parts, especially at the stretch of
report writing. For example, Sports infrastructure; Role of gender; role of age.
- A well formulated research objective facilitates appropriate research metholodogy.
- It also helps in orienting you in collecting data, analyse, interpretation and sue of data.

HOW TO STATE OBJECTIVES

- When stating objectives, ensure that objectives cover the different aspects of the problem as
well as the factors contributing to the existence and persistence of the problem in coherent
and logical sequence.
- Ensure that the objectives are phrased clearly in operational terms in the sense of specifying
who, what, where.
o Operatioanlise specific objectives in the manner that makes objectives more or less
observable, for example, to find out which gender is prone to drug abuse.
o To find out which age group is prone to drug abuse.
- Ensure that statements of objectives are stated realistically, take into account local
conditions, for example, to investigate the extent to which students use marijuana.
- Use action verbs – action verbs should be specific to be evaluated. For example, to
investigate, to determine, to explore, to describe, to verify…
o Findings should be compared to the objectives
o To find out if the objectives have been achieved
o To evaluate whether or not what you are investigating has been achieved. For
example, to what extent the findings reflect the problem.
- On the basis of the problem identified, nature of the problem as well as discrepancy, you can
ask research questions relevant to the problem and objectives.
o Why are students abusing drugs?
o Who among male and female students abuse drugs?

PARADIGMS

- When carrying out research in one way or another, you do so by the influence of the
paradigm.
- A paradigm is like a research perspective. It guides one in terms of what research goals, and
what research methods are appropriate and should be sued in the conduct of research.
- Paradigm in that sense is the model for further research and problem-solving.

MODELS
- Likeness of something
- Model is an initiation of something
- An abstraction of something (abstraction from reality)
- The purpose is to simplify and order that which is abstracted from reality in such a way that it

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represents the essential characteristics of that particular reality.
- A model may be taken to be a representation of a system. For example, explanation of
society using an organic model, structuring functional model.

THEORIES
- A theory is a proposition or set of propositions that purport(s) to explain some phenomena or
event.
- Theorising is a process of purporting the explain and predict event phenomena or events.
o You have to relate a subject of interest to some other phenomenon or event. For
example, poverty and criminal behaviour.
o Theory – poverty leads to criminal behavior.
o When you theorise, operate on the basis of abstract and general.
o The theory has to be subjected to empirical tests.
- Theories attempt to answer why questions in most cases. For example, why are there high
rates of corruption in Zambia?

IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES
- After hypotheses and objectives have been formulated, we have to know about variables or
concepts.
o Questions: What information is needed or do you need?
Concepts
A concept is an abstraction which may represent an object – a poverty of an object, certain
phenomenon or event, an idea of something that exists.
Variable
- A variable is also a concept, which takes on different values. It is synonymous to a concept.
It only varies/changes/differs. There are different classifications of variables. For example,
the greater the consumption of daga, the greater the chances of going or becoming
mad/psychiatric or the greater the chances of committing crime.
- Two types of variables are: Independent and dependent variables.
Dependent Valuable
Is that variable that the researcher wants to explain.
Independent Variable
Is that variable that is expected to explain the change in the dependent variable. It is the
explanatory variable. That is, the variable that causes changes or variations. For example;
Population of mosquitoes (Independent)
Prevalence of malaria (Dependent).
Interviewing Variable(s)
- Is that variable that is a consequence of the independent variable and determinant of the
dependent variables. That is, it is the result of the independent variable and determine the
dependent variable and determines the dependent variable. It stands in between the
independent and dependent variables. It interviews so that there is a causal chain or
influence. For example,
XZY
IND/V I/V D/V
- The effects of education on voting.
Hypothesis: The higher the level of education, the greater the disposition to vote.

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o Independent variable – Education
o Dependent variable – voting
o Interviewing variable – Interest
o Education Interest Voting
- To establish that the variable is interviewing, you must be in the position to demonstrate
some kind of asy-metrical relationships among the three variables. Statistically, you should
hold the interviewing variable constant. That is, the original relationship between X and Y
must disappear or be reduced. (A test to sue when checking intervention variable).
XYXY
High Low
Antecedent Variable(s)
- You want trace the chain of events or establish causality. The difference in case of
antecedent variable is that it comes before the independent variable.
XYZXY
Education Voting Antecedent Education Voting Variable
- For example, socio-economic status of the family might influence one’s level of education,
which in turn might influence voting.
ZXVY
Socio-Economic Education Antecedent Voting Status
- Antecedent variable when held constant, the original relationships between variables remain
the same.
Control Variables
The function is to reduce the risk of attributing explanatory power to independent variables that
are not infact responsible for variations in the dependent variables. Control variables are used to
test the possibility that the relationship between X and Y is a true or false relationship.
For example; X Y The control variable stands outside X and Y
Number of Fire damage
Firemen
Control variable
Size of fire
Confounding Variable(s)
- Is that variable which like control variable is related to both independent and dependent
variables, but stands outside the variables. It represents the genuine relationship but
spurious or false relationship. It stands outside the variables.
- The confounding may strengthen or weaken the relationship between X and Y. For example,
religiousity attitude towards HIV/AIDS patients.
Religiousity Attitude
XYXYXY
Trauma High Low
Z
- The more religious a person is, the more than person is likely to help HIV/AIDS patients.
Background Variables
- Are those variables that normally relate to the characteristics of respondent(s). For example,
age, sex/gender, marital status, occupational status or employment, educational attainment,
etc.
- They provide information about characteristics of subject(s) of investigation. They are often

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related to independent variable and may influence the dependent variable indirectly.
Stand behind the independent variable X Y
Ind/V Dep/V
They may also influence the dependent variable (the problem). Sometimes may act as
confounding variables.
- You can decide as the researcher as to whether to use the background variable(s) depending
on the circumstances.
RESEACH DESIGN
- Is some kind of structure, plan, blue print, which guides researchers in finding solutions to
problems or answers to questions.
- The research design answers questions such as:
o What information do you need in order to meet research objectives?
o How do you collect this information?
o How do you analyse this information?
o How do you test the hypotheses?

COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

At analytic level, three are three (3) components:
(i) Comparison
(ii) Manipulation
(iii)Control
Comparison
Research design, comparison is an operation to demonstrate that two variables are correlated.
For example, lung cancer rate and smoking, comparison may be in two forms; in terms of groups
and time dimension:
Groups
Smokers Non-Smokers
Time dimension
Before
- Compare over the period of time.
% Cancer %
% Cancer % Cancer
Manipulation
It is an operation to demonstrate causality between X and Y – whether or not X often precedes
Y. For example, academic performance and teaching methods.
Old Method New Method
Q1 X Q2, Y Y
Academic Improved Academic
Performance Performance
Conclusion is that new method is better than old one because academic performance has
improved.
Control
It is criterion for determining causality. Rule out other rival explanations that may otherwise
explain relationships between X and Y. For example,
Teaching Method Academic Performance: X Y

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Other Factors
Study habits, access to information, intelligence, attendance, motivation, etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS AND STUDIES

Broadly, there are two types:
Non-intervention Studies and Intervention Studies
The researcher just describes and analyses the research subjects and the situation in which they
are found without intervention. The researcher takes the research in the situation just as it is
found.
Intervention Studies
The researcher manipulates the situation and even measures the effects.

NON-INTERVENTION STUDIES
Broadly, you have the following:
- Exploratory Studies
- Descriptive Studies
- Analytical Studies
- Longitudinal studies
- Case Studies
Exploratory Studies
An exploratory study is normally a small scale study often of short duration and is often
undertaken in situations where little is known about particular situation. The researcher tries to
explore this situation in order to familiarize with problem. This happens quite often especially
when the topic is new.
Exploratory studies are typically done for three purposes:
- To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity – to get better understanding of the problem.
- To test the feasibility of undertaking a much larger and more elaborate study.
- To develop methods to be use in a more elaborate scale study. For example, participant
observation.
Descriptive Studies
Involve the systematic collection and presentation of data in order to have a very clear picture of
a given situation/problem. Descriptive studies require a greater degree of accuracy and precision
in the manner in which you report events. Even the order of generalization and description
becomes relevant (who, what and extent).
Analytical Studies
Attempt to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems. They seem to unravel factors
underlying that particular problem. For example, why is street vending increasing? Why are
there so many street kids?
Cross-Sectional Studies
These are the studies which take place at one point in time. For example, Zambia Demographic
Health Survey 1996-2006 so that observations are taken at one point in time and conclusions are
made based on observations.

Longitudinal Studies
Are studies designed to meet observational made over an extended period of time. Three major
studies include:

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(i) Trend Studies
(ii) Cohort Studies
(iii) Panel Studies
Trend Studies
Are studies in which the research studies changes within some general population overtime, for
example, someone studying opinion polls to determine political candidate preferences over the
course of the campaigns. For instance, three samples of political candidate.
Cohort Studies
Cohort is a group of people with shared characteristics, for example, a cohort of social work
students. They tend to focus on specific sample of population as they change overtime. Such
studies may differ overtime.
Panel Studies
Share some characteristic with cohort studies because they also focus on the same set of people.
The difference is that cohort studies focus on characteristics of people but different sets of people
while panel studies focus on some sets of people with same characteristics.
The disadvantage is that they are costly (they are expensive). They also suffer from
experimental mortality. That is, some respondents might not be accessed resulting not obtaining
the information required.

CASE STUDIES
- These are studies that involve in-depth analysis of one unit of analysis. This unit of analysis
could be an individual, group, community or society. That unit of analysis could be taken
either as an independent or dependent variable depending on the nature of the problem. For
example, street vendors’ impact on society (independent).
- The problem is in terms of context of justification as far as case studies are concerned.
Problem of verification of findings based on case studies since findings cannot be
generalized. This is because case studies tent not to be representative. You only have proof
by examples and not by evidence.
- The advantage is in terms of context of discovery. Discoveries lead to the richness and the
meaningfulness of insights – good information.
- It also leads to though understanding of the studies or the phenomena/events. For example,
the studies done by anthropologists.

INTERVENTION STUDIES
(i) Experimental
(ii) Quasi-experimental
Experimental Designs/Studies
- Are designs/studies in which you can prove causation/causality.
- In an experimental study, individuals are randomly assigned to the experimental. And control
groups, and make observations to the particular problem. For example, street vending.
Willingness to move out of streets.
- X - manipulation by sensitisation programme confined o the experimental group. After that
measure willingness to move out of streets
Ex R Q1 X Q2 Difference = Q2 - Q1
CT R Q3 Q4 Difference = Q4 - Q3
Main characteristics:

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- Manipulation: the researcher does something to the experimental group.
- Control: the researcher introducers one or more control groups, then compared.
- Randomisation/matching: subjects are randomly assigned to experimental and control
groups.
- Matching is a process equivalent to randomisation. It aims at removing the influence of other
factors.
Disadvantages
- Experimental designs are a typical because they take place in unnatural (laboratory like
environment). Implication is that subjects may not behave naturally.
- Reactivity – Hawthorne effect; as subjects will react to the experiment. So results may not
be as the result of stimulus. It may impair causality called Hawthorne because subjects were
aware of the experiment.
- It is not always that you can randomly assign subjects. This is because it is not physical.
- It is difficult to maintain the same experimental conditions as there are always extraneous
and intraneous factors.
Advantage
It gives the highest level of causality assuming the conditions are ideal.
DATA COLLECTION
Allows to systematically collect information concerning research objectives and even to test
hypotheses as per problem identified.
Types of Data
(i) Qualitative Data
(ii) Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data
- Data which is non-numeric.
- It may consist in-depth answers and discussions that result from open-ended questions.
- This information is often recorded in narrative or prose form/words or phrases.
Sources
- Loose structured interviews (open-ended questions). For example, what is the purpose of the
NCC?
- Participant observation
- Focus group discussion
Quantitative Data
- Data that is numeric and this data originates from questions which are structured.
For example, do you believe in witchcraft?
- Can be measured in different scales and assign answers (you can do mathematical or
statistical manipulation). For example, how old are you?
- The results may be summarized in numbers, percentages, averages, etc.
Sources
- Structured interviews – close-ended questions. For example, how old are you?
- Population/sample survey
- Service statistics – sources from government departments/ministries.

TWO MAJOR METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

(i) Primary
(ii) Secondary

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Primary Data
Is data collected personally through fieldwork and data collected for the first time.
Secondary Data
Another person’s data or it is like borrowed data.

PRIMARY METHOD
Observation
- Used in collection of qualitative data
- It is commonly known as participant observation
- It involves a situation where the researcher joins a group or creates a closer attachment to
group the research wants to study.
61
- Quite often, when the researcher joins group, he/she has to learn the language, habits,
understand the life style, and views of the group, so that you can understand the group well.
For example, studying callboys.
- Norms of objectivity and validity do not apply.
- This is used by anthropologists
- There are two aspects:
o Researcher operates as a complete participant. For example, studying all boys.
The research conceals his/her identity and does not reveal his research objective.
This approach has a risk if it is discovered that you are researching on them.
o Participant is observer:
The researcher and the role he/she plays are known.
Here the researcher explains the research objectives to the group (there is no
pretending as the group understudy knows that you are studying them.
Advantages
Observation provides first hand information (richness and meaningfulness – get insights of the
context).
Disadvantages
- Time consumption and labour intensity.
- Interpretation of data/information gathered may be subjective, especially between relevant
and irrelevant data.
- Violation of privacy, especially in participant observation.
- Observation biases – Researcher only records issues of interest and eliminates things seen not
to be of interest to the researcher.
- Information cannot even be generalised.
Interviewing
- An interview is a data collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents,
individually or group so that you approach individuals with a set of questions (in
questionnaires/interview guide).
- An interview is an interpersonal relationship between the interviewer and interviewee
(between person collecting data and person from whom data is collected).
Advantages
Provides detailed or insightful information, especially if interviewing knowledgeable individuals
Disadvantages
- Some of the interviewees though knowledgeable may be bias depending on their experience.

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- Some interviewees may not be well informed.
- The presence of the interviewer may influence responses.
Administering Questionnaires
- Questionnaire is a written document in which questions to be presented to respondents are
written.
- Self-administered – respondents complete without the presence of the interviewer

SECONDARY DATA
- Refers to data collected for some purpose other than your data – other people’s data.
- Published information.
- Second-hand information (books, articles, statistics).
- Use of available information.
Advantages
- Readily available (articles, newspapers, books, etc)
- Affordable – less costly
- Allows for analysis of trends. For example, census report published some years ago, ZDHS
– already there for you to use as references.
Disadvantages
- It is often data collected for some other purpose (other than your data, it may not be complete
or satisfy).
- Sometimes, access to information can be difficult due to issues of confidentiality and certain
laws concerning access to information, especially information relating to security of the
nation.

INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT
- Questionnaire is a document that contains questions and other types of items designed to
solicit information appropriate for analysis.
- Invariably, a questionnaire is limited to written responses (to pre-arranged questions).
- Importantly – the questionnaire must translate research objectives and hypotheses into
specific questions through operational definitions.
- A questionnaire is a repository of all questions resulting from all questions asked and
answered.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Common used ones are called open-ended and close-ended (closed) questions.
Open-ended Questions
- Question which permit free responses that should be reported in the respondent’s own words.
For example, what is your opinion on marijuana smoking on campus?
- Question on attitudes, opinions, sensitive matters are recorded so that respondent is not given
possible answers to choose from.
Advantages
Give more insightful information because people express themselves freely.
Disadvantages
- Sometimes, information becomes difficult to record, especially when the speaker is very fast.
- It is also difficult to analyse because it comes in form of prose, words. It is thus labour
intensive.

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Close-ended (closed) Questions
- Questions that allow a list of possible options from which a respondent must choose.
- Ideally the options must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. For example, do you smoke
daga? Yes, No.
Advantages
- Easy to ask, for example, do you think?
- Easy to analyse, for example, counting the number of smokers
Disadvantages
You do not get in-depth information/responses as respondents to not express themselves freely.

OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Filter Questions
- Apply only to a segment of a population.
- Filter certain group of the population. For example, do you smoke cigarettes? Yes, No.
- They lead to contingency questions – that which is contingent upon the response from the
filter question. For example;
o If yes (filter them, then say) what kind of cigarettes do you smoke?
o How often do you smoke?
o If no, why don’t you smoke?
Rating Questions
Questions in which respondents are allowed to make judgements in terms of sets of ordered
categories such as smoking is bad for your halth.
- Strongly agree
- Agree
- Disagree
- Strongly disagree
- No opinion.
Matrix Questions
Involve organizing a large set of questions with similar response categories. For example;
- Smoking is bad for your health
- Drinking is good for your health
- Sports do more good than harm.
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
No Opinion
Smoking
Drinking
Sports

STEPS/STAGES IN QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

Step One
- Decide on the content (take into consideration your objectives, hypotheses and variables).
- What questions will be needed to measure the variables.

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- Length of questionnaire depends on the number of objectives and hypotheses. For example,
to determine the influence of socio-economic status on substance abuse. The higher the
socio-economic status (SES), the greater the substance abuse.
Step Two
- Formulating the questions: One or more questions that will provide information for each
variable or concept.
- Ensure that questions asked are specific and clear so that different respondents do not
interpret the information differently.

POSSIBLE PITFALLS IN QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

Problems that arise in the way you construct questionnaires:
- Ambiguous questions
- Leading questions
- Technical and jargon questions
- Emotional and value – laden related questions
- Double barreled questions
- taboo and threatening questions.
Ambiguous Questions
Question success table to different interpretations and hence different responses. For example,
do you smoke marijuana because you are always thirsty? Thus, standadise questions to deal with
this problem.
Leading Questions
- Questions whose content, structure and wording have a tendency to lead a respondent in
certain direction. For example, you do not like smoking, do you?
- They have a tendency to compel or influence the respondent.
Technical and Jargon Questions
- Questions that whose language cannot be understood easily by the respondent. For example,
how often do youuse tetracycline? Have you ever taken LSD?
- Questions should be simplified.
Emotional and Value –laden Questions
- Questions that are subjective and by nature biased. For example, don’ t you think smokers
are rather weird? Are you in support of the undemocratic ways of Movement for Multi-party
Democracy (MMD) administration?
- There is need for neutrality.
Double Barreled Questions
- Questions that include too or more questions in one. For example, do you smoke cigarettes,
drink beer and go to church?
- Always split questions up.
Threatening and Taboo Questions
- Questions are sensitive and may be embarrassing and thus difficult for the respondent to
answer, and may generate hostility on part of the respondent. For example, it your father a
smoker?
- Care and prudence have to be exercised.
Step Three

SEQUENCING OF THE QUESTIONS

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- Construct or design your questionnaire in such a way that it is user friendly both for the
person gathering information and the respondent. Do this by logical sequencing the
questions:
o To allow a natural discussion, ask safe questions first and thus avoid sensitive
questions at the beginning.
o Start with background of an individual. For example, educational status.
- The danger is that you may put off the respondent. Make questionnaires reasonably short
(make them in terms of objectives and hypotheses).
68
Step Four

FORMATING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

- Ensure that a questionnaire has a heading, for example, baseline study on drug abuse.
- Have a space for questionnaire ID – ideally to number all questionnaires.
- Space for date
- Space for location (place of interview)
- Name of interviewer (to detect cheating).
- Name of data entry clerk.
- Name of respondent is optional for reasons of confidentiality.
Note: The above should be on cover page.
- Age and sex of the respondent to be included. Age to be left blank. For example,
Age______
- Layout: ensure that questions belonging together thematically are grouped together.
For example;
o Questions on mother’s and father’s income, and religious matters.
o Do they go to church? How often do they go to church?
- Also ensure that you have sub-headings. For example;
o SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
o RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND
Dealing with Open-Ended Questions
Always leave sufficient space for your questions (open space). For example, how old were you
on your last birthday? ________________
Dealing with Close-Ended (Closed) Questions
- Ensure that you have pre-categorised boxes on right where respondents will have to make a
tick or circle. For example, do you some daga? Yes No
- Use of computer codes: If you are going to use computer, reserve right margins for each
question for computer codes. For example;

Questionnaire
Number
Questions Respondent Computer
Codes
1 How old were you on last birthday? 25 25
2 What is your sex? 1. Male
2. Female
1

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3 Father’s occupation? 1. Farmer
2. Teacher
3. Manager
2
4 Residence? 1. Kalingalinga
2. Kabulonga
3. Kabwata

Dealing with no Responses

For questions that may not apply to individuals (not applicable) – N/A, the code has to be
constant.
Step Five
TRANSLATION
- Questionnaires have to be translated into local languages (from English into local languages),
then from local language into English using different translators.
- Standardise the understanding of the question.
Step Six
PRE-TESTING
Test questionnaires so that you can detect mistakes from the questionnaire. For example,
ambiguous questions. It is thus important to rephrase you on questions (make necessary
changes).
Step Seven
PRE-FIELDWORK EDITING
Ensure that everything is on order:
- Fonts, grammatical issues – language, geographical area, etc
- Specifying instructions on how to complete questionnaires. For example, circle or tick
answer
- Edit questionnaires.
INTERVIEW
- Introduce yourself nicely, in a diplomatic way
- Tell the respondents about the research
- Collect questionnaires
- Edit questionnaires

POST-FIELD WORK EDITING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES

- Edit after collecting questionnaires to ensure that questions asked are answered and recorded
correctly.
- Data processing and editing which has three aspects. So check for:
o Completeness
o Accuracy
o Uniformity

COMPLETENESS
- Involves examining questionnaires to ensure that every question has an answer.
- Gaps: sometimes, it can be that respondent refuses to cooperate, or may forget to tick or
interviews forgets. Sometimes, information may not be applicable.

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CHECKING FOR INCOMPLETENESS
- Use your memory if you can recall/remember to fill, for instance, age
- For age, non-response use code 99.
- If someone has not indicated sex, residence, you can do so by implication or inference.
- If too many questions are not answered, for example, why 10% of the questions have been
answered, discard it (questionnaire).
ACCURACY
- Checking the questionnaire against inconsistencies in terms of responses and logic does not
make sense.
- Problem/inaccuracy: careless way of completing the questionnaire.
- Sometimes an attempt to cheat deliberate attempt by response to mislead the interviewer by
giving wrong answers/information/sometimes not honest.
- Also inexperienced construction of questionnaires.
- Also people writing in answers instead of ticking.
UNIFROMITY
- Involves the situation where the interviewers interpret questions and instructions in the same
way.
- Anticipate what you are going to find in the field.
- Accommodate some additional information to cater for all the respondents.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Concept
Idea about phenomena or idea about what is happening. For example, poverty and crime.
Theory
Generalised relationships between concepts. For example, poverty and crime.
Grounded Theory
It is based on data:
- Deductive logic – from general (which is a theory) or generalised relationship between
concepts-embodied. That is, moving from generalised knowledge to specific.
- Inductive logic – moving from specific to general
- Logic – thought process
- Science – reality, testing, test for bias, values, beliefs/verification of facts.
Inductive Logic Deductive Logic
Law
Theories tested over and over. They are valid and reliable. For example, law of supply and
demand.
Paradigm
Frame of reference or model of doing things based on existing law. For example, functionalism.
This is the highest level of scientific knowledge.
Theory
Data Analysis
Data Processing
Hypotheses
Research Design
Data Collection

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
- Questionnaire – self administered.
- Personal interviews, such as, data collected using a sample.

PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH/RAPID APPRAISAL

Participatory Research
- Involving people, that is, more than one person is doing) something – the researcher and
other people (other stakeholders).
- This is opposed to basic scientific research where only the expert/researcher has
technological know-how (knowledge).
- Research undertaken in collaboration with relevant stakeholders or relevant interest groups or
potential beneficial of research findings. Who should do the research and who should
benefit – it is common people (experts or non-researchers).
- It is the philosophical kind of research.
- People will claim ownership of the research findings (people will claim responsibility and
partnership as there is no manipulation by experts/researchers for personal gains.
- This research is widely usually done with applied type of research. Applied research is used
to identify and solve a problem as opposed to basic research which generates knowledge to
understand a problem/phenomenon. For example, evaluation type of research (problem
evaluation) involves programme planning or programme design:
o Problem identification/needs assessment: Cause – effect relationship.
o Goal/Objectives: Programme hypothesis – anticipated outcomes (goals) after
implementation.
o Programme/Services to be provided: Activities to be undertaken – health, education,
housing, water, etc.
o Implementation of the programmes.
o Evaluate (evaluation): The impact of the programme on the lives of people – any
difference in the livelihoods of the people.
- Evaluative research – to find out the impact of the programme on certain beneficiaries/certain
values.
- People must be actually involved in all the stages/activities.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
- Participatory research came into effect in the early 1980s and late 1990s as a result of failures
of development programmes or projects sponsored by international development partners.
That is, the impact of programmes or projects sponsored by international development
partners. That is, the impact of programmes was less effective, and promoted research it he
1980s involving people.
- The programmes were short lived in programmes/activities, hence there was no sense of
ownership.
- Moreover, the impact of programmes was less effective as output of programmes was not
sustained – not long term. That is, programmes did not have greater impact on beneficiaries
as they did not involve the people who were beneficiaries. Programmes were only
undertaken by experts.
- This was one of the pitfalls of the method, such as people were not involved and thus no
sense of ownership.

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RATIONALE/JUSTIFICATION
- Lack of sustainability as people were not involved.
- People were not empowered as they did not learn skills/technical issues. They were not
empowered socially and economically.
- Participation is also a matter of human rights.
Ethical principles
Client self-determination, respect the clients by not imposing things on them. Thus, show
respect for human dignity as people should feel respected.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

- Community meetings/focus group discussions.
- Questionnaires – use survey techniques.

LIBRARY RESEARCH
- Use a library which is a depository of knowledge.
- For literature review – get information from library
- It is used to avoid duplication but for replication of research and to avoid wasting resources.
- To see gaps in previous studies
- To check for limitations/inadequacies in previous studies (this also applies to archival study
and content analysis).

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
- What is the purpose of history – what took in the past so as to understand the present
events/situations (methodology).
- Is history part of social sciences or humanities? Philosophical issues/human society.
- Argument is that history is not part of social sciences as the method used in research is not
systematic method.
- But some historians have adopted scientific research process or principles.
- Interest for social workers is social welfare departments, institutions such as prisons. Social
work professional find out how social work methods have emerged/also how provision of
social welfare has changed overtime.
- Use archival studies to understand various institutions.
- What can we learn from the past to avoid the pitfalls. (How effective have the methods been
or has the practice been, for example, participatory research).

DESIGN OF PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH

(PARTICIPATORY) RAPID APPRAISAL
- Passive and active participation
- Active participation: People have power to make decisions.
- Passive participation: People are not involved in decision making, but can be consulted after
a decision is already made.
- Appraise: Is to evaluate or analyse.
- Rapid: fast way of doing things. Fast because when beneficiaries are involved in research,
it is a fast way of collecting data and being used. When people who are affected participate
in research can tell what they are experiencing. Get first-hand information because you are

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dealing with people who are experiencing the problem.
Advantage(s)
As opposed to survey (self-administered questionnaires and personal interviews), it is fats as
people/beneficiaries and this great benefits.
Disadvantage(s)
- It demands for more resources and time.
- It has potential for conflicts
- Requires training of people – leaders (need for special skills).

TYPES OF TECHNIQUES USED TO COLLECT DATA

Because you deal with people of different background, for example, gender – men and women,
educated and non-educated, socio-economic status, etc, culture of people, children at community
level (for example, as a community workers, divide the group in various groups).

DIAGRAMMING
- Seasonal calendars – able people to identify their major season, for example, rain season –
what happens in the rain season, when does it start?
- Trend lines – Understand the history of the problem – when did the problem start? What
happened.
- Framework of the problem regarding how the problem started.
- Transect – scouting to know the place, such as boundaries of the place – familiarise with the
place (local knowledge).

RANKING
- What are some of the priority areas such as major problem areas.
- Preference ranking: List of problems in terms of major issues based on people’s priorities.
- Well-being: To knew what people think about their own community, for example, is it a
good community (for example, high crime rates, or community isolated from major activities
– lack of proximate to major areas.
- It is part of problem identification.

MAPPING
Map of the community, to find out their understanding of community resources.
Resource Mapping: What resources do you have to solve problems? For example, rivers,
land, cattle. What can we get out of resources, for example, jobs, nutrition, depending on the
resources available and the nature of the problem? What do people have that can be used to
solve problems?
Social Mapping: Clinics, schools, Police, stations, recreational facilities – including pubs.
- Indentify the problem and analyse it.
- Data is being collected and analysed at the same time.
Asset based practice (resource-based practice).

OWN OBSERVATION
You have to make your own observations through physical appearance of the area and its people.

DATA COLLECTION

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- After choosing the research design.
- It is the process of collecting or obtaining the required data/information for you study to test
the hypotheses.

THREE MAJOR STAGES

(i) Designing the instrument to be used to collect data.
(ii) Select the respondents
(iii) Administer the instrument.

DESIGNING THE INSTRUMENT: TWO TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

(i) Questionnaire
(ii) Composite Scale

QUESTIONNAIRE
(Depending on the level of research, for example, explanatory –relationship between variables,
for example, age, gender, income etc).
- Questionnaire consists of sets of questions (which should reflect on particular variables –
dependent and independent).
- The questions will depend on level of research and variables.

HOW TO ASK QUESTIONS

Questions must be clear and concise.
- Clear – easily understood
- Concise – straight forward. Questions to the point.
- There are does and donts of making questions.

DOUBLE-BARRELED QUESTIONS
Asking questions which consist of two things.
Leading Questions: For example, do you agree that KS is not a good guy?
You should make clients/respondents think and understand the questions.
Unavailable Answers: How many hours did you watch the television last year?
There is no appropriate answer.
96
Insensitive Language: Use of language must be civil, for example, questions about gender, do
not down grade certain categories of gender. Do not offend your respondents.

OPEN AND CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

- Open -instructed questions, for example, what is your age or what is your gender?
- Closed-structured (you give alternative answers, for example, gender/sex – male and female,
age – 5-6, 7-10, etc.
- It is mostly associated with descriptive type of research.
- Open-ended questions: you ask the respondents to amplify the answers given) explain why
they have to give additional information about particular question asked). They have to write
in words or responses have to be in words.
- This also applies in explanatory type of research.

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QUESTIONS BASED ON VARIABLES OR LEVEL OF RESEARCH
Composite Scale
- Measuring one variable using several questions (series of questions) and each of these
questions are measuring the dimension of that variable. For example, aggression, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, stress, etc. For example, psychological treatment in
interpersonal relationships.
- Series of questions to measure one variable. When added together can measure the variable
(sub-variable).

PRE-TESTING THE INSTRUMENT

- To make sure that the questions are clear and concise – give people the questionnaires so s
for them to answer the questions in it. Thereafter, check if the questions were clear and
concise. If no clear and concise, fine tune the questions.
- Check for psychometric properties of the composite scale-series of questions to measure one
variable. Are the questions related to the variable or dimensions you are measuring?
- The statistical way of doing that is: Questions must correlate to each other or must be related
to each other.
- Use statistical correlation, such as the degree to which the two questions must relate to each
other or measure the concepts.
- Make corrections.
- If there is high correlation, you can have confidence that they are measuring the variable.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
- Not getting information from all the people but from limited number of people (sample).
- It is not necessary and easy that everybody has to be interviewed.
- We can generalise the findings
- Sampling procedures refer to methods or techniques used when selecting respondents.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
People have equal and non-zero chance of being selected.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Not everybody would have an equal chance of being selected because of using non-scientific
methods.

TYPES (VARIANTS) OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Simple Random Sampling
Selection of subjects by chance and each subject has an equal chance of being selected. The
researcher is not conscious of what is being selected.
Stratified Random Sampling
- Stratifying into groups, such as doing the population into groups and each member has an
equal chance of being selected (equal representation). The researcher is conscious because
we may have men and women, for example, more women than men.
- Get larger number from smaller group and small number from larger group.

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 RESEARCH PROPOSAL COMPONENTS
1. Research Topic/ Title
2. Research Problem
3. Research Questions
4. Research Objectives/ Interim Hypotheses
5. Scope of the study
6. Interim Literature Review
7. Interim Methodology
8. Programme of Research Activity

1.3.1 Research Topic

This is really the title of the study and it should reflect an area of interest to the student which
should also possess potential to be researched upon.

1.3.2 Research Problem

This should be a brief statement of the problem to which the research would like to come up with
solutions or answers and it should be stated very clearly.

1.3.3 Research Questions

The research problem is then broken down into a series of questions concerning the relationship
between the cause (independent variable) and the effect (dependent variable).

1.3.4 Research Objectives

These are the goals which the research is supposed to attain and there can be one general
objective and a number of specific objectives which are derived from the former. Interim
hypotheses may or may not be included at this very initial stage in the research.

1.3.5 Scope of the Study

This should indicate what the research covers and what it does not. It is really the range of the
study which should adequately deal with the research problem and resolve it.

1.3.6 Interim Literature Review

This should briefly touch on some initial important aspects of work previously done on the
subject area by other scholars.

1.3.7 Interim Methodology

This should also briefly mention the research methods which the student plans to utilize in
her/his investigation, e.g., study design (case, crosssectional, longitudinal, exploratory, etc.),
population, sample size and sampling methodology, data collection (variables,
measures/instruments, methods) and data analysis techniques.

1.3.8 Programme of Research Activity/ Work Plan

This is the work plan for the whole research and, for purposes of efficiency and effectiveness,
should preferably be in the form of a Gant chart.

(adopted from the data exchange center)

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