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Latin Online
Series Introduction
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

Latin is probably the easiest of the older languages for speakers of English to learn, both because of their
earlier relationship and because of the long use of Latin as the language of educational, ecclesiastical,
legal and political affairs in western culture. Moreover, we use the Latin alphabet, so that the language is
read without di culty. On the other hand, the sentence structure and number of forms require a great deal
of attention, since the words of sentences are placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a
pattern like that of the English Subject-Verb-Object sentence. It is essential, then, to learn the basic
in ections of nouns and verbs.

1. The Latin alphabet and pronunciation.

The Latin alphabet was taken over from the Greek through Etruscan. The order of the letters is therefore
much the same as in Greek, as is also true of most of their pronunciation. The 23-letter alphabet is as
follows:

ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTVXYZ

English has maintained this order with a few modi cations. In Latin the letter I was used both for its vocalic
value and to represent the sound y as in yet. An elongated form of the letter, J, was later introduced. But this
is generally pronounced today as in jam, while the letter Y represents the consonantal value of I. Similarly,
the Latin letter V was used to represent both the vocalic value of U as in hue, and the sound w as in wet. A
rounded form, U, was introduced to represent the vowel, and a doubled form, W, was introduced to
represent the consonantal value. It might also be noted that the third letter of the alphabet was pronounced
with its value in cat, rather than with its value in cent or in our pronunciation of Caesar.

The chief difference in pronunciation of these letters has to do with the vowels. The consonants are
pronounced like their principal pronunciations in English. Whether long or short, the vowels are pronounced
as in the languages of Europe. It might be noted, however, that when Latin was spoken in everyday use, it
was pronounced in accordance with the pronunciation of the native language in the country, so that the
pronunciation in Italy differed considerably from that in France or Germany, not to speak of England. But
today it is pronounced as we assume it was in the Classical period of Latin, that is, at the beginning of our
era. Its pronunciation is simple, if one remembers a few key words. Latin i and e are pronounced as in
English cliché; Latin a is pronounced as in father; Latin o is pronounced as in so, and u as in sue. When two
vowels are found in the same syllable, each has its normal value; the rst syllable of Caesar was then
pronounced with the a as in father and the e as in cliché, so that it was similar to our pronunciation of the
pronoun I.

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Unlike English, Latin has few silent letters. A line of verse may then be read with every letter pronounced,
such as the rst line of Vergil's Aeneid:

Arma virumque canō, Trōiae qui primus ab ōris

'I sing of the arms and the man, who rst [came] from the shores of Troy'

Or the rst line of Caesar's Gallic Wars:

Gallia est omnis divisa in partēs trēs

'Gaul as a whole is divided into three parts'

2. The vocabulary.
English and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family; their earlier versions separated from each
other over three thousand years ago. And until this century, much university instruction was carried on in
Latin. Moreover, it was taught to many students from the high school years onward through college.
University scholars often spoke to one another in Latin, as do members of the Vatican to this day. As a
result, English shares many of the same words, especially in technical elds, although in modi ed form.
Nonetheless it is useful to relate such words to their Latin counterparts.

Some words have undergone little change so that their roots are close to those of their Latin equivalents, if
spelled somewhat differently, for example English spew, Latin spuere, English stand, Latin stāre. But most of
the common words that the two languages share by inheritance are somewhat concealed, many of them
because of a massive change of consonants in Germanic before the modern era. This change was
described by the great German scholar Jakob Grimm and is known as Grimm's law, which is listed even in
smaller dictionaries of English. At this time, p, t, k were changed to sounds that today are represented by f,
th, h. Among examples are Latin pater vs. English father, Latin mater vs. English mother, and Latin cornu vs.
English horn. And the sounds represented as bh, dh, gh in Indo-European were changed to the sounds that
today are represented by b, d, g. These were also changed in Latin, where bh is represented by f, as in Latin
frater vs. English brother; similarly, dh in Latin is also represented by f, as in Latin foris vs. English door; and
gh is in Latin represented by h among other developments, as in Latin hanser, later anser vs. English goose.
And d, g were changed to t, k (b was rare in Indo-European); compare Latin edere vs. English eat, Latin gelidus
vs. English cold.

It is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have undergone
often conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and ve. Most of the others are transparently
related, in spite of the changes: Latin ūnus, one; duo, two; trēs, three; quattuor, four; quinque, ve; sex, six; septem,
seven; octo, eight; novem, nine; decem, ten. Since dictionaries often provide the Latin cognates of English
entries, control over the Latin vocabulary can be gained by noting them.

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By far the greatest number of similar words are found in technical language, where English simply took over
the Latin terms as industrial, political and technological affairs became more complex, especially in the last
several centuries; ecclesiastical terms were taken over as England was christianized. The words were
pronounced in accordance with the English spellings, rather than with their pronunciation in Latin. Some
examples from these specialties are cited here.

The industrial and technological spheres include such words as arbitrate, agent, auction, calculate, contract,
junction, labor, premium, propeller, science, specimen. The political and legal sphere includes such terms as
a davit, alias, alibi, divorce, habeas corpus, injunction, subpoena. The ecclesiastical sphere includes such
words as altar, confession, doctrine, in del, repent, salvation, trinity. And other words belong to our every day
vocabulary, such as animal, bonus, inertia, minimum, recipe, stimulus, vacuum. Thanks to the great number
of such importations from Latin, it is relatively easy to learn its vocabulary.

3. The sentence structure of Latin.

As is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Latin may differ considerably from that of
English. In an earlier form of Latin, the verb was placed last in the sentence, as in the rst clause of the
Aeneid. But its position in the rst line of Gallic Wars is quite different. The different positions are possible
because of Latin in ections. In English we generally have to place together verbal phrases like 'is divided';
we can place some adverbs between them, as in 'is often divided', but we cannot ordinarily put numerals or
adjectives after the nouns they modify, as is done in partes tres. English has strict rules of placement; Latin
on the other hand can move elements around for stylistic purposes, so that instead of writing omnis Gallia,
the order that Caesar used is quite acceptable, as is that of partes tres.

In examining a Latin text, one should rst identify the verb, whose forms are identi able through their
in ections. Similarly, the subject, if it is included in addition to the marker in the verb, should be identi ed.
Clearly there is no such subject for canō, so that one translates it with the subject ('I') indicated by its
in ection. Verb forms ending in -ō have a rst person subject, in contrast with the second person canis 'you
sing', canit 'he/she sings'. It is useful, therefore, to memorize the basic in ections of verbs. Similarly, the
subject can be identi ed by its form. Gallia, like many nouns, has feminine gender, and its nominative form
ends in -a.

As illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Latin is provided by knowledge of its in ections.
While these are numerous, memorization of the basic in ections of nouns and verbs is generally adequate.

4. The forms of Latin.

4.1 Nouns, adjectives and pronouns.

These three parts of speech are in ected for ve cases, besides a case of address called the vocative. The
cases are as follows:

Nominative, the case of the subject;

Genitive, the case indicating possession -- possessive, in grammars of English

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Dative, the case of the indirect object

Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English

Ablative, the case indicating separation

Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.

In English, only the nominative, genitive/possessive and accusative/objective have been maintained, and
the last only in pronouns: I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative. Nouns simply have a nominative
and a possessive, as in dog, dog's. Adjectives are not in ected.

Latin nouns are also in ected based on --

number, that is, singular and plural.

three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

ve declensions.

Paradigms are given in the various lessons. For illustration here, forms of nouns are shown in the rst
declension (most of which are feminine like via 'way'), and in the second declension (many of which are
masculine such as numerus 'number'), and also the forms of the pronoun ego 'I':

    Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.

Nom.   via   viae   numerus   numerī   ego   nōs

Gen.   viae   viārum   numerī   numerōrum   meī   nostrum

Dat.   viae   viīs   numerō   numerīs   mihi   nōbis

Acc.   viam   viās   numerum   numerōs   mē   nos

Abl.   viā   viīs   numerō   numerīs   mē   nōbis

The vocative in the rst declension is the same as the nominative; in the second declension it ends in e, so
that a slave, servus, would be called by saying serve.

4.2 Verbs.

Like nouns, verbs have many in ections based on:

active vs. passive voice;

indicative vs. subjunctive mood;

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three tenses: present, past or imperfect, and future. Of these there are two sets: the simple
present set and the perfect set. The perfect forms indicate a state or completion.

The conjugations are given below. Here only a sketch is provided for understanding of the various forms
and their relation to one another with rst singular examples of the verb laudō 'I praise.'

Active voice   Passive voice

Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

Present

laudō   laudem   laudor   lauder

Imperfect

laudābam   laudārem   laudābar   laudārer

Future

laudābō       laudābor    

Perfect

laudāvī   laudāverim   laudātus sum   laudātus sim

Past Perfect

laudāveram   laudāvissem   laudātus eram   laudātus essem

Future Perfect

laudāvero       laudātus ero    

In addition there are imperative forms, in nitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. The imperative forms
are rare in written texts, and are not illustrated here.

The present in nitive active is laudāre. The present participle active is laudans. The present in nitive passive
is laudārī. The perfect participle passive is laudātus.

Because four forms provide su cient information to produce the others for a verb, dictionaries and
grammars list four principal parts. These are: the rst person singular present active, e.g. laudō; the rst
person singular perfect active, e.g. laudāvī; the perfect participle passive, e.g. laudātus; and the present
in nitive active, e.g. laudāre. It is especially important to note these for verbs of the third conjugation,
because these are often irregular, e.g. edō 'I eat', ēdī, ēsus, edere; faciō 'I do', fēcī, factus, facere; scribō 'I write', scripsī,
scriptus, scribere. (Dictionaries and grammars may give the principal parts with the in nitive as second form;
they may also give the neuter form of the perfect participle passive, e.g. factum.)

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4.3 The other parts of speech.

In addition to these four parts of speech, Latin includes adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, and
prepositions. Since their functions are comparable to those of their English counterparts, they will not be
discussed here.

5. Examples of texts.
Proverbs or passages from literary gures are often cited, also in English works. A few will be given here to
illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntax.

Caesar: Vēnī, vīdī, vīcī.

'I came, I saw, I conquered.' [three perfect forms]

  Ferē libenter homines id quod volunt credunt.

'Nearly always people believe willingly that which they wish.'

Cicero: Salus populī suprema est lex.

'The welfare of the people is the supreme law.'

  Silent enim legēs inter arma.

'Laws indeed are silent in war.'

Horace: Ira furor brevis est.

'Anger is brief madness.'

  Integer vitae, scelerisque purus.

'Blameless in life, and free of sins.'

  Dulce et decorum est pro patriā morī.

'It is sweet and honorable to die for the fatherland.'

Terence: Homo sum; humanī nil ā mē alienum putō.

'I am a man; I believe that nothing human is foreign to me.'

  Nullumst iam dictum quod non dictum sit prius.

'Nothing has yet been said that has not been said earlier.'

Virgil:           Equō nē crēdite, Teucrī,

Quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dona ferentīs.
          'Do not trust in the horse, Trojans,
Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks also [when they] are bringing gifts.'

  Hōs successus alit; possunt, quia posse videntur.

'Success nourishes them; they can because they think they can.'

Related Language Courses at UT

Most but not all language courses taught at The University of Texas concern modern languages; however,
numerous courses in Latin, at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, are taught in the Department of
Classics (http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/classics/) (link opens in a new browser window). Online

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language courses for college credit are offered through the University Extension
(http://www.utexas.edu/ce/uex/online/) (new window).

Italic Resources Elsewhere

Our Web Links (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php) page includes pointers to Italic

resources elsewhere (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php#Italic).

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Latin Online
Lesson 1
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum

This selection is taken from Livy's History of Rome, Book I.1.7-11. It describes the arrival of Aeneas and his
troops in Latium after the fall of Troy. The account is mythological, presumably originated to provide the
Romans with a pedigree comparable to that of the Greeks. It is given here partly to relate the myth, and
partly to provide a narrative account parallel to the opening of Vergil's Aeneid, the text for the tenth unit.

The author, Titus Livius, referred to as Livy (59 B.C. - 17 A.D.), was born in Patavium, modern Padua, to an
aristocratic family. He was well educated in Latin and Greek, and also in literature and rhetoric. While
details of his life are scanty, it is assumed that he settled in Rome about 17 B.C., when he began his history.
He was a friend of Emperor Augustus, and apparently so situated that he was able to devote himself to his
great historical work. As may be assumed from this selection, he was primarily concerned with glorifying
his country, for which he incorporated myths as well as facts. He was and is greatly admired for his control
of the language, which as in this selection often leads to intricate and lengthy sentences.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The selection is the latter part of the account of the landing. Aeneas and his men are reported to have
sailed north from Sicily, with nothing in their possession but their ships and weapons. They landed to obtain
supplies. The local king, Latinus, set out to drive them off, but as stated here he rst arranged a parley with
Aeneas.

Cum instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter primores ducemque
advenarum evocasse ad conloquium.

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cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when

instructae -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <instructus, instructa, instructum> arranged, ready --
ready
acies -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <acies, aciei> line of battle -- lines of battle
constitissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of
<cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtum> decide -- had drawn up
priusquam -- adverb; <priusquam> before -- before
signa -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <signum, signi> sign -- signals
canerent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <canō, canere, cecinī, cantum> sing -- had
sounded
processisse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <prōcēdō, procedere, processī, processum> advance -- advanced
Latinum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus -- Latinus
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among
primores -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural masculine of <primoris, primoris, primore>
chieftain, leader -- his chieftains
ducemque -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <dux, ducis> leader + conjunction; <-que> and -- and
... the leader
advenarum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <advena, advenae> stranger, foreigner -- of the
strangers
evocasse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <ēvocō, evocare, evocāvī, evocatum> call forth, summon -- summoned
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
conloquium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <conloquium, conloqui> conference -- a conference

Percunctatum deinde qui mortales essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes in agrum
Laurentinum exissent.

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percunctatum -- deponent verb; 3rd person perfect passive indicative of

<percūnctor, percunctārī, percunctātus sum> inquire with est understood -- he inquired
deinde -- adverb; <deinde> then -- then
qui -- interrogative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <quis, quis, quid> who, what -- what
mortales -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <mortalis, mortalis, mortale> mortal -- men
essent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- they might be
unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- from which place
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or at least
quo -- adverb; <quo> what -- by which
casu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- chance
profecti -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive of
<pro cīscor, pro ciscī, profectus sum> set out -- had set out
domo -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <domus, domi> house -- from home
quidve -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who, what + conjunction;
<-ve> or -- or what
quaerentes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of
<quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search -- seeking
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
agrum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ager, agri> land -- into the lands
Laurentinum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <Laurentinus, Laurentina, Laurentinum>
Laurentinus -- of Laurentum
exissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of <exeō, exire, exiī, exitum> go out, leave -- they
had gone out to

Postquam audierit multitudinem Troianos esse, ducem Aeneam, lium Anchisae et Veneris, cremata patria domo
profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere.

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postquam -- conjunction; <postquam> after -- after

audierit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear -- he
heard
multitudinem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <multitudo, multitudinis> multitude -- people
Troianos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <Troianus, Troiana, Troianum> Trojan -- Trojans
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- were
ducem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <dux, ducis> leader -- leader
Aeneam -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- Aeneas
lium -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of < lius, lii> son -- son
Anchisae -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Anchises, Anchisae> Anchises -- Anchises
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
Veneris -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Venus, Veneris> Venus -- Venus
cremata -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of
<cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātum> burn -- having been burnt
patria -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <patria, patriae> fatherland -- fatherland
domo -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <domus, domi> house -- home
profugos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <profugus, profuga, profugum> fugitive -- fugitives
sedem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation -- dwelling place
condendaeque -- verbal adjective; dative singular feminine of <condō, condere, condidī, conditum> found
+ conjunction; <-que> and -- and for founding
urbi -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- city
locum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <locus, loci> place -- place
quaerere -- verb; in nitive of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search -- to seek

Et nobilitatem admiratum gentis virique et animum vel bello vel paci paratum, dextra data dem futurae amicitiae
sanxisse.

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et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and

nobilitatem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <nobilitas, nobilitatis> renown -- renown
admiratum -- deponent verb; perfect participle passive accusative singular masculine of
<admīror, admirārī, admirātus sum> admire -- admiring
gentis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- of the race
virique -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <vir, viri> man + conjunction; <-que> and -- and of the
man
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- as well as
animum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- spirit
vel -- conjunction; <vel> either - or -- either
bello -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <bellum, belli> war -- for war
vel -- conjunction; <vel> either - or -- or
paci -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <pax, pacis> peace -- for peace
paratum -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
<parō, parāre, parāvī, parātum> prepare, obtain -- prepared
dextra -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <dextra, dextrae> right hand -- right hand
data -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give --
having been given
dem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of < des, dei> faith, pledge -- pledge
futurae -- future participle; genitive singular feminine of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- (of) future
amicitiae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <amicitia, amicitiae> friendship -- of friendship
sanxisse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum> enact -- he enacted

Inde foedus ictum inter duces, inter exercitus salutationem factam.

inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- then

foedus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <foedus, foederis> treaty -- a treaty
ictum -- defective verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive indicative of <īcere, īcī, ictum> strike with est
understood -- was made
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- between
duces -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <dux, ducis> leader -- the leaders
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- between
exercitus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <exercitus, excercitus> army -- the armies
salutationem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <salutatio, salutationis> saluting -- saluting
factam -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive indicative of <faciō, facere, fēcī, factum> do, make --
was carried out

Aeneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio.

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Aeneam -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- Aeneas

apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- at (Latinus') house
Latinum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus -- Latinus
fuisse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
hospitio -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <hospitium, hospitii> hospitality -- hospitality

Ibi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum publico adiunxisse foedus lia Aeneae in matrimonium data.

ibi -- adverb; <ibi> there, then -- thereupon

Latinum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Latinus, Latini> Latinus -- Latinus
apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- in the presence of
penates -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Penates, Penatium> household gods -- household gods
deos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <deus, dei> god -- gods
domesticum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <domesticus, domestica, domesticum> domestic --
domestic
publico -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- in public
adiunxisse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <adiungō, adjungere, adjūnxī, adjūnctum> add -- added
foedus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <foedus, foederis> treaty -- treaty
lia -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of < lia, liae> daughter -- daughter
Aeneae -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- to Aeneas
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
matrimonium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <matrimonium, matrimoni> marriage -- marriage
data -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give --
having given

Ea res utique Troianis spem ad rmat tandem stabili certaque sede niendi erroris.

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ea -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- this
res -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- event
utique -- adverb; <utique> certainly -- de nitely
Troianis -- adjective used as substantive; dative plural masculine of <Troianus, Troiana, Troianum>
Trojan -- for the Trojans
spem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <spes, spei> hope -- hope
ad rmat -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <adfīrmō, ad rmāre, ad rmāvī, ad rmātum>
con rm -- con rmed
tandem -- adverb; <tandem> nally -- nally
stabili -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <stabilis, stabilis, stabile> stable -- stable
certaque -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <certus, certa, certum> certain + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and secure
sede -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation -- home
niendi -- verb; gerund(ive) genitive singular masculine of < niō, nīre, nīvī, nītum> nish, end --
ended
erroris -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <error, erroris> wandering -- their wandering

Oppidum condunt.

oppidum -- noun, neuter; accusative singular <oppidum, oppidi> city -- a city

condunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <condō, condere, condidī, conditum> found -- they
founded

Aeneas a nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.

Aeneas -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Aeneas, Aeneae> Aeneas -- Aeneas

a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- after
nomine -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <nomen, nominis> name -- the name
uxoris -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <uxor, uxoris> wife -- of his wife
Lavinium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <Lavinium, Lavinii> Lavinium -- Lavinium
appellat -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātum> call --
called

Lesson Text

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Cum instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter primores ducemque advenarum
evocasse ad conloquium. Percunctatum deinde qui mortales essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes in
agrum Laurentinum exissent. Postquam audierit multitudinem Troianos esse, ducem Aeneam, lium Anchisae et Veneris,
cremata patria domo profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere. Et nobilitatem admiratum gentis virique et
animum vel bello vel paci paratum, dextra data dem futurae amicitiae sanxisse. Inde foedus ictum inter duces, inter
exercitus salutationem factam. Aeneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio. Ibi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum
publico adiunxisse foedus lia Aeneae in matrimonium data. Ea res utique Troianis spem ad rmat tandem stabili
certaque sede niendi erroris. Oppidum condunt. Aeneas a nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.

Translation

When the arranged lines of battle had been drawn up, before the signals were sounded, Latinus
advanced among his chieftains and summoned the leader of the strangers to a conference. He then
asked what men they were, where they had come from, what misfortune had caused them to leave
their home, and what they were seeking in the land of Laurentinum. After he heard that the people
were Trojans and their leader was Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Venus, and that their city had
been burned, and driven from their home they were seeking a dwelling place and a site where they
might build a city, in admiration of both the renown of the race and the spirit of the hero who was
prepared either for war or for peace, he gave him his right hand and enacted a pledge of future
friendship. A treaty was then struck by the leaders, and the armies saluted. Aeneas received guest
friendship with Latinus. And then Latinus in the presence of his household gods added to the public
treaty a domestic one by giving his daughter in marriage to Aeneas. This event de nitely con rmed
the hope of the Trojans of having ended their wanderings in a stable and certain home. They founded
a city. Aeneas called it Lavinium after the name of his wife.

Grammar
1 Latin, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) Language.
The basic word order of Latin is SOV. Typical sentences then have the verb in nal position, as in the
sentence Oppidum condunt. Because personal subjects are included in the verb form, a separate subject may
be lacking.

A fuller pattern is found in the following sentence: Aeneas ab nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat. The sentence also
includes an adverbial phrase placed, as frequently, before the object, which typically stands directly before
the verb. Similar sentences are found at the beginning of this passage.

2 Modi cations of the basic sentence pattern, with non- nite forms making up the verbs in clauses.
Like many writers in the Classic Latin period, Livy introduced many modi cations of the basic sentence
pattern. As in this passage, he often used clauses with nominal forms of verbs, such as in nitives,
participles, gerunds and gerundives rather than nite verbs.

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Among them are clauses consisting of an in nitive with an accusative as subject, as in processisse Latīnum
'Latinus advanced', (Latinum) evocāsse 'Latinus summoned', Latīnum adiunxisse 'Latinus added'. As in the
translations here, these are best treated as nite clauses in English. But many in nitives are used, like in
English, as complements to nite verbs, e.g. postquam audierit multitudinem Trōiānōs esse 'after he heard that the
people were Trojans'.

Participles may also be used instead of nite verbs, as in Inde foedus ictum 'Then a treaty was struck'. Such
clauses may be viewed as simple sentences with a form of 'be' as verb omitted. The passage contains
many examples, such as percunctatum, profectī, quaerentēs and so on. But a highly characteristic use of
participles in Latin is found with both a noun and a participle in the ablative case -- the so-called ablative
absolute construction. These are comparable to subordinate clauses; an example is dextrā datā, literally 'the
right hand given' but often best treated as a nite clause as in 'he gave him his right hand'. The later
example, liā datā, literally 'daughter given', could be treated similarly, though here it is translated as a
participial clause.

Gerundives are adjectival and gerunds are nominals that may be in ected in the oblique cases. They are
characterized by an -nd- ending. An example of a gerundive in the text is condendae urbī 'for founding a city'.
An example of a gerund is niendī erroris 'for ending of their wandering'.

As this text illustrates, classical Latin syntax is highly stylized. It should be noted that it contains few
particles. These are used in many languages for indicating emphasized items. In Latin such emphasis is
indicated by shifts in word order, and often with separation of connected words. Besides shifts in word
order, the in ection of nouns and of verbs is highly important for conveying nuances of meaning in the
language.

3 Noun in ection.
Latin nouns are classed in ve declensions that are determined by their endings. In this unit we will
exemplify the rst declension, which has nal -a in the stem form, e.g. patria 'fatherland', and the second,
most of which have nal -us (from Proto-Indo-European -os), e.g. lius 'son'. Second declension nouns with
bases ending in -r, e.g. vir 'man', may lack the nal ending. Neuter nouns end in -um.

Nouns are in ected for gender, number, and case. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Most nouns of the rst declension are feminine; those of the second are masculine, e.g. lius 'son', or
neuter, e.g. bellum 'war'.

There are two numbers: singular, and plural.

There are ve cases -- plus the vocative, a case of address for nouns to which it may apply, such as proper
nouns. In declensions, the cases are listed as follows; the basic uses given here:

Nominative, the case of the subject

Genitive, the case indicating possession and relationship

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Dative, the case of the indirect object and to indicate direction

Accusative, the case of the direct object
Ablative, the case indicating separation
  
    1st declension 2nd declension
  

Case   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.   Sg.   Pl.

Nom.   patria   patriae  |  lius   liī   vir   virī   bellum   bella

Gen.   patriae   patriārum  |  liī   liōrum   virī   virōrum   bellī   bellōrum

Dat.   patriae   patriīs  |  liō   liīs   virō   virīs   bellō   bellīs

Acc.   patriam   patriās  |  lium   liōs   virum   virōs   bellum   bella

Abl.   patriā   patriīs  |  liō   liīs   virō   virīs   bellō   bellīs

Greek nouns of the rst declension, e.g. Aeneas and Anchises, have a nal -s in the nominative, but are regular
in the other cases. Like other rst declension nouns they have -a in the vocative.

The vocative of regular second declension nouns ends in -e, e.g. lie 'oh son'; those nouns ending in -r have
no ending, e.g. vir 'oh man'.

Adjectives are in ected like nouns, but may be in ected for all three genders, e.g. m. certus, f. certa, n. certum
'certain'.

4 Verb in ection.
Verbs are classed in four conjugations, in accordance with their stem vowels:

1. those with in nitive ending in -āre belong to the rst conjugation;

2. those ending in -ēre belong to the second;
3. those ending in -ere belong to the third;
4. those ending in -īre belong to the fourth.
Verbs are in ected for two voices (active and passive), six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, past
perfect and future perfect), and for two moods (indicative and subjunctive). In addition there are two
numbers (singular and plural), and three persons ( rst, second, and third). Moreover, there is an imperative
for second and third persons.

Verbs have nominal forms: three in nitives (present, perfect, and future), two participles (present and
future), a gerund, gerundive, and a supine.

Dictionaries list verbs in their rst person singular present indicative, or a comparable form if the verb in
question is in ected only in the passive. Moreover, dictionaries and grammars provide four principal parts,
from which all forms can be made. These are given below, with examples from each of the four

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conjugations.

Pres. Pres. Perf. Perf. Part.

Conj.        
Indic. In n. Indic. Passive

1   laudō 'praise'   laudāre   laudāvī   laudātum

2   moneō 'advise'   monēre   monuī   monītum

3   tegō 'cover'   tegere   tēxī   tectum

4   audiō 'hear'   audīre   audīvī   audītum

Although the texts included in the ten units present historical and literary information, so that verbs are
chie y in the third person, the six present indicative forms are given here to provide a basis for recognizing
all forms.

      Conjugation  

      1   2   3   4  

  1 sg.   laudō   moneō   tegō   audiō  

  2 sg.   laudās   monēs   tegis   audīs  

  3 sg.   laudat   monet   tegit   audit  

  1 pl.   laudāmus   monēmus   tegimus   audīmus  

  2 pl.   laudātis   monētis   tegitis   audītis  

  3 pl.   laudant   monent   tegunt   audiunt  

5 The phonological system.

The phonological system of Latin is remarkably simple. It consists of sixteen consonants and ve vowels,
which may be long or short. In printed texts, length is not usually marked; when it is, a macron is placed
over the long vowels.

The system is as follows:

    Labials   Dentals   Palato-velars

Voiceless:   p   t   k (also spelled c and q)

Voiced:   b   d   g

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Fricatives:   f   s   h

Nasals:   m   n   ŋ (before k, g)

Semivowels:   w (v)       j (often spelled i)

             

Liquids:     l   r  

             

Vowels:   i             u

      e   o  

        a    

The vowels have "continental" values: i and e are pronounced as in cliché; a as in father, o as in note, u as in
ute.

Diphthongs are pronounced as sequences of the two successive vowels, e.g. ae as in aisle, oe as in soil, ei as
in rein, au as in rout.

Latin has a stress accent. In words of more than one syllable, the stress falls on the second to last syllable
if it is long, but if not, then on the third to last.

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Latin Online
Lesson 2
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
This selection is taken from Book 2, Section 10 of Livy's history. It deals with an episode in the struggle of
the Romans to maintain themselves. Aeneas is assumed to have landed in Latium shortly before 750 B.C.
In the following 250 years the Romans maintained themselves, but had con icts with other peoples,
especially the Etruscans.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The Etruscans were at the gates of Rome in 503, and set out to enter the city over a bridge across the Tiber
River. The Romans retreated over it into the city and set out to destroy it. While they were doing so, it was
defended by three men. Horatius Cocles asked the two others to withdraw as well and then held off the
Etruscans by himself until the bridge was destroyed. He then plunged into the river and swam across in full
armor. The episode was greatly celebrated. It formed the topic of the poem on Horatius in Thomas
Babingdon Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome of 1842. (A passage after the sentence ending in pontis was
omitted, to avoid undue length of this selection.)

Cum hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem ex agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt praesidiis.

cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when

hostes -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- enemies
adessent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <adsum, adesse, adfuī> be present --
appeared
pro -- preposition; <pro> for, before -- for
se -- re exive pronoun; ablative of <sui> self -- self
quisque -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone --
each for himself
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
urbem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- into the city
ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from
agris -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <ager, agri> land -- the elds
demigrant -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <dēmigrō, dēmigrāre, dēmigrāvi, dēmigrātum>
withdraw -- withdrew
urbem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- urbs
ipsam -- intensive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- itself
saepiunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <saepiō, saepīre, saepsī, saeptum> surround -- they
surrounded
praesidiis -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <praesidium, praesidii> guard -- with guards

Alia muris, alia Tiberi obiecto videbantur tuta.

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alia -- pronominal adjective; nominative plural neuter of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- some parts
muris -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <murus, muri> wall -- by walls
alia -- pronominal adjective; nominative plural neuter of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- other parts
Tiberi -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <Tiber, Tiberis> Tiber -- by the Tiber
obiecto -- verb; ablative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
<obiciō, obicere, obiēcī, obiectum> oppose -- in front of them
videbantur -- verb; 3rd person imperfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- seemed
tuta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <tutus, tuta, tutum> safe -- secure

Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles.

pons -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge
sublicius -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <sublicius, sublicia, sublicium> resting on piles --
resting on piles
iter -- noun, neuter; accusative singular <iter, itineris> way -- way
paene -- adverb; <paene> almost -- almost
hostibus -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- to the enemies
dedit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- provided
ni -- conjunction; <ni> if not, unless -- if there had not
unus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- one
vir -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <vir, viri> man -- man
fuisset -- verb; 3rd person singular past perfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- had been
Horatius -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Horatius, Horati> Horatius -- Horatius
Cocles -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Cocles, Coclitis> Cocles -- Cocles

Id munimentum illo die fortuna urbis Romanae habuit.

id -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- (on) this
munimentum -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <munimentum, munimenti> defence -- defence
illo -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- on that
die -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <dies, diei> day -- day
fortuna -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <fortuna, fortunae> fortune -- fortune
urbis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- city
Romanae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Romanus, Romana, Romanum> Roman -- of Rome
habuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- depended

Qui positus forte in statione pontis. [Sentences omitted at this point.]

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qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- he
positus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
<pōnō, ponere, posuī, positum> place, situate -- placed himself
forte -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <fortis, fortis, forte> strong -- in a mighty way
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on
statione -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <statio, stationis> station, guard -- guard
pontis -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <pons, pontis> bridge -- of the bridge

Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes.

circumferens -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of

<circumferō, circumferre, circumtūlī, circumlātum> carry around -- darting
inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- then
truces -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <trux, trucis> erce -- erce
minaciter -- adverb; <minaciter> threateningly -- threateningly
oculos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <oculus, oculi> eye -- glances
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- at
proceres -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <procer, proceris> nobleman -- chiefs
Etruscorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of <Etruscus, Etrusca, Etruscum>
Etruscan -- of the Etruscans
nunc -- adverb; <nunc> now -- now
singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum> single, individual -- as
individuals
provocare -- verb; present in nitive of <prōvocō, provocāre, provocāvī, provocātum> challenge -- he
challenged
nunc -- adverb; <nunc> now -- now
increpare -- verb; present in nitive of <increpō, increpāre, increpuī, increpitum> scold, rebuke -- he
rebuked
omnes -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all of them

Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire.

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servitia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <servitium, servitii> servitude -- as servants

regum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <rex, regis> king -- of kings
superborum -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <superbus, superba, superbum> haughty -- haughty
suae -- possessive pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- their own
libertatis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <libertas, libertatis> liberty -- of ...liberty
immemores -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <immemor, immemoris> heedless -- heedless
alienam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <alienus, aliena, alienum> foreign, un tting -- of
others
oppugnatum -- verb; perfect participle passive of <oppūgnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātum>
overthrow -- to overthrow
venire -- verb; present in nitive of <veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum> come -- were coming

Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant

cunctati -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <cunctor, cunctāri, cunctātus sum> hesitate with
sunt -- hesitating
aliquamdiu -- adverb; <aliquamdiu> for a while -- for a while
sunt -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with cunctati -- ...
dum -- conjunction; <dum> while -- while
alius -- pronominal adjective; nominative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- one
alium -- pronominal adjective; accusative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- the
other
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that
proelium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular <proelium, proelii> battle -- battle
incipiant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptum> begin --
they might begin
circumspectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of
<circumspectō, circumspectāre, circumspectāvī, circumspectātum> look around -- looked

Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt.

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pudor -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <pudor, pudoris> shame -- shame

deinde -- adverb; <deinde> then -- then
commovit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <commoveō, commovēre, commōvī, commōtum> move --
moved
aciem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <acies, aciei> line of battle -- line of battle
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
clamore -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <clamor, clamoris> shout -- shout
sublato -- verb; ablative singular masculine of perfect participle of <su erō, su erre, sustulī, sublātum>
take up, lift -- having been started
undique -- adverb; <undique> from every quarter -- from all sides
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- at
unum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- a single
hostem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- enemy
tela -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <telum, teli> weapon, spear -- their javelins
coniciunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōniciō, conicere, coniēcī, coniectum> throw -- they threw

Quae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem obtineret gradu.

quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- these
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- while
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
obiecto -- verb; ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <obiciō, obicere, obiēcī, obiectum>
oppose -- opposed
cuncta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <cunctus, cuncta, cunctum> all -- all
scuto -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <scutum, scuti> shield -- shield
haesissent -- verb; 3rd person plural pluperfect subjunctive of <haereō, haerēre, haesī, haesūrum> stick --
stuck
neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- no
ille -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- he
minus -- adverb; <minus> less -- less
obstinatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <obstinatus, obstinata, obstinatum> obstinate --
obstinately
ingenti -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <ingens, ingentis> great -- strong
pontem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge
obtineret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <obtineō, obtinēre, obtenuī, obtentum>
hold -- he holds
gradu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <gradus, gradus> step -- position

Iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate
perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit.

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iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- just as

impetu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <impetus, impetus> attack, charge -- by a charge
conabantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <cōnor, conārī, conātus sum>
attempt, aim -- they tried
detrudere -- verb; in nitive of <dētrūdō, dētrūdere, dētrūsī, dētrūsum> dislodge -- to dislodge
virum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <vir, viri> man -- the man
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time
fragor -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <fragor, fragoris> crashing, noise -- the crash
rupti -- verb; genitive singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <rumpō, rumpere, rūpī, ruptus>
break -- broken
pontis -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <pons, pontis> bridge -- the bridge
simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- and simultaneously
clamor -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <clamor, clamoris> shout -- the shouting
Romanorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of
<Romanus, Romana, Romanum> Roman -- of the Romans
alacritate -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <alacritas, alacritatis> delight -- in delight
perfecti -- adjective; genitive singular neuter of <perfectus, perfecta, perfectum> complete -- completed
operis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <opus, operis> work -- at the ... work
sublatus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
<su erō, su erre, sustulī, sublātum> take up, lift -- elated
pavore -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <pavor, pavoris> fear, dread -- with dread
subito -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <subitus, subita, subitum> sudden -- sudden
impetum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <impetus, impetus> attack, charge -- their charge
sustinuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentum> hold back -- held
back

Tum Cocles "Tiberine pater," inquit, "te sancte precor, haec arma et hunc militem propitio umine accipias."

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tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then

Cocles -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Cocles, Coclitis> Cocles -- Cocles
Tiberine -- adjective; vocative singular masculine of <Tiberinus, Tiberini> Tiberinus -- Tiberinus
pater -- noun, masculine; vocative singular of <pater, patris> father -- father
inquit -- defective verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <inquam> say -- said
te -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <tu> you -- you
sancte -- adjective; vocative singular masculine of <sanctus, sancta, sanctum> holy -- holy one
precor -- deponent verb; 1st person singular present indicative of <precor, precārī, precātus sum> pray -- I
pray
haec -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
arma -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <arma, armorum> arms -- armor
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
hunc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
militem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <miles, militis> soldier -- soldier
propitio -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <propitius, propitia, propitium> propitious -- propitious
umine -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of < umen, uminis> river -- with stream
accipias -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive of <accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptum> receive
-- receive

Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit

ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- in this manner

sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- so
armatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <armatus, armata, armatum> armed -- armed
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- into
Tiberim -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Tiber, Tiberis> Tiber -- the Tiber
desiluit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus> jump down -- he jumped
down
multisque -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <multus, multa, multum> many + conjunction; <-que> and --
and with many
superincidentibus -- verb; ablative plural neuter of present participle of <superincidō, superincindere> fall
down -- falling down
telis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <telum, teli> weapon, spear -- spears
incolumis -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <incolumis, incolumis, incolume> unharmed --
unharmed
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
suos -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- his own
tranavit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <trānō, tranāre, tranāvī> swim across -- he swam across

rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam dei.

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rem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- act
ausus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of <audeō, audēre, ausus sum>
dare to do -- having dared to do
plus -- adjective used as substantive; accusative singular neuter of <plus> more -- more
famae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <fama, famae> report, talk -- fame
habituram -- verb; accusative singular feminine of future participle active of
<habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- which would have
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- among
posteros -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural masculine of <posteri, posterae, postera>
future generations -- future generations
quam -- adverb used as conjunction; <quam> than -- than
dei -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of < des, dei> faith, pledge -- belief

Lesson Text
Cum hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem ex agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt praesidiis. Alia muris, alia Tiberi
obiecto videbantur tuta. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles. Id munimentum illo
die fortuna urbis Romanae habuit. Qui positus forte in statione pontis. [Sentences omitted at this point.]
Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes.
Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire. Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum
alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum
hostem tela coniciunt. Quae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem obtineret
gradu. Iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate
perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. Tum Cocles "Tiberine pater," inquit, "te sancte precor, haec
arma et hunc militem propitio umine accipias." Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis
incolumis ad suos tranavit rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam dei.

Translation

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When the enemies appeared, the Romans withdrew, everyone for himself, from the elds into the city,
and they surrounded the city itself with guards. Some parts seemed to be secure by their walls, others
by the Tiber in front of them. The bridge resting on piles almost provided a way in to the enemies, if
there had not been one man, Horatius Cocles. He was the defense on the day that the fortune of the
city of Rome depended. He by chance was placed on guard of the bridge. ... Then darting around
erce glances threateningly at the chiefs of the Etruscans, he now challenged them individually, now
rebuked all of them as servants of haughty kings heedless of their own liberty who were coming to
overthrow that of others. They hesitated for a while -- one looked after the other that they might begin
the battle. Then they moved the line of battle, and with a haughty shout they threw their spears from
all sides at a single enemy. When these all struck on his opposing shield, he no less obstinately held
the bridge with great dispatch. Just as they tried to dislodge him by a charge, at the same time the
crash of the falling bridge and the shouting of the Roman elated with delight at the completed work
checked the charge with sudden dread. Then Cocles said: "Father Tiber, I pray you, oh holy one, that
you receive these arms and this soldier with a propitious stream." In the manner armed as he was, he
jumped down into the Tiber, and unharmed by the falling spears he swam across to his own. He had
dared to perform a deed that would have more favor than belief among future generations.

Grammar
6 Historical Present.
The historical present, also known as the dramatic present, refers to use of the present tense with past
meaning. As the alternate designation indicates, it may be found where the author seeks to accentuate a
statement. Used in older English literature, as by Shakespeare, it now is pretty well restricted to popular
narration, as when a narrator uses sequences like "an' then he says...." Instances are found in these
selections, such as ad rmat, condunt, and appellat in the rst unit, adessent, demigrant, and saepiunt in the second;
these forms in the rst sentence of the second selection were clearly used to re ect the dangerous
situation for the Romans. In nitives may be used similarly, e.g. evocāre and quaerere in the rst unit.

7 The subjunctive.
Beside the indicative mood, which expresses certainty, subjunctive mood forms are found for the present,
the preterite, the perfect, and the pluperfect, active and passive. As a general characteristic, the subjunctive
forms indicate uncertainty. In keeping with this meaning, they are used in many subordinate clauses
introduced by conjunctions and pronouns. A typical use is found in the rst sentence of this selection, cum
hostēs adessent..., and also in the rst sentence of the initial unit, cum ... constitissent.... The uncertainty is greater
in the second sentence of that unit, where a question is asked: quī mortalēs essent and at its conclusion
exissent. A use without conjunction is found in the prayer of Horatius to the Tiber: precor ... accipiās 'I ask that
you accept.' As in this translation, subjunctive forms may correspond to English sentences that express
fact, but often they are best represented by modal auxiliaries.

In the identi cation of verbal forms of these texts, those in the indicative are not especially so noted.

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8 The third declension of nouns.

While nouns of the rst and second declensions have bases ending in vowels and are accordingly regular,
those of the third conjugation end in consonants or -i, with a possible consequent modi cation of the base
in some forms. An example is the word for king, rex, which has a base ending in -g; when the nominative
ending -s is added, the -g- is devoiced, and the two sounds are represented by -x. When the ending begins
with a vowel, however, the base is unmodi ed, as in the genitive regis. Other modi cations of bases may be
determined from dictionary entries, which typically provide the genitive as well as the nominative.

Nouns in this declension may be masculine, feminine or neuter. Like the endings of the base, the gender
must be noted from the dictionary entries.

Nom sg   rex   pons   genus   homo   urbs

Gen sg   regis   pontis   generis   hominis   urbis

Dat sg   regī   pontī   generī   hominī   urbī

Acc sg   regem   pontem   genus   hominem   urbem

Abl sg   rege   ponte   genere   homine   urbe

Nom pl   regēs   pontēs   genera   hominēs   urbēs

Gen pl   regum   pontum   generum   hominum   urbium

Dat pl   regibus   pontibus   generibus   hominibus   urbibus

Acc pl   regēs   pontēs   genera   hominēs   urbēs

Abl pl   regibus   pontibus   generibus   hominibus   urbibus

9 The perfect forms of verbs.

The perfect system of verbs is parallel to the present system. It consists of the simple perfect, the
pluperfect or past perfect, and the future perfect, with indicative and subjunctive forms except for the future
perfect, and passive forms beside the active. In general it implies past time, often with the meaning of
completed action.

As the forms in these two units indicate, it is made in a variety of ways. In the rst conjugation, as well as
the fourth, it is generally made with a -v- su x and further endings. In the second conjugation, and also the
fourth, the marker is often -u-. The third conjugation verbs have a variety of markers, among them -s-. The
differences among verbs provide the reason for learning the principal parts of verbs; these are generally
included in dictionary entries. Examples are given here of the verbs cited in the section 4 of the grammar as
well as forms of dō and haereō. Instead of the ending -erunt in the third plural, a short form -ere may be found,
both with long -e-.

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1 sg   laudāvī   monuī   tēxī   audīvī   dedī   haesī

2 sg   laudāvistī   monuistī   texistī   audivīstī   dēdīstī   haesistī

3 sg   laudāvit   monuit   tēxit   audīvit   dēdit   haesit

1 pl   laudāvimus   monuimus   tēximus   audīvimus   dēdimus   haesimus

2 pl   laudāvistis   monuistis   tēxistis   audīvistis   dēdistis   haesistis

3 pl   laudāvērunt   monuērunt   tēxērunt   audīvērunt   dēderunt   haeserunt

10 Prepositions.
Most prepositions govern the accusative case, as do ad and apud found in these units, as well as ante
'before', contra 'against', inter 'among', per 'through', post 'after', trans 'across', and many others. In and sub
'under', however, govern the accusative case when indicating direction, and the ablative when indicating
place.

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Latin Online
Lesson 3
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
In Book 6 of The Gallic War, Julius Caesar (100 - 44 B.C.) decided to describe the people of Gaul and of
Germania. He has given us a brief anthropological account of their customs and activities. Only selections
can be included here, but these indicate the differences between the two peoples.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The people of Gaul had obviously been in uenced by the Greeks and Romans, while the people of Germania
have resisted such in uences. The account of the people of Germania consequently provides information
on the conditions that applied in previous centuries, possibly even in late Indo-European times. On the other
hand, the singling out of the classes of Druids and Knights, beside the common members of their society,
shows a striking resemblance to the castes of Indian society, where the Brahmans or priests had the
highest status, followed by the Kshatriyas or warriors. But in contrast with the two further Indian castes of
Vaishyas and Shudras those not in these two Gallic classes were lumped together, and regarded much like
the Indian outcastes. It is questionable, then, whether there is a historic connection between the Gallic
class system and the Indian caste system.

Quoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus et quo
di erant hae nationes inter sese proponere.

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quoniam -- conjunction; <quoniam> since -- since

ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
hunc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
locum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <locus, loci> place -- place
perventum -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventum>
arrive, reach with est -- has been reached
est -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with perventum -- ...
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
alienum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <alienus, aliena, alienum> foreign, un tting -- un tting
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be
videtur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- seem
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- about
Galliae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Gallia, Galliae> Gaul -- of Gaul
Germaniaeque -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Germania, Germaniae> Germania + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and of Germania
moribus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <mos, moris> custom -- practices
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who, what -- how
di erant -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <di erō, di erre, distulī, dīlātum> differ --
differ
hae -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
nationes -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <natio, nationis> nation -- nations
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among
sese -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- one another
proponere -- verb; in nitive of <prōpōnō, proponere, proposuī, propositum> point out, set forth -- to point
out

In omni Gallia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo.

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in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in

omni -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all of
Gallia -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <Gallia, Galliae> Gaul -- Gaul
eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those
hominum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <homo, hominis> man, human -- humans
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who
aliquo -- pronoun adjective; ablative singular masculine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- some
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are
numero -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <numerus, numeri> class, number, repute -- esteem
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
honore -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction -- distinction
genera -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <genus, generis> kind, class -- kinds
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there are
duo -- number; <duo, duae, duo> two -- two

Nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio.

nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for

plebes -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <plebs, plebis> common people -- the common people
paene -- adverb; <paene> almost -- almost
servorum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <servus, servi> slave -- of slaves
habetur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- are
regarded
loco -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <locus, loci> place -- in the position of, as
quae -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who
nihil -- noun; indeclinable <nihil> nothing -- nothing
audet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <audeō, audēre, ausus sum> dare to do -- dares
per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves
nullo -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- not ... any
adhibetur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <adhibeō, adhibēre, adhibuī, adhibitum> turn to,
treat -- are ...taken as of
consilio -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <consilium, consilii> counsel -- account

Plerique, cum aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese in servitutem
dicant nobilibus.

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plerique -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <plerusque, pleraeque, pleraque> most, the majority
-- most of them
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- since
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either
aere -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <aes, aeris> metal, copper, money -- by debt
alieno -- adjective; ablative singular neuter of <alienus, aliena, alienum> foreign, un tting -- of another
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
magnitudine -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <magnitudo, magnitudinis> size -- by the size
tributorum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <tributum, tributi> speci c payment, tribute -- of their
payments
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
iniuria -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <iniuria, injuriae> wrong, harsh treatment -- harsh
treatment
potentiorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of comparative of
<potens, potentis> powerful -- of the more powerful
premuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <premō, pemere, pressī, pressum> press, oppress
-- are oppressed
sese -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
servitutem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <servitus, servitutis> servitude, slavery -- slavery
dicant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum> say, state, declare --
declare
nobilibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <nobilis, nobilis, nobile> famous, noble -- to the nobles

In hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- over

hos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- those
eadem -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <idem, eadem, idem> the same -- the same
omnia -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are
iura -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ius, iuris> right -- rights
quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
dominis -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <dominus, domini> lord, master -- masters (have)
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- over
servos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <servus, servi> slave -- slaves

Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum.

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sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- in fact

de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- of
his -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
duobus -- number; ablative plural neuter of <duo, duae, duo> two -- two
generibus -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <genus, generis> kind, class -- classes
alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum> the one, the other --
the one
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- consists of
druidum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids
alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum> the one, the other --
the other
equitum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <eques, equitis> horseman, knight -- knights

Illi rebus divinis intersunt, sacri cia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur.

illi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- these
rebus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters
divinis -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <divinus, divina, divinum> divine, sacred -- sacred
intersunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <intersum, interesse, interfuī> lie between, concern -- are
concerned with
sacri cia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <sacri cium, sacri ci> sacri ce -- sacri ces
publica -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
privata -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <privatus, privata, privatum> private, individual -- private
procurant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <prōcūrō, prōcūrāre, prōcūrāvi, prōcūrātum> take care of --
they take care of
religiones -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <religio, religionis> religious practice -- religious
matters
interpretantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <interpretor, interpretāri, interpretātus sum>
interpret -- they interpret

Ad hos magnus adulescentium numerus disciplinae causa concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud eos honore.

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ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to

hos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
magnus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- large
adulescentium -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <adulescens, adulescentis> young people -- the young
people
numerus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <numerus, numeri> class, number, repute -- number
disciplinae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <disciplina, disciplinae> discipline, education --
instruction
causa -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- for the sake of
concurrit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <concurrō, concurrere, concurrī, concursum> assemble,
come together -- come together
magnoque -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and ... great
hi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are
apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among
eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- them
honore -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction -- in ... honor

Nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque constituunt, et, si quid admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si
de heriditate de nibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia poenasque constituunt.

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nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for

fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning
omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all
controversiis -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <controversia, controversiae> controversy --
controversies
publicis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
privatisque -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <privatus, privata, privatum> private, individual +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and private
constituunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtum> decide --
they decide
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
quid -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- any
admissum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of
<admittō, admittere, admīsī, admīssum> let, go, commit -- has been committed
facinus -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <facinus, facinoris> crime -- crime
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
caedes -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <caedes, caedis> murder -- murder
facta -- verb; nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <faciō, facere, fēcī, factum> do,
make -- has been done
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning
heriditate -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <heriditas, heriditatis> heredity, inheritance --
inheritance
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning
nibus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of < nis, nis> border, limit -- boundaries
controversia -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <controversia, controversiae> controversy --
controversy
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is
idem -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <idem, eadem, idem> the same -- all the
same
decernunt -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <dēcernō, decernere, decrēvī, decrētum> decide -- they
decide
praemia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <praemium, praemii> reward -- rewards
poenasque -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <poena, poenae> punishment, penalty + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and penalties
constituunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtum> decide --
they decide

Si qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacri ciis interdicunt.

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si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
qui -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, qua(e), quod> some, any -- any (one)
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
privatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <privatus, privata, privatum> private, individual --
private
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
populus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <populus, populi> people -- public
eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- their
decreto -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <decretum, decreti> decision -- by ... decree
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
stetit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <stō, stāre, stēti, statum> stand, abide -- does ... abide
sacri ciis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <sacri cium, sacri ci> sacri ce -- from the sacri ces
interdicunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <interdīcō, interdicere, interdīxi, interdictum> prohibit --
they ban (him)

Haec poena apud eos est gravissima.

haec -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
poena -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <poena, poenae> punishment, penalty -- punishment
apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among
eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- them
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is
gravissima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of <gravis, gravis, grave> grave,
serious -- severest

Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur.

magnum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- large
ibi -- adverb; <ibi> there, then -- there
numerum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <numerus, numeri> class, number, repute -- number
versuum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <versus, versus> verse -- of verses
ediscere -- verb; in nitive of <ēdiscō, ēdiscere, ēdidici, -> learn, memorize -- (they) memorize
dicuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum> say, state, declare --
they say, it is said

Itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent.

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itaque -- adverb; <itaque> and also -- also

annos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <annus, anni> year -- years
nonnulli -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <nonnullus, nonulla, nonullum> some -- some
vicenos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <vicenus, viceni> twenty -- twenty
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
disciplina -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <disciplina, disciplinae> discipline, education -- training
permanent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <permaneō, permanēre, permansī, permansum> stay,
continue -- remain

Neque fas esse existimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus Graecis
litteris utantur.

neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor

fas -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <fas, -> right -- right
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be
existimant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <existimō, existimāre, existimāvī, existimātum> judge,
consider -- do they consider
ea -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- these things
litteris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <littera, litterae> letter -- to letters, to writing
mandare -- verb; in nitive of <mando, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātum> commit -- to commit
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- because
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
reliquis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <reliquus, reliqua, reliquum> remaining, rest -- remaining
fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost
rebus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters
publicis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
privatisque -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <privatus, privata, privatum> private, individual +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and private
rationibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <ratio, rationis> account, affair -- in . . .affairs
Graecis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <Graecus, Graeca, Graecum> Greek -- Greek
litteris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <littera, litterae> letter -- letters
utantur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use

Lesson Text

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Quoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus et quo di erant hae
nationes inter sese proponere. In omni Gallia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo.
Nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio. Plerique, cum aut aere alieno
aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese in servitutem dicant nobilibus. In hos eadem omnia
sunt iura, quae dominis in servos. Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum. Illi rebus divinis
intersunt, sacri cia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur. Ad hos magnus adulescentium numerus
disciplinae causa concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud eos honore. Nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque
constituunt, et, si quid admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si de heriditate de nibus controversia est, idem decernunt,
praemia poenasque constituunt. Si qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacri ciis interdicunt. Haec
poena apud eos est gravissima. Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur. Itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in
disciplina permanent. Neque fas esse existimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque
rationibus Graecis litteris utantur.

Translation

Since I have come to this point, it does not seem inappropriate to set forth the customs of Gaul and
of Germania, and how these nations differ among each other. . . . In all Gaul there are two classes of
humans who are of de nite account and honor. But the common people are regarded almost at the
level of slaves, who dare to do nothing by themselves and are taken as of no account. And most,
since they are either oppressed by debt or by a great amount of tribute or by crimes of the more
powerful, commit themselves in slavery to the nobles. They have indeed among these all the rights as
masters over slaves. Of these two classes the one consists of Druids, the other of Knights. The
former are concerned with divine worship; they handle public and private sacri ces, and they interpret
religious matters. A great number of the youth gather around them for the sake of education, and they
are held among these in great honor. For they make decisions about almost all public and private
controversies, and if any crime has been committed, if a murder has been done, if there is controversy
about boundaries, they decide the same, they determine rewards and punishments. If any one, either
private or public, does not abide by their decree, they ban him from sacri ces. This punishment is the
most serious among them. ... It is said that they memorize a great number of verses (in the Druidic
schools). And for that reason some remain twenty years in training. Nor do they think it proper to
commit these to writing, while in almost all other things, in public and private matters, they use Greek
letters.

Grammar
11 Deponents.
Deponents are verbs that are passive in form but have active meaning. The meaning is typically one of
state rather than vigorous action; the passive developed out of a stative conjugation in early Indo-European,
and deponents re ect this meaning rather than that of a pure passive. In this unit, the deponents interpretor

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'interpret' and utor 'use' are found. The previous units included precor 'ask' and pro scor 'set out'. None of
these meanings indicates action as do verbs like concurrō 'run together' or constituō 'place'. Deponents are
labeled as such in dictionaries.

12 The Passive.
As in the English verb system, the passive indicates that the subject of the verb is affected by rather than
performing some action. In English the passive consists of compound forms, such as "they were invited by
the organizers," in contrast with "the organizers invited them."

The in ectional system of the passive is parallel to that of the active. Examples of the present indicative
passive are given here for the verbs illustrating the four conjugations in Unit 1. Since the imperfect is
treated in section 14, the third singular and third plural imperfect is given here for the passive.

Present Indicative Passive

1 sg   laudor   moneor   tegor   audior

2 sg   laudāris   monēris   tegeris   audiēris

3 sg   laudātur   monētur   tegitur   audītur

1 pl   laudāmur   monēmur   tegimur   audīmur

2 pl   laudāminī   monēmini   tegimini   audīminī

3 pl   laudantur   monentur   teguntur   audiuntur

Imperfect Indicative Passive in the third persons

3 sg   laudābātur   monēbātur   tegēbātur   audiēbātur

3 pl   laudābantur   monēbantur   tegēbantur   audiēbantur

The perfect conjugation forms are made with the past participle accompanied by forms of the verb sum.
They are accordingly easy to note and translate. Third singular forms are given here for the perfect and
pluperfect of the four conjugations.

Perfect

3 sg   laudātus est   monitus est   tectus est   audītus est

Pluperfect

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3 sg   laudātus erat   monitus erat   tectus erat   audītus erat

13 The Fourth and Fifth Declensions of Nouns.

The fourth and fth declensions include relatively few nouns. The nominative in the fourth ending in -us, like
the second declension; but the u-vowel is basically long, which is the ending also for neuters in the
declension, e.g. cornu. The nominative in the fth declension ends in -es; the declension includes few nouns,
among them however the frequent dies 'day' and res 'thing'.

    Fourth Declension     Fifth declension

Nom sg   tribus 'tribe'   cornu 'horn'   diēs 'day'   rēs 'thing'

Gen sg   tribūs   cornūs   dieī   reī

Dat sg   tribuī   cornu   dieī   reī

Acc sg   tribum   cornu   diem   rem

Abl sg   tribū   cornū   diē   rē

Nom pl   tribūs   cornua   diēs   rēs

Gen pl   tribuum   cornuum   diērum   rērum

Dat pl   tribubus   cornibus   diēbus   rēbus

Acc pl   tribūs   cornua   diēs   rēs

Abl pl   tribubus   cornibus   diēbus   rēbus

14 The Imperfect, Indicative, and Subjunctive.

The imperfect is made with a ba-su x in the indicative, and an re-su x in the subjunctive. Since the endings
are identical throughout the four conjugations, examples from only the rst and third will be given here.

    First Conjugation   Third Conjugation

    Indicative   Subjunctive     Indicative   Subjunctive

1 sg   laudābam   laudārem   tegēbam   tegerem

2 sg   laudābās   laudārēs   tegēbās   tegerēs

3 sg   laudābat   laudāret   tegēbat   tegeret

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1 pl   laudābāmus   laudārēmus   tegēbāmus   tegerēmus

2 pl   laudābātis   laudārētis   tegēbātis   tegerētis

3 pl   laudābant   laudārent   tegēbant   tegerent

15 Conjunctions.
As in English, conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. They are straightforward
lexical items, and the common ones are readily memorized. Lists of various kinds of the common
coordinating conjunctions are given here.

Coordinating conjunctions: et, -que, atque, 'and', ac, neque 'and not'
Disjunctive conjunctions: aut, vel, -ve 'or'
Adversative conjunctions: at, autem, sed, tamen 'but, nevertheless'
Of the conjunctions introducing clauses, two have occurred: postquam 'after' and cum 'when, since,
because'.

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Latin Online
Lesson 4
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Members of the second class in Indian society are designated Kshatriyas, or the powerful; in contrast, they
are referred to as Equites, horsemen or knights, in Celtic society. The term may well have been introduced
from Roman society, where it was used to designate the members of the equestrian order that occupied
the position between the Senate and the Plebs or common people. Here only sections of Caesar's
description can be included.

Reading and Textual Analysis

In giving further information about this class, Caesar discusses the religious practices of the Gauls, their
gods, and family relationships. Of further interest is the tradition that they are all descended from Dis, a
term related to the word deus 'god', but referring to an underworld deity. As a result, they refer to periods of
time by nights rather than days; we have a result of this in our word fortnight, a shortening of fourteen
nights for two weeks. Here, the military and administrative practices are excerpted.

Alterum genus est equitum.

alterum -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <alter, altera, alterum> the one, the other --
the other
genus -- noun, neuter; nominative singular <genus, generis> kind, class -- class
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is (that of the)
equitum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <eques, equitis> horseman, knight -- knights

Hi, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit (quod fere ante Caesaris adventum quotannis accidere solebat, uti aut
ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in bello versantur.

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hi -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- these
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is
usus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <usus, usus> use, practice -- occasion
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and especially
aliquod -- pronoun adjective; nominative singular neuter of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- some
bellum -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <bellum, belli> war -- war
incidit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <incidō, incidere, incidī,-> fall in, occur -- occurs
quod -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
fere -- adverb; <fere> almost -- almost
ante -- preposition; <ante> before -- before
Caesaris -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Caesar, Caesaris> Caesar -- Caesar's
adventum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <adventus, adventus> arrival, coming -- coming
quotannis -- adverb; <quotannis> yearly -- every year
accidere -- verb; in nitive of <accidō, accidere, accidī, -> fall to, come, happen -- happen
solebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be accustomed -- was
accustomed to
uti -- conjunction; <uti> that, so that -- as
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either
ipsi -- intensive pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- they themselves
iniurias -- noun, feminine; accusative plural <iniuria, injuriae> wrong, harsh treatment -- attacks
inferrent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum> introduce,
produce -- would produce
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
illatas -- verb; accusative plural feminine of perfect participle passive of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum>
introduce, produce -- produced
propulsarent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <prōpulsō, propulsāre, propulsātus, ->
ward off, repulse -- would repulse
omnes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
bello -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <bellum, belli> war -- war
versantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <versō, versāre, versāvī, versātum> turn often;
pass. be involved -- are engaged

Atque eorum ut quisque est venere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habet.

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atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and indeed

eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- of them
ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- as
quisque -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone --
each
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is
venere -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <venus, veneris> grace, esteem -- esteem
copiisque -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <copia, copiae> abundance, wealth + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and wealth
amplissimus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine superlative of <amplius> great, distinguished --
most distinguished
ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- accordingly
plurimos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of superlative of <multus, multa, multum> many -- the
most
circum -- preposition; <circum> around -- around
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- himself
ambactos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ambactus, ambacti> dependent -- subordinates
clientesque -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <cliens, clientis> retainer + conjunction; <-que> and --
and retainers
habet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- he has

Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt.

hanc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- This
unam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- the one
gratiam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <gratia, gratiae> esteem, regard -- esteem
potentiamque -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <potentia, potentiae> power + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and power
noverunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum> be acquainted with, get to
know -- have come to know

Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus.

natio -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <natio, nationis> nation -- nation

est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- is
omnis -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- the entire
Gallorum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Galli, Gallorum> the Gauls -- of the Gauls
admodum -- adverb; <admodum> completely -- completely
dedita -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <deditus, dedita, deditum> devoted, addicted --
devoted to
religionibus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <religio, religionis> religious practice -- religious practices

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Atque ob eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis quique in proeliis periculisque versantur, aut pro victimis
homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, administrisque ad ea sacri cia druidibus utuntur. [Section omitted
at this point.]

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atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and indeed

ob -- preposition; <ob> because of -- for
eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- this
causam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- reason
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- those
who
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- are
adfecti -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive of
<ad ciō, ad cere, adfēcī, adfectum> a ict -- a icted
gravioribus -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of comparative of <gravis, gravis, grave> grave, serious
-- with more serious
morbis -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <morbus, morbi> illness -- illnesses
quique -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and those who
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
proeliis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <proelium, proelii> battle -- battles
periculisque -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <periculum, periculi> danger + conjunction; <-que> and --
and in dangers
versantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <versō, versāre, versāvī, versātum> turn often;
pass. be involved -- are involved
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either
pro -- preposition; <pro> for, before -- as
victimis -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <victima, victimae> sacri ce -- sacri ces
homines -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people
immolant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <immolō, immolāre, immolāvī, immolātum> sacri ce,
immolate -- sacri ce
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- they themselves
immolaturos -- verb; accusative plural masculine of future participle of
<immolō, immolāre, immolāvī, immolātum> sacri ce, immolate -- will be sacri ced
vovent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <voveo, vovēre, vōvī, vōtum> vow -- they vow
administrisque -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <administer, administri> administrator +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and ...as administrators
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for
ea -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those
sacri cia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <sacri cium, sacri ci> sacri ce -- sacri ces
druidibus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids
utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use

Quae civitates commodius suam rem publicam administrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de
re publica a nitimis rumore aut fama accepterit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio communicet.

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quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- the ...
that
civitates -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <civitas, civitatis> state -- states
commodius -- adjective; comparative accusative singular neuter of <commodus, commoda, commodum>
used adverbially = complete, advantageous -- more advantageously
suam -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- their
rem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affairs
publicam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
administrare -- verb; in nitive of <administrō, administrāre, administrāvī, administrātum> administer,
conduct -- to conduct
existimantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <existimō, existimāre, existimāvī, existimātum>
judge, consider -- are considered
habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- have
legibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <lex, legis> law -- by law
sanctum -- verb; accusative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of
<sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum> enact -- prescribed
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
quis -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything --
anyone
quid -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- anything
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning
re -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affair
publica -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from
nitimis -- adjective used as substantive; ablative plural masculine of < nitimus, nitima, nitimum>
bordering, neighbor -- neighbors
rumore -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <rumor, rumoris> murmur, rumor -- by rumor
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
fama -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <fama, famae> report, talk -- report
accepterit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive of <acceptō, acceptāre, acceptāvī, acceptātum>
receive -- might learn
uti -- conjunction; <uti> that, so that -- that
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
magistratum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <magistratus, magistratus> magistrate -- a
magistrate
deferat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <dēferō, deferre, detulī, delātum> report --
should report
neve -- conjunction; <neve> and not, nor -- and not
cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with
quo -- inde nite pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- anyone
alio -- pronominal adjective; ablative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- else

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communicet -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of

<commūnicō, commūnicāre, commūnicāvī, commūnicātum> communicate -- share

Quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad facinus impelli et de summis rebus
consilium capere cognitum est.

quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- because

saepe -- adverb; <saepe> often -- often
homines -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people
temerarios -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <temerarius, temeraria, temerarium> rash,
indiscreet -- indiscreet
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also
imperitos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <imperitus, imperita, imperitum> inexperienced --
inexperienced
falsis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <falsus, falsa, falsum> false -- by false
rumoribus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <rumor, rumoris> murmur, rumor -- rumors
terreri -- verb; passive in nitive of <terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus> terrify, frighten -- are frightened
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
facinus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <facinus, facinoris> crime -- crime
impelli -- verb; passive in nitive of <impellō, impellere, impulī, impulsum> drive, move -- be driven
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning
summis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <summus, summa, summum> highest with rebus -- the
general (welfare)
rebus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- welfare (see above)
consilium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <consilium, consilii> counsel with capere -- to form
plans, make decisions
capere -- verb; in nitive of <capiō, capere, cēpī, captum> take, seize -- to make
cognitum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <cognitus, cognita, cognitum> known -- known
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- it is

Magistratus quae visa sunt occultant quaeque esse ex usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt.

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magistratus -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <magistratus, magistratus> magistrate -- The

magistrates
quae -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- what
visa -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle perfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see --
seem proper
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be
occultant -- 3rd person plural present of; <occultō, occultāre, occultāvī, occultātum> conceal -- conceal
quaeque -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and what
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- be
ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- of
usu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <usus, usus> use, practice -- bene t
iudicaverunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātum> decide -- decide
multitudini -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <multitudo, multitudinis> multitude -- to the common
people
produnt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <prōdō, prodere, prodīdī, proditum> put forth, make known --
make known

De re publica nisi per concilium loqui non conceditur.

de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- concerning

re -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- affairs
publica -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <publicus, publica, publicum> public -- public
nisi -- conjunction; <nisi> if not, unless -- unless
per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by means of
concilium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <concilium, concilii> council, assembly -- an assembly
loqui -- deponent verb; in nitive of <loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- speak
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
conceditur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <concēdō, concedere, concessī, concessum>
grant, allow -- it is allowed

Lesson Text

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Alterum genus est equitum. Hi, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit (quod fere ante Caesaris adventum quotannis
accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in bello versantur. Atque eorum ut quisque
est venere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habet. Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque
noverunt. Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus. Atque ob eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus
morbis quique in proeliis periculisque versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent,
administrisque ad ea sacri cia druidibus utuntur. [Section omitted at this point.] Quae civitates commodius suam
rem publicam administrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a nitimis rumore aut fama
accepterit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio communicet. Quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos
falsis rumoribus terreri et ad facinus impelli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est. Magistratus quae visa
sunt occultant quaeque esse ex usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt. De re publica nisi per concilium loqui non
conceditur.

Translation
The knights are the other class. When there is an occasion and especially when a war arises (which
would happen almost yearly before Caesar's arrival, so that either they themselves would carry out
attacks or would repulse such), these are all engaged in war. And as each is most distinguished in
esteem and by wealth, he accordingly has the most subordinates and retainers about him. They have
recognized this as the single basis of esteem and power.

The entire nation of the Gauls is greatly devoted to religious affairs. And for that reason those who
are a icted with more serious illnesses and those who are involved in battles and dangers either
sacri ce people as victims or they vow that they themselves will be sacri ced; and they make use of
Druids as administrators for those sacri ces. [Section omitted at this point.]

The states that are considered to administer their public affairs more advantageously have it
prescribed by law that, if anyone might learn anything about public affairs from neighbors by rumor or
report, he should report it to a magistrate and not communicate with anyone else. For it is known that
indiscreet and inexperienced men are often frightened by false rumors, and are driven to crime or to
make decisions concerning the general welfare. Magistrates conceal what seems best, and they
decide what is of use and provide it for the common people. It is not allowed to speak about public
matters except by means of an assembly.

Grammar
16 Relative Clauses.
Relative clauses are introduced primarily by the relative pronouns, quī 'who', quae 'who', quod 'what', and their
in ected forms. A number of examples have occurred in the texts here, such as (bellum) quod in the rst
sentence of this lesson. The forms are as follows:

  Singular   Plural

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    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   quī   quae   quod  |  quī   quae   quae

Gen   cūius   cūius   cūius  |  quōrum   quārum   quōrum

Dat   cuī   cuī   cuī  |  quibus   quibus   quibus

Acc   quem   quam   quod  |  quos   quās   quae

Abl   quō   quā   quō  |  quibus   quibus   quibus

Another relative pronoun is quisquis 'whoever'. It is in ected like the interrogative pronoun quis 'who', which
will be introduced in Lesson 5.

17 Adjectives and their Comparison.

Adjectives are in ected like nouns. Many of them are in ected in accordance with the rst and second
declensions, such as magnus, magna, magnum 'great'. Others are in ected in accordance with the third
declension, such as acer, acris, acre 'sharp'. The declension of any adjective is noted in dictionaries.

As in English there are three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative. The
Comparative is made by adding -ior, the Superlative by adding -issimus. An example is clarus, clarior, clarissimus
'clear, clearer, clearest'. Many of the most common adjectives are irregular, such as their counterparts in
English, like bonus, melior, optimus 'good, better, best'. Another example is magnus, maior, maximus 'great, greater,
greatest'. These too are noted in dictionaries.

18 More Nouns in the Third Declension.

As noted earlier, nouns in the third declension end in consonants, so that there may be changes in form of
the stem, especially in the nominative. Examples are given here for some of the sub-classes with the words
pēs 'foot', pater 'father', sermo 'speech', nis 'end', nox 'night'.

    Singular

Nom   pēs   pater   sermo   nis   nox

Gen   pedis   patris   sermonis   nis   noctis

Dat   pedī   patrī   sermonī   nī   noctī

Acc   pedem   patrem   sermonem   nem   noctem

Abl   pede   patre   sermone   ne   nocte

    Plural

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Nom   pedēs   patrēs   sermonēs   nēs   noctēs

Gen   pedum   patrum   sermonum   nium   noctium

Dat   pedibus   patribus   sermonibus   nibus   noctibus

Acc   pedēs   patrēs   sermonēs   nēs   noctēs

Abl   pedibus   patribus   sermonibus   nibus   noctibus

19 Verb Forms of sum.

As in English, forms of the verb esse 'to be' are irregular. They are also common, used as auxiliaries as well
as straightforwardly. Accordingly they should be noted. The indicative active forms are listed below.

    Present   Past   Future   Perfect   Pluperfect   Future Perfect

1 sg   sum   eram   erō   fuī   fueram   fuerō

2 sg   es   erās   eris   fuistī   fuerās   fueris

3 sg   est   erat   erit   fuit   fuerat   fuerit

1 pl   sumus   erāmus   erimus   fuimus   fuerāmus   fuerimus

2 pl   estis   erātis   eritis   fuistis   fuerātis   fueritis

3 pl   sunt   erant   erunt   fuērunt   fuerant   fuerint

20 Adverbs.
Adverbs must be noted as independent lexical items. Those that are based on adjectives in the rst and
second declensions end in -e, such as male 'badly' from malus 'bad', bene 'well' from bonus 'good'. Those based
on adjectives of the third declension end in -ter, such as graviter 'heavily' from gravis 'heavy'.

Like adjectives, they may have comparative and superlative forms. Those with forms from regular
in ections have endings in -ius for the comparative and -e for the superlative, for example alte 'highly', altius
'more highly' and altissime 'most highly'. But some of the most frequent have irregular forms, such as bene,
melius, optime 'well, better, best', multum, magis, maxime 'much, more, most'. These must be noted in
dictionaries.

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Latin Online
Lesson 5
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
After describing the civilization of the Gauls, Caesar has a brief but highly interesting section on the
Germani. We may almost conclude from it that they had maintained the way of life we assume for the late
Indo-European period. Their gods are those of the culture of the steppes. They are basically hunter-
gatherers. Warfare makes up their principal activity. And in contrast with the Gauls they have no speci c
classes; this is in keeping with Meillet's conclusion that the Indo-Europeans were basically democratic, and
also individualistic.

Reading and Textual Analysis

Caesar goes on to describe the large forests to the east, and some of the animals, such as the elk and the
ure-oxen, noting how the Germans hunt them by having them fall in pits. The most interesting part of his
account is that given here.

Germani multum ab hac consuetudine di erunt.

Germani -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of

<Germanus, Germana, Germanum> Germani -- The Germani
multum -- adverb; <multum> greatly -- greatly
ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from
hac -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
consuetudine -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <consuetudo, consuetudinis> custom, way of life --
way of life
di erunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <di erō, di erre, distulī, dīlātum> differ -- differ

Nam neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacri ciis student.

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nam -- conjunction; <nam> for -- for

neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- neither
druides -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <druides, druidum> Druids -- Druids
habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- do they have
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who
rebus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matters
divinis -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <divinus, divina, divinum> divine, sacred -- divine
praesint -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <praesum, praesse, praefuī> have charge of,
preside over -- preside over
neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor
sacri ciis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <sacri cium, sacri ci> sacri ce -- sacri ces
student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention, be devoted -- they
are devoted to

Deorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et Vulcanum et Lunam,
reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt.

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deorum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <deus, dei> god -- of the gods
numero -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <numerus, numeri> class, number, repute -- among the
number
eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those
solos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <solus, sola, solum> alone -- only
ducunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductum> lead, consider -- they consider
quos -- relative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
whom
cernunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cernō, cernere, crēvī, certum> discern, see -- they see
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
quorum -- relative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
whose
aperte -- adverb; <aperte> openly -- openly
opibus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources -- assistance
iuvantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum> assist, help -- they are
helped
Solem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Sol, Solis> sun -- the sun
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
Vulcanum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Vulcanus, Vulcani> Vulcan, the re-god -- re
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
Lunam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Luna, Lunae> Luna, the moon-god -- the moon
reliquos -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural masculine of <reliquus, reliqua, reliquum>
remaining, rest -- the rest
ne -- adverb; <ne> not -- not
fama -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <fama, famae> report, talk -- by report
quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even
acceperunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptum> receive -- they have
learned

Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit.

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vita -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <vita, vitae> life -- life

omnis -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- (Their) whole
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
venationibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <venatio, venationis> hunting -- hunting
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
studiis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <studium, studii> application, study -- application
rei -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- to ...affairs
militaris -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <militaris, militaris, militare> military -- military
consistit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnsistō, cōnsistere, cōnstitī, cōnstitum> stand still,
consist in -- consists

Ab parvulis labori ac duritiae student.

ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from

parvulis -- adjective used as substantive; ablative plural masculine of <parvulus, parvula, parvulum>
childhood -- childhood
labori -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- exertion
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
duritiae -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <duritia, duritiae> hardship -- hardship
student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention, be devoted -- they
are devoted to

Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem.

qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
(those) who
diutissime -- adverb; superlative of <diu> long -- longest
impuberes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <impubes, impuberis> youthful, chaste -- as
virgins
permanserunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <permaneō, permanēre, permansī, permansum> stay,
continue -- have stayed
maximam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine superlative of <magnus, magna, magnum> great,
large -- greatest
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among
suos -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- their fellows
ferunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum> bear, carry -- maintain
laudem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <laus, laudis> praise -- praise

Hoc ali staturam, ali vires nervosque con rmari putant.

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hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- by this
ali -- pronominal adjective; nominative plural masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- on the one
hand
staturam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <statura, staturae> stature, height -- height
ali -- pronominal adjective; nominative plural masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some -- on the other
hand
vires -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <vis, vis> power, strength -- strength
nervosque -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <nervus, nervi> muscle + conjunction; <-que> and --
and muscles
con rmari -- verb; in nitive passive of <cōnfīrmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātum> make rm,
strengthen -- are strengthened
putant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <putō, putāre, putāvī, putātum> think -- think

Intra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus.

intra -- preposition; <intra> within, during -- before

annum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <annus, anni> year -- year
vero -- adverb; <vero> truly, but -- truly
vicesimum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <vicesimus, vicesima, vicesimum> twentieth --
twentieth
feminae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <femina, feminae> woman -- of a woman
notitiam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <notitia, notitiae> familiarity, carnal knowledge --
carnal knowledge
habuisse -- verb; perfect in nitive of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- to have had
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- among
turpissimis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine superlative of <turpis, turpis, turpe> shameful,
disgraceful -- disgraceful
habent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- consider
rebus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things

Cuius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in uminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis renonum tegimentis
utuntur magna corporis parte nuda.

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cuius -- relative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- of
which
rei -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter
nulla -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- no
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there is
occultatio -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <occultatio, occultationis> secrecy -- secrecy
quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- because
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both
promiscue -- adverb; <promiscue> promiscuous -- promiscuously
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
uminibus -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of < umen, uminis> river -- the rivers
perluntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <perluō, perluere, perluī, perlūtum> wash, bathe --
they bathe
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
pellibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide -- hides
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
parvis -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <parvus, parva, parvum> small -- small
renonum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <reno, renonis> deer-skin -- of deer-skins
tegimentis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <tegumen, teguminis> clothing, covering -- clothing
utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they wear
magna -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- with a large
corporis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <corpus, corporis> body -- of the body
parte -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <pars, partis> part -- part
nuda -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <nudus, nuda, nudum> bare, naked -- bare

Agriculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne consistit.

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agriculturae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <agricultura, agriculturae> agriculture -- agriculture

non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
student -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention, be devoted -- they
are devoted to
maiorque -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <magnus, magna, magnum> great,
large + conjunction; <-que> and -- and the greater
pars -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <pars, partis> part -- part
eorum -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- of their
victus -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <victus, victus> sustenance, food -- food
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
lacte -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <lac, lactis> milk -- milk
caseo -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <caseus, casei> cheese -- cheese
carne -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <caro, carnis> meat -- (and) meat
consistit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnsistō, cōnsistere, cōnstitī, cōnstitum> stand still,
consist in -- consists of

Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut nes habet proprios.

neque -- adverb; <neque> neither ... nor -- nor

quisquam -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisquis, quaeque, quicquid> whoever,
whatever -- anyone
agri -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ager, agri> land -- of land
modum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <modus, modi> kind -- amount
certum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <certus, certa, certum> certain -- xed
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
nes -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of < nis, nis> border, limit -- boundaries
habet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- has
proprios -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <proprius, propria, proprium> proper, own -- (his)
own

Sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum et
quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt.

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sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but

magistratus -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <magistratus, magistratus> magistrate --
magistrates
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
principes -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <princeps, principis> chief -- chiefs
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
annos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <annus, anni> year -- years
singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum> single, individual --
separate
gentibus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- to tribes
cognationibusque -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <cognatio, cognationis> blood-relations, kindred +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and to clans
hominum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <homo, hominis> man, human -- of persons
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who
una -- adverb; <una> at the same place, together -- together
coierunt -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <coeo, coīre, coivī, coitum> come together, be assembled --
have assembled
quantum -- adverb; <quantum> as much -- as much
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> which, what -- whatever
loco -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <locus, loci> place -- place
visum -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see with est -- seems
best
est -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with perventum -- ...
agri -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ager, agri> land -- land
attribuunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <attribuō, attribuere, attribuī, attribūtum> assign -- assign
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
anno -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <annus, anni> year -- year
post -- adverb; <post> after -- after
alio -- adverb; <alio> somewhere else -- to another place
transire -- verb; present in nitive of <trānseō, transīre, transīvī, transitum> go over -- to go
cogunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cōgō, cōgere, coēgi, cōactum> collect, compel -- they compel

Eius rei multas adferunt causas:

eius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- for this
rei -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter
multas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <multus, multa, multum> many -- many
adferunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <adferō, adferre, attulī, adlātum> bring, convey -- state
causas -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- reasons

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ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent;

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not

adsidua -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <adsiduus, adsidua, adsiduum> constant, continued -- by
continued
consuetudine -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <consuetudo, consuetudinis> custom, way of life --
custom
capti -- verb; perfect participle passive of <capiō, capere, cēpī, captum> take, seize -- induced
studium -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <studium, studii> application, study -- pursuit
belli -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <bellum, belli> war -- war
gerendi -- verb; gerund(ive) genitive singular neuter of <gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum> bear, carry out, wear
-- of carrying out
agricultura -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <agricultura, agriculturae> agriculture -- for agriculture
commutent -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of
<commūtō, commūtāre, commūtāvi, commūtātum> change, exchange -- exchange

ne latos nes parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant;

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not

latos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <latus, lata, latum> broad -- extensive
nes -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of < nis, nis> border, limit -- lands
parare -- verb; present in nitive of <parō, parāre, parāvī, parātum> prepare, obtain -- to obtain
studeant -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <studeō, studēre, studuī> give attention, be
devoted -- they might become devoted to
potentioresque -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine comparative of
<potens, potentis> powerful + conjunction; <-que> and -- and the more powerful
humiliores -- adjective; accusative plural masculine comparative of <humilis, humilis, humile> low, small
-- the lower
possessionibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <possessio, possessionis> possession -- from their
possessions
expellant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <expellō, expellere, expulī, expulsum> drive out
-- drive

ne accuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedi cent;

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ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not

accuratius -- adverb; comparative of <accurate> carefully -- more carefully
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for
frigora -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <frigus, frigoris> cold -- cold
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and also
aestus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <aestus, aestus> heat -- heat
vitandos -- verb; verbal adjective of <vitō, vitāre, vitāvī, vitātus> avoid, evade -- avoiding
aedi cent -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <aedi cō, aedi cāre, aedi cāvī, aedi cātum>
build -- they might build

ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur.

ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- so that not

qua -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, qua(e), quod> some, any -- some
oriatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <orior, orīrī, ortus sum> arise --
might arise
pecuniae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <pecunia, pecuniae> money -- for money
cupiditas -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <cupiditas, cupiditatis> desire -- desire
qua -- relative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from
re -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- matter
factiones -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <factio, factionis> faction -- factions
dissensionesque -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <dissensio, dissensionis> dissension +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and dissensions
nascuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum> be produced, arise --
would arise

ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat.

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ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that

animi -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- of spirit
aequitate -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <aequitas, aequitatis> uniformity, calmness -- in
calmness
plebem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <plebs, plebis> common people -- the common people
contineant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <contineō, continēre, continuī, contentum>
connect, maintain -- they might maintain
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
suas -- possessive pronoun; accusative plural feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- his own
quisque -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone --
someone
opes -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources -- means
cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with
potentissimis -- adjective; dative plural masculine superlative of <potens, potentis> powerful -- the most
powerful
aequari -- deponent verb; passive in nitive of <aequō, aequāre, aequāvī, aequātus> to make equal,
smoothe -- be equal to
videat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- see

Lesson Text
Germani multum ab hac consuetudine di erunt. Nam neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacri ciis
student. Deorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et Vulcanum et Lunam,
reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt. Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit. Ab parvulis labori
ac duritiae student. Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem. Hoc ali staturam, ali
vires nervosque con rmari putant. Intra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus.
Cuius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in uminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis renonum tegimentis
utuntur magna corporis parte nuda. Agriculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne
consistit. Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut nes habet proprios. Sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos
gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post
alio transire cogunt. Eius rei multas adferunt causas: ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura
commutent; ne latos nes parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus expellant; ne accuratius ad frigora
atque aestus vitandos aedi cent; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur. ut
animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat.

Translation

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The Germani differ a great deal from this way of life. They have no Druids who preside over their
divine affairs; nor are they devoted to sacri ces. They consider in the number of their gods only those
whom they see and by whose assistance they are openly helped, the Sun and the Fire-god and the
Moon; they have not even heard of the rest by report. Their whole life consists of hunting and of the
pursuit of military affairs. From youth they are devoted to work and hardship. Those who remain
celibate longest enjoy the greatest praise among their fellows. Some think that height, others that
strength and sinews are strengthened by this. They truly consider it among the most disgraceful
matters to have had intercourse with a woman before their twentieth year. There is no secrecy in the
matter for they bathe promiscuously in the rivers and they wear skins or small coverings of deer skins
with a large part of their body nude.

They do not practice agriculture; the greater part of their food consists of milk, cheese, and meat. Nor
does anyone have a de nite amount of land or xed boundaries. But the magistrates and chiefs every
year assign to the tribes and to related people who have grouped together, as much land and in
whatever place seems best. And in the next year they compel them to move. They adduce many
reasons for this matter: so that they would not change their zeal for warfare to agriculture, tempted
by continuous association; so that they would not desire to acquire broad territories, and the more
powerful might expel the weaker; so that they would not build more carefully against cold and heat;
so that a desire for money would not arise, from which factions and dissentions might be produced;
so that they might keep the common people in calmness of spirit, with each seeing his own means as
equal to those of the most powerful.

Grammar
21 Personal and Re exive Pronouns.
As we have noted, and as is clear from the texts in the rst ve lessons, few particles are used in Latin. On
the other hand, pronouns are used to indicate relationships between words, clauses and sentences. The
pronouns concerned are chie y those labeled descriptive and relative, since historical texts use few
personal pronouns, in part because the item in question is provided by the verb form. Nonetheless it is
necessary to be aware of them, and accordingly they are given here.

The rst and second person pronouns are also used as re exives. The third person pronoun is re exive,
and is used for all three genders in the plural as well as the singular. The dative accordingly may mean 'to
himself, to herself, to itself, to themselves.'

    1st Person   2nd Person   3rd Person

    Singular   Plural   Singular   Plural    

Nom   ego 'I'   nōs 'we'   tū 'thou'   vōs 'you'    

Gen   meī   nostrum, nostrī   tui   vestrum, vestrī   suī

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Dat   mihi   nōbis   tibī   vōbis   sibī

Acc   mē   nōs   tē   vōs   sē, sēsē

Abl   mē   nōbis   tē   vōbis   sē, sēsē

The adjectival forms of these pronouns, known as possessives, are in ected in all cases and genders. They
are: meus, mea, meum 'my', tuus, tua, tuum 'thy', suus, sua, suum 'his, her, its, their', noster, nostra, nostrum 'our', vester,
vestra, vestrum 'your'.

22 Descriptive Pronouns.
These pronouns, which are also referred to as determinative or determiners or even demonstrative, are
among the most frequent. They may be translated with forms of 'this' or with personal pronouns like 'he' or
with other elements like 'the same'. The genitive and dative forms are the same for all three genders, except
for the genitive plural where the feminine has -a- rather than -o-.

    is 'he, she, this'

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   is   ea   id   iī   eae   ea

Gen   ēius   ēius   ēius   eōrum   eārum   eōrum

Dat   eī   eī   eī   iīs   iīs   iīs

Acc   eum   eam   id   eōs   eās   ea

Abl   eō   eā   eō   iīs   iīs   iīs

    idem 'the same'

Nom   īdem   eadem   idem   idem   eaedem   eadem

Gen   ēiusdem   ēiusdem   ēiusdem   eōrumdem   eārumdem   eōrumdem

Dat   eīdem   eīdem   eīdem   īsdem   īsdem   īsdem

Acc   eundem   eandem   idem   eōsdem   eāsdem   eadem

Abl   eōdem   eādem   eōdem   īsdem   īsdem   īsdem

    hic 'this'

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Nom   hic   haec   hoc   hī   hae   haec

Gen   hūius   hūius   hūius   hōrum   hārum   hōrum

Dat   huīc   huīc   huīc   hīs   hīs   hīs

Acc   hunc   hanc   hoc   hōs   hās   haec

Abl   hōc   hāc   hōc   hīs   hīs   hīs

    ille 'that, such'

Nom   ille   illa   illud   illī   illae   illa

Gen   illīus   illīus   illīus   illōrum   illārum   illōrum

Dat   illī   illī   illī   illīs   illīs   illīs

Acc   illum   illam   illud   illōs   illās   illa

Abl   illō   illā   illō   illīs   illīs   illīs

23 The Intensive Pronoun ipse 'self'.

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   ipse   ipsa   ipsum   ipsī   ipsae   ipsa

Gen   ipsīus   ipsīus   ipsīus   ipsōrum   ipsārum   ipsōrum

Dat   ipsī   ipsī   ipsī   ipsīs   ipsīs   ipsīs

Acc   ipsum   ipsam   ipsum   ipsōs   ipsās   ipsa

Abl   ipsō   ipsā   ipsō   ipsīs   ipsīs   ipsīs

24 The Relative Pronoun quī 'who'.

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   quī   quae   quod   quī   quae   quae

Gen   cūius   cūius   cūius   quōrum   quārum   quōrum

Dat   cuī   cuī   cuī   quibus   quibus   quibus

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Acc   quem   quam   quod   quōs   quās   quae

Abl   quō   quā   quō   quibus   quibus   quibus

Inde nite relatives are quicumque 'whoever' and quisquis 'whoever', quidquid 'whatever'. The rst element of
quicumque may be declined like the simple relative pronoun. The elements of quisquis may be declined like
the interrogative pronoun, as demonstrated by the form quidquid; but other forms rarely occur.

25 The Interrogative and Inde nite Pronouns.

The interrogative pronoun when used as a noun is quis 'who?'; when used as an adjective it is qui, as in qui
homo 'Which man?'; it is in ected like the relative pronoun.

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   quis   quis   quid   quī   quae   quae

Gen   cūius   cūius   cūius   quōrum   quārum   quōrum

Dat   cuī   cuī   cuī   quibus   quibus   quibus

Acc   quem   quem   quid   quōs   quās   quae

Abl   quō   quā   quō   quibus   quibus   quibus

Quis is also used as inde nite pronoun, noun, and adjective. When used as an adjective, the nominative
forms are qui, quae and quod; when used as a noun, the neuter is quid.

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Latin Online
Lesson 6
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
About a hundred and fty years after Caesar wrote his Gallic War, the historian Tacitus produced a treatise
on the Germani. We know less about Cornelius Tacitus than we do about Julius Caesar. He was apparently
born around 55 A.D. and died around 120 A.D. He enjoyed a ne career in various government positions.
Among his works, in addition to a history of his time known as Historiae and his Annales on the period from
the death of Augustus Caesar in 14 A.D. to 68 A.D., is a work entitled De Moribus et Populis Germaniae
'Concerning the customs and peoples of Germania', or more simply Germania. While some authors in
Classical times, among them Herodotus, Livy and Caesar, included brief accounts of other peoples in their
writings, Tacitus' Germania is the only anthropological account of a people that we have from the period.

Reading and Textual Analysis

In his description of the public and private life of the German peoples, Tacitus gives us a much more
comprehensive picture than did Caesar. On the other hand, their way of life seems much the same as it was
in Caesar's day. At one point Tacitus does indicate that they have taken on some customs from outside, as
in the brief statement iam et pecuniam accipere docuimus 'we have brought them also to accept money', but, as
the excerpt given here shows, their habitations and clothing remained much the same.

Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes.

nullas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- no
Germanorum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive plural masculine of
<Germanus, Germana, Germanum> Germani -- of the Germani
populis -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <populus, populi> people -- by the peoples
urbes -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <urbs, urbis> city -- cities
habitari -- verb; passive in nitive of <habitō, habitāre, habitāvī, habitātum> inhabit -- are inhabited
satis -- adverb; <satis> adequately, su ciently -- quite
notum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of <nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum>
be acquainted with, get to know -- known
est -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- it is
ne -- conjunction; <ne> so that not -- that ... not
pati -- deponent verb; in nitive passive of <patior, patī, passus sum> suffer, endure -- they permit
quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves
iunctas -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <iunctus, iuncta, iunctum> joined, united -- connected
sedes -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <sedes, sedis> seat, habitation -- habitations

Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit.

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colunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in, cultivate -- They live
discreti -- verb; nominative plural masculine perfect participle passive of
<discernō, discernere, discrēvī, discrētum> separate, divide -- separately
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- as well as
diversi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <diversus, diversa, diversum> contrary, diverse --
diversely
ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where
fons -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <fons, fontis> spring -- a spring
ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where
campus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <campus, campi> plain, open eld -- an open eld
ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- where
nemus -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <nemus, nemoris> grove -- a grove
placuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <placeō, placēre, placuī, placitum> please -- as they please

Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus aedi ciis.

vicos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <vicus, vici> village -- villages

locant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <locō, locāre, locāvī, locātus> place, arrange -- they arrange
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in accordance with
nostrum -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <noster, nostra, nostrum> our -- our
morem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <mos, moris> custom -- custom
conexis -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <conexus, conexa, conexum> adjoining -- adjoining
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
cohaerentibus -- ablative plural neuter of; <cohaerens, cohaerentis> continuous, adjoining -- continuous
aedi ciis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <aedi cium, aedi cii> building -- buildings

Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia aedi candi.

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suam -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- his
quisque -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <quisque, quaeque, quodque> everyone --
everyone
domum -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <domus, domi> house -- house
spatio -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <spatium, spatii> space -- space
circumdat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <circumdō, circumdare, circumdedī, circumdātum>
surround -- surrounds
sive -- conjunction; <sive> or if, whether ... or -- whether
adversus -- adverb; <adversus> opposite to, against -- against
casus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- hazard
ignis -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ignis, ignis> re -- of re
remedium -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <remedium, remedii> remedy, assistance -- as a
remedy
sive -- conjunction; <sive> or if, whether ... or -- or
inscientia -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <inscientia, inscientiae> ignorance -- through ignorance
aedi candi -- verb; genitive of gerund(ive) of <aedi cō, aedi cāre, aedi cāvī, aedi cātum> build -- of
construction

Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus.

ne -- adverb; <ne> not -- not

caementorum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <caementum, caementi> quarry-stone -- of quarry-stones
quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- even
apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- among
illos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- them
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
tegularum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <tegula, tegulae> tile -- of tiles
usus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <usus, usus> use, practice -- use

Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem.

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materia -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <materia, materiae> material -- material

ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for
omnia -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all --
everything
utuntur -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum> use -- they use
informi -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <informis, informis, informe> unshapely, hideous --
unshapely
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
citra -- preposition; <citra> on this side of, without -- without
speciem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <species, speciei> appearance -- pleasing appearance
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
delectationem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <delectatio, delectationis> pleasure, delight --
beauty

Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta colorum imitetur.

quaedam -- inde nite pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <quidam, quaedam, quoddam> a certain, some
-- some
loca -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <locus, loci> place -- places
diligentius -- adverb; comparative of <diligenter> industriously -- very industriously
illinunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <illinō, illere, illēvī, illitum> spread over -- they spread,
smear
terra -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- with earth
ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- so
pura -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <purus, pura, purum> pure -- pure
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and also
splendente -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of <splendeo, splendere, -, -> shine, be
bright -- shiny
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that
picturam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <pictura, picturae> painting -- a painting
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and also
liniamenta -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <liniamentum, liniamenti> line, designs -- designs
colorum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <color, coloris> color -- of colors
imitetur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive present of <imitor, imitāre, imitātum> imitate,
resemble -- they resemble

Solent et subterraneos specus aperire eosque multo insuper mo onerant su ugium hiemis et receptaculum
frugibus.

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solent -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be accustomed -- They are
accustomed
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also
subterraneos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <subterraneus, subterranei> underground --
underground
specus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <specus, specus> cave, pit -- pits
aperire -- verb; in nitive of <aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum> open -- to open
eosque -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and them
multo -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <multus, multa, multum> many -- with much
insuper -- adverb; <insuper> above, on top -- on top
mo -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of < mus, mi> dung -- dung
onerant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <onerō, onerāre, onerāvī, onerātum> load, burden -- they
cover
su ugium -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <su ugium, su ugii> refuge, shelter -- as a shelter
hiemis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <hiems, hiemis> winter -- from the winter
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
receptaculum -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <receptaculum, receptaculi> receptacle, storage
place -- storage place
frugibus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <frux, frugis> fruit, produce -- for fruit

Quia rigorem frigorum eius modi loci molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur.

quia -- conjunction; <quia> because -- because

rigorem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <rigor, rigoris> rigor -- rigor
frigorum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <frigus, frigoris> cold -- of the cold
eius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- of that
modi -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <modus, modi> kind -- kind
loci -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <locus, loci> place -- places
molliunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <molliō, mollīre, mollīvī, mollītum> moderate, soften --
moderate
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
quando -- adverb; <quando> ever, at some time -- at some time
hostis -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hostis, hostis> enemy -- an enemy
advenit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <adveniō, advenīre, advenī, adventum> arrive, appear --
arrived
aperta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <apertus, aperta, apertum> open -- the open things
populatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <populor, populāri, populatus sum>
devastate, plunder -- he would plunder

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Abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt.

abdita -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of <abditus, abdita, abditum> hidden
place -- the hidden places
autem -- conjunction; <autem> but -- but
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
defossa -- participle used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of
<dēfodiō, defossere, defōdī, defossum> dig deep, hide -- the caves
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- either
ignorantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <īgnōrō, īgnōrāre, īgnōrāvi, īgnōrātum> ignore, be
unknown -- remain unknown
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
eo ipso -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + intensive
pronoun; <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- by that very reason
fallunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <fallō, fallere, fefellī, falsum> deceive, elude -- they elude
quod -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- what
quaerenda -- verbal adjective; nominative plural neuter of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for,
search -- to be sought
sunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- they are

Tegumen omnibus sagum bula aut, si desit, spina consertum.

tegumen -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <tegumen, teguminis> clothing, covering -- The covering
omnibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- for all
sagum -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <sagum, sagi> rough mantle -- (is) a rough mantle
bula -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of < bula, bulae> brooch -- with a brooch
aut -- conjunction; <aut> or -- or
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
desit -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <desum, deesse, defuī> be lacking -- is
unavailable
spina -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <spina, spinae> thorn -- a thorn
consertum -- verb; nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of
<cōnserō, cōnserere, cōnseruī, cōnsertum> connect -- held together

Cetera intecti totos dies iuxta focum atque ignem agunt.

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cetera -- adverb; <cetera> otherwise -- Otherwise

intecti -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <intectus, intecta, intectum> uncovered -- naked
totos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <totus, tota, totum> entire -- entire
dies -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <dies, diei> day -- days
iuxta -- preposition; <iuxta> near -- near
focum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <focus, foci> re-place, hearth -- the hearth
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
ignem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ignis, ignis> re -- the re
agunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <agō, agere, ēgī, āctum> move, conduct -- they spend

Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur, non uitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singulos artus exprimente.

locupletissimi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of superlative of <locuples, locupletis> rich in

lands, wealthy -- The wealthy
reste -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <restis, restis> undergarment -- by an undergarment
distinguuntur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <dīstinguō, dīstinguere, dīstinxī, dīstinctum>
divide, distinguish -- are distinguished
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
uitante -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of < uitō, uitāre, uitāvī, -> ow --
owing
sicut -- adverb; <sicut> as, like -- like
Sarmatae -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Sarmatae, Sarmatarum> Sarmatians -- the
Sarmatians
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
Parthi -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Parthi, Parthorum> Parthians -- Parthians
sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but
stricta -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <strictus, stricta, strictum> drawn together, tight -- tight
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
singulos -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <singulus, singula, singulum> single, individual -- the
individual
artus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <artus, artus> joints, limbs -- limbs
exprimente -- verb; ablative singular feminine of present participle of
<exprimō, exprimere, expressī, expressum> express -- revealing

Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per commercia cultus.

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gerunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum> bear, carry out, wear -- They
wear
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also
ferarum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <fera, ferae> wild beast -- of wild animals
pelles -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide -- hides
proximi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <proximus, proxima, proximum> next to -- (those)
next to
ripae -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ripa, ripae> river-bank -- the river (= Rhine and Danube)
neglegenter -- adverb; <neglegenter> carelessly -- with no discrimination
ulteriores -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <ulterior, ulterioris> farther,
remote -- those more remote
exquisitius -- adverb; comparative of <exquisitus, exquisita, exquisitum> exquisitely -- more exquisitely
ut -- adverb; <ut> as, where -- seeing that
quibus -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- for them
nullus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <nullus, nulla, nullum> no, none -- (there is) no
per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- through
commercia -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <commercium, commerci> commerce -- through
commerce
cultus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <cultus, cultus> care, culture -- re nement

Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus atque ignotum
mare gignit.

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eligunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ēligō, ēlegere, elēgī, elēctum> choose, select -- they select
feras -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <fera, ferae> wild beast -- (the hides of) wild beasts
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
detracta -- verb; perfect participle passive of <dētrahō, detrahere, dētraxī, detractum> take off, remove --
removed
velamina -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <velamen, velaminis> cover, clothing -- clothing
spargunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <spargō, spargere, sparsī, sparsum> strew, sprinkle -- they
distribute
maculis -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <macula, maculae> spot -- with spots
pellibusque -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <pellis, pellis> skin, hide + conjunction; <-que> and -- and
with hides
beluarum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <belua, beluae> wild animal, monster -- of wild animals
quas -- relative pronoun; accusative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
exterior -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <exterior, exterioris> outer -- the outer
Oceanus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Oceanus, Oceani> ocean -- ocean
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
ignotum -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <ignotus, ignota, ignotum> unknown -- an unknown
mare -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <mare, maris> sea -- sea
gignit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <gīgnō, genere, genuī, genitum> generate, produce --
produces

Nec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur eosque purpura variant.

nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- not

alius -- pronominal adjective; nominative singular masculine of <alius, alia, aliud> other, some --
different
feminis -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <femina, feminae> woman -- for the women
quam -- adverb used as conjunction; <quam> than -- than
viris -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <vir, viri> man -- for the men
habitus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <habitus, habitus> clothing, dress -- clothing
nisi -- conjunction; <nisi> if not, unless -- except
quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- that
feminae -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <femina, feminae> woman -- the women
saepius -- adverb; comparative of <saepe> often -- more often
lineis -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <lineus, linea, lineum> axen -- by axen
amictibus -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <amictus, amictus> outer garment -- outer garments
velantur -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <vēlō, velāre, velāvī, velātum> cover -- are covered
eosque -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and those
purpura -- ablative singular feminine of; <purpura, purpurae> purple, purple cloth -- with purple cloth
variant -- verb, 3rd person plural present of; <variō, variāre, variāvī, variātum> variegate -- they variegate

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Partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudae brachia ac lacertos; sed et proxima pars pectoris
patet.

partemque -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <pars, partis> part + conjunction; <-que> and -- And
...part
vestitus -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <vestitus, vestitus> clothing -- of their ... clothing
superioris -- adjective; genitive singular masculine comparative of <superus, supera, superum> higher,
gods -- upper
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- into
manicas -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <manicae, manicarum> long sleeves -- sleeves
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
extendunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <extendō, extendere, extendī, extēnsum> extend -- they
extend
nudae -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <nudus, nuda, nudum> bare, naked -- (are) bare
brachia -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <brachium, brachi> lower arm -- (their) lower arms
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
lacertos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <lacertus, lacerti> upper arm -- (their) upper arms
sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but, in fact
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also
proxima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <prope> near -- nearest
pars -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <pars, partis> part -- part
pectoris -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <pectus, pectoris> breast -- of their breast
patet -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <pateō, patēre, patuī, -> lie open, be exposed -- lies open

Lesson Text

Nullas Germanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas sedes. Colunt discreti ac
diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus aedi ciis.
Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia aedi candi. Ne caementorum
quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus. Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem. Quaedam
loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta colorum imitetur. Solent et subterraneos
specus aperire eosque multo insuper mo onerant su ugium hiemis et receptaculum frugibus. Quia rigorem frigorum
eius modi loci molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur. Abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso
fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt. Tegumen omnibus sagum bula aut, si desit, spina consertum. Cetera intecti totos dies
iuxta focum atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur, non uitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et
singulos artus exprimente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus per
commercia cultus. Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas exterior Oceanus
atque ignotum mare gignit. Nec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur
eosque purpura variant. Partemque vestitus superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudae brachia ac lacertos; sed et
proxima pars pectoris patet.

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Translation
It is well known that cities are not inhabited by the peoples of the Germani, indeed that connected
habitations are not permitted among them. They live separately and independently, where a spring, an
open eld or a wood has pleased them. They do not arrange their villages according to our custom,
with adjoining and continuous buildings. Each surrounds his house with an open space, whether as a
remedy against the occurrence of re, or because of ignorance of construction. There is not even use
of quarry-stones or tiles among them. For all things they use unshapely materials, without pleasant
appearance or beauty. Some places they smear so carefully with such pure and shiny earth that they
resemble a painting and designs of colors. And they also dig underground pits and cover them with
much dung on top, for a shelter from the winter and a storage place for fruits. Because those places
moderate the rigorous cold; and when an enemy appears, he would plunder only the open things. For
the hidden places and the caves remain unknown or they elude them because they would have to be
sought out.

The clothing for all is a rough mantle held together with a brooch or if that is lacking by a thorn.
Otherwise they are unclothed; they spend entire days in this way near the hearth and re. Only the
richest are distinguished by an undergarment, not owing, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians,
but tight and revealing all the limbs. They also wear hides of wild animals, those along the river not
discriminating among them, but those more remote also more exquisitely. Because there is no culture
through commerce there! They select the hides and spread the removed coverings with spots and
hides of wild animals that the outer ocean and an unknown sea produce.

The clothing of the women does not differ from that of the men, except that they often are covered
with axen outer garments and those they variegate with purple cloth. And they do not extend part of
their upper clothing to their arms. Their lower and upper arms are bare. In fact, the nearest part of
their breast also lies open.

Grammar
26 The importance of verb forms.
As we have noted, verbs are highly important for understanding and translating Latin. They often include
the subject of a sentence. They also vary in form, so that they indicate the writer's intention, whether
factual, hypothetical, or the like.

Besides active and passive voices and indicative and subjunctive moods, verbs in general have two
systems, those based on the present tense and representing time of action, those based on the perfect
tense and representing aspect as well as time of action. The twofold set may be determined from the lists
of principal parts of verbs, as we may illustrate with an example of the patterns found in dictionaries:

dōnō 'I give', dōnāvī 'I have given', dōnātum 'given', dōnāre 'to give'.

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From the rst and last of these principal parts, one determines the forms of the present system; from the
second one determines the forms of the perfect system. The third form is the perfect participle passive,
which is used in making some of the passive forms, and it is often used as an adjective.

There are four conjugations, based on differing stems. The verbs of the rst conjugation have stems ending
in long -ā-, such as dōnō, donāre 'give'; those of the second conjugation have stems ending in long -ē-, such as
habeō, habēre 'have'; those of the third conjugation have stems ending in short -e-, such as tegō, tegere 'cover';
those of the fourth conjugation have stems ending in long -ī-, such as audiō, audīre 'hear'. To provide an
overview of the numerous forms for any verb, we will give all forms of a verb of the rst conjugation,
because they are the most regular. We assume that with these lists you will be able to recognize any verb
form, not that you will memorize them unless you so choose. Many of the forms are unlikely to occur in the
narrative texts included here, such as the imperatives; these may however occur in poetry, especially
drama. But they are most likely to occur in everyday conversation.

27 The Present Tense forms of the rst conjugation verb dōnō, and the rst singular forms of the three other
conjugations.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

1 sg   dōnō   dōnem   dōnor   dōner

2 sg   dōnās   dōnēs   dōnāris   dōnēris

3 sg   dōnat   dōnet   dōnātur   dōnētur

1 pl   dōnāmus   dōnēmus   dōnāmur   dōnēmur

2 pl   dōnātis   dōnētis   dōnāminī   dōnēminī

3 pl   dōnant   dōnent   dōnantur   dōnentur

2nd conjugation

1 sg   habeō   habeam   habeor   habear

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tegō   tegam   tegor   tegar

4th conjugation

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1 sg   audiō   audiam   audior   audiar

28 The Imperfect Tense forms of the rst conjugation verb dōnō, and the rst singular forms of the three
other conjugations.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

1 sg   dōnābam   dōnārem   dōnābar   dōnārer

2 sg   dōnābās   dōnārēs   dōnābāris   dōnārētis

3 sg   dōnābat   dōnāret   dōnābātur   dōnārētur

1 pl   dōnābāmus   dōnārēmus   dōnābāmur   dōnārēmus

2 pl   dōnābātis   dōnārētis   dōnābāminī   dōnārēmini

3 pl   dōnābant   dōnārent   dōnābantur   dōnārentur

2nd conjugation

1 sg   habēbam   habērem   habēbar   habērer

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tegēbam   tegerem   tegēbar   tegerer

4th conjugation

1 sg   audiēbam   audīrem   audiēbar   audīrer

29 The Forms of the Future. Note that there is no subjunctive.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

1 sg   dōnābō   dōnābor

2 sg   dōnābis   dōnāberis

3 sg   dōnābit   dōnābitur

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1 pl   dōnābimus   dōnābimur

2 pl   dōnābitis   dōnābiminī

3 pl   dōnābunt   dōnābuntur

2nd conjugation

1 sg   habēbō   habēbor

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tegam   tegar

4th conjugation

1 sg   audiam   audiar

30 The forms of the Imperative, the Present In nitive, and the Present and Future Participles.

Imperative

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

2 sg pres   dōnā   dōnāre

2 pl pres   dōnāte   dōnāminī

2 sg fut   dōnātō   dōnātor

2 pl fut   dōnātōte   dōnantor

2nd conjugation

2 sg pres   habē   habēre

2 pl pres   habēte   habēminī

2 sg fut   habētō   habētor

2 pl fut   habētōte   habentor

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3rd conjugation

2 sg pres   tege   tegere

2 pl pres   tegite   tegiminī

2 sg fut   tegitō   tegitor

2 pl fut   tegitōte   teguntor

4th conjugation

2 sg pres   audī   audīre

2 pl pres   audīte   audīminī

2 sg fut   audītō   audītor

2 pl fut   audītōte   audiuntor

In nitive

1st conjugation

pres   dōnāre   dōnāri

2nd conjugation

pres   habēre   habērī

3rd conjugation

pres   tegere   tegī

4th conjugation

pres   audīre   audīrī

Participle

1st conjugation

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pres   dōnāns    

fut   dōnātūrus    

2nd conjugation

pres   habēns    

fut   habitūrus    

3rd conjugation

pres   tegēns    

fut   tēctūrus    

4th conjugation

pres   audiēns    

fut   audītūrus    

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Latin Online
Lesson 7
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Ennius, 239-169 BC, was born in southern Italy, at Rudiae, twenty miles from Brundisium. Besides Latin he
spoke Greek and Oscan. Having joined the Roman army, he was brought to Rome and settled there for the
rest of his life. He supported himself by teaching Greek, as well as through his writing. He had contacts
with other literary gures of his day, though it is unclear whether Plautus was among them. Among his
works were tragedies, poems and most important, the Annals, which, like the Homeric poems, is composed
in dactylic hexameters. Beginning with its background at Troy, the Annals covered the history of Rome until
shortly before the time of the death of Ennius.

Reading and Textual Analysis

This selection is taken from the Annals of Ennius. The text was "edited and translated" by E. H. Warmington
in his four volumes of Remains of Old Latin I, page 30 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961, Loeb
Classical Library No.294). It is of interest for its account of the naming of Rome, the contest between the
two brothers, Romulus and Remus, and the account of the augury, as well as for an example of archaic
Latin. Warmington has modi ed the spelling, so that it is in keeping with the conventions of classical Latin.
There are, then, few differences in this text from the written language several centuries later. The Annals
have come down to us in fragments, which Warmington has assembled; among these, this selection is
relatively lengthy.

Curantes magna cum cura tum cupientes

Regni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque;
..........in monte..........

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curantes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <cūrō, cūrāre, cūrāvī, cūrātum> care
-- caring
magna -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- great
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- with
cura -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <cura, curae> care -- care
tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then
cupientes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum>
desire -- desiring
regni -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power -- supreme power
dant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- they give
operam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <opera, operae> work, service, attention -- attention
simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- simultaneously
auspicio -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the ight of birds -- to the
omen from the birds
augurioque -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <augurium, augurii> interpretation of omens, augury +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and to their interpretation
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on
monte -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <mons, montis> mountain -- a mountain

Remus auspicio se devovet atque secundam

solus avem servat. At Romulus pulcher in alto
quaerit Aventino, servat genus altivolentum.

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Remus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Remus, Remi> Remus -- Remus

auspicio -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the ight of birds -- to the
omen from the birds
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- himself
devovet -- verb; 3rd person singular present, of <dēvoveō, dēvovēre, dēvōvī, dēvōtum> devote -- devotes
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
secundam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <secundus, secunda, secundum> second, favorable
-- favorable
solus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <solus, sola, solum> alone -- by himself
avem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <avis, avis> bird -- bird
servat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <servō, servāre, servāvī, servātum> guard, keep, watch --
watches
at -- adverb; <at> and -- but
Romulus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Romulus, Romuli> Romulus -- Romulus
pulcher -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum> beautiful, excellent --
handsome
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- on
alto -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- high
quaerit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum> look for, search --
searches
Aventino -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <Aventinus, Aventini> Aventine -- Aventine
servat -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <servō, servāre, servāvī, servātum> guard, keep, watch --
watches
genus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <genus, generis> kind, class -- class
altivolentum -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <altivolans, altivolantis> high ying -- high ying

Certabant urbem Romam Remoramve vocarent.

certabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <certō, certāre, certāvī, certātum> ght, contend -- they
were contending
urbem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- the city
Romam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Roma, Romae> Rome -- Rome
Remoramve -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Remora, Remorae> Remora + conjunction; <-ve> or
-- or Remora
vocarent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātum> call --
(whether) they would call

Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator:

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omnibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- among all
cura -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <cura, curae> care -- (there was) concern
viris -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <vir, viri> man -- the men
uter -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <uter, utra, utrum> which of two -- which of the two
esset -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- would be
induperator -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <induperator, induperatoris> commander in chief,
emperor -- commander

exspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum

volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras
quam mox emittat pictis e faucibus currus.

exspectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, exspectātum> wait for --
they wait
veluti -- adverb; <veluti> as, like -- as
consul -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <consul, consulis> consul -- the consul
quom -- conjunction; <quom> when -- when
mittere -- verb; in nitive of <mittō, mittere, mīsī, missum> send, give -- to give
signum -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <signum, signi> sign -- the signal
volt -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- decides
omnes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all
avidi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <avidus, avida, avidum> eager -- eagerly
spectant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātum> look, gaze -- gaze
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- at
carceris -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <carcer, carceris> prison, starting-place in a race-course
-- of the starting-place
oras -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- the front
quam -- relative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
which
mox -- adverb; <mox> soon -- soon
emittat -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <ēmittō, ēmittere, ēmīsī, ēmīssum> send out --
he will send
pictis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <pictus, picta, pictum> painted -- painted
e -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from
faucibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <fauces, faucis> throat, entrance -- the...entrance
currus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <currus, currus> chariot -- the chariots

sic exspectabat populus atque ora tenebat,

rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni.

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sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- so

exspectabat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, exspectātum> wait
for -- were waiting
populus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <populus, populi> people -- the people
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
ora -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- their tongues
tenebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold, control, understand --
holding
rebus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- by the events
utri -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <uter, utra, utrum> which of two -- to which of the two
magni -- adjective; genitive singular neuter of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- of great
victoria -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <victoria, victoriae> victory -- the victory
sit -- auxiliary verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive passive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am with data --
would be
data -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive passive of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- given
regni -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power -- authority

Interea sol albus recessit in infera noctis.

interea -- adverb; <interea> in the meantime -- In the meantime

sol -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <sol, solis> sun -- the... sun
albus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <albus, alba, album> white -- white
recessit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <recēdō, rēcedere, rēcessī, rēcessum> retire, withdraw -- had
withdrawn
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- to
infera -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <inferus, inferi> lower part -- depths
noctis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <nox, noctis> night -- of night

Exin candida se radiis dedit icta foras lux.

exin -- adverb; <exin> after that, then -- then

candida -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <candidus, candida, candidum> clear -- clear
se -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- itself
radiis -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <radius, radii> rod, beam -- with beams
dedit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- gave
icta -- defective verb; nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of <īcere, īcī, ictum>
strike -- struck
foras -- adverb; <foras> forth, out -- out
lux -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <lux, lucis> light -- light

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et simul ex alto longe pulcherruma praepes

laeva volavit avis, simul aureus exoritur sol.

et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and

simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time
ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from
alto -- adjective used as substantive; ablative singular neuter of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- heaven
longe -- adverb; <longe> by far -- by far
pulcherruma -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum>
beautiful, excellent -- the most excellent
praepes -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <praepes, praepetis> of good omen, favorable --
favorable
laeva -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <laevus, laeva, laevum> left -- left
volavit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <volō, volāre, volāvī, volātum> y -- ew
avis -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <avis, avis> bird -- bird
simul -- adverb; <simul> at the same time -- at the same time
aureus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <aureus, aurea, aureum> golden -- the golden
exoritur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <exorior, exorīrī, exortus sum> arise, appear --
arose
sol -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <sol, solis> sun -- sun

Cedunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta

avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant.

cedunt -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <cēdō, cedere, cessī, cessum> go from, depart -- come down
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- from
caelo -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <caelum, caeli> sky, heavens -- the sky
ter -- number; <ter> three -- three
quattuor -- number; <quattuor> four -- four
corpora -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <corpus, corporis> body -- bodies
sancta -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <sanctus, sancta, sanctum> holy -- holy
avium -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <avis, avis> bird -- of birds
praepetibus -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <praepes, praepetis> of good omen, favorable -- to
propitious
sese -- re exive pronoun; accusative of <sui> self -- themselves
pulchrisque -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum> beautiful, excellent +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and beautiful
locis -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <locus, loci> place -- places
dant -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- arrange

Conspicit inde sibi data Romulus esse propritim

auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.

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conspicit -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <cōnspiciō, conspicere, conspēxī, conspectum> perceive --
perceives
inde -- adverb; <inde> from that -- From that
sibi -- re exive pronoun; dative of <sui> self -- to him
data -- verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- were
given
Romulus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Romulus, Romuli> Romulus -- Romulus
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be
propritim -- adverb; <propritim> as one's own -- as his own
auspicio -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <auspicium, auspicii> divination by the ight of birds -- by
the auspices
regni -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power -- of supreme power
stabilita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of
<stabiliō, stabilīre, stabilīvī, stabilītus> establish, con rm -- con rmed
scamna -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <scamnum, scamni> bench, seat -- the throne
solumque -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <solum, soli> foundation + conjunction; <-que> and --
and the land

Lesson Text
Curantes magna cum cura tum cupientes
Regni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque;
..........in monte..........
Remus auspicio se devovet atque secundam
solus avem servat. At Romulus pulcher in alto
quaerit Aventino, servat genus altivolentum.
Certabant urbem Romam Remoramve vocarent.
Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator:
exspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum
volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras
quam mox emittat pictis e faucibus currus.
sic exspectabat populus atque ora tenebat,
rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni.
Interea sol albus recessit in infera noctis.
Exin candida se radiis dedit icta foras lux.
et simul ex alto longe pulcherruma praepes
laeva volavit avis, simul aureus exoritur sol.
Cedunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta
avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant.
Conspicit inde sibi data Romulus esse propritim
auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.

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Translation
Then with very great care and desiring the supreme power, they turn their attention at the same time
to watching and to divination by the ight of birds ... on a hill. Remus devotes himself to the auspices
and by himself looks for a favorable bird. But handsome Romulus searches on high Aventine, and
looks for the high- ying kind. They contested whether they would call the city Rome or Remora. There
is anxiety among all the men to see which of the two would be supreme chief. They are expectant, as
when the consul will give the signal, and all look eagerly at the boundaries of the area to see how
soon he will send out the chariots from the painted jaws. So the people were waiting and holding their
tongues, looking forward to see to which of the two the victory of great authority would be given by
the events. In the meantime the white sun has gone down to the depths of night. Then the clear light
thrust out with its rays; and at the same time from far on high a most beautiful prophet of a bird ew
at the left, at the same time as the gold sun rose. Three or four holy birds y down from the heavens,
and establish themselves on places that are auspicious and beautiful. From that Romulus sees that
the established seat and throne of supreme power have been given to him as his own.

Grammar
31 The Perfect System.
The perfect system is comparable in tenses and moods to the present system. Its basic meaning is a state
as a result of completed action. In many ways the difference is comparable to that in English. The past or
imperfect simply indicates a situation or an action in past time; the perfect however has the additional
connotation of completed action. We can say: "I went to town yesterday" but not "I have gone to town
yesterday". The speci cation provided by the adverb "yesterday" does not permit a verbal form that
indicates a state. At times, then, the Latin perfect may be translated with a present tense form.

32 The Perfect Tense forms of the rst conjugation verb dono an the rst singular forms of the three other
conjugations.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

1 sg   dōnāvī   dōnāverim   dōnātus sum   dōnātus sim

2 sg   dōnāvistī   dōnāveris   dōnātus es   dōnātus sīs

3 sg   dōnāvit   dōnāverit   dōnātus est   dōnātus sit

1 pl   dōnāvimus   dōnāverīmus   dōnātī sumus   dōnātī sīmus

2 pl   dōnāvistis   dōnaverītis   dōnātī estis   dōnātī sītis

3 pl   dōnāvērunt   dōnāverint   dōnātī sunt   dōnātī sint

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2nd conjugation

1 sg   habuī   habuerim   habitus sum   habitus sim

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tēxī   tēxerim   tēctus sum   tēctus sim

4th conjugation

1 sg   audīvī   audīverim   audītus sum   audītus sim

33 The Pluperfect Tense forms of the rst conjugation verb dōnō, and the rst singular forms of the three
other conjugations.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

    Indicative   Subjunctive   Indicative   Subjunctive

1 sg   dōnāveram   dōnāvissem   dōnātus eram   dōnātus essem

2 sg   dōnāverās   dōnāvissēs   dōnātus erās   dōnātus essēs

3 sg   dōnāverat   dōnāvisset   dōnātus erat   dōnātus esset

1 pl   dōnāverāmus   dōnāvissēmus   dōnātī erāmus   dōnātī essēmus

2 pl   dōnāverātis   dōnāvissētis   dōnātī erātis   dōnātī essētis

3 pl   dōnāverant   dōnāvissent   dōnātī erant   dōnātī essent

2nd conjugation

1 sg   habueram   habuissem   habitus eram   habitus essem

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tēxeram   tēxissem   tēctus eram   tēctus essem

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4th conjugation

1 sg   audīveram   audīvissem   audītus eram   audītus essem

N.B. The full form for the 4th conjugation, Active voice, Indicative mood, Pluperfect tense is exempli ed
above by audiveram; however, according to Leumann et al., Vol. I., p. 598, the -v- has often been omitted since
the time of Plautus. Therefore, Pluperfect forms such as audieram may be observed in later texts, like the
one in our Lesson 10.

34 The Future Perfect Tense forms of the rst conjugation verb dono, and the rst singular forms of the three
other conjugations.

1st conjugation

    Active Voice   Passive Voice

1 sg   dōnāverō   dōnātus erō

2 sg   dōnāveris   dōnātus eris

3 sg   dōnāverit   dōnātus erit

1 pl   dōnāverimus   dōnātī erimus

2 pl   dōnāveritis   dōnātī eritis

3 pl   dōnāverint   dōnātī erunt

2nd conjugation

1 sg   habuerō   habitus erō

3rd conjugation

1 sg   tēxerō   tēctus erō

4th conjugation

1 sg   audīverō   audītus erō

35 The forms of the Perfect In nitive and Participle, with a brief statement on irregular conjugations.

    In nitive   Participle

  1st conjugation

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perf   dōnāvisse   dōnātus

  2nd conjugation

perf   habuisse   habitus

  3rd conjugation

perf   tēxisse   tēctus

  4th conjugation

perf   audīvisse   audītus

These forms have been given to provide an overview of the conjugations. A few statements provide
information on additional patterns.

1. As we have noted, deponent verbs have the forms of the passive.

2. Some common verbs have irregular forms. These are given in dictionaries; as examples, a few are
given here with their principal parts.
dō, dedī, datum, dare 'give'
eō, iī, itum, īre 'go'
ferō, tulī, lātum ferre 'bear'
ō, factus, erī 'become'
possum, potuī, posse 'be able'
volō, voluī, velle 'wish'
3. The in ections are best determined from grammars.

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Latin Online
Lesson 8
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
St. Augustine -- Aurelius Augustinus -- was born in North Africa at Tagaste in Numidia on November 13, 354
A.D. He was trained to be a rhetorician. While his mother was a Christian, he did not adopt Christianity until
387. In 395 he became Bishop of Hippo, and lived there until his death. With Ambrose, Jerome, and Gregory
the Great he is considered one of the four great Fathers of the Church. Among his other notable works are
De Doctrina Christiana and the City of God.

Reading and Textual Analysis

This section is a part of Book I, Section 8 of the Confessions. In Book I, St. Augustine describes his
childhood. This section is remarkable for its account of his learning to talk. Few authors reach back into
their infancy as St. Augustine does. Somewhat earlier in Book I, he notes that as an infant he was unable to
communicate effectively. He would toss about his limbs and utter sounds that corresponded to his wishes,
but others were unable to understand him. The selection may also illustrate how he depicted his personal
feelings throughout his autobiography, an ability for which he has been greatly admired. The language is
comparable with that of the great period of Classical Latin, though written four centuries later. This
selection provides an example of conversational Latin, in contrast with the language of the previous texts.

Non enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram.

non -- adverb; <non> not -- not

enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- for
eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was
infans -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <infans, infantis> infant -- an infant
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- that
non -- adverb; <non> not -- not
farer -- deponent verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <for, fārī, fātus sum> talk -- could
talk
sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but
iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- already
puer -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <puer, pueri> boy -- boy
loquens -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of
<loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- speaking
eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- I was

Et memini hoc, et unde loqui didiceram, post adverti.

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et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and

memini -- defective verb; 1st person singular perfect of <memini> remember -- I remember
hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- how
loqui -- deponent verb; in nitive of <loquor, loquī, locutus sum> speak -- to speak
didiceram -- verb; 1st person singular pluperfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- I learned
post -- adverb; <post> after -- afterwards
adverti -- verb; 1st person singular perfect of <advertō, advertere, advertī, adversum> turn to, note -- I
noted

Non enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba certo aliquo ordine doctrinae sicut paulo post
litteras.

non -- adverb; <non> not -- not

enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- for
docebant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <doceō, docēre, docuī, doctum> teach -- did...teach
me -- pronoun; accusative singular of <ego> I -- me
maiores -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of comparative of <magnus, magna, magnum> great,
large -- older
homines -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <homo, hominis> man, human -- people
praebentes -- verb; nominative plural masculine present participle of
<praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus> offer, provide -- by providing
mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me
verba -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <verbum, verbi> word -- words
certo -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <certus, certa, certum> certain -- in a certain
aliquo -- pronoun adjective; ablative singular masculine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- given
ordine -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <ordo, ordinis> order -- order
doctrinae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <doctrina, doctrinae> teaching -- of teaching
sicut -- adverb; <sicut> as, like -- as
paulo -- adverb; <paulo> little -- a little
post -- adverb; <post> after -- later
litteras -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <littera, litterae> letter -- (they did) the letters

Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi, deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis membrorum motibus
edere vellem sensa cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur.

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sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but

ego -- pronoun; nominative singular of <ego> I -- I
ipse -- intensive pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- myself
mente -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <mens, mentis> mind -- with the mind
quem -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
that
dedisti -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect of <dō, dare, dedī, dātum> give -- thou hast given
mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me
deus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <deus, dei> god -- God
meus -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <meus, mea, meum> my -- my
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- with
gemitibus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <gemitus, gemitus> sign, groan -- groans
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
vocibus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <vox, vocis> voice -- voices
variis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- various
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
variis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- with various
membrorum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <membrum, membri> member -- of my members
motibus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <motus, motus> movement -- movements
edere -- verb; in nitive of <ēdō, ēdere, ēdidī, ēditum> give out -- to express
vellem -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I might
wish
sensa -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <sensa, sensorum> ideas -- the ideas
cordis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <cor, cordis> heart -- heart
mei -- pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <meus, mea, meum> my -- of my
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that
voluntati -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <voluntas, voluntatis> will, desire -- my desire
pareretur -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect passive of <pāreō, parēre, pāruī, -> comply --
were in accordance with

Nec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam omnibus.

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nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- neither

valerem -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect subjunctive of <valeō, valēre, valuī, -> be able -- I was not
able (to express)
quae -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- that
volebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I wanted
omnia -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all the things
nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- nor
quibus -- relative pronoun; ablative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- with (the
expressions)
volebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- I wished
omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all

Pensabam memoria.

pensabam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <pēnsō, pēnsāre, pēnsāvī, pēnsātus> weigh, ponder -- I
pondered
memoria -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <memoria, memoriae> memory, remembrance -- in
remembrance

Cum ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant, videbam et tenebam
hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere.

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cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when

ipsi -- intensive pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ipse, ipsa, ipsum> self -- they
appellabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātum> call --
designated
rem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- thing
aliquam -- pronoun adjective; accusative singular feminine of <aliqui, aliqua, aliquod> some, any -- any
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
secundum -- preposition; <secundum> following -- after
eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- that
vocem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <vox, vocis> voice -- sound
corpus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <corpus, corporis> body -- (their) body
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- to
aliquid -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <aliquis, aliquis, aliquid> anyone -- something
movebant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <moveō, movēre, mōvi, mōtus> move -- they moved
videbam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum> see -- I observed
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
tenebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold, control, understand -- I
understood
hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- by
eis -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- them
vocari -- verb; passive in nitive of <vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātum> call -- named
rem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <res, rei> thing, matter -- thing
illam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- that
quod -- conjunction; <quod> that, because -- in that
sonabant -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <sonō, sonāre, sonuī, sonitus> pronounce -- they
pronounced (it)
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
eam -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- it
vellent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- they
wanted
ostendere -- verb; in nitive of <ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, ostentum> show, point out -- to point out

Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu corporis aperiebatur, tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium gentium.

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hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
autem -- conjunction; <autem> but -- but
eos -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- they
velle -- verb; in nitive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- (they) wished (to indicate)
ex -- preposition; <ex> out of, from -- from
motu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <motus, motus> movement -- the movement
corporis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <corpus, corporis> body -- of their body
aperiebatur -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum> open -- it
was disclosed
tamquam -- adverb; <tamquam> just as, as if -- as if it were
verbis -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <verbum, verbi> word -- by the ... words
naturalibus -- adjective; ablative plural neuter of <naturalis, naturalis, naturale> natural -- natural
omnium -- adjective; genitive plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- of all
gentium -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- peoples

Quae unt vultu et nutu oculorum ceterorumque membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante a ectionem animi in
petendis, habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus.

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quae -- relative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
unt -- defective verb; 3rd person plural present of < o, erī> be made -- are made
vultu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <vultus, vultus> expression, face -- by facial expression
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
nutu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <nutus, nutus> nod, expression -- by the cast
oculorum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <oculus, oculi> eye -- of the eyes
ceterorumque -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <ceteri, ceterae, cetera> other + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and of other
membrorum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <membrum, membri> member -- members
actu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <actus, actus> gesture, expression -- by the action
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
sonitu -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <sonitus, sonitus> sound -- by the sound
vocis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <vox, vocis> voice -- of the voice
indicante -- verb; ablative singular masculine of present participle of
<indicō, indicāre, indicāvī, indicātum> indicate -- indicating
a ectionem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <a ectio, a ectionis> affection -- the feelings
animi -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- of the mind
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
petendis -- verbal adjective; ablative plural feminine of <petō, petere, petīvī, petītum> seek -- seeking
habendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have --
possessing
reiciendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <rēiciō, rēicere, rējēcī, rējectum> push
back, reject -- rejecting
fugiendisve -- verb; ablative plural feminine of present participle of <fugiō, fūgī> ee, avoid +
conjunction; <-ve> or -- avoiding
rebus -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things

Ita verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro audita quarum rerum signa essent paulatim colligebam.

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ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- in this way

verba -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <verbum, verbi> word -- words
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- in
variis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <varius, varia, varium> various -- various
sententiis -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <sententia, sententiae> sentence -- sentences
locis -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <locus, loci> place -- places
suis -- possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <suus, sua, suum> own -- in their proper
posita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <pōnō, ponere, posuī, positum>
place, situate -- put
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
crebro -- adverb; <crebro> frequently, often -- often
audita -- verb; accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum>
hear -- heard
quarum -- relative pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- of
which
rerum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <res, rei> thing, matter -- things
signa -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <signum, signi> sign -- signs
essent -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- they were
paulatim -- adverb; <paulatim> gradually -- gradually
colligebam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <colligō, collēgī, colligere, collēctum> collect -- I
collected

Edomito in eis signis ore, per haec enuntiabam.

edomito -- verb; ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of

<ēdomō, edomāre, edomuī, ēdomitum> conquer, subdue -- conquered
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- to
eis -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <is, ea, id> him, her, this -- those
signis -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <signum, signi> sign -- signs
ore -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <os, oris> mouth -- mouth
per -- preposition; <per> through, by -- by means of
haec -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- them
enuntiabam -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <ēnūntiō, ēnūtiāre, ēnuntiāvī, ēnuntiātum> speak,
express -- I expressed myself

Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.

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sic -- adverb; <sic> so, thus -- So

cum -- preposition; <cum> with -- with
his -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative plural masculine of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- those
inter -- preposition; <inter> between, among -- among
quos -- relative pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
whom
eram -- verb; 1st person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- I was
voluntatum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <voluntas, voluntatis> will, desire -- of the desires
enuntiandarum -- verbal adjective; genitive plural feminine of <ēnūntiō, ēnūtiāre, ēnuntiāvī, ēnuntiātum>
speak, express -- to be expressed (by me)
signa -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <signum, signi> sign -- signs
communicavi -- verb; 1st person singular perfect of
<commūnicō, commūnicāre, commūnicāvī, commūnicātum> communicate -- I communicated

Lesson Text

Non enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram. Et memini hoc, et unde loqui didiceram, post adverti.
Non enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba certo aliquo ordine doctrinae sicut paulo post litteras.
Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi, deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis membrorum motibus edere
vellem sensa cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur. Nec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam omnibus.
Pensabam memoria. Cum ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant,
videbam et tenebam hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere. Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu
corporis aperiebatur, tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium gentium. Quae unt vultu et nutu oculorum ceterorumque
membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante a ectionem animi in petendis, habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus. Ita
verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro audita quarum rerum signa essent paulatim colligebam. Edomito in eis
signis ore, per haec enuntiabam. Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.

Translation

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For I was no longer an infant that could not speak, but was already a speaking boy. And I remember
this well and later noted how I rst learned to speak. The older people did not teach me by providing
words to me in a certain given order of instruction, as they did the letters later. But by the mind that
Thou, my God, gave me, I on my own with grunts, varieties of voices and various motions of my body
tried to express the ideas of my heart, that were in accordance with my desires. But I neither could
express everything I wanted to, nor with all the expressions I wanted. Then I pondered when
remembering. When they designated a thing, and when after that they moved their body toward
something, I observed it and understood that this was the thing named by them in that they
pronounced it when they wanted to point it out. And that they meant this or that thing was discovered
by me through the motion of their body, as by the natural words (language) of all peoples. These are
made by facial expression and by the cast of the eyes, by the acts of other members, and by the
sound of the voice indicating the feelings of the mind, whether in desiring, enjoying, rejecting or
avoiding anything. And in this way I gradually collected the words in various sentences that were put
in their proper places and often heard for the things of which they were the signs. And when my
mouth was conquered for these signs, I expressed my wishes by means of them. In this way, I
communicated with those with whom I was, the signs of the desires I wished to express.

Grammar
36 The Declension of Substantives.
In earlier lessons, beginning with Grammar Selection 3, we have given examples of the declension of
nouns. As we noted in the grammar selections on verbs, recognition of in ected forms is especially
important for understanding Latin, since it includes few particles and much of the information for
interpreting sentences is found in in ections. By way of summary, as well as information on the in ection
of adjectives, an overall picture of substantival in ection will be given here. Since adjectives are in ected in
general like nouns, though most of them in two or three genders, they may serve to provide examples of the
in ection of substantives in general.

37 Substantives with In ections of the First and Second Declensions.

A large number of adjectives are listed in dictionaries with endings in -us, e.g. magnus 'large'. These have
their in ected forms in the masculine and neuter genders according to the second declension, in the
feminine gender according to the rst. The paradigm of magnus provides an example.

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   magnus   magna   magnum   magnī   magnae   magna

Gen   magnī   magnae   magnī   magnōrum   magnārum   magnōrum

Dat   magnō   magnae   magnō   magnīs   magnīs   magnīs

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Acc   magnum   magnam   magnum   magnōs   magnās   magna

Abl   magnō   magnā   magnō   magnīs   magnīs   magnīs

Most second declension nouns with stems ending in -ro- reduce the ending to -r, rather than -rus. Among
them are common nouns like puer 'boy' and vir 'man'. Apart from these forms in the nominative, they have
the regular in ections, e.g. genitives puerī and virī, etc. In the same way, parallel adjectives are listed in
dictionaries with endings in -er, e.g. dexter 'right', genitive dexterī; ruber 'red', by contrast, has the genitive rubrī.

Pronominal adjectives ending in -us have their genitive and dative singulars in ected like pronouns, that is
with -īus and -ī in the three genitives singular, e.g. solus 'alone', gen.sg. solīus, gen.sg. solī. Other examples are:
totus 'whole', alīus 'other', nullus 'none', totus 'whole', unus 'one'. Similarly, those ending in -er, such as uter 'which
of two', gen. utrīus, dat. utrī, as well as alter 'the other' and neuter 'neither'.

38 Substantives with In ections of the Third Declension.

Like nouns of the third declension, adjectives in this declension have stems ending in consonants rather
than in -a and -u- < -o-. Accordingly the nominative may differ in form of stem from the other cases, e.g. acer
'sharp' but oblique cases with stem acr-; some adjectives are regular, on the other hand, e.g. celer 'swift',
celer-. The stems may be determined from dictionary entries.

Moreover, many adjectives of the third declension are in ected in only two genders, e.g. masc. gravis, nt.
grave 'heavy'. The comparatives have bases ending in -r, which is replaced by -s in the neuter nom. and acc.,
e.g. melior, nt. melius, gen. melioris 'better'.

Some adjectives of the declension are in ected only in one gender; among these the present particles, such
as donans, gen. donantis 'giving'. After their stem has been determined, the in ections of these two groups
are like those of the adjectives in ected in the three genders.

    Singular   Plural

    Masc   Fem   Neut   Masc   Fem   Neut

Nom   acer   acris   acre   acrēs   acrēs   acria

Gen   acris   acris   acris   acrium   acrium   acrium

Dat   acrī   acrī   acrī   acribus   acribus   acribus

Acc   acrem   acrem   acre   acrīs   acrīs   acria

Abl   acrī   acrī   acrī   acribus   acribus   acribus

By way of summary, and review of examples in previous grammar sections, examples are given here of
third declension nouns in the nominative and genitive singular with stems ending in various consonants.

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Stems ending in obstruents:

masc. princeps, principis 'chief'; miles, militis 'soldier'; pēs, pedis 'foot'; rex, regis 'king; neut. caput, capitis 'head'; cor,
cordis 'heart'.
Stems ending in resonants:
masc. pater, patris 'father'; victor, victoris 'victor'; consul, consulis 'consul; neut. ebur, eboris 'ivory'; tuber, tuberis
'swelling'.
Stems ending in nasals:
masc. sermo, sermonis 'speech'; fem. virgo, virginis 'virgin'; neut. nomen, nominis 'name'.
Stems ending in -s, most of which are neuters:
genus, generis 'race'; corpus, corporis 'body'; masc. ōs, ōris ' ower'; fem. tellus, telluris 'earth'.
Stems ending in -i, most of which are masculine or feminine:
The nominative ends in -is, like the genitive, e.g. nis 'end, gen. nis; and the genitive plural ends in -ium,
e.g. nium. Neuters may have no ending, e.g. animal 'animal, animalis, gen.pl. animalium. Similarly,
adjectives of the third declension have their genitive plural ending in -ium, as in the paradigm of acer
above.
The third declension also includes irregular nouns. Among these are vīs 'force, acc.sg. vim, nom.pl. vīres; bōs
'cow' gen.sg. bovis, nom.pl. boves; Iuppiter 'Jupiter', gen.sg. Iovis.

The in ection of nouns in the fourth and fth declensions has been given in Grammar Selection 13. These
declensions have no adjectives.

The chief purpose for a reading knowledge of noting the declensions is to determine the form given in
dictionaries. It is given with additional forms that illustrate the rest of the declined forms.

39 Comparison of Adjectives.
As in English, there are three degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative. Adjectives are
listed in dictionaries in their Positive form, e.g. gravis 'heavy'. The Comparative has two endings, in
accordance with such adjectives in the third declension, e.g. masc. and fem. gravior, neut. gravius 'heavier'.
The superlative is made with the -issimus ending, and in ected in accordance with adjectives in the rst and
second declensions.

In Classical Latin the construction of the Comparative with a Standard has that indicated by quam 'than', e.g.
gravior quam aquā 'heavier than water'. The Standard is often in the ablative case, which in the rst declension
has a long -a ending. In older Latin, and occasionally in Classical Latin, the Standard is placed before the
Comparative form and has the ablative case, e.g. aquā gravior.

40 Formation of Adverbs.
Many adverbs are listed in dictionaries, and accordingly de ned there. When adverbs are made from
adjectives that are in ected according to the rst and second declensions, they have an -e ending, e.g. alte
'highly'. Other endings are -(i)ter, as in graviter 'heavily', -tim as in privatim 'privatively', -um as in multum 'much'.
Some adverbs have changes in the stem, such as bene 'well' beside bonus 'good'.

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Comparative and Superlative forms may be illustrated by those of alte, i.e. altius 'more highly', altissime 'most
highly'. As in English, these forms may be irregular for common adverbs, e.g. bene, melius, optime 'good, better,
best'; male, peius, pessime 'bad, worse, worst; multum, plus, plurimum 'much, more, most'.

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Latin Online
Lesson 9
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Einhard, author of the biography of Charlemagne, was closely involved with the church. Born about 770 and
died on 14 March 840, he was singled out for his capabilities by his abbot, Baugulf, and sent to the school
in the palace of Charlemagne. The head of the school was Alcuin, who was also an adviser to
Charlemagne. In this way Einhard became a member of the court, and upon the entry of Alcuin to a
monastery he became his successor in the school. He remained close to Charlemagne until his death in
814, and then continued as adviser to the following rulers until he, too, entered a monastery around 820.
While his Vita Karoli Magni is his most highly regarded work, other writings of his have survived, among them
many letters.

Reading and Textual Analysis

This selection is from the second part of Einhard's brief biography, which deals with the personal qualities
of the emperor. In the rst part he described Charlemagne's military and diplomatic undertakings. These
were highly successful, leading to the expansion and establishment of the Frankish state. While the rst
part is of interest for the history of the period, the second provides interesting information about
Charlemagne's capabilities and more general activities, such as his support of the indigenous language.
Among other contributions, he devised Frankish names for the months, such as Uuintarmanoth for January,
Ostarmanoth for April, and so on. He also identi ed twelve winds in place of the earlier four, and gave them
names as well. The work ends with a lengthy account of his will.

Erat eloquentia copiosus et exuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime exprimere.

erat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- He was
eloquentia -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <eloquentia, eloquentiae> eloquence -- in eloquence
copiosus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <copiosus, copiosa, copiosum> rich -- outstanding
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
exuberans -- defective verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of
<exūberō, exūberāre, -, -> be abundant -- superb
poteratque -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <possum, posse, potuī> be able + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and could
quicquid -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quisquis, quaeque, quicquid> whoever,
whatever -- whatever
vellet -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <volō, velle, voluī> wish, determine -- he
wished
apertissime -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of superlative of <apertus, aperta, apertum> open
-- very clearly
exprimere -- verb; in nitive of <exprimō, exprimere, expressī, expressum> express -- express

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Nec patrio tantum sermone contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit.

nec -- adverb; <nec> neither ... nor -- And not

patrio -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <patrius, patria, patrium> paternal -- with ...native
tantum -- adverb; <tantum> only -- only
sermone -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <sermo, sermonis> language -- language
contentus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <contentus, contenta, contentum> content --
satis ed
etiam -- adverb; <etiam> also, even -- also
peregrinis -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <peregrinus, peregrini> foreign -- foreign
linguis -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <lingua, linguae> tongue, language -- languages
ediscendis -- ablative plural feminine of gerund(ive) of; <ēdiscō, ēdiscere, ēdidici, -> learn, memorize -- in
learning
operam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <opera, operae> work, service, attention -- effort
impendit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impendō, impendere, impendī, impēnsum> expend,
devote -- expended

In quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria lingua orare sit solitus, Graecam vero melius intellegere quam
pronuntiare poterat.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- Among

quibus -- relative pronoun; dative plural feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- which
Latinam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <Latinus, Latina, Latinum> Latin -- Latin
ita -- adverb; <ita> thus -- so (well)
didicit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- knew
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that
aeque -- adverb; <aeque> equally -- to the same extent
illa -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- it
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
patria -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <patrius, patria, patrium> paternal -- (his) native
lingua -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <lingua, linguae> tongue, language -- language
orare -- verb; in nitive of <ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātum> speak -- to speak
sit -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive present of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- he was
solitus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <solitus, solita, solitum> accustomed --
accustomed
Graecam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <Graecus, Graeca, Graecum> Greek -- Greek
vero -- adverb; <vero> truly, but -- but
melius -- adverb; <melius> better -- better
intellegere -- verb; in nitive of <intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctum> understand -- understand
quam -- adverb used as conjunction; <quam> than -- than
pronuntiare -- verb; in nitive of <pronuntiō, pronuntiāre, pronuntiāvī, pronuntiātum> pronounce -- speak
poterat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <possum, posse, potuī> be able -- he could

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Adeo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam dicaculus appareret.

adeo -- adverb; <adeo> so, so much -- so

quidem -- adverb; <quidem> in fact, even -- in fact
facundus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <facundus, facunda, facundum> uent, eloquent --
eloquent
erat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- He was
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- that
etiam -- adverb; <etiam> also, even -- rather
dicaculus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <dicaculus, dicacula, dicaculum> effusive --
effusive
appareret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <appāreō, apparēre, apparuī, -> be visible,
seem -- seemed

Artes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis ad ciebat honoribus.

artes -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ars, artis> skill, art -- arts
liberales -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <liberalis, liberalis, liberale> liberal -- (the) liberal
studiosissime -- adverb; superlative of <studiosus, studiosa, studiosum> eager, studious -- very studiously
coluit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in, cultivate -- He
cultivated
earumque -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <is, ea, id> him, her, this + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and ... of them
doctores -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <doctor, doctoris> teacher -- the instructors
plurimum -- adverb; <plurimum> very much, especially -- especially
veneratus -- deponent verb; perfect participle passive of <veneror, venerārī, venerātus sum> honor,
venerate -- venerating
magnis -- adjective; ablative plural masculine of <magnus, magna, magnum> great, large -- with great
ad ciebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ad ciō, ad cere, adfēcī, adfectum> a ict -- he treated
honoribus -- noun, masculine; ablative plural of <honos, honoris> honor, distinction -- honors

In discenda grammatica Petrum Pisanum diaconem senem audivit.

in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- For the purpose of

discenda -- verbal adjective; ablative singular feminine of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- learning
grammatica -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <grammatica, grammaticae> grammar -- grammar
Petrum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Petrus, Petri> Peter -- Peter
Pisanum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <Pisanus, Pisana, Pisanum> Pisan -- of Pisa
diaconem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <diaco, diaconis> deacon -- deacon
senem -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <senex, senis> aged -- the aged
audivit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear -- he was taught by

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In ceteris disciplinis Albinum cognomento Alcoinum, item diaconem, de Brittania Saxonici generis hominem, virum
undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit, apud quem et rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen
astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et laboris impertivit.

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in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- In

ceteris -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <ceteri, ceterae, cetera> other -- the other
disciplinis -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <disciplina, disciplinae> discipline, education -- disciplines
Albinum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Albinus, Albini> Albinus -- Albinus
cognomento -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <cognomentum, cognomenti> surname -- with the
surname
Alcoinum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Alcuinus, Alcuini> Alcuin -- Alcuin
item -- adverb; <item> also -- also
diaconem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <diaco, diaconis> deacon -- a deacon
de -- preposition; <de> from, about -- from
Brittania -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <Brittania, Brittaniae> Britain -- Britain
Saxonici -- adjective; genitive singular neuter of <Saxonicus, Saxonici> Saxon -- of Saxon
generis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <genus, generis> kind, class -- race
hominem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <homo, hominis> man, human -- a human
virum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <vir, viri> man -- man
undecumque -- adverb; <undecumque> from every side -- in all respects
doctissimum -- adjective; accusative singular masculine superlative of <doctus, docta, doctum> learned --
the most learned
praeceptorem -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <praeceptor, praeceptoris> teacher -- as teacher
habuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum> have -- he had
apud -- preposition; <apud> among, with -- with
quem -- relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
whom
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both
rethoricae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <rhetorica, rhetoricae> rhetoric -- rhetoric
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
dialecticae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <dialectica, dialecticae> logic -- logic
praecipue -- adverb; <praecipue> chie y -- chie y
tamen -- conjunction; <tamen> nevertheless, but -- however
astronomiae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <astronomia, astronomiae> astronomy -- astronomy
ediscendae -- verb; genitive singular feminine gerund(ive) of <ēdiscō, ēdiscere, ēdidici, -> learn, memorize
-- for learning
plurimum -- adjective used as substantive; accusative singular neuter superlative of
<multus, multa, multum> many -- a great deal
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both
temporis -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <tempus, temporis> time -- of time
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
laboris -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- of effort
impertivit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impertiō, impertīre, impertīvī, impertītus> devote --
devoted

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Discebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum curiosissime rimabatur.

discebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <discō, discere, didicī, -> learn -- He learned
artem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ars, artis> skill, art -- the art
computandi -- verb; genitive of gerund(ive) of <computō, computāre, computāvī, computātum> compute --
of computing
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
intentione -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <intentio, intentionis> effort -- effort
sagaci -- adjective; ablative singular feminine of <sagax, sagacis> keen, sagacious -- with ... keen
siderum -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <sidus, sideris> constellation, heavenly body -- of the heavenly
bodies
cursum -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <cursus, cursus> course -- the course
curiosissime -- adverb; superlative of <curiosus, curiosa, curiosum> diligent -- most diligently
rimabatur -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <rimor, rimāri, rimātus sum> search,
explore -- he explored

Temptabat et scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub cervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut, cum vacuum
tempus esset, manum litteris e giendis adsuesceret.

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temptabat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātum> attempt --
He tried
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- also
scribere -- verb; in nitive of <scrībō, scribere, scrīpsī, scriptum> write -- to write
tabulasque -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <tabula, tabulae> tablet + conjunction; <-que> and --
and ...tablets
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
codicellos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <codicelli, codicellorum> notebook -- notebooks
ad -- preposition; <ad> to, towards -- for
hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this (purpose)
in -- preposition; <in> in, on -- (to have) in
lecto -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <lectus, lecti> bed -- bed
sub -- preposition; <sub> under -- under
cervicalibus -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <cervical, cervicalis> pillow -- the pillows
circumferre -- verb; in nitive of <circumferō, circumferre, circumtūlī, circumlātum> carry around -- to carry
around
solebat -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <sōleō, solēre, solitum> be accustomed -- he was
accustomed
ut -- conjunction; <ut> that, so that -- so that
cum -- conjunction; <cum> since, when -- when
vacuum -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <vacuus, vacua, vacuum> empty, free -- free
tempus -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <tempus, temporis> time -- time
esset -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- there might be
manum -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <manus, manus> hand -- (his) hand
litteris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <littera, litterae> letter -- letters
e giendis -- verb; ablative plural feminine of gerund(ive) of <e ngō, e ngere, e nxī, e īctum> form --
at forming
adsuesceret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of
<adsuēscō, adsuescere, adsuescēvī, adsuescētum> accustom -- he tried

Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.

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sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but

parum -- adverb; <parum> too little -- very little
successit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <succēdō, succedere, successī, sucessum> enter, succeed --
had ... success
labor -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- (his) effort
praeposterus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <praeposterus, praepostera, praeposterum>
unseasonable -- at the wrong time
ac -- conjunction; <ac> and -- and
sero -- adverb; <sero> too late -- too late
inchoatus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <incohatus, incohata, incohatum> begun --
begun

Lesson Text
Erat eloquentia copiosus et exuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime exprimere. Nec patrio tantum sermone
contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit. In quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria
lingua orare sit solitus, Graecam vero melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat. Adeo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam
dicaculus appareret. Artes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis ad ciebat
honoribus. In discenda grammatica Petrum Pisanum diaconem senem audivit. In ceteris disciplinis Albinum cognomento
Alcoinum, item diaconem, de Brittania Saxonici generis hominem, virum undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit,
apud quem et rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et laboris
impertivit. Discebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum curiosissime rimabatur. Temptabat et
scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub cervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset,
manum litteris e giendis adsuesceret. Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.

Translation
He was outstanding in eloquence and could express excellently whatever he wished. And not
satis ed with just his paternal language, he also expended effort in learning foreign languages.
Among these he knew Latin so well that he could speak it with the same control as his native
language. But Greek he could understand better than speak. He was in fact so eloquent in speech
that at times he seemed effusive. He cultivated the liberal arts very studiously, and in the instruction
of these he treated his teachers with great honor. In learning grammar he was taught by the aged
deacon, Peter the Pisan. In the other disciplines he had as teacher Albinus, with the surname Alcuin,
also a deacon, a Saxon from Britain, a very learned man in all respects. With him he devoted effort
and time to learn rhetoric and logic, but chie y astronomy. He learned the art of computing and with
keen effort he explored the course of the heavenly bodies. He also tried to write, and was
accustomed to carry about tablets and notebooks to have under his pillow for this purpose, so that
when there might be time he could apply his hand to writing letters. But he had very little success
since his work was at the wrong time and begun too late.

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Grammar
41 Simple Sentences.
In the basic word order of Latin the verb stands last in the sentence, as was noted in Grammar section 1. A
fuller example than that given there is:

Aenēas ā nomine uxoris Lavinium appellat.

Aeneas calls it Lavinia from the name of his wife.

If, as here, a subject is included, it typically stands initially. Adverbial expressions and objects follow it. The
same order is found in coordinate sentences, as in this sentence from Lesson 5:

Agriculturae nōn student, maiorque pars eōrum victus in lacte, caseō, carne consistit.
They do not practice agriculture, and the major part of their food consists of milk, cheese and meat.

We have also noted that the extensive in ection of nouns and verbs enables authors to modify the basic
order, as for indicating emphasis on speci c words; the nal placement of laudem in the next example
provides an illustration.

42 Complex Sentences.
As modi ers of a basic sentence, relative clauses may precede them, as in the following example from
Lesson 5:

Quī diutissime impuberēs permanserunt, maximum inter suōs ferunt laudem.

Those who remain chaste longest have the greatest praise among them.

When modifying speci c nouns, on the other hand, relative clauses may follow, e.g.

Nam neque druidēs habent, quī rebus divinīs praesint.

For they do not have Druids who preside over religious matters.

Subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions also may follow the basic clause, e.g.

Cūius reī nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in uminibus perluntur.

Nothing of this matter is hidden, because they bathe promiscuously in rivers.

43 The Use of In nitives.

In nitives may stand as complements to verbs, as in English, as in this example from lesson 6:

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Solent et subterraneōs specūs aperire.

They are also accustomed to open up underground caves.

In such uses, they may correspond to subordinate clauses, as in this example from Lesson 8:

Hoc autem eos velle, ex motu corporis aperiabatur.

But that they wished this was apparent from the motion of their body.

A favorite construction in Latin is made by using accusatives as subjects of in nitives, in the so-called
accusative with in nitive construction, e.g. Lesson 5:

Hōc alī staturam, alī vires nervōsque con rmārī putant.

Some think that height, others that sinews are strengthened by this.

44 Uses of Participles.
Participles are used as substantives, chie y as adjectives. Since the perfect passive forms consist of the
perfect participle passive with forms of esse 'be', such participles may be used alone, in view of the fact
that forms of esse are often elided, as in this example from Lesson 1:

Inde foedus ictum inter ducēs.

Then a treaty was struck by the leaders.

Participles are also used frequently with nouns as abbreviations of subordinate clauses in the ablative
absolute construction, as in the following examples from Lesson 1:

crematā patriā
their fatherland had been burned
dextrā datā
(right hand given) He gave him his right hand.

45 Lengthy Sentences.
Sentences may be long and complex, especially in the writings of the historians. Caesar writes more
succinctly. For understanding the complex sentences, one must simply identify individual clauses and
interpret them in turn, as in the following example from Lesson 1:

Postquam audierit multitudinem Trōiānōs esse, ducem Aeneam, lium Anchisae et Veneris, crematā patriā domō
profugōs sedem condendaeque urbī locum quaerere.

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After the initial clause, Postquam audierit, there is a construction of the accusative with in nitive: multitudinem
Trōiānōs esse. This is followed by a clause in which the verb is lacking, and that in turn by an appositive
clause: ducem Aeneam, lium ... The next two words make up an ablative absolute construction: crematā patriā.
These are followed by two clauses in which the verbs are participles. And nally there is another in nitive
clause introduced by the verb audierit.

As edited in Lesson 1, this is treated here as a complete sentence; but strictly speaking it is actually a
subordinate clause introduced by postquam, that stands before the basic clause: dem ... sanxisse 'he enacted a
pledge'. That in turn includes a number of subordinate clauses or their variants. Once again, the key to
understanding such complex sentences is provided by the in ections.

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Latin Online
Lesson 10
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
The great epic poet, Virgil -- Virgilius Maro -- was born on October 15, 70 B.C. in Cisalpine Gaul, where his
father reputedly had a small estate. He received an excellent education, after which he returned to the
estate and began his writings. Besides the Aeneid, these include the Eclogues and the Georgica. He later
became an intimate of the court of the Emperor, Caesar Augustus, and thanks to his patronage was able to
enjoy a life of leisure. Among other friends, he was highly respected by Horace. He died on September 22,
19 B.C. in Brundisium, in the company of the Emperor on their return to Italy from Athens.

The Aeneid was the last of his great works. With its glori cation of the founders of Rome, it re ects his
attachment to the Roman court. Written in hexameters, it is patterned after the Homeric epics. These begin
with a word characterizing them -- the Iliad with the word for wrath, the Odyssey with the word for man.
Virgil innovated by giving two words as indicating the central content of the epic -- arms and the man.
Milton followed him in this respect, beginning Paradise Lost with the line: Of man's rst disobedience and
the fruit of that forbidden tree... The Aeneid was widely read throughout the Middle Ages and later. In earlier
times, every educated person could recite its beginning verses. There are numerous translations into verse
and prose -- among those into verse, one by John Dryden published in 1697, and another by William Morris
published in 1875. There are also numerous editions and commentaries.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The Aeneid builds on the tradition of the founding of Rome as depicted by Livy in the texts of the rst two
lessons of LATOL, especially the rst. Ascribing the early era to one of the Trojan heroes, it provides a
similar function as that of the Homeric epics for the Greeks in proposing a long and illustrious history of the
Romans. The rst six books with their climax in the stay of Aeneas with Dido and then his departure from
her foreshadow the con ict between Rome and Carthage. The sixth book includes the visit of Aeneas to
Hades, where he sees Dido, but she disdains him after her suicide. The book is said to have greatly
in uenced Dante in his production of The Divine Comedy. The second six books deal with the landing in
Latium and the conquest of Italy by Aeneas, which was accomplished in twenty days. But as with Livy, the
gap between the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, presumably in the twelfth century, and the actual founding of
Rome by Romulus, presumably in the eighth, is passed over. Aeneas himself was killed in a battle; his body
was not found, and by one tradition it was assumed that he was carried up to heaven.

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Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab oris

Italiam fato profugus Laviniaque venit
Litora -- multum ille et terris jactatus et alto
Vi superum, saevae memorem Junonis ob iram,
Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem
Inferretque deos Latio -- genus unde Latinum
Albanique patres atque altae moenia Romae.

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arma -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <arma, armorum> arms -- arms

virumque -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <vir, viri> man + conjunction; <-que> and -- and a
man
cano -- verb; 1st person singular present of <canō, canere, cecinī, cantum> sing -- I sing about
Trojae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Troja, Trojae> Troy -- of Troy
qui -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- who
primus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <primus, prima, primum> rst -- as the rst
ab -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from
oris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <ora, orae> mouth, boundary, coast -- the coasts
Italiam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Italia, Italiae> Italy -- to Italy
fato -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <fatum, fati> fate, divine utterance -- by fate
profugus -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <profugus, profuga, profugum> fugitive -- in ight
Laviniaque -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Lavinius, Lavinia, Lavinium> Lavinian + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and to the Lavinian
venit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum> come -- came
litora -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <litus, litoris> shore -- shores
multum -- adverb; <multum> greatly -- very much
ille -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- he
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- both
terris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- on land
jactatus -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect passive participle of
<jactō, jactāre, jactāvī, jactātum> throw -- tossed about
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
alto -- adjective used as substantive; ablative singular neuter of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- on sea
vi -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <vis, vis> power, strength -- by the power
superum -- adjective used as substantive; genitive masculine plural of <superus, supera, superum>
higher, gods -- of the gods
saevae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <saevus, saeva, saevum> erce, cruel -- of erce
memorem -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <memor, memoris> mindful, remembering --
relentless
Junonis -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Juno, Junonis> Juno -- of Juno
ob -- preposition; <ob> because of -- because of
iram -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ira, irae> anger -- anger
multa -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <multus, multa, multum> many -- many things
quoque -- adverb; <quoque> also -- also
et -- conjunction; <et> and -- and
bello -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <bellum, belli> war -- in battle
passus -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
<patior, patī, passus sum> suffer, endure -- he suffered
dum -- conjunction; <dum> while -- while

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conderet -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect of <condō, condere, condidī, conditum> found
-- he founded
urbem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- the city
inferretque -- verb; 3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect of <inferō, inferre, intulī, inlātum>
introduce, produce + conjunction; <-que> and -- and brought in
deos -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <deus, dei> god -- the gods
Latio -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <Latium, Latii> Latium -- to Latium
genus -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <genus, generis> kind, class -- the race
unde -- adverb; <unde> from whence -- from which place
Latinum -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Latinus, Latina, Latinum> Latin -- Latin
Albanique -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <Albanus, Albana, Albanum> Alban + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and the Alban
patres -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <pater, patris> father -- fathers
atque -- conjunction; <atque> and -- and
altae -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <altus, alta, altum> high, deep -- of lofty
moenia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <moenia, moenium> walls -- the walls
Romae -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Roma, Romae> Rome -- Rome

Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso

Quidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus
Insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores
Impulerit. Tantaene animis caelestibus irae?

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Musa -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <Musa, Musae> Muse -- Oh Muse,

mihi -- pronoun; dative singular of <ego> I -- me
causas -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <causa, causae> cause, reason -- the reasons
memora -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <memorō, memorāre, memorāvī, memorātus> relate,
tell -- tell
quo -- interrogative pronoun; ablative singular neuter of <qui, quae, quod> which, what -- for what
numine -- noun, neuter; ablative singular of <numen, numinis> authority -- authority
laeso -- verb; perfect participle passive of <laedō, laedere, laesī, laesum> strike, offend -- offended
quidve -- interrogative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <quis, quis, quid> who, what + conjunction;
<-ve> or -- or ... what
dolens -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitum> suffer,
be angry -- angry
regina -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <regina, reginae> queen -- queen
deum -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <deus, dei> god -- of the gods
tot -- adjective number; <tot> so much, so many -- so many
volvere -- verb; in nitive of <volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtum> pass through, undergo -- to undergo
casus -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <casus, casus> fall, misfortune, chance -- misfortunes
insignem -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <insignis, insignis, insigne> distinguished --
distinguished
pietate -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <pietas, pietatis> piety -- for piety
virum -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <vir, viri> man -- a man
tot -- adjective number; <tot> so much, so many -- so many
adire -- verb; in nitive of <adeō, adīre, adiī, adītum> approach, encounter -- to encounter
labores -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <labor, laboris> labor, effort -- hardships
impulerit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <impellō, impellere, impulī, impulsum> drive, move --
drove
tantaene -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <tantus, tanta, tantum> such + interrogative adverb;
<-ne> ... -- Are such
animis -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <animus, animi> soul, mind -- minds
caelestibus -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <caelestis, caelestis, caeleste> celestial -- in the celestial
irae -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <ira, irae> anger -- angers

Urbs antiqua fuit (Tyrii tenuere coloni)

Karthago, Italiam contra Tiberinaque longe
Ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli.

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urbs -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <urbs, urbis> city -- city

antiqua -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <antiquus, antiqua, antiquum> ancient -- an ancient
fuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- There was
Tyrii -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <Tyrius, Tyria, Tyrium> Tyrian -- Tyrian
tenuere -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect of <teneō, tenēre, tenuī, -> hold, control, understand --
controlled
coloni -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <colonus, coloni> farmer, settler -- settlers
Karthago -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Karthago, Karthaginis> Carthage -- Carthage
Italiam -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Italia, Italiae> Italy -- Italy
contra -- preposition; <contra> opposite, facing -- opposite
Tiberinaque -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Tiberinus, Tiberina, Tiberinum> of Tiber +
conjunction; <-que> and -- and the Tiberine
longe -- adverb; <longe> by far -- and far from
ostia -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ostium, ostii> mouth, entrance -- the mouths
dives -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <dives, divitis> rich -- rich in
opum -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <ops, opis> assistance, wealth, resources -- wealth
studiisque -- noun, neuter; ablative plural of <studium, studii> application, study + conjunction; <-que>
and -- and the ... pursuits
asperrima -- adjective; nominative singular feminine superlative of <asper, aspera, asperum> rough, harsh
-- harshest
belli -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <bellum, belli> war -- of war

quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus unam

posthabita coluisse Samo: hic illius arma,
hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,
si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.

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quam -- relative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that -- It
Juno -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Juno, Junonis> Juno -- Juno
fertur -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum> bear, carry -- is said
terris -- noun, feminine; ablative plural of <terra, terrae> earth, land -- lands
magis -- adverb; <magis> more -- more than
omnibus -- adjective; ablative plural feminine of <omnis, omnis, omne> all -- all
unam -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <unus, una, unum> one, alone -- alone
posthabita -- verb; ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of
<posthabeō, posthabēre, posthabuī, posthabitum> place after, esteem less -- was esteemed less
coluisse -- verb; in nitive perfect of <colō, colere, coluī, cultum> dwell in, cultivate -- to have cherished
Samo -- noun, feminine; ablative singular of <Samos, Sami> Samos -- even Samos
hic -- adverb; <hīc> here, now -- here (were)
illius -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <ille, illa, illud> he, she, that -- her
arma -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <arma, armorum> arms -- arms
hic -- adverb; <hīc> here, now -- here
currus -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <currus, currus> chariot -- her chariot
fuit -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- was
hoc -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <hic, haec, hoc> there, this -- this
regnum -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <regnum, regni> kingship, supreme power -- the leading
kingdom
dea -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <dea, deae> goddess -- the goddess
gentibus -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <gens, gentis> race, clan -- among the peoples
esse -- verb; in nitive of <sum, esse, fuī> I am -- to be
si -- conjunction; <si> if -- if
qua -- inde nite pronoun; ablative singular feminine of <quis, quis, quid> someone, anything -- by some
way
fata -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <fatum, fati> fate, divine utterance -- the fates
sinant -- verb; 3rd person plural present subjunctive of <sinō, sinere, sīvī> permit, allow -- would permit it
iam -- adverb; <iam> already -- already
tum -- adverb; <tum> then -- then
tenditque -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <tendō, tenere, tenuī, tentum> stretch, pursue +
conjunction; <-que> and -- she both pursued
fovetque -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtum> warm, favor + conjunction;
<-que> and -- and favored it

Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duci

audierat Tyrias olim quae verteret arces.

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progeniem -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <progenies, -> offspring, race -- a race
sed -- conjunction; <sed> but -- but
enim -- conjunction; <enim> for, indeed -- indeed
Troiano -- adjective; ablative singular masculine of <Troianus, Troiana, Troianum> Trojan -- Trojan
a -- preposition; <ab> from, after -- from
sanguine -- noun, masculine; ablative singular of <sanguis, sanguinis> blood -- blood
duci -- verb; in nitive passive of <dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductum> lead, consider -- would be drawn
audierat -- verb; 3rd person singular pluperfect of <audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum> hear -- she had heard
Tyrias -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <Tyrius, Tyria, Tyrium> Tyrian -- Tyrian
olim -- adverb; <olim> some day -- some
quae -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <qui, quae, quod> who, which, what, that --
which
verteret -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect subjunctive of <vertō, vertere, vertī, versum> turn, overturn
-- would overturn
arces -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <arx, arcis> citadel, fortress -- citadels

Lesson Text

Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab oris

Italiam fato profugus Laviniaque venit
Litora -- multum ille et terris jactatus et alto
Vi superum, saevae memorem Junonis ob iram,
Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem
Inferretque deos Latio -- genus unde Latinum
Albanique patres atque altae moenia Romae.
Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso
Quidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus
Insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores
Impulerit. Tantaene animis caelestibus irae?
Urbs antiqua fuit (Tyrii tenuere coloni)
Karthago, Italiam contra Tiberinaque longe
Ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli.
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus unam
posthabita coluisse Samo: hic illius arma,
hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,
si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.
Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duci
audierat Tyrias olim quae verteret arces.

Translation

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I sing of arms and the man, who as rst (among the Romans) came from the coasts of Troy to the
Lavinian shores in ight driven by fate. Tossed about on lands and the sea by the might of the gods,
he suffered many things also in battle through the relentless anger of erce Juno as he brought the
gods to Latium, whence the Latin race and the Alban fathers and also the walls of lofty Rome.

Remind me of the causes, oh Muse, offended for what authority, or angry at what the queen of the
gods caused a man outstanding in piety to undergo so many troubles, to suffer so many labors. Are
there such angers in the celestial minds?

There was an ancient city (Tyrian colonists maintained it), Carthage, a long way opposite Italy and the
mouths of the Tiber, rich in wealth and very erce in the pursuits of war, which alone Juno is said to
have cherished more than all others, even esteeming Samos less. Here were her arms; here, her
chariot. This was the ruling power among the races for the goddess, and as the fates permitted, she
favored and supported it. But she had heard that a race from Trojan blood would at some time
overturn the Tyrian citadels.

Grammar
46 Texts.
As a result of the long and detailed attention, the texts of the Latin authors have been xed. For example,
the texts of the rst two lessons are identical in the publication by Mauritius Mueller (Leipzig: Teubner,
1892) and that of the Loeb Classical Library published in 1919 and reprinted numerous times to 1998. And
the text of Einhard's biography of Charlemagne was xed after numerous other editions in that of O. Holder-
Egger (Hannover, 1911), which has subsequently been reprinted.

Unless a text with extensive commentary is desired, readers of the Latin texts will do well to use the
editions of the Loeb Classical Library, which have the added advantage of including translations. These are
readily available from the Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass. and London, England). The texts that
have been widely read in schools and universities, such as those of Caesar and Virgil, are readily available.
They have been published with introductions and commentaries, often also with glossaries. References
may be found in catalogues of libraries and publishers.

47 Grammars.
In much the same way, the grammars of Latin are based on long attention. The fullest grammar is that of
Manu Leumann, Joh. Bapt. Hofmann and Anton Szantyr, Lateinische Grammatik. I. Laut-und Formenlehre
(Munich: Beck, 1977), II. Syntax und Stilistik (Munich: Beck, 1965). For ready reference, most readers will
nd useful a shorter grammar, such as A Latin Grammar of 1903, by William Gardner Hale and Carl Darling
Buck (Tuscaloosa: Alabama University Press, 1966).

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For a historical treatment, see the Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Carl Darling Buck (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1933). A successor is the New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by
Andrew L. Sihler (Oxford: University Press, 1995); it is written like a novel -- no references, no bibliography.

48 Dictionaries.
Dictionaries of various extent are also readily available. A Latin Dictionary, by Charlton T. Lewis and Charles
Short (Oxford University Press, 1956) is extensive. The companion Elementary Latin Dictionary by Lewis
(Oxford University Press, 1969) is also comprehensive, and less costly.

49 Specialized handbooks.
As catalogues in libraries and in lists of the concerned publishers indicate, one may readily nd handbooks
dealing with all aspects of Roman culture and history. Among examples, the Oxford University Press (2001
Evans Road, Cary, NC 27513) has published The Oxford History of the Roman World, eds. John Boardman,
Jasper Gri n, Oswyn Murray (2001), The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World by the same editors
(2001), Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome, by Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins (1998), Slaves and Masters in
the Roman Empire, by K.R.Bradley (1987), Rome, by M. Rostovtzeff (1960), among many other more
specialized works. References works like A Smaller Classical Dictionary, ed. E.H.Blakeney (New ork: Dutton,
1928) provide compact entries on persons, places and things in the Roman and Greek world.

One should not overlook the essays in encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated 13th edition of the
Encyclopedia Brittanica. These deal with various aspects of culture and history.

50 The Legacy of the Roman World.

The Roman world has exerted massive in uence on the western world, as its linguistic effects and
institutions indicate. An example is Salus Mundi 'welfare or prosperity of the world', the name of the
foundation that sponsored the present work. Among many other examples, we may cite Cursor Mundi, the
name of an English epic poem of the 13th century that sketches the history of the world according to the
Old and New Testaments. Its unidenti ed author explains the title with the lines:

Cursur of werld man aght it call

For almast it overrennes all.

(Cf. Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 7, p. 650. London: The Encyclopedia Britannica Co., 1926, 13th ed.)
Another expression, E pluribus unum -- one out of many -- was selected as characterizing the United States.
And Summa cum laude -- with the highest praise -- indicates academic excellence.

James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge state in their work Words and their Ways in
English Speech (New York: Macmillan, 1902) p. 93: "The in uence of Latin is not con ned to the technical
vocabulary. It is felt in almost every sentence that we utter. It pervades the whole system of English
speech." A sentence like the rst in this section provides ample support for the statement. They also point

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to the Roman numerals and the symbol &c for Latin et cetera. Moreover, they cite doublets, like reason, ration
and ratio, the rst of which was taken from the Old French re ex of the Latin word, the second somewhat
later from French in military use, and the last directly from Latin in mathematical use.

The institutions are of lesser concern here, but as the linguistic importations indicate, they as well as our
clerical, military and educational terms are heavily based on those developed in the Roman world. Such
effects indicate excellent reasons for reading Latin texts, as promoted by this series of online lessons.

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