COURSE

GUIDE

ENG 814
STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

Course Team Dr. Egwu Anya (Course Developer/Writer) -

Covenant University
Dr. A. M. Yakubu (Course Coordinator) - NOUN
Dr. O. F. Iwuchukwu (Programme Leader) -
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

© 2018 by NOUN Press

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Published by National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2018

ISBN: 978-978-8521-52-5

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………… …………… iv
What you will Learn in this Course……… …………… v
Course Aims…………………………………………… v
Course Objectives………………………… …………... v
Working through the Course…………………………... vi
Course Materials………………………………………. vi
Study Units…………………………………………….. vi
References/Further Reading…………………………… viii
Assignment File………………………………………… ix
Presentation Schedule………………………………… ix
Course Marking Scheme……………………… ……… ix
Course Overview………………………… …………… ix
Final Examination and Grading …………………… … xi
Tutors and Tutorials…………………… ……………… xi
Summary………………… …………………………… xi
Conclusion…………… ………………………………. xi

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION ENG 814 – STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL

LITERATURE
ENG 814 is a one-semester course of three credit units. It is developed
and written to cater for the study needs of postgraduate students of
English and others in related departments like African Languages,
Literature and Communication Arts, as well as students in the
department of History. The course has twenty one units which include a
general overview of oral literature as a universal practice, origin of
African oral literature, nature and forms of African oral literature,
adequate examples and discussions of its poetic, dramatic and prose
forms, factors that constitute the building blocks of African oral
literature, functions of African oral literature, African oral literature as
the source of written literature as well as the factors that hinder the
growth and development of African oral literature. Others are
‘chremasticism’ or rubrics and designs in the African Verbal Arts,
folktales and its aesthetic elements, methods of characterising aesthetics
in African oral folktales through selected tales, ‘parenthesis’ creativity
as the ‘moonlight’ of African oral literature, aesthetic delimitations and
oral literary theories and modern incursions, ‘codemodifications’ and
transitions in African Oral Literature.
The materials and examples used for this course are suitable for
Nigerian post graduate students of English. The examples are drawn
variously from selected popular African oral renditions to further make
the African ‘Village Voices’ attractive to learners. We have designed
ENG 814 to improve upon students’ already acquired knowledge of
African oral literature in previous similar courses taught at the
undergraduate class, such as ENG 323 – Oral Literature in Africa.
On the spot assessment of students’ view of African oral literature
among undergraduate and postgraduate students showed expression of
dislike arising from the belief that it is often cumbersome and
burdensome. To erase such misleading conception, therefore, we have
designed ENG 814 to cover a wide range of the aspects of African oral
literature, as advancement over your previous knowledge. We have
written the course in such a way that it is picturesque and
cinematographic or practical and real to you. With such deliberate way
of taking African oral literature away from the page of the written
medium, it retains its very practical nature and entertainment for which
it is known. The easy, accessible and communicative way that we have
developed the course will fire up and ‘boost’ your waning interest on the
aesthetics of the oral literature of your people and remind you of some
of those things you may have forgotten and need to be reminded of
about the oral literatures of peoples in other parts of Africa, other than
your own ethnic nationality.

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

The course guide is designed to give a brief description of what ENG

814 is all about, the course materials you need, the work you need to do,
set of textbooks and tutor-marked assignments. This course guide also
gives suggestions on the amount of time you need on each unit and
number of Tutor-Marked Assignmentyou need to do.
We expect you to go through this course guide carefully to know what
the course is all about, particularly other novel areas of African oral
literature which we have included in this course material.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
From a general perspective, ENG 814 is to enable you learn the general
nature, development principles and practice as well as the rendition of
orature across cultures. The primary focus of the course is to acquaint
you with the African oral verbiage in its major forms including
characteristics and general aesthetics. The ability to develop and create
oral issues from the oral pool of your lineage and or community is part
of the essential things you will learn in this course.
COURSE AIMS
The course is designed to take you through African oral literature. It is
meant to:

• Remind you of the nature of orature, including its tradition of

universal continuum;
• Acquaint you with the ‘architecture’ and ‘building blocks’ of
African oral literature;
• Rekindle your interest in the oral composition of your people;
• Translate the orature of your community with its African
aesthetics/values;
• Equip you with the special practical skills necessary for
descriptive, narrative and expository display of African oral
literature;
• Draw your attention to the categories of orature;
• Express the functions of African oral literature;
• Name the methods of characterizing aesthetics in African oral
narratives.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the course, you should be able to:
• Define oral literature;
• Explain the concepts of ‘architecture’ and ‘building blocks’ of
African oral Literature;
• Recite the oral poetry of your community;

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

• Discuss the factors that hinder the growth and development of

African oral literature;
• Relate modern incursions, ‘code-modifications’ and transitions in
African oral literature;
• Classify the genres of African oral literature;
• Review African oral literature as the source of written literature;
• Defend ‘chremasticisms’ and design in African oral literature;
• Appraise the functions of African oral literature;
• Judge African oral literature using aesthetics as a paradigm;
• Summarize the oral literature of other cultures.
WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE
There are twenty one study units in this course. You should study the
contents in each unit before you attempt the questions. Also, you should
pay attention to the objective of each study unity to guide you through
the unit. You should get ready to think and write simultaneously as you
go through this course material which has been designed to make you do
so. You will be assessed through Tutor-Marked Assignmentwhich you
are expected to do and turn in to your tutor at the right time. You are
also expected to write an examination at the end of the course. The time
of the examination will be communicated to you.
COURSE MATERIALS
The major components of the course are:
• Course guide
• Study units
• References/further Reading
• Assignment files
• Presentation schedule.
Each study unit is a week’s work and is preceded by the objectives
which you are expected to study by going through the unit. Each study
unit contains the reading materials and the self assessment exercises.
The tutor-marked assignment; the study unit, the tutorials, will help you
to achieve the stated objectives of this course. There are twenty-one
units in the course and they are as follows:
STUDY UNITS

Module 1 ORATURE ACROSS CULTURES

Unit One Tradition of Oral Literature as Universal Continuum

Unit Two Origin and nature of African oral literature
Unit Three ‘Architecture’ and ‘Building Blocks’ of African oral
literature
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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

Unit Four Factors that Hinder the Growth and Development of

African oral literature (1)
Unit Five Factors that Hinder the Growth and development of
African oral literature (11)

Module 2 NATIVE VOICES AS AFRICAN ORATURE

Unit One African oral literature as the Source of Written Literature.

Unit Two Modern ‘Incursion’, ‘Code- modifications’ and
Transitions in African oral literature
Unit Three Poetry in African oral literature
Unit Four Drama in African oral literature
Unit Five Prose in African oral literature

Module 3 DESIGNS AND FOCUS IN AFRICAN ORATURE

Unit One ‘Chremasticism’ and design in African oral literature

Unit Two Functions of African oral literature (1)
Unit Three Functions of African oral literature (11)
Unit four Functions of African oral literature (111)
Unit Five Aesthetic Elements in African oral Folktales

Module 4 VERBIAGE AND CREATIVITY IN AFRICAN

ORATURE

Unit one Methods of Characterizing Aesthetics in African oral

Narratives through
Selected Tales (1)
Unit two Methods of Characterizing Aesthetics in African oral
narrative through
Selected Tales (11)
Unit Three Parenthetic Creativity as the ‘Moonlight’ of African
Verbal Arts (1)
Unit four Parenthetic Creativity as the ‘Moonlight’ of African
Verbal Arts (11)
Unit Five Aesthetics Delimitations in African Verbal Narratives
Unit Six Oral Literary Theories

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Akachi A.E (2009). Heart Songs. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
Abimbola, W. (1965).Yoruba Oral Literature. African Notes, Vol.2,
Nos. 2&3, Ibadan.
Ayese, S.O (2004) Designs and African Orature: Selected Examples
from Ghana and Nigeria. Jos: Macmillan.
Akporobaro, F.B.O (2001). Introduction to African Oral Literature.
Ikeja: Princeton Publishing
Bayangi,Y. (2001).Orature and Literature. Jos: Macmillan.
Beye, C.E (1966). The Odyssey and Homeric Tradition. New Delhi:
Tricycle Prints.
Biodun, S. (1993). Science, Orature and Literature. Lagos: Lens
Publishers.

Bradford,E. (1963). Ulysses Found. London: Oxford University Press.

Chukwuma, T. (2004). Igbo Native Voices in Unwritten Literature.
Enugu: Leve Prints.
Danstan, C. (2000). What is Oral Literature? Uyo: Onibonoje.
Emma, T. (1984). Mythical Tales of Creation. Abuja: Stove Prints.
Finnegan, R. (1970).Oral Literature in Africa. London: University
Press.
Homer (1995). The Illiad. Great Britain: Chatan.
Idowu, B. (1962). Olodumare God in Yoruba Belief. Ibadan: Longman.
Kemf, E. (1993). Ed. Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas the Law
of mother Earth. London: Earthscan Publications
Ltd.
Kuffi, E. (2007).Myths and Folktales in West Africa The Akpan
Example. Accra: Macmillan.
Lewis, L. (2002). Technology and Oral Literature. Kaduna: Pen.
Olosojumo, K. (2006). Oral Literature among Yorubas. Ibadan: lkin.
Parrinder G. (1979). Religion in Africa. Enugu: Excell.
Robert, A. B. and Betty W (1981). Introduction to Literature.
Lexington: Ginn and Company.

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

Steven, C. (2004). Selected Oral Literature of Native Americans. N.Y:

Oxford University Press.
ASSIGNMENT FILE
In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for grading. The mark you obtain from the assignment will
be added toward the final mark you obtain for this course. Additional
information on assignment will be found in the assignments file itself as
well as this section on assessment in this course guide.
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The presentation schedule which has been included in your course
materials gives you the important dates you are expected to complete
your Tutor-Marked Assignmentas and when due.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
The table below gives a breakdown of the course marks:
Assignment Marks
Assignment1-21 Three assignments, best three marks of the
assignments count for 30% course marks
Final examination The final examination counts for 70% of overall
marks
Total 100% of course marks

COURSE OVERVIEW
Unit Title of Work Week’s Assessment
Activity (End of Unit)
1 Tradition of Oral Literature 1 Assignment 1
as a Universal Continuum
2 Origin and Nature of 2` Assignment 2
African oral literature
3 Architecture and Building 3 Assignment 3
Blocks of African oral
literature
4 Factors that Hinder the 4 Assignment 4
Growth and Development of
African oral literature (I)
5 Factors that Hinder the 5 Assignment 5
Growth and Development of
African oral literature (II)
6 African oral literature as the 6 Assignment 6
Source of Written Literature
7 Modern Incursions, 7 Assignment 7

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

‘Codemodifications’ and
Transitions in African oral
literature
8 Poetry in African oral 8 Assignment 8
literature
9 Drama in African oral 9 Assignment 9
literature

10 Prose in African oral 10 Assignment 10

literature
11 ‘Chremasticism’ and Design 11 Assignment 11
in African oral literature

12 Functions of African oral 12 Assignment 12

literature (I)
13 Functions of African oral 13 Assignment 13
literature (II)
14 Functions of African oral 14 Assignment 14
literature (III)
15 Aesthetic Elements in 15 Assignment 15
African oral Folktales
16 Methods of Characterising 16 Assignment 16
Aesthetics in African oral
Narratives through Selected
Tales (I)
17 Methods of Characterising 17 Assignment 17
Aesthetics in African oral
Narratives through Selected
Tales (II)
18 Parenthesis Creativity as the 18 Assignment 18
‘Moonlight’ of African
Verbal Arts (I)
19 Parenthesis Creativity as the 19 Assignment 19
‘Moonlight’ of African
Verbal Arts (II)
20 Aesthetic Delimitation in 20 Assignment 20
African Verbal Narratives
(I)
21 Oral Literary Theories 21 Assignment 21

22 22 Review

23 23 Review

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ENG 814 COURSE GUIDE

24 24 Review
25 25 Review

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for ENG 814 will be a three-hour paper in which
you are expected to answer three questions. The examination questions
will reflect the TMA’s that you have already worked on. You are
advised to spend between your completion of the last unit and the
examination of the entire course. The thirty marks for your tutor marked
assignments and seventy marks for the examination give a total of one
hundred marks (i.e. 30+70=100). The patterns of the question for your
examination will not be very different from those you are familiar with
in your tutor-marked exercises. You should revise the units very well
before the date of your final examination.

TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 10 tutorial hours for this course. The dates, time, location,
name and phone number of your tutorial facilitator and your tutorial
group will be communicated to you. Feel free to relate with your tutorial
facilitator who will mark, correct your assignments, and monitor your
attendance/performance in tutorial-marked assignments. You should
always contact your tutorial facilitator by phone or e-ail if you have any
problem with the contents of any of the study units.

SUMMARY
ENG814 has been written to reintroduce you to and enrich your existing
knowledge of African oral literature. On completion of the programme,
you should be adequately skilled in the discussion of African oral
literature.
At the end of the programme, you should be able to answer the
following questions on the course:

1. Choose and discuss the oral poetry of your people.

2. Outline and discuss the functions of African oral literature.
3. Discuss the ‘parenthetic creativity’ in African oral literature.
4. What is ‘chremasticism’ in African Verbal Arts?
5. What factors delimit the aesthetics of African verbal narratives?

CONCLUSION

This is a work that is more practical oriented, demanding but

aesthetically satisfying. You will get the best out of the course if you
study it whole heartedly.

Wishing you the best as you go through this course.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Orature across Cultures…………………….. 1

Unit 1 Tradition of Oral Literature as Universal

Continuum……………………………………. 1
Unit 2 Origin and Nature of African oral literature…… 17
Unit 3 ‘Architecture and Building Blocks’ of African oral
literature………………………………………… 32
Unit 4 Factors that hinder the Growth and Development
of African oral literature (I)…………………… 40
Unit 5 Factors that hinder the Growth and Development
of African oral literature (II)…………………… 48

Module 2 Native Voices as African Orature………………. 54

Unit 1 African oral literature as the Source of Written

Literature…………………………………………… 54
Unit 2 ‘Incursion’, Code-modifications and Transitions
in African oral Literature……………..…………… 70
Unit 3 Poetry in African oral Literature…………………… 79
Unit 4 Drama in African oral Literature………………….. 101
Unit 5 Prose in African oral Literature……………………. 108

Module 3 Designs and focus in African

Orature…………………………………………… 132

Unit 1 ‘Chremasticism and Design’ in African oral

Literature…………………………………………… 132
Unit 2 Functions of African oral literature (I)………….. 138
Unit 3 Functions of African oral literature (II)………… 144
Unit 4 Functions of African oral literature (III)………… 149
Unit 5 Elements of African oral Folktales………………... 157

Module 4 Verbiage and creativity in

African Orature…………………………………… 164

Unit 1 Methods of Characterising Aesthetics in African

oral Narratives through Selected Tales (I)…………. 164
Unit 2 Methods of Characterising Aesthetics in African
 Oral Narratives through Selected Tales
(II)………………………………………………… 171
Unit 3 ‘‘ Parenthesis’ Creativity’ as the ‘Moonlight’ of African
Verbal Arts (I)……………………………………… 178
Unit 4 ‘‘Parenthesis’ Creativity’ as the ‘Moonlight’ of
African Verbal Arts (II)……………………………. 186
Unit 5 Aesthetic Delimitations in African Verbal Narratives..191
Unit 6 Oral Literary Theories……………………………… 196
ENG 814 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 ORATURE ACROSS CULTURES

Unit 1 Tradition of Oral Literature as Universal Continuum

Unit 2 Origin and Nature of African oral Literature
Unit 3 ‘Architecture and Building Blocks’ of African oral
Literature
Unit 4 Factors that hinder the Growth and Development of
African oral literature (I)
Unit 5 Factors that hinder the Growth and Development of
African oral literature (II)

UNIT 1 TRADITION OF ORAL LITERATURE AS

UNIVERSAL CONTINUUM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Tradition of Oral Literature as Universal Continuum
Myth/Mythology
3.1.2 Relationships between oral tradition and the
universe
3.1.3 The Illiad and The Odyssey
3.1.4 Greco-Roman
3.1.5 Mythical Creation Story of the Ancient Greeks
3.1.6 Native American Creation Myth
3.1.7 Cherokee (Great Smoky Mountains) Creation Myth
3.1.8 Creation Myth of the Yorubas Nigeria – West
Africa
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have designed this unit to reflect the nature of orature as a popular

culture; hence we have proven its universality by providing some
examples of myths drawn across continental cultures, over the ages. The
fascinating examples of the creation myths of the ancient Greek,
Romans, America, Europe, India and Africa, some of them are
Cheyenne, Cherokee as well as the Yoruba creation myth which have
been provided as evidence that oral tradition is ever present everywhere
and preciously obtainable in every culture all over the world. No matter

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

the language of rendition and by whatever name oral tradition may be

called, across cultures, it is a popular culture that is available and culture
specific.

In our current world of growing technological advancement and

encroaching civilization, the existence of oral tradition is never in doubt.
In this module which is made up of five units, you will appreciate the
nature of oral literature as a general practice by the human race, past and
present.
As a postgraduate student of English studying African oral literature ,
you should necessarily be aware of the different perspectives of people
generally to the oral tradition including how the world came to exist;
what constitutes their oral literatures, their mode of performance,
method of transmission. You should be able to determine the ‘thin layer’
that differentiates the oral literature of a particular people from the
others, in terms of performative, style and rendition. For instance, you
should be able to give examples of and discuss some of the oral
literatures of the Greeks, English, Americans, Arabs and parts of Africa,
that are often expressed in the forms of myths, fables and so on. Myth
has adequately explained the events that may appear shroud to humanity
to broaden our scope of our ‘controversial’ world. All the different
ethnic nationalities of various origins the world over have oral literary
explanations for the world that surrounds them with volumes of her
‘near incomprehensible mysteries’. The different perspectives from
which oral explanations are given about events are what necessitate a
study of the different world-views of myth. Below are some of the
objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define oral literature in your own words

• explain the universal nature of oral literature
• discuss any creation myth chosen from any part of the world
• state the theme in any of the popular world fables
• compare different myths about the creation of the world
• attempt a discussion of any myth and the moral lessons attached to
such a myth
• relate the creation myth of your people with its supportive moral
lessons
• explain the relationships between oral tradition and the universe
• define the concept, myth

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Myth/Mythology?

A myth is a story about superhuman beings of an earlier age, usually of

how natural phenomena, social customs and so on came into existence.
Mythology, myth is a legend, story, tradition fiction, saga, fable
allegory, fairy-story, folk-tale. It is an ancient traditional story about
gods, heroes and magic. See Collins English Dictionary, (2006) and
Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2007).

An important part of the oral tradition of every culture is its myths. A

myth may be seen as an anonymous (often translated to recipient
cultures) traditional story that explains the supernatural or leans on the
supernatural to explain an aspect of human behaviour, a natural
phenomenon or a mystery of the universe. Myths are stories created or
invented to explain natural phenomena such as the moon, stars,
mountain, the sea or the reason a certain society exists or is known to
practice certain custom, beliefs and so on. But, myths often emphasise
certain connection or spiritual bond between its creator as well as the
natural world. Such bond often promotes such mythical creator as the
ancestor or a progenitorial position or guardian to those concerned with
the myth. Below are the examples of myths selected around the world.

3.1.2 Relationship between Oral Tradition and the Universe

Oral literature is the form of literature that uses the oral medium as its
mode of transmission and expressions, to offer explanations to the vital
issues that surround man, his existence and related world, world view. It
is a form of unwritten performance characteristically transmitted orally
and handed down to succeeding generation much as it is inherited orally
from previous generations to lead the present people in the explanation
of their cultural beliefs, politics, economy, local sciences, industry, war,
and commerce. It is the oral revitalizing system of re-enacting, re-
creation, re-standardization, re-inventing, re-claiming, proclaiming,
justifying, exhibiting, and configuring the existence of man, his
universe, and other surrounding ‘bodies’. Whatever oral literature is
used to do in any existing society, it must be transmitted orally, oral
literature does not have the culture of writing, but its recognizeable
culture of verbiage makes it essentially oral. It is a regenerated local
wisdom, told and retold to justify its purpose. Orature is the ‘voicing
capacity’; the ‘native voice’ of the people that expresses the totality of
their existence, histories, wars, politics, commerce, industry, economy,
religion, reactions to other vital human related issues like how the Earth
came into being, the existence of God, the sea, heaven and death; it is

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

the local verbiage that measures and justifies man’s living standard,
interactions, identities, his position, heroism, ancestral connectivity,
stories to explain why?, how?, and where of things? Orality normally
finds answers to things most of which are shroud to man; and many of
life challenges.

Many of such stories orally transmitted are woven around moral lessons.
Some frown at laziness, arrogance, pride, using themes that are relevant
to human situations like death, love, courtship and marriage. Some may
depict universal emotions like selfishness, disobedience or how gods
and traditions came into being. Attributes such as hatred, flaw, ambition,
generosity, courage, honesty, dishonesty with which the social and
ethnic education of the traditional societies are carried out may be the
thesis of some orature.

Oral literature is the avenue through which the traditional society finds
her identity. The spoken word is primary to its rendition. Whether it is in
the form of myth, tales, proverbs or legends, the oral literary tradition is
still useful, social culturally engaging, performative and universally
engaging in man’s contemporary world.

We can quickly provide the examples of oral literature selected around

the world to justify the universal nature of oral literature. The oral
literature of the Yoruba speaking people of Nigeria is also preciously
obtainable among the Akan people in Ghana, the Swahili, Kongi of
Zimbabwe, the Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Indians and Indigenous
Americans and elsewhere in the world. We can quickly give the
following examples of oral literature (myths) across world cultures.

3.1.3 The Illiad and The Odyssey

The Greek poet, Homer, was said to have first orally composed The
Iliad, the Greek epic poem of approximately 16,000 lines. It is the story
of the epic of the Trojan War, and about the Greek hero, Achilles who
left the field of battle to wine and dine with his War Commander-in-
Chief, Agamemnon. Agamemnon threatened Achilles. He ordered
Talthybias and Eurphates, his messengers to go into the tent of Achilles,
seize and bring beautiful Brisels to him. This angered Achilles pride as a
warrior, he left the army and the conflict which followed led to the
decline of the fortune’s Army. Achilles was then persuaded with to
return to the Army when his good friend, Patroclus was killed in a battle
by the furious Trojan Prince, Hector. The stage was then set for a battle
of the Titans as the Greek hero, Archilles and Hector will fight in a
contest that will determine the hero of the Trojan war as well as the hero
of Troy. The story assumes a climax but pitiable dimension as Achilles

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

spares Priam in the very engaging and determining battle, elevating

heroism and compassion above the futility of conflict, war and tragedy.

However, the identity of Homer who orally composed the poem is

unknown. Some people have argued that the oral story was the great
work of a woman, and not man. Added to this, is, the controversial issue
that about seven cities have claimed that the one who composed The
Illiad is theirs. But, whether or not The Illiad and The Odyssey were first
orally composed by different or similar authors belonging to diverse oral
traditions, around 8th BC, they were first composed orally before ever
translated to written form. The work belong to the Greek oral tradition
(civilization) and broadly Western oral literature much earlier than the
world of the English poet, William Shakespeare.

Similarly, Homer’s The Odyssey as related orally and according to the

Greek tradition, is the adventures of Odyssey (Ulysses in Latin
Language), the story of Odysseus back to his Kingdom of Ithaca after
the Trojan War. At Ogypia, the sea nymph, Calypso stopped and
prevented Odysseues from returning to his kingdom; the delay lasted for
seven years, Odysseus was offered immortality if he would stay but he
preferred to return to his beautiful and virtuous wife, Penelope. But he is
released by Calypso on the intervention of Zeus, but Odysseus was later
shipwrecked on the Phaeacian Isle of Scheria, but befriended by King
Alcinous and Nausicaa his daughter. A banquet was organized in his
honour, he then revealed his identity and decided to tell the story of his
wanderings in the country of the Lotos Eaters where those who ate the
Lotos plant forgot their past. Other parts of his adventure includes how
he defeated the one-eyed Cyclops, Polyphemus,witnessed a gift of a
bag of winds from Acolus, the god of winds, and his experience with the
cannibal, Laestrygonians, how he was enchanted by Circe who
transformed his crew into swine. His further experience in the
underworld are, his success over the Sirens of bewitching songs that
hastened men to their deaths, killing of the Cattle of Helios the reason
for which he was shipwrecked at Calypso Island. Odysseus’ excellence
at fable, attracted him to the goddess Athene who guided him to
Alcinous. At last, Alcinous helped Odysseus to return to Ithaca where he
met his son Telemachus who was already looking for him all over the
Mediterranean Sea. Odyssues and Telemachus therefore conspired to
kill the suitors who were already courting the chaste Penelope so that
they could acquire the kingdom of Ithaca in the absence of Odysseus
and the story ends triumphantly.

However, the identity of Homer, the oral composer of the oral narrative,
is controversial, as seven cities claimed him, though he was said to be
blind, modern theory puts his gender as a woman. The Illiad, and The

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

Odyssey are from the Greek tradition, but suspected to be a combination

of many traditions of orature.

3.1.4 Greco-Roman

The Greco-Roman oral literary world is often partly reflected in their

socio-cultural environment. They thus, merge their cosmographological
perception of their world and the world around them into cultural
symbols and natural bodies. For instance, objects are named after the
Greco-Roman gods and goddesses leading to some degrees of cultural
multiple meanings, such cultural connotations are based on the ‘native
decoders’ intuition which of course are transmitted from generation to
generation. Such becomes part of the people’s philosophy and thus
axiomatic within their cultural milieu, which they admit as their guiding
principles. With either such development they interpret or confront the
challenges of life within, even outside their cultural existence.

Greco-Roman mythical name calling is also called classical myths. The

Greco-Roman myths have renamed every planet to justify their oral
belief in their traditional gods and goddesses. Their oral compositions
also immortalize their gods and goddesses further by renaming them
with/after months of the year and other planets. This is because they
believe that their gods have enduring and overbearing influence over
material things of nature. Oral histories and compositions are also
woven around such names and re-naming/rechristening. For instance,
Jupiter is named after Zeus, king of the gods, Saturn named after
Cronus, ruler of the Titans until Zeus dethroned him. Prometheus is the
saviour of humans. Hera (Juno) is the queen of the gods, Neptune named
after Poseidon, god of the sea, Pluto named after Hades, god of the
underworld, Hestia (Vesta) goddess of the hearth and home, Pallas
Athene (Minerva), goddess of Wisdom, Apollo (Phoebus Apollo) god of
the sun, Aphrodite (Venus) goddess of love and beauty, Hermes
(Mercury), messenger of the gods that heads over any event where skill
is required, Delemeter (Ceres) is goddess of agriculture and harvest,
Artemis (Diana) is goddess of the moon, Hephaestus (Vulcan) is god of
artistry. Such names have been given based on the cultural functions,
responsibilities and or characteristics of the ‘figures’.

3.1.5 Mythical Creation Story of the Ancient Greeks

According to the ancient Greeks, before the world was fully created,
before earth, sea and the heaven were created, the entire things of this
world had a similar shape, appearance of chaos. Thus, the name,
‘confusion’ was given to the shapeless mass, dead weight, stagnant sea,

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

the air that was not transparent, and the mixed nature of the Earth.
Nature therefore, reacted and put an end to the confusion and conflict
that separated the Earth from sea and Heaven. Then, of more fright, was,
the light that sprang up and formed the sky and the air which was next in
weight and place. The Earth became heavier, sank below, the water then
took the lowest place and pushed up the Earth. Then, an unknown god
gave responsibility to rebuild the Earth. In this case, he appointed rivers,
bays, raised mountains, scooped out valley, mountains, distributed
woods, stony, planes, fertile fields. The air gave way and stars began to
appear, birds of the air, four-footed beasts took over the land and fishes
dominated the sea. At last, there was need for a greater animal of greater
honour, thus man was made. But what man was made of was not known,
whether of divine materials, or of heavenly bodies remain a mystery.

According to a popular version, Prometheus a gigantic race of Titans

living on the earth before man was created, used some of the Earth,
mixed up with water, and made man in the image of the gods. He gave
man an upright nature so he could be quite different from other four-
footed animals, thus while other animals face the Earth as they walk, he
gazed at Heaven and the Stars. Prometheus and his brother, Epimetheus,
had the great duty to create man and gave him everything that would
make his life preserved and successful. After man had been created,
Epimetheus gave all lesser animals the gifts of courage, swiftness and
strength, wings, claws and shell as necessary. When the question of who
should be superior to all other animals came to be discussed,
Epimetheus the prodigal had spent all his resources and left with nothing
to give man. He then turned to his brother, Prometheus, who had to go
to Heaven, with the aid of Minerva, brought fire down to man. With fire,
man superseded other animals as he is able to forge weapons, tools, with
which he built houses and cultivated land, introduced the art to making
money, and later, trade and commerce.

But, there was a need for a woman, Jupiter made woman and sent her to
Prometheus and his brother to punish them for beign presumption in
stealing fire from Heaven, and man for accepting the gift. The first
woman was named Pandora. She was made in Heaven, every god gave
out something to perfect her beauty. Mercury gave her persuasion,
Venus gave her beauty, and Apollo gave her music. Perfected, she was
presented to Earth who in turn presented her to Prometheus, who
accepted her gladly, but warned his brother to beware of Jupiter and his
gifts. There was a day Pandora became eagerly curious to know what
the content in a jar in the house of her host contained. She slipped off
the cover and looked in, created a way of escape for plagues such as
rheumatism, colic fever, gout, spite, envy and vengeance. She struggled
to replace the lid, but all the contents of the jar had gone except hope
which was left at the bottom of the jar. That is why up to now, whatever

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

evil may befall man, he has hope left in him and no matter how greatly
illness may afflict man, it cannot make him completely wretched.

3.1.6 Native American Cheyenne Creation Myth

In the beginning, only the spirit called Maheo lived in the void. He saw
nothing around him, heard nothing around, but nothiness. He moved
everywhere in the void, and then moved by his power. He asked himself
the usefulness of power if not for it to be used to people the world, the
void and nothingness around him. He then used his power to create a
lake, like water that was salty, in the voidy-darkness of nothingness. He
thought to himself, that there should be water being, and there appeared
fishes swimming to and fro in the deep water. So, craw fish, snails,
mussels, lying on the sand and mud, be the bottom of his lake. Again, he
thought of creating things that live on the water, and snow geese,
mallards, loons terns and Coots living and swimming on the surface of
the water were created. Then, light began to spread beginning from the
East, radiating in the form of gold, till it covered the middle of the sky
and all the horizon. Maheo watched the horizon closely and saw the
fishes, birds and shellfish lying on the bottom of the lake as exposed by
the light. Thus Maheo commended himself “beautiful” and nodded
approvingly.

Then the snow goose settled over where she was, standing on the space
above the lake, Maheo said, “I do not see you, but I know you exist”.
Then the goose replied, “I do not know where you are, but I know you
must be everywhere”. Maheo interrupted, “You have made good water
on which we live. But the birds are not like fish. Sometimes, we get
tired swimming such that we would like to get out of water”. “Then fly”,
said Maheo and he waved his hands and all the water birds flew,
skittering along the surface of the lake until they had sped enough to
ride in the air and darkened the sky. “How beautiful they are”, “said
Maheo to himself as the birds turned and wheeled against the sky. The
loon moved first to the surface of the lake and towards the sky. Maheo
made them sky and light to fly in and had also made them water to swim
in. “We sound ingrate to want something else, said the Loon. When we
are tired of swimming and flying, we should be able to walk on a solid
place and to build our nests.

Maheo agreed to grant their requests because he had made things like,
the water, sky, air, and light and the peoples of the water. He confessed
that his power could only make four more things. He tasked the swifts
and biggest among the goose to find water first, “I am ready to try”, the
snow goose said. She drove herself along the water until the white lake
behind her grew and grew to sharp-white print that drove her up into the

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air as the feathers formed an arrow. She flew high into the sky until she
became a dark spot against the bright light, the the goose turned up and
down and plunged faster than an arrow, and dived into the water,
pierced the surface with her beak like the point of a spear. Maheo
counted to four hundred times before she emerged to the surface of the
water floating, “What have you brought? “asked Maheo but the goose
sighed sadly, “nothing, I brought nothing back”.

Then, the Mallard and loon tried after him, dashed with the speed of a
flashing arrow into the water but brought nothing. It was the turn of the
little Coot, paddling across the surface of the water very quietly, dipping
his head sometime to catch a tiny fish, and shook the water beads from
his scalp lock each time he rose. “Maheo”, said the little Coot softly,
“when I put my head beneath the water, it seems to me that I see
something there far below, perhaps, I can swim down to it”. He added,
“I don’t know. I can’t fly or dive like my sisters and brothers. All I can
do is swim, but I will swim down the best I know how, and go as deep
as I can”. “Little brother”, said Maheo, “no man can do more than his
best and I have asked for the help of all the water peoples. Certainly,
you all try, perhaps, swimming will be better than diving afterall. Try,
little brother and see what you can do”.

“Hah-ho!” the little Coot said, “Thank you Maheo”, and he put his head
under the water and swam down and down, down and down until he was
out of sight. The Coot had gone a long long time till Maheo and other
birds could see a little dark spot beneath the surface of the water slowly
rising towards them. It was as if they would never see the Coot again,
but at last the point began to form a shape, they could now see clearly,
the Coot was now emerging from the bottom of the salty lake. When he
arrived, he stretched his beak upward into the light but he did not open
it. “Give me what you have brought,” Maheo said and the Coot let his
beak fall open and a little ball of mud fell from his tongue into Maheo’s
hand so when Maheo wanted to, he could become like a man. “Go little
brother”, Maheo said, “Thank you and may what you have brought
always protect you”. That was it, the Coots flesh taste of mud, neither
man nor animal will eat it unless there is nothing to eat. Maheo rolled
the ball of mud between the palms of his hands, it grow larger gradually
and his palm could not contain it, he looked around for a place to put the
mud, but there was nowhere to put it. Maheo requested help again from
the water peoples, “I must put this mud somewhere, one of you must let
me place it on his back”. All the fish and other water creatures swarm
towards him, and he tried to find the right one to carry the mud, the
snails and crawfish who lived in the deep had solid backs but were too
small. The fish were too narrow and their back fins stuck up to break up
the mud. At last, only one water person was left. Maheo asked,
“Grandmother Turtle, “do you think you can help me?” Maheo said

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

once again, “Let the Earth be known as our Grandmother and let the
Grandmother who carries the earth be the only being who is at home,
beneath the water, or within the earth, or above the ground, the only one
who can go anywhere, by swimming or by walking as he chooses”. That
was how the turtle and the whole of his generation carry the weight of
the entire world and its peoples on their back.

At last, Maheo commanded the Grandmother and all her descendants to

walk very slowly as they bear the burden of the world on their backs. He
added, “Our Grandmother Earth is like a woman, she should be
fruithful. Let her begin to bear life. She is my power”. Before this
period, the Earth and water had been barren. After Maheo’s
pronouncement, trees and grass sprang up to become the grandmother’s
hair, flowers became her ornaments, the earth offered fruits and
seeds to Maheo. The birds came to rest on her hands when they got
tired, and they came close to her sides, Maheo concludes that the Earth
woman was beautiful, the most beautiful thing he had made. Maheo
thought that the woman must not be alone, and needed to convince her
of his love. He reached out for a rib of his right side, pulled it out and
breathed on it and laid it softly on the bottom of the Earth woman, the
bone moved, stirred, stood and walked, thus the first man came to be.

He is now alone with the Grandmother Earth, he then reminiscenced

how he was once alone and concluded. “It is not good for anyone to be
alone”. So Maheo created a woman from the left side of his rib, set her
with the man, thus there were two persons from the Grandmother Earth,
her children and Maheo’s. They were all happy and Maheo was happy
too as he watched them.

After a year, the first child was born at spring time. And as the years
passed by, there were other children; they spread over the Earth to
become many tribes. Maheo created animals to feed and take care of the
people. He gave them deer for clothing, and food, Porcupines for
ornaments, antelopes to run the plain and praine dogs to burrow the
Earth. He also instructed his power to make the Buffalo. Up to now,
Maheo is still with us all, everywhere we go, watching over the people
He created. Maheo is life, the ancestor, creator, the teacher, guardian,
and embodiment of wisdom.

3.1.7 Cherokee (Great Smoky Mountains) Creation Myth

There was water everywhere, so all the animals crowded above the arch,
wandering what was beyond the water. Then, the water Beetle, Bearer’s
Grandchild decided to go and see, so as to learn, so went everywhere on
the water but found no place to rest. It went under the water and

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

emerged with mud, which he later spread and formed the earth, the earth
was later tied to the sky with four cords but there was no oral account of
who did it. The Earth was flat, but soft, and the animals were eager to
get down, but the investigation conducted by the birds revealed that
there was no dry place, hence they had no where to perch but returned to
Galunlati. But, the task to find a solid earth was given to the Great
Buzzard. He flew everywhere, got no dry land but got tired when he got
to the land of the Cherokee. His wings began to weaken, and if struck
the ground to bring about valleys and mountains everywhere it struck.
All the animals became afraid of the mystery behind the growing
mountains and thought everywhere on Earth might be mountaineous, so
they recalled the Great Buzzard. That is the reason, up till today,
everywhere around the Cherokee is mountaneous.

The animals were not comfortable with soft Earth everywhere so they
requested that the sun make it a duty to shine daily across the island
from East to West over head, It was too hot so Tsiskagili, the Red
Crawfish had his shell scorched bright red; this spoilt its meat and it
became forbidden for food to the Cherokee. The conjurer infused
another hand breath on the sun, it was still too hot, until the seventh
time, and it was right, so they left it so, and the place till today is known
as Digalun Latiyun which means the seventh hand breath high above the
Earth. Thus, daily the sun goes under the arch and returns in the night on
the upper side to the point it started from.

There is another world under the sun, it is similar to ours in population.

It has animals, plants and people but has different seasons from the
Earth. The stream from the mountain serves as a source of hope to the
underworld because its water is cooler in Summer and Warmer in
Winter. Nobody knew by whom the animals were made, they were told
to keep vigil for seven nights. They all kept vigil the first night, while
many could not cope on the second night, and others too slept the
successive nights, except the Owl and one or two others and were all
empowered to see through the dark and prey on birds and animals which
sleept throughout in the night. Among the trees, only the Cedar, Spruce,
Pine, Holy and Laurel kept vigil till the end, and were thus empowered
to be ever green, and to be used for medicine, but others were decreed
thus, “Because you have not endured to the end, you shall lose your hair
everywhere”.

Men were created after the plants and animals, a brother and sister were
the first to be created, until she was struck with fish and commanded to
multiply. So in seven days, a child was born, and in another seven days
the population of the world increased through the process such that the
Earth became overpopulated. Then a decree went forth that to prevent

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the danger of overpopulation, a woman should have only one child a

year and that has been the condition for a woman ever since.

3.18 Creation Myth of the Yoruba Nigeria, West Africa

The place we now call the Earth was once a mass of water, the sky in
Heaven was the abode of Olodumare and other divinities. The divine
beings above used the mass of water for sporting activities. They often
descended with a strand of spider’s web, a web which also formed the
thin layer and bridge between Heaven and the Earth. They also often
descended to the Earth for hunting expendition. What moved Olodumare
to create solid Earth is however controversial. At the conception of the
idea to create the solid Earth, he invited Orisa-Nla, the arch-divinity and
gave him the role of getting the materials. He gave him a leaf packet of
loose Earth, a five-toed hen, a pigeon, as tools. Some version said the
solid earth was in a snail shell.

Orisa-nla distributed the loose earth in some portions of the water until
the watery waste was covered with the Earth. He reported back to
Olodumare that he had done the work. On the instruction of Olodumare,
the Chameleon inspected all that Orisa-nla had done. The choice of the
Chameleon was based on his rare quality of being careful, and delicately
moving around to accomplish great tasks. The Chameleon in the first
inspection of the Earth confirmed that the Earth is wide, but had not
been sufficiently covered yet, thus, it was not ready for any further
operation yet. His second inspection revealed that the Earth is indeed
wide and dry enough. The particularly sacred spot where the creation
began was named Ife, a wide area according to the Yoruba meaning of
the word. That was how the sacred Yoruba city derived its name, Ile-Ife,
but the prefix Ile was later added to indicate a sacred spot of an
existence, this differentiates the spot from other areas or towns that
came into existence as a result of migration.

The creation of the Earth took four days, but the fifth day was set apart
for rest and worship of the deity when Olodumare confirmed that the
work had been completed. He sent Orisa-nla in company of Orunmila
back to beautify the Earth, though Orunmila was to play the role of a
counsellor to Orisa-nla. Then Olodumare handed the primeval Igi-Ope
(Palm-Tree) to Orisa-nla to plant the juice which will give drink and its
seed will give oil and kernel for seed. He also gave him three different
kinds of trees. They are Awun (white wood), Ire (silk-rubber tree) and
Dodo. They are to be planted so that their juices too can give drink. The
earth was still dry, foggy as there was no rain, upon the Earth. The
Pigeon and hen responsible for spreading the Earth should increase so
that there can be meat for the inhabitants of the Earth. Olodumare, had

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the duty to lead a group of deities down, and they became the nucleus of
the Earthly inhabitants.

Activities had begun on Earth but, she was short of water, thus Orisa-nla
appealed to Olodumare who blessed the Earth with rain drops. But,
Orisa-nla had to create man, a responsibility oral tradition was not
specific about where he first began the creation of human creatures.
Olodumare would breath life into any feature which the sculptor
moulded into a room, and informed Olodumare to give breath as the last
stage of the creation of man. But, orality tells us that Orisa-nla envied
Olodumare’s exclusive right to give life and then spied on him. The day
he had moulded man, he locked himself with the lifeless bodies in the
room, hid himself with the aim to spy on Olodumare and watch him
during the process. Olodumare knew the crafty design of Orisa-nla and
forced him into a deep sleep and he woke up after the human processes
had been completed by Olodumare. With such experience, Orisa-nla
became satisfied with his own department of the creation process. His
specialty in moulding man gave him the right to mould bodies into any
shape or figure, perfect or defective varying in colour. Thus he could
make a cripple, hunchback, white or Albino. Apart from Orisa-nla,
Orunmila, an embodiment of wisdom is said to rank next to Olodumare.
He witnessed all the processes involved in the creation of humanity, his
excellence in wisdom qualified him for the post of an adviser to Orisa-
nla from the beginning, hence, up to now man consults the deity for
counselling in Yoruba land.

Oral tradition explains that the proximity between Heaven and Earth
then made it possible for the inhabitants of the Earth to stretch their
hands and touch Heaven and everyone could travel to Heaven and return
to the earth. Suddenly, something frustrating was said to have taken
place in the period of the Garden of Eden, the sudden occurrence created
a wide gap between Heaven and Earth. The sudden occurrence was itself
a subject of oral controversy up to now. One version said a woman with
a filthy hand touched the face of Heaven, and another said a greedy
person took too much food from Heaven. The whole idea is that man
transgressed against the God of Heaven, hence Heaven retreated from
man to cut humanity off the bounties of Heaven. The above represents
the first aspect of the oral version of the creation of the Earth. Within the
Yorubas alone, there is an other version that Oduduwa was responsible
for the creation of the Earth because when Orisa-nla departed from
Olodumare, on the way to begin the mission of the creation of the Earth,
he drank palm-wine and was over drunk and he fell into a protracted
sleep. Apparently worried, Olodumare sent Oduduwa to find out what
was wrong with Orisa-nla, who was found helpless and lying on the
ground. Thus, Oduduwa quietly retrieved the materials meant for the
creation of the Earth in the possession of Orisa-nla and went ahead to

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execute the task. It was Oduduwa from whom the Yorubas are believed
to have emerged that became the ancestral father of the Yorubas with
Ile-Ife as aboriginal home and a legendary figure whose children later
found all other Yoruba lands.

The different versions of the oral mythical creations of the world have
been given above to justify the universal practice of oral literary
tradition among all cultures and races of the world. Most common
among all is the creation myth which is traceable in any race of the
world. We have given examples of the creation myths of the Cheyenne,
Native American, Ancient Greeks, Greco-Roman and the Yoruba
version in Africa. This is to justify the undeniable existence of oral
tradition as a continuous practice among every race. The creation myths
reproduced here will also remind you of the creation myth of your
people and other oral versions. They are all clothed in moral lessons just
as the examples that we have given here. The embedded moral lessons
are left for you to unravel as you read on, moreso, they are direct and
visible as you read the exciting creation myths.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss two of the myths discussed in this unit and outline the moral
lessons for each of them.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed the creation myths of the Greeks, Greco-
Roman, Native American, Cherokee and Cheyenne as well as the
Yoruba oral versions of the creation myth.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following

the meaning of the concept, oral literature

every people/tribe has her own oral version of the creation myth

oral literature is a continuous practice as it is necessarily passed on
from one generation to another for the purpose of maintaining
continuity of cultures

moral lessons are embedded in every oral literature, including the
creation myth

in the next unit, you will learn the origin and nature of African oral
literature.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Define oral literature in your own words.

2) Following the examples of the creation myths drawn from at least
three continents of the world, justify the assertion that the oral
literary myth of your village is realistic.
3) State the moral lessons you have learnt in the creation myth of the
Yorubas you are familiar with.
4) Summarize any of the creation myths discussed in this unit.
5) Using these myths as model, write an original myth of your own
about some elements of nature. Write a paragraph that compares
and contrasts what life was like before the earth was created and
the significant roles played by plants, animals and humans as seen
in any of the creation myths.

7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Bayangi, T. (2001). Orature and Literature. Jos: Macmillan.

Beye, C. E. (1966). The Odyssey and Homeric Tradition. New Delhi:

Tricycle Prints.

Biodun, S. (2003). Science, Orature and Literature. Lagos: Lens

Publishers.

Bradford, E. (1963). Ulysses Found. London: Oxford University Press.

Chukwuma, T. (2004). Igbo Native Voices in Unwritten Literature.

Enugu: Levers Prints.

Danstan, C. (2000). What is Oral Literature? Uyo: Onibonoje.

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

Emma, T. (1984). Mythical Tales of Creation. Abuja: Stove Prints.

Homer (1995). The Iliad. Great Britain: Chatan.

Idowu, Bolaji (1962). Olodumare God in Yoruba Belief. Ibadan:

Longman.

Kemf, E. (1993). Ed. Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas the Law
of Mother Earth. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.

Kuffi, E. (2007). Myths and Folktales in West Africa – The Akpan

Example. Accra: Macmillan.

Lewis, L. (2002). Technology and Oral Literature. Kaduna: Pen.

Olosojumo, K. (2006). Oral Literature among Yorubas. Ibadan: Ikin.

Omotunde, B. (2006). Orature in Modern Times. Akure: Help Prints.

Oriola S.A. (2015). Footprints of Witches and Wizards. From a

translated one million praise poetry of the Ilajes of Coastal Ondo
State – back waters of theNiger Delta. An unpublished
manuscript.

Oriola S.A. (2015).Songs for Malokun and her restless Mermaids. A

collection of Coastal Ondo State Orature for the sea. An
unpublished manuscript.

Oriola, S.A. (2010). ENG 416: Creative Writing III. Nigeria: National
Open University of Nigeria.

Parrinder, G. (1979). Religion in Africa. Enugu: Excell.

Robert A. Benneth and Betty Yvonne Welch. (1981). Introduction to

Literature. Lexington: Ginn and Company.

Steven, C. (2004). Selected Oral Literature of Native Americans. New

York: Oxford University Press.

Thomas, B. (1980). Recorded Account of Prometheus and

Pandora.Greece: HB Prints.

Wace, A. B. (1962). Stubbings – A Companion to Homers. London:

Penguin Books.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

UNIT 2 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF AFRICAN ORAL

LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Oral Tradition?
3.2 Origin of African oral Literature
3.3 Forms of Oral Poetry
3.3.1 A Dirge
3.3.1.1 A Dirge of the Bemba Speaking People of
Northern Rhodesia
3.3.1.2 Death of a Princess
3.3.2 Praise Poetry
3.3.2.1 Praise Poetry of the Sun by the Tutsi of the
great Leke region in Rwanda-Burundi
3.3.2.2 Praise Poetry of the Moon-Pygmy People
of the Congo
3.4. Features of African oral Literature
3.4.1 Verbal Variability
3.4.2 Audience
3.4.3 Method of Delivery
3.4.4 Action/Performative
3.4.5 Drumming
3.5 The Oral Artist
3.6 Training of the Oral Artist
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we have also considered the forms of oral poetry, the
features, of African oral literature , method of transmission, and
training of the oral Artist. As much as written literature has its origin
and nature, so also is African oral literature. As a student in the
Department of English, who is undertaking a course as oral literature,
you should be able to say something meaningful, should questions arise
on the origin of the oral literature of your people, the oral mode of
transmission of oral literature, the forms of oral poetry, the oral artist
and his training. All these are necessary undertakings that will sharpen
your knowledge of your people’s culture and of the course. Our

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discussion in this unit will help you to understand the structural nature
of African oral literature, its evolving progressional pattern from the
pool of orature, as discussed in the next unit. Below are some of the
objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

describe the oral artist

discuss the origin of the oral literature of your people

explain the nature of African oral literature

describe the nature of the training of the oral literary artist

identify the delivery system of African oral literature

reveal who the oral Artist is in African community

develop the praise poem of any hero in your community

state the features of African oral literature

compare the praise poetries of the Pygmy of the Congo, Basin, Tutsi
of Rwanda and the Bemba speaking tribes of Northern Rhodesia

recall the dirge and praise poetry with suitable examples

present the themes in Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo’s Death of a
Princess

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Oral Tradition?

Oral tradition (oral lore) is the cultural material and tradition transmitted
from one generation to another. The messages are solely transmitted in
speech forms (song). Examples are ballads, folktales, and chants. The
transmission is done through oral history, knowledge over generations
without expressing it in any of the western recipient languages such as
English, French, or Portuguese. Oral tradition may also be described as
the transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance long
believed to be associated with folklore or folk heroism and as distinct
from oral history which records personal histories.

Oral tradition as an academic discipline has been variously described as

oral traditional theory, the oral-formulaic composition and the Parry-
Lord theory (named after two of its founders). Orality is the verbal
expression in societies characterized by verbiage in societies where the
print medium, writing or technologies of literacy are strange to the
populace/culture.

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Orality may be categorized as primary orality, (that which is defined by

cultures), writing print and the secondary orality of the (familiar age of
electronic, technology culture that expresses orality through radio,
telephone, television and other electronic devices).

We have observed that literature manifests itself in written and oral

forms, but oral literature had its forms that are determined by the oral
nature of the medium. Oral literature, as a result of its multiple roles
within the community, has shown a variety of forms which include
myth, legends, funeral dirges, songs, folktales and praise poetry. In this
unit, we are, however concerned with the major forms of poetry. They
are the dirge and Praise poetry.

3.2 The Origin of African Oral Literature

Oral Literature may be said to be as old as man, hence it is unlike the

written literature that has a set date, periods, even the first writers in a
particular literary genre in most instances are known and the
circumstances that surround the birth of the particular genre of literature
are often known. But, the case of African oral literature uniquely differs
from all such as the actual date of the beginning of African oral
literature may be said to be unknown, and where?, who the first man or
woman to engage in African oral renditions and compositions, either
myths, occupational songs, folktales, proverbs, lullaby’s praise songs,
dirge, elegy and fables is not known. This is because such compositions
are themselves as old as the African continent that breeds and practices
them. Such oral renditions, we may be categorical, belong to the distant
past, the remote part of our existence. We may even say that they are the
‘children’ of the ‘dark age’, birthed by the preliterate societies, the
primitive past of Africa, to actualize certain societal demands of the
periods that produced them, the conditions that gave rise to them.
Indeed, African oral literature originated from the remote past of
Africa. It is not alien to the African cultural compound where it
originated from the extinction (death) of the one generation does not
necessarily mean an end to the African oral literature of the people as
it is a natural law that African oral literature (orature) in all its forms
must be passed onto the succeeding generations, and in the process oral
Artists are trained or emerge to carry on the cultural practices of the
African oral rendition in all its ramifications and aesthetics, including
paraphernalia or materials that are necessary to empower the excellent
executions of such office as it may be deemed fit or depending on the
circumstances or situations that called for its practice.

Yes, the origin of African oral literature is itself embedded in the oral
tradition that birthed and popularized it. Every oral Africa rendition is a
necessary part of the culture of the people, every strand of oral

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composition in Africa does not exist in vacuum as it must necessarily be

woven around events, issues, a story that is/are often directed towards
cultural manifestation, towards enhancing, reviving or strengthening the
people’s moral standard, teaching morals, initiating ceremonies,
entertaining or educating the people.

Perhaps, the fact that African oral literature is more deeply rooted in the
remote part of Africa may be the reason its practice is stronger in the
villages than in the African metropolis, moreso the latter area is
endangered by the thriving wave of civilization backed up by science
and technology. Orature is still a thriving culture in the African society,
even of the modern time. Every strand of oral civilization is woven
around events, history, circumstance, situation and conditions, hence
African oral poetry, for instance is in various forms.

3.3.1 A Dirge

Dirges are usually songs of lamentation sung during or after the burial of
a loved one, thus, we may say that such similar circumstance in the past
may have led to either an individual, group or communal conception of
dirges, thereby giving birth to a tradition of a people that sing dirges in
honour, appraisal or remembrance of their deceased ones, who may be a
hero, heroine, wife, husband, sister, aunt, uncle, nephew, friend or any
loved one.Below are examples of a dirge. The first is a dirge from the
African oral poetry of the Bemba speaking people of Northern
Rhodesia. The second is a dirge written in honour of Diana the Princess
of Wales by Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo.

3.3.1.1 A Dirge of the Bemba Speaking People of Northern Rhodesia

Listen to our sorrow

Hear our lament
The sun has retreated her beauty
The moon shut her glittering eyeballs
Leaving the mournful Earth to
Inherit a stream full of tears
Tears that dripped with the
Mighty torrent of rain
With her swagger stick hitting
hard on the rocks and mountaneous edges
The sun’s rainbow of agreement
betrayed our eyes with
misty unshed tears
Leaving every mouth agape
Each asking, “where are you?”
“Where are you?”

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The ancient battle maker

of ages has gone
Gone with all the rare
Skills of battle making
All the strength
The might of no equal
Anywhere on Earth
He has gone into his Eternal
Home beyond the skies above
To take a seat with our
Ancestors before him, the first
war heroes of our land
Had we fore knowledge
of your departure
We would have requested
Your strong fists
Your bow of targeted destination
Dane gun of magic power
Your million venoms against
Distant enemies of our land
We hadn’t
the premonition that you had
woven your latest battle
into an invisible strand
To transport your soul to Heaven
The mudslingers have slithered
into the mud
The pulprus slithered into the muddy pool
And the sparrow and partridge
flew Heaven ward came calling
The Bat not to slumber
But insist the sun has intercepted the
Darkness as a hero has gone to
Sleep in the broad daylight
Do not rebel
When you arrive in Heaven
Do as they do, eat what they eat
in Heaven
Goodbye Till we meet
Goodbye Till we meet
Goodbye Till we meet in Eternity

Goodbye till Eternity

The above oral dirge of the Bemba speaking people of Northern

Rhodesia is sang for a departed war hero or war general. The poet

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composed the dirge in honour of the deceased member of the Bemba

community using metaphors to lend weight to the skillfulness of the
deceased in the field of battle. He is compared to the retreated beauty of
the sun, moon, leaving the stream and earth mournful in the poem, a
personification which adds to the oral aesthetic of the composition. The
personified rain in the poem also shares in the mournful moment of the
dead war hero, just as humanity was surprised at the shocking departure
of the deceased. The poet laments that the brave warrior left with all his
bravery and war skills unrivalled by anyone on Earth. The valiance of
the war hero the poet says will qualify him to take a seat with the poet’s
ancestors in heaven, the foremost warriors of the land. The poet regrets
that the war hero departed with all his weapons of war, even as his
departure gave no premonition. Also, sea-mammals react to the hero’s
death, the pulprus, mudskippers, partridges, sparrow, bat. The oral dirge
concludes with the hope of meeting the poet again but in eternity.

3.3.1.2 Death of a Princess

Like a meteor
From outer space
Diana, Princess of Wales jetted into world space
Luminous incandescent
World waved stronger she waxed
Dazzling light
Wanning soon
Brief flare
Snuffed out in
The pont de l’Alma
Tunnel, in Paris
August in carriage
Died August, 1997

Outrage. Rage
World mourned
Still mourning
Ten years after
Enemy within
Enemy without
Culpable speculation rife
Paparazzi pursuit
Then smash
Failed relationship
Her bane?
New relationship
Ruled loyalty
M16 prowled

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

AS Diana & Dodi

In Paris roved
Conspirarcy or coicidence?
Royalty indicted?
Exonerated by
Lord Steven Report
But Lord of Harrods
Rayed, temper frayed
Venomous
Cried foul
Royal murder
Diana & dodivictims
Evidence?
Flash of light
Car tampering
Spy plot
Camilla plot
Fear of engagement
Diana herself feared
Her fate sealed
To be ‘chopped’
Like Mary
Queen of Scots
Conclusion discordant:
‘tragic accident
Official claim
‘brutal muder’
Unofficial claim
Final word
Diana is dead
Reset is here in death
Forever free from
Prying Paparazzi
Matchless like
Her Greek namesake
Only lacking immortality
Farewell Princess
Your works live
Living memorial of
Your truthful life.

The dirge laments the sudden death of Diana, the Princess of Wales who
died in a controversial car accident in pont de l’Alma tunnel in Paris in
August 1997. The controversial death of the princess and her new lover,
Dodi, “official claim” insists was an accident but tragical. “Unofficial
claim” however said it was a calculated murder as “prying Paparazzi”

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and “M16 prowled”. The British royalty was also indicted in the sudden
death of Diana and Dodi though “exonerated by Lord Steven’s Report”.
The Princess may have had the premonition of her own death, “Diana
herself feared her fate sealed to be chopped”. Her death according to the
poet might be the hand work of her enemies; and may be a “conspiracy”
or “coicidence”. The dirge concludes that Diana may have died, the
deceased who is still being mourned “ten years” after her death, is at
least “forever free” from her enemies. Wishing her subject eternal rest,
the poet concludes her dirge with the “living memorial” of Diana the
Princess of Wales.

3.3.2 Praise Poetry

Praise poems are often designed to eulogise the virtues of the subject
who may be human, non-human, even a deity, animal, bird, king, tree or
the sea. Oral poetry invokes the qualities of the subject by a generous
use of allusions, simile, metaphors, and onomatopoeic. The following is
an example of the praise poem of the sun by the Tutsi of the great Lake
region in Rwanda-Burundi.

3.3.2.1 A Praise Poem of the Sun

You, the dazzling virgin

of innumerable colours
Colourful eyelashes disguised as
Rainbow
Longest, brightest eyelashes
of magnetic attraction that
stretched wooeing the
Earth
In a humble invitation
To a game of love
A beauty that wooes
Other planets
Earthly creatures
You the bright Jewel
Ancient queen eternal
bestowed longevity
Go on, Go on our virgin
Our heroine, heroic beauty
of ages Anonymous

The above praise poem of the Tutsi praises the sun in glowing language,
embellished with comparisons and personifications, elevating the status

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of the sun even greater than that of man, as embodiment of beauty and
longevity.

Likewise, we reproduce here under, for the purpose of this unit, the oral
praise poetry of the Night moon by the Pygmy People of the Congo.

3.3.2.2 Praise Poetry of the Moon Pygmy People of the Congo

Glittering stars of the white night,

Moon shining on high
Piercing the forest with your pale beams
Stars friend of white ghosts
Moon their protectress
Anonymous Oral Praise Poetry
of the Pygmy People of the Congo

From the poem, we see how the night moon is eulogized in a very
descriptive form and is metaphorically compared to any sharp object or
a knife that could cut through things. The invisible nature of the night
moon as having the capacity to protect is also addressed in a poem that
combines visual with sensory imagery.

Indeed, the conditions that surround the creation of these poems birthed
them in the various rural communities of the different parts of Africa
that practice them. For instance, the condition of death gave birth to
dirges, but heroism and eagerness to immortalize nature birthed praise
poetry.

3.4 Features of African oral Literature

The most important feature of African oral literature is the actual

performance since it is not written down. Ruth Finnegan (1972) also
confirmed this when she insisted that “oral literature is dependent on a
performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion”.

The phrase “on a specific occasion” used above lends weight to all we
have discussed and given examples of from the different parts of Africa
and more specifically that African oral poetry depends on the situation
that formed them.

Oral literature depends not on the written medium but the voicing power
transmitted from one generation to another. The Artist who is to deliver
the oral knowledge through words relies on various visual resources at
his disposal to perform his task because he has his audience waiting
right with him, face to face and such is to his merit. This is because he

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can take advantage of the situation to modify the content of his rendition
or composition, and he may employ the use of idiophones, manipulate
scenes or use a dramatized dialogue, admit the sense of humour. He may
even get his audience involved or perform from the point of view of
aloofness.

3.4.1 Verbal Variability

In terms of verbal variability, the Artist takes or assumes the role of the
original account of the Artist. A well blended with form may even
change the words to achieve aesthetic pleasure and variety to avoid
unnecessary repetition and stereotypical ideas in the work.

The Artist may introduce a new dimension in the form of improvisation,

yet without giving away detailed wordings, and without affecting the
patterned structure and contents of the compositions. Yet, the plot can
be moderately modified by introducing a simple twist, for the purpose of
embellishment. All the additions, subtractions, modifications and so on
are the Artist’s ingenious creativity.

3.4.2 Audience

Another feature of oral literature is a willing audience. Written literature

may not require the use and presence of an audience; but public
audience; is necessary in oral performance as part of the fulfulment of
the requirement of oral tradition.

Audience participation: The audience may occasionally inject ideas,

exclaim, question, or chorus a line or two as may be necessary in the
form of feedback or response to the narration. This justifies the unity of
the African form of oratory or confirmation of joint authorship and may
be for the clarification of ideas.

3.4.3 Method of Delivery

Relying on verbiage, oral literature is passed from one generation to

another, especially during public performance which may be in the
moonlight (night time) or day. The oral Artist gets all the materials he
needs to actualize the story ready, and all these also depend on the
cognitive/retentive ability of the oral Artist to recall past events.

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3.4.4 Action/Performative

Orature backed up by action. Orature should necessarily be

accompanied by action to make the story performative and real to the
listening audience. The use of physical action, gesticulations, signs, and
so on other than depend only on the use of the words of the mouth helps
audience comprehension of the story as signs aids ethical
communication in communal settings. For instance, to mimick the way
Tortoise in African oral folktale walks with a swaggering gait to pretend
to his in-laws that he suffers a fractured leg will exude laughter from the
audience. It buttresses the action better than when such an incident is
merely narrated.

3.4.5 Drumming

The art of drumming aids the delivery system of African oral literature.
Drumming message may be used to convey information in an African
setting. For instance, the talking drum among the Yorubas and in other
ethnic settings of Africa is often used to give ‘decodable’ information
beyond mere guesses.

Although, with science and technology, the use of cinematography

makes it possible for words and actions to be recorded and passed on to
succeeding generation without missing out the elements of oral
performance in orature, but the originality and naturalness that colour
the oral art of the talking drum is irreplaceable and more aesthetically
satisfying. Hence, the Ayan family of drummers among Oyo Yorubas in
Nigeria, West Africa, exemplifies the importance of drummers and
drums in African orature.

3.5 The Oral Artist

There are two types of oral artists, they are the professional and non-
professional artist. The nature of the economy of the traditional
societies, most people usually engage in various occupations such as
farming, fishing, hunting or palm-nut collecting. There was no
specialization, hence no professional artists who depended entirely on
singing or story telling as a means of livelihood. Professionalism was
therefore not developed, it was limited to the court entertainers like the
griots.

The non-professionals refer to the generality of the people who perform

occasionally as artists, but were also otherwise involved in other
occupations. They could receive some tokens during performance, as
artistes, sometime, it could be gifts in the form of food or drink; but did
not base their source of livelihood on performance. The tradition

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African artist was highly regarded in the society in the absence of the
modern forms of entertainment like the cinema, theatres, club houses
and disco arena, tape-recording, television sets and videos. The oral
artist plays all these roles in the society/community. As a respected
entertainer, he relates with every section of the society, thus has free
ticket into every social gathering in the society as his presence makes
social functions livelier and rich.

The artist is the acknowledged historian, teacher, orator, songster,

informant, and culture information and indigenous information
disseminator. He passes vital information to both young and old with his
repertoire of knowledge, of course he ensured through his medium the
continuity and survival of culture and tradition. As cultural historian, he
recounts the exploits of heroes, heroines and their valour or excellence
in war battles or wars. The artist is the respected moralizer and
philosopher. His songs and stories often teach morals and must be
punctuated by nuggets of wisdom. He encourages good behaviour, but
condemns uncultured behaviours as such behaviours deviate from
approved societal norms. By the nature of the African culture and
practices as well as the mode of transmission, every member of the
community is a story teller, songster, and indeed an artist of a kind or
semi-artist as they inherit oral artistry as cultural essence.

3.6 Training of the Oral Artist

In traditional African societies, the oral Artist is not just a story teller or
an entertainer, a philosopher but an acknowledged voice of the people, a
historian, custodian of information, teacher and educator who uses the
oral medium to teach, inform, and educate both young and old on the
culture of the society so as to maintain the continuity of the people’s
culture and tradition. Every member of the society including the aged
belongs to a school of oral repository. The oral Artist many have his
own occupation, but also does not charge for the services he renders to
people, though, he may receive any gift which range from stipends to
gifts like food and drinks, even when he is not invited he freely attends
any social functions in the community to entertain, though, he does not
depend, entirely on story telling or entertainment to earn a living as he
may be gainfully engaged in other occupations in the society such as
farming, fishing or hunting. But, his role as an entertainer is often
recognized in the community as one who preaches virtue to the people.

The training of the oral Artiste was informal and it does not have a
particular duration of time, fees were not charged and there is no
teacher-student relationship as we have in formal education setting. The
skill of story telling may also be acquired by watching other Artistes
perform, and such may take some years.

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ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

After reading the dirge of the Bemba speaking people of Northern

Rhodesia or Adimora Akachi Ezeigbo’s Death of a Princess, in this unit,
you can reproduce the oral dirge from the pool of oral tradition of your
people.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed orature and the origin of African oral
literature. We have also given some examples of orature, specifically
using the dirge of the Bemba speaking people of Northern Rhodesia;
Adimora Akachi Ezeigbo’s Death of a Princess, praise poetry of the
Tutsi of Rwanda and the praise poetry of the Pygmies of the Congo
Basin. We have also discussed the features of African oral literature ,
the personage of the oral Artist, his training as well as mode of delivery
or transmission. Please take note of them all and do a self evaluation by
putting them to practice constantly before you submit to your facilitator.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• orature began in the preliterate societies

• it is possible to reproduce the oral literature of your people
• you can also reproduce a popular dirge of your community
• to identify the features of orature
• who is an oral Artist and his method of training and delivery
system
• that it is also possible for you to produce the praise poetry of your
lineage or of the heroes of your village

In the next unit, you will be introduced to the ‘architecture’ and

‘building blocks’ of African oral literature .

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Explain what you found fascinating about the dirge of the Bemba
speaking people of Northern Rhodesia or Akachi Adimora –
Ezeigbo’s Death of a Princess
2) Return to the oral pool of your people and reproduce a fascinating
praise poem of your choice.
3) Compare the praise poetries of the Tutsi of the great Lake region of
Rwanda and that of the Pygmy of the Congo.

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4) Who is the first African man/woman orature?

5) Who is an oral Artist?

7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Abrahams, S. (1999). The Oral Literary Community and Orature. Jos:

Lenny.

Akachi A.E (2009). Heart Songs. Ibadan: KraftBooks Limited

Akpan, E. (1973). Orature and African Philosophy: The Akan Example.

Accra: Macmillan.

Akporobaro, F.B.O. (2006). Introduction to Oral Literature. Lagos:

Princeton Publishing Company.

Bell, T. (1998). African oral literature and the Artist. New Delhi:
Tasmara

Beratz, S. S. (2000). Orature and the Culture of Regeneration in

African.

Busse, B. (1980). The Roots of Orature. Ede: Felina Publishers.

Chimezie, A. (2001). Beginning with African oral Literature. Enugu:

Bran Books.
Davis, N. (2000). The Oral Literary Artist and His Audience. Lagos:
Pen Prints.

Dill, B. (1980). Native Voices. The African Example. Ibadan: Onibonoje.

Finnegan, R. (1972). Oral Literature in Africa. Ibadan: Macmillan

Hasken, J. (1980). Orature Retold. Benue: Klass Publishers.

Kenneth, B. (1984). Igbo Orature and Literature. Enugu: Louis Press.

Kenneth, K. (2007). Select Orature in Congo. Congo: Metoeu.

Kenu, K. (1968). Orature in Africa – Continuity and Culture. Kano:

Macmillan

Lefkowtzi, Mary (2000). Select Oral Poetry of the Tutsi and Huntsi of
Rwanda, Translated and Recorded by Ketsi Ketsia Merikare.
Rwanda: Raboteur.

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Luthuli B. (1989). Oral Poetry of the Bemba Speaking People of

Northern Rhodesia translated by Luthuli. Brakazi Kenya:
Macmillan.

Meluzan, Bekuzan (1968). Oral Poetry of the Pygmies of the Congo

Basin. Len: Macmillan.

Rasheed, T. (1968). Measuring Africa with her Orature. Ikeja: Golden

Publishers.

Robert, B. (1998). African Philosophy and Voicing from the Past.

Accra: Book Prints.

Robert, H. (1972). African oral Literature, Science and Technology in

the New Age. Kaduna: Price Publishers.

Sain, K. (2004). The Oral Artist and His Society. Kogi: TPrints.

Samuel, O. (1984). Folktales and the Culture of Regeneration. Uyo:

Hean Press.

Udoma, C. (2003). Oral Narratives from Ghana and Nigeria. Enugu:

Coal Books.

Udoma, C. (2004). A Poetic Structure of Hausa Proverbs. Sokoto:

University Press

Usman, A. K. (2003). Women in Hausa Folklore. Kaduna: Hajia Prints.

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UNIT 3 ‘ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING BLOCKS’ OF

AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 ‘Architecture and Building Blocks’ of African oral
Literature
3.1.2 Orature and Language
3.1.3 Subject Matter
3.1.4 Deliberate Artistic Construct
3.1.5 Order of Naratology
3.1.6 African oral literature and the Figurative Use of
Language
3.1.7 Moralistic Tale with End in View
3.1.8 Legendary
3.1.9 Audience Evaluation of Orature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through what really constitute the
‘architecture’ and ‘building blocks’ of African oral literature. As you go
through this unit, you will understand the relationships between
comparing the ‘architectural design’ of a building to the source of
African oral literature and how vital such a beginning is to the general
nature of the orature, what a foundation is to a building. This unit has
been designed in such a way that you will find the study of African oral
literature more interesting.

One of the very important ways to be a successful reader of African oral

literature is to be able to acquaint oneself with the necessary beginning
components of African oral Literature, the chronological or sequencial
ordering of the orature. You will come across situations in which you
may be requested to discuss some aspects of the orature of your people,
the essential foundational pattern and designs, if understood will make
you a super star discussant as you will be able to discuss orature with the
consciousness of the source of any oral narrative, its generational
necessity, as well as look out for possible interferences by recipient
Western cultures like the English, French and Portuguese languages, and

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how the role of the oral artist has helped to shape your communal
verbiage. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define the concept of ‘architecture’ and ‘building blocks’ in

relation to African oral literature
• identify the necessary ‘materials’ that constitute the ‘building’
block of African oral literature
• present any genre of the orature of your people and identity its
‘building block’
• state what makes three of the patterned ‘building blocks’ of more
aesthetic value than the others
• do a critical discussion of the building blocks of African oral
literature

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1.1 ‘Architecture and Building Blocks’ of African oral Literature

The same way buildings are constructed to achieve aesthetics, so also

African oral literature has design, plan and structures that follow a
specific ‘architectural’ fashioning and that is what we may refer to as the
‘building blocks’ of African oral Literature.

3.1.2 African oral literature and Language

In the discussion of African oral literature across its genres, language, an

important element of its processing and building is deliberately
fashioned to play the role of ethical communications and naratology that
African oral literature is known for. Language is woven around
strings of plotted story, arranged and manipulated and shaped to
configure something to become permanent, regenerative and passed on
from one generation to another to give pleasure, happiness, knowledge
and entertainment. It is when language has been used to achieve such a
purpose that we may say that the construction of ‘oral literary edifice’
has been completed for the general populace to serve as their refuge and
or ‘umbrella’ for the people.

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3.1.3 Subject Matter

Subject matter of the African oral poetry with the deployment of

language is an important part of the ‘building block’ of African oral
poetry. The subject matter – what the entire oral poetry is all about
becomes vital. Whether the oral poetry narrates an event using the
folkloric pattern or in its prosaic or dramatic forms, it is still good.

Orature has subject matter or comes up with a statement that must be

relevant to life and human existence. A poem, for instance poem must
strike our mind with some life related values or issues. A poem may
discuss the subject of death, love, courtship and marriage, other deep
frightening mysteries of life; it could also be about politics, economy
and culture. The human emotion is naturally awakened to some realities
of life, depending on the subject matter; an oral form of literature may
adopt the use of dark humour, comparisons, onomatopoeic in its
narration. Everything depends on how the verbal artist is able to present
the story to curry the attention of his audience.

3.1.4 Deliberate Artistic Construct

African oral literature is a deliberate imaginative construct of the society

that breeds it in all its forms. It is a deliberate artistic construct of the
Artist who is also a product of the very society that breeds the story. It is
thus artfully designed to bring pleasure to the life of the members of the
society who are his audience. This means that orature is designed to
purposefully teach moral, and educate the people on some aspects of the
life of the members of the society, including politics, religion and the
promotion of the culture of the people. In the process, the audience
appreciates the oral construct, the leisurely experience that produces
different kinds of satisfaction that accompanies oral literary tradition; be
it emotional, psychological and sometimes physical satisfaction.

3.1.5 Order of Naratology

The expository order of the naratology of African oral poetry is the

order in which the content of the story, plot action and character are
revealed. Mostly the story in African oral literature opens with an
invitation, the audience is often beckoned at to share from the pleasure
of the story to be told, with “Once upon a time” or “Here is a tale” and
the audience responds in acknowledgement of readiness to share the
moral and educative purposes of the story sometimes “with time, time”.
The whole idea behind such opening is to awaken the audience to or
seek the readiness of the audience to be ready for the storyteller who
tells the story. With the popular opening, the story unravels itself

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

gradually, and with audience centred purposefulness directed towards

the realization of the narrative.

3.1.6 African oral literature and the Figurative Use of Language

Written or oral, literary forms all naturally use language figuratively.

When the oral Artist narrates his story, he employs a general use of
figuratives of different types. The use of such figurative is not the
exclusive reserve of the written literature, oral poetries too use them
greatly. The commonly used are metaphors, similes, allusions,
onomatopoeic, hyperbole, climax, imagery. Be it drama, prose or poetry,
in African oral literature, the figurative use of language elevates the
themes and general aesthetics of the work.

3.1.7 There must be a Moralistic Tale with End in View

The tradition of storytelling is a vital part of and the basis of oral

literature in Africa. The period that such story happened does not really
matter, though oral narratives are usually set in a nameless past, and
sometimes involving some unverifiable deities and mythical designs;
there has to be a story to be narrated. It is the story that carries moral
weight and serves as the string of discourse; it is the nucleus upon which
the moral ideology of the society is based. The composition is the
connecting tissue between the oral storyteller and the audience, and of
course, the society because morals are derived from the narration. And
such story must necessarily have an end, as oral narration cannot go on
and on forever without a definite conclusion.

3.1.8 Legendary
Oral literature must be legendary and act on an ideal oral literary focus
that are normally woven around the supernatural, and ideas; such ideas
are the motif that generates excellence for the oral tradition. The
justification for its oral existence is its generous use of legend and
legendary figures in the tale to prove that the cultural value and
existence of a people depend on the legendary nature and figure of the
oral experience.

3.1.9 Audience Evaluation of Orature

After the oral Artist has taken the audience through his narration, the
audience must punctuate the story with exclamation and applause of
various degrees and the spontaneous response from the audience in the
oral context is synonymous with active reading strategies of a written
novel, poetry or drama, the reader’s own comments, and evaluating
strategies. In orature, audience ability to predict the likely end to the
story confirms the audience as a listening audience as oral literary
audience must not be a dormant or sleeping audience. Hence this active

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

involvement is a necessary feedback which serves as a motivating factor

for the Artist who gets encouraged to continue his oral researches for the
purpose of excelling in his chosen trade and to further satisfy his
audience.
Fig. 1 ‘Archtectural’ Pattern of African oral literature

Expanding but elastic infinite pool

of African oral rendition
Interferences from
foreign or recipient
Z cultures, i.e. English,
French, Portuguese, etc
E

D
‘Architecture’ and
C ‘building block’ of
African oral literature
B

A Rising pillar of
African oral
The Rich elastic pool of African oral literature literature
Prose
Drama Poetry
Others

0+ constant
Edifice and or foundation of
African philosophy and Education,
where moralistic tales abound.

Source: Stanley-‘Delodun Oriola, (2011)

Key

0+ constant Oral materials from pool of tradition are

conventionally constant with its moralistic tales.

Rising pillar of orature

Foreign interferences on African orature

A–Z Expanding but elastic pool of orature

X Error factor in African orature

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

Interpretation of Figure (I)

0+ Constant Indicates the rich pool of African oral literature where

moralistic tales abound in brands of conventional African education and
philosophy. The rising arrow located at the right hand side of the
diagramme is the rising and or elastic pillar of African oral literature.
The arrow extends to the pinnacle of the architectural design, even
beyond to indicate the infiniteness of African orature despite foreign
interferences. The broken arrow to the left, next to the rising pillar is the
presence of foreign cultural interferences in African oral literature.
Usually, such interferences are noticeable in African’s recipient
cultures/imposed languages of our colonial masters such as English,
French and Portuguese. A – Z indicates the expanding pool of African
orature.

The arrow to the extreme left hand side of the figure that curved inward,
is marked with three “XXX” to indicate the “error factor” in African
oral literature. The ‘error factor’ is misconceptions and the conflicting
foreign values and battered new image that has been imported into and
or ascribed to African oral literature by foreign tutelage and other
forms of ideological impositions for the purpose of cultural
disorientation and domination.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

With the aid of orature drawn from the pool of tradition of your people,
discuss the building blocks and what makes up the ‘architecture’ of the
oral literature of your people.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have defined ‘architecture’ and ‘building blocks’ in

relation to African oral Literature. We have also given a figure that
represents the ‘growing’ (rising pillar) pattern of African oral literature
from its sufficient oral source of wealthy generous pool of its infinite
pool of inferences. Adequate interpretation of the figure has been
provided to expantiate our perspective of African oral literature consider
our novel idea here as you study the unit, and put all you have learnt into
practice so that your work can justify the fact that you are from a rich
African cultural background.

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• orature passes through some designs the same way a building must
necessarily undergo some form of architectural designs
• you can identify the ‘building blocks’ and architectural design of
the oral literature of your people
• it is possible to differentiate between audience reaction and
expository order of naratology of African oral poetry
• orature has its own source
• orature still suffers certain interferences in modern time
• orature by its nature is elastic.

In the next unit, you will be introduced to the factors that hinder the
growth and development of African oral literature (I).

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Explain the two of the factors that constitute the ‘building block’ of
African oral Literature.
2) What is meant by audience evaluation and prediction in orature?
3) Differentiate between a story and moralistic story in orature.
4) Use two of the architectural designs of African oral literature to
justify a chosen orature of your people or from any part of Africa.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bokson, O. (1999). Seeing through the Window of my Ancestors.

Owerri: Cletus Publishers.

Cauto, M. (1998). In my Village Also. Ethiopia: Heinemann.

Godwin, D. (1965). African oral literature and Recipient Cultures: The

Conflict of Assertion and Precedence. London: Oxford
University Press.

Mtschali, M. (1999). Dancing on the Pole South African Orature in

Perspective. Cape Town: Heinemann.

Omobowale, O. (2000). Orature and Time in Africa. Akure: S and L

Books.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

Onwukwe, N. (2000). Seeing through the Reading Glass of my People.

Enugu: Tenten Books.

Oriola, S. (2007). “Osundare and Olafioye: A Commitment to Novelty

in Modern African Literature” In Adeyemi Daramola and
Olubukola Olugasa (Eds.) Literature and Language. A Drama of
Life, A Festchrift in Honour of Z. A. Adejumo. Lagos: BPrint.

Oriola, S. (2010). ENG 416 – Creative Writing III – A Module Written

and Developed for the National Open University of Nigeria
(NOUN). ISBN 978-058-536-2. Noun, Lagos, Ahmed Aso
Investment Ltd.

Oriola, S. (2011). Swimming in the Pool of African oral Literature:

Dancing with My Ancestors. Jos: Lens Prints.

Sunday, T. (2001). Language and Naratology in African oral Literature.

Jos: Vent and Vent.

Tsuhaya, T. (1969). Orature of my People in Africa: Dancing with the

Head Only. Nairobi: Luthur Prints.

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

UNIT 4 FACTORS THAT HINDER THE GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN ORAL
LITERATURE (I)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Orality
3.1.1 Orature cannot solve the socio-economic and
political problems of the modern man
3.1.2 Design and essence lacks international
intelligibility
3.1.3 Growing readership of the novel genre hinders the
promotion of oral culture and Literature in Africa
3.1.4 Justification using Oral Tales (I)
3.1.5 Problem of translation to foreign cultures
3.1.6 Orature and the question of Nativity
3.1.7 Modus Operandi of Orature is associated with
primitivity and illiteracy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is written to investigate the factors that hinder the growth and
development of African oral Literature. We wish you share from our
current knowledge that African oral Literature, though is still being
practiced in many parts of Africa, the enthusiasm with which it is being
practiced today is not the same as it was in the past three or so decades.
In other words oral literary researchers agree with our opinion that the
practice of orature in modern Africa dwindles daily and there are
obvious factors that contribute to its present retrograde. Thus, our
understanding of such factor that hinder our once thriving culture of
orality will help improve your awareness of how to help revive the
‘dead’ and ‘dying’ or vanishing parts of African orature.

This unit has been written to expose you to the demeaning factors that
are characteristically responsible for the waning culture of your people.
This aspect is also important for you as you may continue to encounter
situations that may compel you to say or write something about the
present state of African oral Literature.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

We wish to continue this important discussion in the next unit. Below

are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• say something about the present state of African oral Literature

• use examples drawn from your oral tradition to explain the
weakness of orature from the economic perspective
• explain design, lack of international intelligibility in African oral
Literature
• discuss the negative influences of the modern African novel on the
growth of African oral Literature
• assess how (translation) recipient cultures are problematic to the
growth of African oral Literature
• do a critique of orature and the question of nativity
• familiarize yourself with primitivity and illiteracy as demeaning
factors to the growth of African oral Literature
• create a table to show how translation process from English
Language to orature impacts negatively on the growth of African
oral Literature and diminishes its aesthetic appeal.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Orality

Orality, which is the unwritten cultural ‘theatre’ of the African peoples

is practiced with similar cultural activities but with some regional
differences, is a common property of all across Africa. The strength of
oral performance in Africa may be said to be in the decline in the last
few decades, and the factors which we have identified in our discussion
hinder the spread and development of African oral literature across the
regions.

3.1.1 Oral literature cannot solve the socio-economic and political

problems of the modern man

The contemporary belief of the modern man that the thriving oral
literary culture does not, and or cannot solve his socio-economic and
political problems, and so should not be studied is unnecessary. Such a
discouraging view hinders the growth and development of the
individual’s interest in advancing the cause of the verbal art. Beyond
discussing mythical issues of legendary virtue, oral literature according
to the general opinion of the modern man cannot make one smile to the
Bank or put food on one’s table and it is not recognized by the
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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

instrument of state as the solution to the modern man’s complex

political problems in Africa.

3.1.2 Design and essence lack international intelligibility

Oral literature has been designed by the community or tribe that

produced it for African communal socio-cultural representation. Its
language and intelligence about Africa for African audience, and the
materials of the oral Artist are of African origin. Its setting, plot, story
and characters are all of African descent for the purpose of satisfying the
African audience of the narrative. For instance, an African folktale about
the Tortoise will necessarily draw its characters from the African pool of
communal folktales to achieve its primary purpose. Though the cultural
nuances may make no meaning to the Western community, it is relevant
to Africa, the roots of such a design.

3.1.3 The growing readership of the novel genre hinders the

promotion of oral culture and literature in Africa

Since the publication of the historic romance Sesotho in 1908 written by

Thomas Mafolo, translated by F. H. Duton, followed by Solomon
Plaatje’s Mhudi in 1930, Eighteen Pence by Obeng of Ghana in the
1940’s. Songs of the City by Peter Abrahams of South Africa in 1945,
Palmwine Drinkard by Amos Tutuola of Nigeria (1952), Houseboy by
Ferdinand Oyono (1954) and Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart in
Nigeria in (1958). Over half a century the novel genre has increased in
number and popularity and writers from every part of Africa are adding
a sizeable number to the increasing volumes of the novel written by
Africans every year. With such development, the novel in Africa, it
seems, has displaced the African oral literature in fame, popularity
and acceptability with its compulsory use in primary and post-primary
schools.

3.1.4 Jusitifcation using Oral Tale (I)

We may further justify the above with a sample oral tale of the Yorubas
as follows:

Once upon a time there was famine in the animal world at a time, birds
and animals were friends. A great famine affected animals and birds so
much that they could not fly over great rivers and difficult terrains to
acquire food for themselves and loved ones. The animals called a
meeting where it was agreed that Animals should source for food from
three sources, the human society and among birds and in the sea. But,
//Arogidigba//, the chief mermaid refused, she said she could not offer
her children as food to animals, but //Ogbigbotirigbo// a predatory bird

42
ENG 814 MODULE 1

agreed to fly the Tortoise to a distant land to fetch food for the hungry animals; but got nothing in return as the Tortoise gave all what
she got to her family in exclusion of the animals all of whom became angry, threw her against the Iroko tree, and shattered her shell.
The party that went to the human world in search of food arrived when man was in a festive mood, celebrating the festival of
abundant food, singing, dancing and drumming with tall //Igunuko//, masquerade. A deity, //Orunmila// chaired the human festival of
food. Instead of man giving food to the animals, they killed the animals as meat for the festival. As a result and up to now, man
delights in hunting animals for food, and in retaliation, the powerful ones among animals kill man whenever the need arises. And
because of the refusal of the chief mermaid to help, the predatory bird kills fishes, and animals too kill fishes for food.

We have attempted a translation of the above anonymous oral tale of the Yorubas, but we notice that as it is the tradition of orature, it
is important that we translate some key words identified in the orature when narrating the story in modern time. We have provided a
figure below a translatory paradigm of such words in Standard British English. Let us see the problems we may encounter in our
translation of key concepts in the African folktale to the English language.

Table 1: Translation process (recipient culture as problem of African oral Literature)

Source of words pool of Words Origin of Nature of tale Oral Poet First language of Literary Level of meaning
oral tradition constant tale rendition meaning Standard British
and unique to source Translation
culture Igunuko Yoruba Yoruba Anonymous Yoruba A stretching Meaning
0(+)+(+)0+ constant trickstar tale masquerade Exaggerated (+)(+)+
Non-existence +-(+)-
Suffer reduction –(+)
Arogidigba Yoruba Yoruba Anonymous Yoruba A chief mermaid Translated forms
Orature handicapped (TFH)

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

Ogbigbotirigbo Yoruba Yoruba Anonymous Yoruba A predatory birdTranslated forms

Orature handicapped (TFH)
Orunmila Yoruba Yoruba Anonymous Yoruba A Yoruba god of Translated forms
Orature creation, handicapped (TFH)
sculptor

Source: Adapted from Stanley-‘Delodun Oriola (2007:70)

Key
0+0+ constant = Source culture of words are constant
+ = meaning of source words translated may be exaggerated
- = meaning aesthetics of source words diminish
(+)-(+)-(+)- = non-availability of appropriate lexical items
TFH = non-availability of appropriate lexical item to exhaustively capture the source meaning of words

Interpretation of table 1

From the table 1, 0 is constant because in orature, the original value of words taken from the pool of orality is as conventionally
constant and as culturally unique to its oral source, hence the (+) addition and (-) subtraction signs indicate that when words are
extracted from the source culture into the recipient culture, the meaning of such word is either exaggerated, distorted or devalued.

The non-existence indicates possible non-availability of appropriate lexical items in the recipient culture (English), the (TFH) means
that translated or forcefully translated words from Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa or any other African oral source to any recipient culture,

44
ENG 814 MODULE 1

English, French or Portuguese, are often handicapped as they may not be

exhaustive in capturing the source (oral) meaning of words. Based on
the above, we may further place the words from the oral literature on
levels of meaning.

Fig. 2
Level (I) – Masquerade
Level (i)
Level (II) – Masked man
Level (ii)
Igunuko Level (III) – Stretching masquerade
Level (iii)
Level (IV) – Elastic masked man
Level (iv)

From the above meaning, there are four levels of Igunuko and a critical
examination of the word in relation to the Yoruba oral culture clearly
indicates dissatisfaction as none even capture the conventional meaning
of the concept within the framework of cultural usage. It then means that
the validity or authenticity of a source word suffers when the native
content is expressed in a foreign language.

The novel as a recent trend has enjoyed phenomenal growth with its
ability to adopt apparently easy form of expression capable of reaching
the largest possible readership who have close interaction with the novel
genre.

3.1.5 Problem of Translation to Foreign Culture

African oral literature represents and emphasises communal spirit and
everyone is an integral part of the community. Thus its language of
creation is that of its community be it the Akan, Ewe, Ashanti and Fanti,
Tiv, Ibibio, Ebira, Yoruba, Ilaje, Hausa, Igbo, Jukun, Tutsi, Pygmies to
mention a few when these mentioned variants have their Artists
compose their African oral literature in their different dialects. So, for a
non-African native to be able to understand the oral composition of the
different oral perspectives, such has to be translated to the recipient’s
culture for easy communication and comprehension. So, the problem of
oral translation makes it impossible for African oral literature to be
popularized, acceptable to people of other cultures. Even in African
societies, mostly, oral literary experience of the people are translated
within the culture for easy discussion.

3.1.6 Orature and the Question of Nativity

Rendition of oral literature in Africa is mythical and legendary. Beyond

the African continent, even elsewhere in the world, among the Greeks,

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

Romans, Native Americans, Latins, and other parts of the world, the oral
Artist everywhere finds himself on the same path with co-oral Artist in
other parts of Africa, though, there may be a little deviation in name
callings and plot of say creation myth, but the similar paths are often
visible. As a result of the general claim to oral literature by every
indigenous settlement all over the world, people find the answer to the
question of the nativity of oral literature simple. Whose is orature?,
Africans?, Americans?, Greeks?, Latin?. Orature is the child of every
tribe and nationality.

3.1.7 Modus Operandi of orature is associated with primitivity and

illiteracy

Modus operandi of oral literature is associated with primitivity and

illiteracy. The modern man nurses dislike for the oral literary tradition
considering its proximity to tradition and pre-literate society. The
different aspects of orature, such as incantations, invocations and getting
oneself initiated into some forms of cults and cultisms are considered
loathsome. With such experience, everything backward, evil,
retrogressive, primitive and socially unacceptable are associated with the
African oral literature and culture.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Discuss the problem of translation to foreign culture in African oral

literature

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have mentioned and explained some factors we consider

inhibitive to the growth and development of African oral literature in our
advancing world of science and technology.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that the African oral literature is
diminishing, and that the factors identified and discussed are responsible
for that.

In Unit 5 of this module, we further our discussion of the factors that are
responsible for the growth and development of African oral Literature.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below
1) With the aid of oral poetry selected from the oral tradition of your
people, argue in favour of the assertion that people are not as
enthusiastic about African oral literature like in the days of our
forefathers.
2) Provide an orature of your choice and proof that the problem of
translation is indeed a problem to the advancement of African
oral Literature.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akachi A.E. (2009). Heart Songs.Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited

Akporobaro, F.B.O. (1994). Understanding Poetry. Lagos: Dimudus

Publishers.

Basqoz, I. (1986). “Digression in Oral Narrative: A Case Study of

Individual Remarks by Turkish Romance Tellers”. Journal of
American Folklore, 99:391.

Dauda, A. (1974). Singing Aloud in my Native Voice – A Collection of

Selected African oral Literature. Minna: Audu Press.

Enekwe, O. (1987). The Oneness of Ritual and Theatre (A Nigerian

Magazine Publication). Lagos: Department of Culture, Federal
Ministry of Information and Culture.

Gbotako, U. (1980). Orature in Conflict with Orature: Voicing Hausa

Praise Poetry to be Heard. Kaduna: Macmillan.

Hamilton, G. (1985). Oral Narrative in African oral Literature. Sokoto:

Sokoto State Press.

Isidore, O. (1982). Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Mphaphlele, E. (1986). Poetry and Humanism: Oral Beginnings.

Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

Olusola, A. (1990). Singing for the Dead: In Defence of African oral

Literature. Ibadan: Kemu Publishers.

Thompson, L. A. (1991). Introducting, Culture and Civilization. Lloyd

Thompson (Ed.). Ibadan: Afrika-Link Books.

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

UNIT 5 FACTORS THAT HINDER THE GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN ORAL
LITERATURE (II)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Too culture specific
3.1.2 Distortion of facts and history
3.1.3 Hypothetical and cumbersome
3.1.4 Women as underdog in orature
3.1.5 Inferior representation of life
3.1.6 Evasive moral in place of ‘truthful lies’
3.1.7 Inconsistencies and unrelated, conflicting plot structures
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have written and developed this unit to further our discussion of the
problems that hinder the development of African oral literature in our
competitive world of cultures and cultural interferences. Though, you
are already familiar with these factors, we wish to refresh your memory
of some of the constraints to the growth of African oral literature which
you may have forgotten.

It is high time you understood that African oral literature and culture are
contending with some inhibitive factors, some of which we have
discussed in the previous unit and refreshing your memory within our
current unit by adding a sizeable number. This unit has been specifically
written so you may believe that African oral literature has not gotten to
its height of development. And reflecting on your study years as a
degree student in the university and indeed your boyhood and ‘girlhood’
years of cultural beginning, you will have no doubt that African oral
literature/culture must be consistently ‘rebranded’ in our attitudes and
practices for cultural consistency. Below are some of the objectives of
this unit.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of orature and culture specific

• juxtapose our retreating oral cultural heritage with the encroaching
age of science and technology using any oral tale, poetry or drama
• use instances from your oral culture to argue that orature distorts
history or facts
• differentiate between the cumbersome nature of orature and the
treatment of women as underdog in African oral literature
• state and explain the inhibiting factors to the growth of African oral
literature
• identify the inhibiting factors to the growth and development of the
orature of your community
• discuss how orature contributes to misrepresent life and erase moral
for ‘truthful lies’.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

In our current world of advancing science and technology, the modern

African society seems to pay little attention to creating any meaningful
awareness that will promote the verbal art in the new Africa of cultural
disorientation and culture conflicts. Hindrances to the growth and
development of African oral literature are.

3.1.1 Too culture specific

African oral literature is the expression of continental cultural concern,

though with regional colorations. It is the vanguard of cultural
nationalism, representing the community in the people’s own language,
maintaining interractional philosophical view of the people, the culture
that is the binding string that holds the social cultural and spiritual
values of the people together. Those who do not share common culture,
principles and consciousness together with the African oral articulants
will see themselves in danger of servitude in tranquility and will
distance themselves from such ‘fettish’ practice, no matter how popular.

3.1.2 Distortion of facts and history

Orature and specifically African oral literature is often culture specific

and as the people’s voicing power in our world of multiplicity of culture
and cultural practices, with its combination of myths, mythical
experiences, fables, proverbs, folktales that do not have universal appeal
and representation, it is believed to be nothing but mere distortion of

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

facts and a recreation of what would have been oral history and
historiographical record.

3.1.3 Hypothetical and cumbersome

Beginning from the oral Artist’s investigation into the cultural vibrancy
of his people so that he shares with his audience, the necessary gathering
of oral related materials to make performance real, attractive and
purposeful, the general concession is that the whole process is doomed
because of its cumbersome nature. And, with the combination of the
artistry and personage, the latter involves mythical and or legendary
personages, orality is considered hypothetical, especially as the
legendary characters in the oral narration are remote.

3.1.4 Women as underdog in orature

The retarding growth and development of African oral literature may not
be unconnected with its treatment of women and themes related to
women. Women who are naturally the custodian of orature feel excluded
in the growth and promotion of the verbal art they ‘mothered’
considering the oral handling of feminine-related themes and stories.
Women in orature are either treated as incapable of advancing beyond
the level of negative images, as witches, traitors, and slaves of men; or
as nymphomaniacs such reduce women’s interest in the promotion of
orature.

3.1.5 Inferior representation of life

Most oral narratives give the audience the mental trouble of re-
interpreting the narrative, as the oral narrator hardly tells tales from the
soul and intelligence and normal state. Events are hardly stated from
simple reality and to emphasise the artistic doctrine that is also expected
to be drawn from the story, thus preventing the Artist’s tale from having
any good effect.

3.16 Evasive moral in place of ‘truthful lies’

The oral composer cum narrator is also an Independent Artist but acting
within the confine of his cultural dependency or communal norms, the
Artist may get carried away to an extent that he concentrates only on the
story line and unconsciously compromises the moral truth, credibility of
the story, thus reducing the ‘authenticity’ of the story to nothing. The
oral Artist is also an experimentalist. The observer in him recreates the
story as handed down to him orally. He finds the experimentalism in
him editing the story he narrates. During such experimental intrusion, he

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

misses out or bends the succession of facts of the story, in the process
allowing his temperamental machinery to interfere in certain conditions
of the narration, denying the story the mechanism of facts. In the
process, the truth of the story is then reduced to ‘truthful lies’.
The major implication of this is that the Artist ends up suppressing
moral truth. In the ‘tale telling’, the Artist may omit what is tedious or
irrelevant and suppress what is tedious but necessary. This may happen
for instance in the process when the oral Artist re-constructs his
characters, controls and makes them speak, the audience listens, and
watches them function.

3.1.7 Inconsistencies and unrelated, conflicting plot structure

Orature is often marred by inconsistencies and unrelated plot structure.

The Artist may allow his private emotion to get in the way of a story and
finds himself retelling the tale different from a version he inherited. He
may even form a character whose traits may be different from the
original. He cannot put all characters in a story unless he was to have the
whole day or week, even months to himself for the story and this is not
even possible. He has to select traits and take some traits for granted. He
must do everything to make his characters memorable to his audience if
he wants them to go home without leaving the morals of the story
behind. The oral Artist must strive to leave a good and permanent
impression on the minds of the reader. The oral Artist must be careful,
or else, inconsistencies will mar the plot of the oral narration, making it
difficult for the audience to fully comprehend the story.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

State the narrative plot of any oral tale of your community.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have identified and discussed the inhibitive factors to the
growth and development of African oral literature. Some of the
identified factors are too culture specific, distortion of facts,
hypothetical, women as underdog and evasive moral.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• orature is too culture specific

• orature is identified with the distortion of facts and history

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

• the cumbersome and hypothetical nature of orature is an

impediment to its further growth and acceptability beyond the
African cultural environment

In Module 2, Unit 1, you will be introduced to how oral literature serves

as the bedrock of written literature, though the latter now is more
popular than orature as a result of the continuous incursion of modernity
and erosion of African values. The first Unit of the next module reveals
the relationship between African oral culture, colonial intrusion and the
battered image created about Africa and the struggle by educated
Africans to redeem the blackmailed African culture through diverse
creative efforts.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Explain the inhibiting factors to the growth and development of

African oral literature
2) Using an orature, explain how orature may be said to treat
women as underdog
3) Using an orature of your choice, how does orature distort history
and facts
4) Identify an aspect of the orature of your community and explain
what you find inconsistent about it
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

David, B. (2006). Orature-Riding through the Rough Road of the

Orature of my Community. Ikeja: Gate Publishers.

Enekwe, O. (1987). The Oneness of Ritual and Theatre (A Nigerian

Magazine Publication). Lagos: Department of Culture, Federal
Ministry of Information and Culture.

Gbotako, U. (1980). Orature in Conflict with Orature: Voicing Hausa

Praise Poetry to be Heard. Kaduna: Macmillan.
Hamilton, G. (1985). Oral Narrative in African oral Literature. Sokoto:
Sokoto State Press.

Ibraheem, D. (1988). Hausa Praise Poetry. Kano: Heinemann.

Isidore, O. (1982). Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

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ENG 814 MODULE 1

King, M. (1984). Journey to my Ancestors – Praise Poetry of the

Luthuli.
Taban, K. (1975). The Orature of the Akan People – From the Unknown
to the Known Artist. Accra: Macmillan.

Uchechukwu, A. (1955). Winning with the Dead. Praise Song of the

Ibibio. Delta: Delta Publishing Ltd.

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

MODULE 2 NATIVE VOICES AS AFRICAN ORATURE

Unit 1 African oral literature as the Source of Written

Literature
Unit 2 ‘Incursions’, Code-modifications and Transitions in
African oral literature
Unit 3 Poetry in African oral Literature
Unit 4 Drama in African oral Literature
Unit 5 Prose in African oral Literature

UNIT 1 AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE AS THE SOURCE

OF WRITTEN LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Written literature and African oral culture
3.1.2 Colonialism, Negritude and other reactions from African
writers
3.1.2.1 Igbo oral poetry from Nigeria – West Africa
– Breaking colanut
3.1.2.2 Akan, speaking people’s dirge, Ghana, West
Africa, Owusu
3.1.2.3 Senegalese praise poetry, Senghor’s I Will
Pronounce your Name
3.1.2.4 David Diop’s The Vultures
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit has been designed to take you through the relationships
between African oral literature and the written Literature. This unit is
meant to reflect the role that African oral literature played in the
beginning of written or imported culture (English, Portuguese, French)
and other inherited colonial languages.

In this unit, we have created a chain of thought, like, beginning from the
incursion of colonialism and missionary activities and subsequently the
place of Western education in African cultural setting as well as how
African writers who later acquired Western education used the recipient

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culture to fight the prevailing misleading Western ideology about

African cultural heritage and civilization.

Examples of the poetry used for our purpose in this unit are, “breaking
colanut”, “Owusu”, “I will pronounce your name” and “The Vultures”.
Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• recreate the orature of your village or community

• get familiar with the African oral literature of your people
• discuss some of the traditional African poems written in English or
any of the recipient cultures
• do a critical assessment of some African poems written by Africans
to redeem the battered African image
• create a poem from the African oral poem of your people
• compare the themes in Breaking Colanut and Owusu
• outline the themes in Senghor’s “I will pronounce your name”
• evaluate the social and economic contexts of “Breaking Colanut”
• list the themes in “Owusu”
• recall the themes in “The Vultures”

3.1 Written Literature and African oral Culture

We may not be adamant here by trying to wriggle out a definition for

written Literature, this is because, a particular definition at this time may
not be sufficient for us, and we are also conscious of the fact that hardly
are there generally acceptable complete definitions/of written Literature,
it does not matter whether it is American, English, West Indian, French,
German, Russian or African Literatures. The Literature of a people must
have basis, a function. It is the total way of life of a people that makes
up their Literature, written or oral, or such ways of life may be culture
specific, about religion, economy, politics, dressing, occupation,
conflicts, peace, customs, tradition, proverbs, drama, riddles, etc
everything, anything that defines the existence of the people, their total
make-up, history, politics, geography, pattern. In fact, the oral Literature
of a people may be said to be the bedrock of their written Literature, the
basis upon which the written literature is fashioned. Be it as it may,
written Literature, we may argue, owes its foundation and existence,
contents, subject matter, themes and style to orature. This is the reason it
is conceivable to give oral literature its place of recognition, even while
discussing written Literature, no matter the perspective from which
written literature may be discussed. Apart from the above, we should not
forget that Europeans on civilizing mission to Africa met a thriving
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culture of written Literature in some parts of Africa even before the

romances of Europe, earlier than Roman-Caesar’s civilizing incursion
into the German tribes of Vercingetorix in the 1st century. And with the
discovery of Papyrus in Egypt in the early centuries, written Literature
we may say has a long tradition in parts of Africa.

Prior to colonialism, Africa’s thriving oral tradition and culture had

expressed itself in the forms of folktales, myths, dirges, songs of various
types, festivals, drama, poetry, and various narration. The African
culture, ceremonies, rituals, music, and so on are based on African
beliefs and practices as we discussed earlier in our previous units in
Module One. Africans had their own form of indigenous education, and
customs. The people governed themselves according to established
norms, practices and maintained close intimacy with their ancestral
spirits; hence it is common among Africans to discuss cosmological
(reality) world (The believe in the worlds of the living, the dead and the
unborn including spirits). The form of expression among Africans
accommodates every way of life of the people, including occupational
ethics like farming, religion, societal norms, taboos, the natural
environment that includes, the sun, moon, plants, the sea and mammals,
hills, and trees. Africans were versed in music and drama with all the
materials that were necessary for such traditional ‘offices’. In African
oral culture and education, stories are woven around every object,
conditions and situation, with the aim to teach morals thereby educating
the community. The African understandably and culturally knows that
such stories must be passed on from one generation to another with the
continuous purpose of exercising the ingenuity of an average African
and with the primary aim of educating and entertaining the community.

Africans take advantage of every situation to teach morals and educate

the community for the purpose of cultural transmission. Even in pre-
colonial African societies, villages and remote towns, the culture of the
people manifested fully, in line with the religious, economic and
political setting, governed by the kings and chiefs. In pre-colonial
Africa, white missionaries met this practice and witnessed, the local
governance in many African settings. The mode of government in the
African political situation was what Western philosophers appraised
with its system of justice, local communal ethics punctuated with the
maintenance of law and order. Early missionaries in many African
villages testified to the cultures of families and clans and kingdoms with
their kings and have been expressed in the archeological discoveries that
all combined to exonerate Africa from the prevailing Eurocentric writers
of the period with their repressive ideology of the continent being the
white man’s grave, a colony of disease, death and uncivilized and
uncultural people. But the oral cultural practices of Africa in their
varieties helped to disabuse misleading Western conceptions and

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egocentricism. This image of distortion, denial and degradation which

characterized the history of Africa was also expressed in the perspective
of the history Professor at Oxford University, Professor Hugh Trevor
Roper. He denied the existence of African history, but admits the
existence of ‘darkness’ which according to him is not a subject of
history. He was of the view that European history is superior to all
others and deserves the mention of every race.

Joseph Conrad too in his Heart of Darkness (1910) used negative

images and words such as “niggers”, “dark things”, the very heart of
darkness”, “evil, God forsaken wilderness” and such to establish the
inhumanity of the Blackman and his ‘God-forsaken’ part of the Earth.
Yet the Ivory with which God blessed the Congo attracted the white
men to the ‘savage’ continent; and ironically wealth from the
exploitation was used for the development of the West. The West has
seen the reality of Africa’ rich culture and viable economy but only
chose to give a dog a bad name so as to be able to hang him. The West
witnessed Africa’s rich culture, especially her poetry, drama and prose,
the local economy and trade. There were powerful African kings and
court attendants and poets, and heroes that lived over the centuries. The
various art forms were practiced everywhere in Africa, among the Ewe
of Ghana, the Ashantehene, Yorubas of Nigeria, the Tutsi of Rwanda,
Zotho of South Africa. It is not possible to name all the categories of
orature in Africa before the arrval of colonialism, but Ruth Finnegan
(1968) too was categorical that long before the advent of the white men,
Africa had when she rich cultural dirges, praise singers in the courts of
chiefs and kings, professional chants like hunters’ chants, farmers’
chants and fishermen’s chants and weavers and potters, tappers. In fact
all categories of African related occupations.

However, with the Berlin Conference of 1884/1885, African countries

were divided among the Western nations for the purpose of domination
and imperial exploitation. And, with the resumption of full missionary
activities in Africa, full missionary journeys began and to help their
desires the European had to understudy African oral tradition so that
they could have ideas of the culture, tradition and languages of the
people, perhaps for effective colonialism.

Therefore, a fusion of the African culture and that of the West – became
inevitable. The colonizers hid under the umbrella of Christianising the
indigenous Africans, and liberating them from their culture which they
described as ‘fetish’ and retrogressive. There was a need for the natives
to acquire Western education and this infiltration of Western education
was achieved with colonialism and the introduction of the indirect rule
system of government through which African culture and tradition
further suffered deprivation. We should state that while all these were

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taking place, there were spontaneous reactions against imperial

domination across Africa. Some of them are the works of D.O
Fagunwa’s Ogboju Ode ninu Igbo Irumole (1952), Oludare Olajubu’s
Ewi Egungun (1972), Ijala songs by Adeboye Babalola in (1960),
Tutsu’s poetry of Kagame of Rwanda, Chukwuma Onwukwe’s Igbo
native dirge (1962) Hausa poetry in praise of the Emir (King), Ewe oral
poetry, Akan women’s praise poetry of their kings, Yoruba oral poetry,
Ijala Ode, hunter’s chants, oral political satirical poetry of the Hausas
dedicated to Daniya, Yoruba chants in favour of Ogun the god of iron
and metallurgy, Rara, Ofo or Ogede poetries of the Yorubas, oral praise
poetry of the Iroko tree (mahogany tree), Epic poetry of war of Ibibio.
The oral rendition of the Luo, Baganda, Gikuuyu, Masai and the Bahim
of Ankole are cross-section of Africans in East Africa who are also
skilful oral poets. East African heroic reactions praise man and animals.
Every African culture encourages children to create praise poetry in
preparation for a future father-in-law who would request a praise poem
from his daughter’s suitor as a condition to giving his daughter away in
marriage.

The various examples of oral rendition are a proof that oral tradition is
indeed Africa’s heritage with its diverse norms, values and societal
codes and responsibilities and must be exposed to all, including
European who earlier denied the presence of any form of culture in
Africa. Hence, oral Africa practitioners deliberately used the African
verbal arts to disabuse the minds of Eurocentric writers and scholars
who propagated the misleading view that Africans had no culture. The
traditionalists also used the African orature to reject Western civilization
with all its complexities, but the hope of a developmental change for the
better which the ‘new order’ promised later made a few Africans
cautiously embrace Western education and civilization. The revivalists
or reformists believe in the fusion of both African and Western
education to fashion out a new belief based on the byproduct of the dual
cultures with the aim of achieving enduring traditional religion. Yet,
Africans of the period and succeeding generations have considered it
their primary responsibility to continue to respond to Western arguments
about the non-existence of African culture and history in world culture
and civilization. They continue to recite praise poems during the
coronation of a king. Some praise poems centre on the heroes singular
bravery in war, especially the Ila ‘Ekyuugo’ which praises the heroic
dexterity and those of his comrades in war. The second type is the ‘Ekira
hiro’ that praises a man’s cattle. These praise poetry types are different
from the Yorubas that often centre on kings.

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3.1.2 Colonialism, Negritude and Other Reaction from Africa

It is apparent that long before the advent of colonialism, a very rich and
robust culture of orature existed in every part of black Africa. The
coronation of a new king, sighting of a new moon, birth of a baby, house
warming ceremony, a successful hunting expedition, indeed, almost
every occasion of significance called for the making of poetry. Pioneer
African poets who had acquired European Education took advantage of
the written medium to address and romanticize Africa with a deep sense
of nostalgia. One of the founders of Negritude, the leading Senegalese
poet named Leopold Sedar Senghor was in France where he knew Aime
Cessaire and Leon Gotran Damas of Guyana in the 1930’s. The man
came up with the philosophy of Negritude or “poetry of
refusal/repudiation to counter a stereotyped Eurocentric idea of the
writer’s eccentricity, hence African philosophy to Europe assumed a
“headlight” function and to Africa an “echo-sounder” (Oriola, 2007).
These poets crafted their poems using materials from the African
communal pool of folktales to deliberately glorify the past of Africa so
as to correct her battered image, as seen in Senghor’s ‘Prayer to masks’,
Nuit de Seine, I came with you and camp 1940; all loudly and
provocatively serving as artistic evocation of an African cultural
heritage. Also, some poets from Angola and Mozambique eminently
battled with a Portuguese system of colonial exploitation. The poems of
Augustino Neto, De Saousa and George Rebelo will forever be
remembered for their imagistic and lyrical approaches with which they
condemned the perceived aberration of the West in its response to
African culture and religion.

In addition to the efforts of the Negritude poets, there were Africans

who did not travel abroad to acquire European Education but were
trained by colonial teachers. Those who had gone abroad in the process
of acculturation, later known as educated returnees such as Gladys
Casely Hayford and Michael Dei Anag of Ghana, Dennis Chukwude
Osadebay and Gabriel Okara of Nigeria explored their literary ability in
the Western sense to protest the customs of colonial overlords, material
exploitation, racial discrimination, and other forms of negative policies
deliberately designed to underdevelop African communities. Up to now,
African writers take the advantage of the fusion of the Western and
African cultures to protest western intrusion and bastardization of the
African culture and tradition and other forms of inhumanities. Writers
such as Cyprian Ekwensi, Chinua Achebe, Amos Tutuola, Ngugi Wa
Thiong’o, David Diop, Birago Diop, Gabriel Immomotime Okara,
Dennis Brutus, Kofi Awoonor, Titus Chukwuemela Nwosu, Niyi
Osundare, Tayo Olafioye, Kofi Ayidoho Awono, Jared Angira, Stanley
Oriola, Frederick Akporobaro, Hope Eghagha, Bai Tamiah Lubega,
Khona Khasu, Muktarr Mustapha, Mazisi Kunene, Atukwei Okai, Wole

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Soyinka, Christopher Okigbo, Flora Nwapa, Adaora Ulasi, Mariama Ba,

Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo, John Pepper Clark-Bekederemo, Yao
Egbiewogbe, Michael Echeruo, Kalu Uka, Taban Lo Liyong and many
others belong to this category. While some of them were more
concerned with battling foreign intrusion; some criticized the home
breed post-Independence politicians who were agents of destruction
planted by the whites. Their themes span the genres of literature, letters
and essays through which they intervene in the socio-economic and
political conditions, of abuses in the various parts of African societies
with the intention to develop and reform the society and by extension,
the continent of the Blackman. Some of their later works focus on the
African home front with her post-colonial, post-independent abuses,
socio-cultural, economic and political corruption, including gender
oppression. The poems discussed below are representative samples from
different parts of Africa.

3.1.2.1 Poem (I) Traditional, Breaking Cola nut

Translated from the Igbo by Lawrence Emeka

God the Creator

Who lives on high
And his eyes cover the whole ground
Who lives under the ground
And no dirt soils him
Who lives in the waters
And is dry;
Who moves with the winds –
The wind is never seen by the eyes –
And yet, air is everywhere
I come with greetings
And with pleadings

GOD THE TRYST MAKER

Who makes tryst with men
Makes appointments with them
Where and when he pleases
And they cannot escape
God who creates and who destroys
Who beats up human beings
And consoles them
Crushes them and remains their friends;
Who brings and takes away
And who creates
Before the created knows

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At dawn, we open our doors and our mouths

At night we close our doors
But not our minds

It is KOLA I bring
It’s all I can offer
A little baby
Can only hold its mother
As far as its hand can go
Kola is small
And yet it’s big
Like the sacrificial food
It is more important than it goes round
Than that it fills the stomach
Our fathers’ fathers
And their fathers before them
All our ancestors –
Saw all the fruits of the land
But they chose Kola
As the prime substance for hospitality
And for offerings
What an old man lying down has seen
Has the young man ever seen better
Though he perches on the highest tree?

Of all food on earth

Only Kola
Is not cocked by water and fire
But by spoken word
The rich can afford it and the poor can afford it
And Kola is the biggest offering
Men bring to you GREAT GOD
To whom the swallower of what swallows an elephant
And with an hippopotamus tucked into its mouth
And palm as chewing stick
Whistles freely
Is smaller than spittle

It is not that Kola

Is the sweetest food on earth
Or that it fills the stomach fastest
But, it’s only with kola
That we pray for life
And whoever brings Kola
Brings life.
And brings health

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And brings prosperity

And brings peace
And children
And what we shall feed them with
For it’s YOU GOD
Who brings kola
And ordains its manner of breaking
This KOLA
Is like a mound in the middle of the arena
On which we stand and speak in the assembly
Of people and of spirits
And our ancestors
And you Great God
The TRYST MAKER
And the words reach the ears they’re made for
So our fathers fathers fathers
Hear my voice
God hear my voice
I am a little innocent child who washes his stomach only
But your eyes see me
And you can judge
If I’ve ever touched the wife of a relation
Or seen the nakedness of a sister
If I’ve ever stolen what belongs to any human being
Or oppressed a widow or cheated an orphan
Or borne false witness or spoken calumny
If I’ve killed any human being
With knife or spear
Or arrow or rope
Or poison or witchcraft
If I’ve done any of these things
May this our land
And mother EARTH EAT ME
If none of these is my guilt
And my fellow-man would afflict me
Because of anger of the heart or anger of the eye
Then let whoever comes to kill me
KILL HIMSELF

Anybody who says he must see me and my household

With evil eyes
Let his eyes perish in the seeing
Any person who says an innocent household
May not sleep
Make him roost with the chicken
I pray for the good of the people in the bush

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And the good of those at home

For the good of those in the hills
For the good of those in the valleys
For the good of those at work
And for the good of those at play
But if a man I can stand by does not stand by me
Let what kills traitors kill him
If a spirit I can vouch for does not vouch for me
Let what kills spirits kill it

If anybody would bring poison into this house

Let his polluted hand enter his mouth
Let no guests bring evil to his host
On his departure
May no hunch grow on his back
Let a rat not dare to eat the bag of a medicine-man
And let the medicine man not dare curse the rat

It is said that an innocent man

Guiltless of any sin big or small
Crosses water on a piece of calabash
That the snail moves over thorns
So I’ll keep clean my hands
You will defend me from cows
A man cannot wrestle with a cow

If I must suffer for my offences

It is just
If for the guilts of my children
I’ll bear it
The mouth speaks what earns the Jaw slap
A man’s head shakes the ant’s nest
His mouth suffers for it
What is good is what we want
I have not asked you to give that to me only
Eating everything alone is bad eating
If the kite perches
Let the Eagle perch
Whichever denies the other the right to perch
May its wings break
God
Why we never be in need and find no helper
A man who has friends is greater than a wealthy man
Give our wives faithfulness
One blow one fall
Give us children

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And give us the means to feed them

Let any of us or our children
Who goes out to work
Come back
With plenty of money
And come back safe

Let any weed that brushes us

On our departure
Brush against us on our return
It is not an easy weed
Whom we see at the back
Let evil be in front
And when we are in front
Let evil be behind
Let no illness come
And let no doctor cure
Let no one be ill
And let no one heal
But I have not spoken and it is final

You have the yam

And you have the knife
To whomsoever you give
And in whatever measure he will eat…
I break the KOLA NUT

Breaking Kola nut A Discussion

Kola nut among the Igbo speaking people in Eastern Nigeria is a mark
of social cultural and spiritual respectability among the people and other
peoples in Africa. It is also a fruit that has economic viability. In what
looks like an incantation, a deep string, serious connection is created
between the Igbo people in the poem and their ancestors, and Kola nut is
the object of connexion to complete the ritual process and prayer in the
complex but dramatic offering, the mystery that surrounds the breaking
that is absorbed in metaphors, allusions, proverbs, aphorisms and
rhetorics. The Almighty God is acknolwledged as the ubiquitous one
who sees and controls all the affairs of man, determines his death and
longevity, coupled with the creative and compassionate qualities of the
Almighty God as seen in the poem. The poet then unveils what he has
brought which is Kola nut as seen in the third stanza, the sacrificial
food, Kola nut is good for everyone, including babies, the aged and the
ancestors and gods. It is the best food for “hospitality”, it is never
cooked like every other food and it ranks first among all the fruits of the

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land, and as such is fit for the Almighty God. Among other qualities that
Kola nut has are its ability to fill the stomach, heal, enrich, prolong life.
Its manner of breaking too must necessarily pass through a ritual
process, it empowers and gives one the boldness to speak in the
assembly of the people, a democratic spirit. The poem tells us the
cultural taboos that must be observed by whoever must break kola nut.
He must not be an adulterer, fornicator, or a thief, must be humane, and
treat others including widows and orphans fairly. He must be generous
and must not kill by whatever means, and if he, who is to break kola nut,
is found guilty of all these, the law of Karma or retributive justice awaits
him. Breaking Kola attracts spiritual and physical benefits such as the
power of healing, and as such the breaking of it must be done according
to the approved cultural rubrics for a fruitful reward.

3.1.2.2 Poem 2 Owusu, a dirge among the Akan speaking people

of Ghana

Valiant Owusu
The stranger on whom the citizen of the town depends
Father, allow my children and me to depend on you
So that we may get something to eat
Father on whom I wholly depend

When father sees me now, he will hardly recognsie me

He will meet me carrying an old torn mat and a hurdle of flies
Father with whom I confer
My children and I will look to you
Father of whom I wholly depend
Killer of hunger,
My saviour
Father the slender arm full of kindness
Father the rover whose footprints are on all paths

Owusu A Discussion

Unlike the usual Akan dirge that recalls, praises and celebrates the
lineage of the Akan speaking people of Ghana, this particular dirge,
mixes the Akan lineage with mourning for the dead, who, in this case
was a kind stranger. The virtue of the compassionate stranger is
discussed. The poet addresses the deceased as a caring and dependable
ancestor. In the poem, we are taken through the past and present
experiences of the widow who now recalls her ancestors. She and her
children suffer terrible hardships, destitute, now that the man is dead. He
was a confidant, a provider, “saviour”, kindhearted man who has made a
remarkable impact on the lives of many people in the community.

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3.1.2.3 Poem 3 Leopold Sedar Senghor’s ‘I will pronounce your

name’

I will pronounce your name, Naett, I will dedain you, Naett

Naett, your name is mild like Cinnamon, it is the fragrance in which
the lemon grove sleeps
Naett, your name is the sugared clarity of blooming coffee trees
And it resembles the savannah that blossoms forth under the
masculine ardour of the midday sun
Name of dew, fresher than shadows of tamarind
Fresher even than the short dusk, when the heat of the day is
silenced
Naett, that is the dry tornado, the hard clap of lightring
Naett, coin of Gold, shining coal, you my might, my sun…
I am your hero, and now I have become your sorcerer in order
topronounce your name
Princess of Elissa, banished from Futa on the fateful day.

Leophold Sedar Senghor’s I will Pronounce your name A

Discussion

This is an example of Senghor’s poem that glorifies everything, African,

the continent’s culture, and peoples including women and spirituality. In
this poem, traditional poem of deliberate invocation of the praise singing
quality of oral poetry, with its constant repetition of “I will pronounce
your name”, Naett and descriptive quality woven around similes and
metaphors, exploring serious imagery to praise the Black woman in the
poem whose name is compared to Cinnamon, an East Indian tree that
has strong and fine fragrance, and grows all round the year. She is also
compared to the coffee trees, while the productive capacity of the
African woman is visible in the metaphorical comparison to the
savannah, and the fruit bearing tamarid tropical tree, a coin of Gold,
shining coal, night and sun, Senghor ends the poem with the eternal
quality of the black woman which is compared to the antiquity, the Futa
Djallong Kingdom of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries.

3.1.2.4 Poem 4 David Diop’s The Vultures

In those days
When civilization kicked us in the face
When holy water slapped our cringing brows
The vultures built in the shadow of the talons
The bloodstained monument of tutelage
In those days
There was painful laughter on the metallic hell of the roads

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And the monotonous rhythms of the paternoster

Drowned the howling of the plantations
Of the bitter memories of extorted kisses
Of promises broken at the point of a gun
Of foreigners who did not seem human
You who know all the books but knew not love
Nor our hands which fertilise the womb of the earth
Hands instinct at the root with revolt
Your songs of pride in the charnet houses
In spite of desolate places of African torn apart
Hope lived in us like a citadel
And from Switzerland mines to the sweltering sweat of Europe’s
factories
Spring will be reborn under our bright steps
David Diop’s The Vultures A Discussion

David Diop is thorough and picturesque in his description of European

imperialists in Africa, the devastation, exploitative and inhuman effects
of colonial rule is beautifully expressed in the poem. Just as the poem
combines the image of Christianity and imperial domination, he damns
the dual operations, combinations of Christianity and imperial
exploitative tendencies as deliberate Western strategy to dominate and
destroy African’s economy, and in the process get her disempowered.
The unhealthy and tedious effects of imperial philosophy in all guise, be
it Christianity or education is revealed in the poem, “civilization kicked
us in the face”, “holy water slapped our cringing bows”. Diop is
exhaustive in his description of the forceful and reluctant meeting of the
African and recipient cultures, he described the West as “vultures” who
have come to devour, to steal, to destroy and to kill, “blood stained
tutelage”. The poem is rich in Christological imagery, as it describes
Christianity as “monotonous rhythm”, deceptive, used by the West to
exploit Africans. The West hide under the deceptive umbrella of
Christianity to enslave Africans, to deceive the people, leaving behind
“the bitter memories of extorted kisses”, “broken promises at the point
of a gun”. The foreigners are inhuman, knowledgeable but destructive.
David Diop condemns in strong terms Africa’s colonial experience, its
vanity, enforced labour, violence and visible murderous impacts.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Explain your impression of breaking kola nut.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have argued that African oral literature is vital to the
development of Western education. The Western perception of blacks
and African culture, and how Africans who received Western education
used it to redeem the battered image of Africa, has been emphasized.
The fact that Africa has a thriving culture of oral literature long before
the advent of colonialism is another important part of this unit. We have
also explained some selected poems written by Africans to correct
Western critical perceptions of Africa.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• African oral literature and education existed long before Western

incursion into Africa
• the impression of the West about Africa is deliberate and damning
• Africans who were educated at home and abroad reacted by writing
poems to correct the battered image of Africa by the West
In the next unit, you will be introduced to incursion, code
modification and transitions in African oral literature. .

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) What is the relationship between orature and written literature?
2) Explain the efforts of African writers to justify the existence of
African culture.
3) Discuss the themes in breaking cola nut as translated by Lawrence
Emeka.
4) What is the impression created about the Akan speaking people of
Ghana and their ancestors in Owusu?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Burton, J. F. (1965). Wit and Wisdom from West Africa – A Book of

Proverbial Philosophy and Idioms. London: Heinemann.

Chidi, A. (1989). The Theory of African Literature. London: ZCD

Books.

Enigmas, S. (1980). Sociology: Traditional and Radical Perspectives.

Hull: Richard and Hull.

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ENG 814 MODULE 2

Finnengan, R. (1968). Oral Literature in Africa. London: Oxford

University Press.

Ogunjinmi, B. and Na’Allah (1991). Introduction to African oral

literature. Ilorin: University of Ilorin Press.

Okpewho, I. (1972). The Oral Performer in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum

Books.

Richard, H. (1992). Munyakare: African Civilization before the Bature.

Canada: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Senghor, L. S. (1976). Prose and Poetry. John Reed and Clive Wake
(Eds.) Nairobi: Heinemann African Writers Series.

Toure, S. (1974). “A Dialectical Approach to Culture” In Robert

Chrisman and Nathan Hare (Eds.) Pan Africanism. New York:
Bobbs-Merill.

Wiredu, K. (1980). Africa: A Cross-cultural Perspective. Washington,

D.C/ Brookllings.

Wiredu, K. (1995). Conceptual Decolonization in Africa Philosophy.

Ibadan: Hope Publications.

Wiredu, K. (1996). Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African

Perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Wredu, K. (1985). “Problems in Africa’s Self-identification in the

Contemporary World” In Alwin Dieme (Ed.) Africa and Identity
Problem. London: London University Press.

Wright, R., Ed. (1984). African Philosophy: An Introduction. New

York: University Press of America.

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UNIT 2 ‘INCURSION, CODE-MODIFICATIONS’ AND

TRANSITIONS IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Modern Incursions, ‘Code-modifications’ and Transitions
in African oral literature
3.1.2 Non-culture Specific
3.1.3 ‘Code-modification’
3.1.4 Naratology and Conflicting Views
3.1.5 Interpretations of Figure 5
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through another stage of African oral
literature though it may not be common but important to advancing
your knowledge of the subject matter and towards a more professional
and practical orientation of your discipline. This aspect will encourage
you not to approach your subject with apathy but with a high degree of
enthusiasm considering the interesting nature of the format that will
enhanced your awareness of the often ignored or unnoticed features of
African oral literature. Our instances that we have used are what you are
familiar with and within your familiar terrain of oral creativity.

This unit is meant to teach you that the oral narrative of a similar story is
capable of shifting to provide multiple applications. This is possible
even if it originates from the same ethnic culture as can be seen in the
various Yoruba versions of how the Tortoise became bald. The figure 3
reveals that Western cultures (i.e. English Language) do not have
provision for words translated from African oral source to the English
Language as such words lose their aesthetics in transit. These and others
are the novel ideas expressed in our present unit.

Another vital way to develop one’s skills and understanding of African

oral literature is to be aware of certain uncommon or often ignored but
important aspects of African oral literature. The practice of African oral
literature is meant to put to the test and practice the minute or what
appeared insignificant but unavoidable in the overall performance of

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African oral literature. We have incorporated this aspect so as to

strengthen the aesthetics of this unit. Below are some of the objectives
of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• add all you have learnt to the body of the practical expressions of
African oral literature
• admit the continous presence of incursions in African oral
literature
• explain the concept of ‘code-modification’ in African oral
literature
• identify ‘code-modification’ in the oral poetry of your people
• discuss ‘code-modification’ in the oral prose or narrative of your
community
• provide a table of ‘code-modification’ using an aspect of the oral
literature of your people

3.1.1 Modern Incursions ‘Code-modifications’ and Transitions in

African oral literature

There is no doubt that African oral literature with its rich communal use
of language, and mandatory native verbiage is geared towards satisfying
the socio-cultural, economy, religious and political experiences of the
people. This is no longer new to the African world of the increasingly
intrusive Western culture. Western ‘incursion’ moves into the interiors
of most parts of African villages and communities, staging serious
confrontations against African oral values and indigenous education.
The obvious result which we can no longer deny is that the farther
Western culture penetrates the African interior in our modern world of
technology, the more the legendry practices and aesthetic cultural
exercises and transmission of the African peoples gets withered, and
receeds into the background. The value that had been attached to our
culture dwindles and this is already apparent in some of our common
ways of life like the way of dressing, marriage, greetings and child
upbringing. Such an incursion into our enduring values has affected and
still affects African oral literature and culture.

3.1.2 Non-culture Specific

In preliterate African societies, oral Artists often reflected the culture

and tradition of their people in their manner of dressing and appearance
during performance. They often dressed to reflect the typical culture
they represented. But, when they present stories in modern time, their

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stories, and personages no longer reflect the original legendary character

in such a story. They allow improvisation of materials to dominate
scenes of stories and presentations, the way it is done in the modern
cinema and home video. Oral Artists of the modern time are
preoccupied with improvisation. For instance, when contemporary oral
Artist represents the vibrancy of Sango, the Yoruba god of iron and
metallurgy, they hardly wear the correct costume of Sango with all the
paraphernalia that will put the audience in better and correct perspective.
This was not the case with the oral Artist of the ancient Yoruba society
who would go bare footed and was fully prepared for his performance.

Contemporary oral Artists have commercialized the oral ‘trade’. This

was more culture specific and geared towards moral teaching and
entertainment only, in social events like child naming ceremony, house
warming ceremony, funeral wake keep, birth of a baby, and coronation
of kings and chiefs. The performance of the oral Artist at such occasions
was done without charging any fee, though he may receive some money
voluntarily given, it could be gifts in kind, like food such as palm wine,
tubers of yam, plantain or cocoa yam.

The situation is different with the oral Artist in modern time. He charges
fees, even prints complementary cards, advertises his ‘trade’ in radio
and television, many of them even dress in expensive modern attires,
rather than locally woven clothes specifically meant for such occasions
to make such ceremonies like coronation of chief or kings, house
warming and marriage ceremonies real and culture specific. Camera
men and recording video men are also invited to record such events.
Such recordings are taken note by the audience, friends, well wishers
and family members who are present at the occasion. For the sitting
arrangement in traditional societies, there was no discrimination among
participants at ceremonies as all were made to seat in locally made mats
and local palmwine is usually their favourite drink in such ceremonies.
But with the infiltration of Western practices, fashionable chairs are let
from popular rentals for such occasions, interior decors are hired to
beautify usually rented halls with expensive modern accessories, with
hardly any traditional imprints. Assorted drinks like wine and beers are
stored in freezers. Rather than invite the oral Artists to president such
ceremonies, contemporary musicians are often invited on fees to play to
the gathering. Such situations hardly reflect the traditional setting that
such ceremonies should be. Such an incursion of Western practices into
African ‘traditional passage’ is not limited to the cities. It has penetrated
into the backwaters of coastal rural dwellers as a mark of civilization,
and is not seen as a conscious attempt to ‘kill’ the indigenous African
tradition and culture. It should not be forgetten that culture shows itself
in Arts, literature, music, dance and drama, social organization and
political systems. Therefore, all these cultural expressions must be

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thoroughly observed so that they could have the desirable effects,

influence and shape the life of the individual in his society. In turn the
individual makes a cultural contribution to his community through
participating adequately in its life, especially through creativity. It is
unfortunate that the crises of cultures which paved the way for foreign
incursions into the African culture have dominated the reasoning of
Africans to such an extent that the whole situation has inferiorised the
experience and practices of our forefathers.

3.1.3 ‘Code-modifications’

Indeed, African oral literature in the modern time has gone through
‘code-modifications’ and this involves ‘code-mixings’. Embarrassing
result of the fusion of both the language of the native Africans and the
English Language, French, Portuguese and other inherited colonial
languages is obvious. That is why many modern oral Artists are, for
instance, not often deeply traditional or cultural in the way they portray
the African oral culture in their method or system of delivery. They mix
language codes to express African oral concepts, or embark on
modifying the ‘codes’ of the African indigenous language and culture.
Such modifications are not often without a mixture of elements of
Westernization, through communication; and unconsciously, they find
themselves adhering to the complex nature of the modern society, such
make the oral ‘communication and passage’ from the oral Artist to the
audience complex, unnecessarily difficult and devoid of ethical code and
communication. They forget that a performance that involves cultural
communication should be done ethically with patience and respect while
remaining focused on the story, otherwise, the oral Artist becomes the
modern radio which is often taken for granted as a result of its
monodirectional communication perspective, whereas, the oral Artist
should receive instant feedback from his audience from the way they
react to stories and situations. But if the oral Artist is not focused in his
artistic handling of his story, he may be viewed by his audience as the
‘poor relation’ of the society, quite different from the excellent oral
Artist who informs, educates and entertains to correct societal ills. When
not conscious of modern incursion and the needlessness of ‘code
modifications’ the oral Artist fails to be an efficient and effective
weapon or agent of positive change in the overall development of his
society. Today, people find it convenient to converge at a common
place, such as a village or market square to participate in the Art of
storytelling due to the inconveniences arising from competing modern
demands like work schedules, and other social factors, hence, finding it
difficult to meet at the venues of the enactment. The oral Artist is not a
distorted or inferior mind but the foremost culture bearer of traditional
societies. He is the avenue through which the society listens, thinks,

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deliberates, visualizes and gets up in unison for social cultural

advancement and change where necessary.

Stories must be narrated in a manner to organise the imagination

through the artistic combination of voice, gestures, song, drumming,
through which he has direct access to the minds of his audience and
through a creative process that mirrors, and reflect each member of the
audience, to initiate a process of change in behaviour. The story creates
an ‘enabling force’ to bring about a social change, build the peoples
consciousness and mobilize for a culture-conscious and disciplined
society by the use of folktales, legends and myths. These are the vital
reasons why the oral Artist must beware of modern transitions,
incursions, ‘use of code-modifications’ so as not to trivialize his art as a
result of Western convention that is infiltrating Africa. But if given a
chance it will affect the oral performance and nature of the oral rendition
and the audience as well as the generality of the society.

3.1.4 Naratology and Conflicting Views

Conflicting transitions and narrative representations are other observable

issues with African oral literature. Some myths, and or tales for instance
in the Yoruba ethnic nationality have been told and retold with obvious
conflictive views and apparent (mis)representations in the oral tradition.
Folktales too of similar story and language origin have been told with
similar problems. This is not peculiar to the Yoruba speaking people of
Nigeria, West Africa. It happens among the Akan and Ewe, people in
Ghana, the Hausa, Igbos, Efik, Tiv, Ibibio, Ilajes, Idoma, Ebira, Bemba
speaking people of Zambia, Tutu and Tutsi of Rwanda. For instance, an
obvious example of narrative (mis)representation among Yorubas is the
story of how the Tortoise became bald. We can trace the difference from
the effect the change in the story(ies) has/have on the plot(s) that it/they
gave or that became the resultant effects.

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Fig. 3 The different Yoruba versions of the folktale of how the Tortoise
became bald are presented in simple plots below

Yoruba Version (I) To prevent being caught in the act

of stealing, in the house of his in-law,
Plot, theme
he used a hot pot of stew as cap, he
Aesthetics
became bald and his misdeed was exposed.
change

Yoruba Version (II) The Tortoise was caught stealing in

his in-law’s house, and hot water was,
Plot, theme,
poured on his head and he became,
Aesthetics change
bald.

Yoruba Version (III) Hot pot of stew was placed on the

Tortoise’s head by his in-laws who
Plot, Theme
caught him stealing and he,
became bald.
Aesthetics change

Yoruba Version (IV) When the Tortoise was caught

stealing from his in-laws, he Plot
changes
was beaten till he became bald.
Aesthetic changes

Yoruba Version (V) The villagers who caught the

Tortoise stealing from his in-laws
Plot, theme,
beat him up and dipped his head
Aesthetics change
into a bowl of hot water till he
became bald.

Interpretation of Fig. 3

The above represents the story of how the Tortoise became bald as told
in Yoruba oral trickster tale. Yet, told from the same Yoruba oral
source, we noticed different naratological views of the tale as indicated
in the plots (i) to (v). Such development often affects plot, theme and
sometimes the aesthetics of the story and the audience in the change that
occurs in story patterning.

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Table 2

Source Orality Level Plot Audienc Languag Standard

of Tale (folktale s of Status e View e of Oral British
African ) Story of Folktale Translatio
oral Aestheti Renditio n
Pool c n
0(+)0(+ How fluctuate varies in Yoruba Limited
) the L(I) s degree (+)+
constan Tortoise x (+) + non-
t became existing
bald
0(+)0(+ How fluctuate varies in Yoruba Limited
) the L(II) s degree (+)+
constan Tortoise xx (+) + non-
t became existing
bald
0(+)0(+ How fluctuate varies in Yoruba Limited
) the L(III) s degree (+)+
constan Tortoise xxx (+) + non-
t became existing
bald
0(+)0(+ How fluctuate varies in Yoruba Limited
) the L(IV) s degree (+)+
constan Tortoise xxxx (+) + non-
t became existing
bald
0(+)0(+ How fluctuate varies in Yoruba Limited
) the L(V) s degree (+)+
constan Tortoise xxxxx (+) + non-
t became existing
bald

Source: Adapted from Stanley-‘Delodun Oriola (2007)

KEY
0(+)0+0+ constant - oral source of tale is constant
- same story of similar language origin,
but of different versions
- plot of story fluctuates according to the
nature of the story/naratology
x - nature of plot/theme affects audience
perception of the story

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Limited (+)+(+)+ non-existing – story ‘code-modified’ with recipient culture

may be exaggerated, devalue levels of meaning,
translated forms may be handicapped, words
translated could have exaggerated effect in transit.
Interpretation of Table 2

From the table in figure (2) 0(+)0(+) constant means that the folktale or
any oral rendition from the communal pool of African oral has its
original value from the oral source conventionally constant and
culturally unique to its source. The arrow indicates that the tales
extracted from the oral source of similar language can have different
versions from the same language origin. The fluctuating arrow
indicates that the plot of a story fluctuates according to the
nature of the story even if it is the same story from the same language or
culture as in the example of the Yoruba folktale of the Tortoise given
above. The x mark means that the story affects the audience
reception/reaction to the aesthetics of the story. In the process of
codemixing and codemodifying a story, such a story will be affected the
following ways, words drawn from the source culture (i.e. oral Yoruba
folktale of the Tortoise) may be exaggerated if the oral Artist is
determined to reflect the source level (Yoruba) of meaning while
narrating or translating the story to foreign languages, (English, French
or Portuguese), the by-product of such effort may become
metaphysically symbolic and burdened with complex images, thereby
making the story become objectionable as the reader’s pedagogic
circumference may be forced to a limit. The validity and authenticity of
orality suffer as soon as the native content is expressed in a foreign
language. The value of orality is ‘constant’ when expressed in the
original cultural (origin) context (Limited (+)+(+)+ non-existing)

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Explain your understanding of ‘code-modifications’, incursions and

transitions in African oral literature.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt that

• you need to understand the existence of incursions and code-

modifications’ in African oral literature
• you can expose the level of transitions in African oral literature
• transitions, incursions, and code-modifications have negative
effects on African oral literature

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ENG 814 STUDIES IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• modern incursions,’code modification’ and transitions are vital in

the discussion of African orature
• African orature in modern time is not often culture specific
• conflicting views in naratology is often a problem in African
orature
• it is possible to construct a table of the levels of story in African
orature to determine aesthetics
in unit 3, you will be introduced to Poetry in African oral
literature

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) What is your understanding of modern incursion in African oral

literature?
2) With the aid of a tale from the oral culture of your people, discuss
the concept of Western incursion or interference?
3) What is code-modification in African oral literature?
4) Using the oral poems of your community, plot a table similar to the
one in figure 5, to justify the implications of code-mixing and
external interferences in African oral literature.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Mazrui, A. (1972). “The Written Word and Collective Identity”. Nairobi

East Africa Journal, Nairobi: Heinemann.

Mbiti, J. (1969). African Religious and Philosophy. London: Heinemann

Educational Books Ltd.

Momoh, C. S. (1981). “Modern Theories in African Philosophy”. The

Nigerian Journal of Philosophy. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.

Mudimbe, V. Y. (1988). The Invention of Africa. Indiana: Indiana

University Press.

Nwala, T. U. (1985). Igbo Philosophy. Lagos: Lantern Books.

Ojo, F. (1966). Yoruba Culture. Ife: University of London Press
Ltd.

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UNIT 3 POETRY IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Poetry in African oral literature
3.1.1 The Lyric
3.1.2 The Lyric Poem of the Zulu in South Africa
3.2 The Ode
3.2.1 Ode of the Ekwulobia People in Anambra State,
Nigeria
3.3 The Ballad
3.3.1 Ballad of the Pygmies of the Congo
3.3.2 Ballad of the Arab Speaking People of Libya, North
Africa
3.4 The Epic
3.4.1 Eve (A Christian Epic)
3.5 The Elegy
3.5.1 The Odingboro Elegy of Ebira People in Nigeria
3.6 The Dirge
3.6.1 The dirge anonymous
3.7 Praise Poetry
3.7.1 Praise Poetry of Onikoyi
3.7.2 Praise Poetry of Witches and Wizards
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to teach you, and enrich your idea, of the existence
of the types of poetry as a genre of African oral literature, against the
erroneous belief that poetry exists only in English Literature. Whereas,
the ode, lyric, ballad, epic, elegy, dirge and praise poem all exist though
with distinctive ethnico-regional varieties in African oral literature .

A way by which you can be effectively grounded in African oral

literature is to be taken through its genres, as we have done in this unit.
We do not expect you to gloss over African oral literature without
adequate knowledge of the forms of African oral literature.
Understanding the different genres and styles will help build solidly on
your foundation of African oral literature. To enable you achieve, this,

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and convince your instructor or the waiting audience, you are

encouraged to ‘swim’ freely in the rich oral culture of the African oral
world. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the oral poetry of your people

• identify the oral poetry of your community
• outline the themes in ballad
• assess the style of praise poetry of your people
• attempt a discussion of the oral lyric
• do a critical discussion of the elegy with an example from your oral
source
• differentiate between the epic, using adequate examples
• state and explain the feature of the Ode with example drawn from
the oral pool of African oral literature

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Poetry in African oral Literature

Like its Western type contemporary literary, African oral literature

manifests itself in the three genres of literature, poetry, drama and prose.
Long before the advent of Western education, preliterate African
societies had often exercised their overall cultural experience in the
forms of poetry, drama as well as in prose. Unlike the Western poetry
that makes use of rhythm, metre, scansion, meter, foot, metric feet,
metrical lines and devices of sounds, African oral poetry manifests itself
in the forms of the Lyric, ballad, ode, epic, dirge, as well as praise poem.
African oral poetry originated in the form of songs, although the
African oral literary genres often inject songs in their narratives to make
oral stories lively and to achieve audience or communal participation
whenever the oral Artist is doing his performance. But, the various
types/genres of poems already mentioned are used by the oral Artist for
accomplishing the effective communication of ideas and feelings as well
as achieving the effective criticism of his community. In order to
understand the oral poetry of preliterate societies, we must first realize
that every occasion of significance in the African culture such as
sighting of a new moon, the sun, ritual bath in rivers, hunting
expedition, marriage ceremony, periods of birth, death, mourning,
victory and losses, harvest, draughts, rain, farming, plenty and want to
mention a few called for the making of poetry.

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In that case poems and poetry types in African oral culture do not exist
in a vacuum, but are created by conditions that evolved in preliterate
societies and are passed on from generation to generation. With the
advent of writing, many of these poetic forms have been reduced to
writing.

3.1.1 The Lyric

This form of poetry has been said to be the ‘brain child’ of the Greeks,
and Romans, but recent researches into African oral literature in Africa
shows that the lyric is also part of the African oral literature in poetry
forms. It is usually a short poem sung with traditional instruments in
African rural setting. It is primarily the expression of the private feelings
of the poet in African oral culture.

3.1.2 The Lyric Poem of the Zulu in South Africa

Assagai is our strength

The strength we acquired
In our pointed hard wood
That penetrates the hard ribs
of animals in the plain of the hills
Assagai of the pointed
face of the forest the
power of our arm
The arm we throw
To flail Assagai piercing
Our forest and hilly paths
Thank you Assagai, Thank
you ancestors who strengthened
our arms with you Assagai

Anonymous lyric poem of the Zulu in

South Africa

The anonymous lyric poem of the Zulu praises the hard wood, locally
made spear of the Zulu’s, “Assagai” which was used for hunting
expeditions and for protecting the Zulus from against wild animals, and
for general self defence of the Zulus against enemies. The “Assagai”, is
a weapon the Zulus inherited from their ancestors.

3.2 The Ode

The ode has its origin from the Greeks as a poem in song form.
However, Ode is popular with many oral cultures, including Africa;
whether the private or public type, the Ode with its lofty or elevated

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style has an elaborate structure. Private ode celebrates its subject in a

meditative tone, very personal, reflective and subjective, but the public
ode is often used for ceremonial occasions like house warming
ceremony, to welcome returnee victors (heroes) from the battlefield, and
at funeral ceremonies. The commonest ode in the African oral literature
is the public type, but both forms are common in Western literature.
John Keat’s “Ode to the Nightingale”, Sappho’s “Ode to Aphrodite” and
“Ode to the Duke of Wellington”. We are concerned with African oral
literature, hence, the example below.

3.1 The Ode of the Ekwulobia People in Anambra State, Nigeria

Ode to our barn of yam

Seasons across seasons
So you are the native
Voice of our season of yam
Season across season
You yawn, yawn yawning
Your seasonal yawning our pride
The pride of our strong arm
Our barn of yam, our food
Our health
Basket of ages
You are our beauty
The one who alone knows
The language of hunger
If farmer’s backyard
Without a barn of yam
Deserves no other name
Than lazy bone of the season
An outcast he should be unknown in the clan
Our barn of yam

The worthy inheritance of our children

Greater than a bag full of clothes, money,
Our gold, our hope, dependable inheritance
A man who dies without leaving behind
A worthy barn of yam died intestate
have lived a wasted life – uncelebrated, unmourned
risks ancestral queries in heaven
our barn, the hope of our children,
hope of our ancestors who whenever
they call visiting make our barns
their main path, select the
robust yam as reward for our
ancestral spirits. Our barn who survives

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all seasons. Oh! great tubers of yam, great barn, our

pride, hope of our generation, ancestral connect.

Anonymous songs “Ode to the barn”, Ekwulobia

in Anambra State, Nigeria

The above oral Ode of the Igbos in Ekwulobia in Anambra State of

Nigeria is usually sung in praise of the rich barn of Yam of Igbo farmers
in the Eastern part of Nigeria. The poem praises the barn of yam which
is filled with yam tubers such that it begins to yawn and is almost unable
to accommodate the tubers of yam harvested across the seasons from the
farm. To an average Igbo farmer, their pride lies on having a very rich
farm of yam and then a great barn where yams can be stored across
seasons. Farm work, according to the poem is not an occupation that the
lazy can venture into “the pride of our strong arm”. And with abundant
yams in barns, the people’s economic hardships will be taken care of.
Any farmer, therefore, who does not have a barn of yams is lazy and
unwanted in the Igbo rich cultural society and will not be given a chance
to to hold his head up in the gathering of the clan. A rich barn of yams is
considered a worthy inheritance for the succeeding generation, greater
than any other material wealth, valuable than gold as the pang of hunger
has no replacement other than food, and tubers of yams are the best
solution to hunger and famine. Anyone who must earn the favour of his
ancestors must have a rich barn of yams or, else, the ancestors will not
come to feast on the yam when they come to visit the family. in Igbo
culture, anyone who dies without leaving behind a rich barn of yams for
his children to inherit has died uncelebrated and unmourned, even his
ancestor will query him in heaven. Tubers of yam are a desire of the
ancestors, and the means of establishing spiritual connection with the
Igbo man and his ancestors.

3.3 The Ballad

The ballad as a form of poetry was an oral narrative form popular with
many cultures around the world, including Africa. This is a story
chanted in the form of a song and it involves the oral Artist and his
audience who respond accordingly to the chant. Stories that are woven
into ballads are taken from folktales, the supernatural, family or
communal histories as well as politics, legendary events and quarrels,
private conflicts relating to love, assertion of rights but with a minor
detail.

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3.3.1 The Ballad of the Pygmies of the Congo

When time came calling

Gazing into the sky sky blue bright sun
Gazing into the sky sky blue bright sun
The sun high high above giant home for a man
High high above
We see far above our height
Our little height little
But eyes seeing through the cloud sun bright
But, the Tortoise, the Lion and the Hyena,
Each onto a ride from Heaven descending on rope
from the blue sky into the Earth
With gifts of alligator pepper, cola nut, bitter
Cola, heaven drank palmwine
Zooming, zooming, zooming
Down the rope
With request to marry our queen
With request to marry our queen
Queen of the pygmies beautiful
Queen of the pygmies beautiful
Queen of the pygmies beautiful
The queen to be married to the sky
Where in-laws abode is
With a promise to height increase
With a promise to height increase
With a promise to height increase
But the queen of pygmies gave a
nod of disapproval to in-laws
for reason of minimal bride price
and rejection offer to increase the
height of the pygmies

The ocean protest

Protest the sea
The trees protest
Protest the wind
Protest the queen of virgin pygmies
In-laws protest the short nature of the Virgin Pygmies
Returned with their bride price
Returned without the virgin pygmy
To mother sun in Heaven
Mother sun decreed
Mother sun decreed
Mother sun decreed
Disapproving of virgin pygmy

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Mother sun decreed

Disapproving of virgin pygmy
Who prefer mother sun to make them taller
To giving them any groom from Heaven
Pygmy virgin shorter shorter
Pygmy virgin shorter shorter
Pygmies, king, queen, children
Shrink, shuter, shorter
Too short to be married
Too short to be married
then came a loud voice from Heaven
protesting, decreasing every Virgin Pilgrim
To concubinage.

Anonymous ballad of the Pygmies of the Congo Basin

The popular oral narrative of the pygmies of the Congo Basin tells the
story of how the pigmies became shorter and their virgins find it
difficult or impossible to get a non-native to marry them. The virgin
pygmies and her people gazed into the sky for a choice of eligible
bachelor when she was ripe enough for marriage because the sky was
the abode of men who were taller; besides they had the desire to be
married by men from the giant race, the sun, but the Tortoise, Lion and
the Hyena who were then living in the sky showed interest to marry the
Virgin Pygmy, so they came down with a rope. They also brought bridal
gifts of alligator pepper, cola nut and bitter kola and Heaven’s dew as
palmwine. They also promised to increase the height of the queen
Pygmy if she agreed to marry them, but she refused because the bride
price was meager, and nature, ocean, sea, trees and wind joined her in
the protest against her suitors. Her suitors became angry and left for
heaven, and mother sun was visibly angry at the refusal of Virgin
Pygmy and decreed that she remain, instead as a concubine and that was
how Virgin Pygmy remained unmarried and all Pygmies lost the
opportunity to increase their heights up till today.

3.3.2 Agragh Ballad of the Bari-ghat – Arab Speaking People of

Libya, North Africa

Why the Agragh (Scorpion) Stings

Stinging, stinging
She releases venom in the millions
Whenever she stings, she stings
Man’s heels to retaliate
Man’s willful murder of her husband in a forest farm
She mourns all her life vowed to avenge his death

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Vowed to retaliate against his killer from the first

to the last generation of man
so she goes on stinging, stinging
Flailing her sharp tail
twisting, and wagging her poisonous tail
She stings from Mount Hogan, Ghat,
Obare, Sebha, Houn, Murzourch,
Benghazi, Trabulus she stings in farms irrigated,
in offices, houses, everywhere
She attacks man, deposits her venom of vengeance
her anger incurable
She vowed to sting every man of
every generation till the last man
Oh, Agragh!
Oh, Agragh!!
Oh, Agragh!!!
The weird scorpion
Everywhere in the rocks,
Mountains, villages and towns
Who will pacify the angry weird, Agragh
Who stings everyone
Everywhere

Translated by al-Shabaab
The North African-Arab ballad explains why the scorpion stings.
Scorpion, Agragh in Arab Libyan language that is commonly found
everywhere in Libya according to oral poetry, vows to sting everyman to
the last generation so as to retaliate against the human murderer of her
husband in a forest farm. She wags her poisonous tail everywhere, in an
almost ubiquitous manner in the Arab world. The poem cites names of
towns and villages “Ghat”, “Obare”, “Sebha”, “Houn”, “Murzarch”,
“Benghazi” including the great Mountain Hugan that formed North
Africa as places where scorpion can be found. The scorpion could not be
pacified, only goes on killing people from the poison of its stings.

3.4 The Epic

The long heroic poem which is narrative in nature tells the story of a
hero whose exploits have great impact on the nation or the whole of
humanity. The style of the epic is usually elevated (Epic Style).
Examples of epic poems are Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey,
India’s Ramayana or Mahabharata, Anglo-Saxon Poem, Beowulf, John
Milton’s Paradise Lost, Italian Tasso’s Jerusalem Liberata. The epic
can be primary or secondary in nature. The primary epic is usually
legendary or mythical in nature, narrating the heroic exploits of a great

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warrior who helped his people to victory or in the founding of a nation,

town, or community as in The Iliad and The Odyssey.

But, the secondary epic is an imitation of the primary epic. Generally, an

epic makes allusion to Literature, history and great events with themes
that are national and universal in perspective. Traditional African poetry
is rich in epic poem. A few of the many examples across Africa are
Ebira epic poem, Mwindo Epic of the Congo, Epic of the Mali, Elima
Ngando epic of the Bakongo people, Ozidi saga of the Ijaw people,
Sundjiata epic of old Mali, Igbo epic poem, Hausa, Gyaakyeamo epic of
the Akan, Daniya epic poem of the Hausa, Yoruba Iroko epic, Bahima
epic poem of Uganda, Tswana epic poem of the Bantu-speaking people
of South Africa. An Example of epic poem is given below.

3.4.1 Eve (A Christian Epic)

The serpent did a good job in the wood

- Backslapped-
He Backslapped me
With a backhanded compliment
He backstabbed me repeatedly
Collateral damage achieved against me
So I was divided to the vein
Within and without-balkanised
And my sorrow multiplied
This burden in me, worse than holocaust
As the Eve in me almost lost the courage
To walk through the fires of time
This fatality of my femininity
But the lord’s venom I embrace
As a member of the rebel of the first garden
Though, in pain we share the guilts
And condemnation
The Lord’s gift to Edenic tenants
And my desire sentenced infull to Adam
Must rule over me till I return to the dust
But for him is the ground cursed
For defiling the Garden of Peace
The Garden of Flowers
He deflowed
I the EVE
Deflated
Defoliated
Deformed
Despoil

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Degrade
Dehydrated
Defrock
Derogate

Our misdeeds hidden behind a fig tree

Our nakedness covered with fig leaves
And the skins of animals our apron of shame

I love to hate
To tell this story of my new definition
I, the EVE
Enchained by Adamic sins
And sentenced to the bitterness of salty tears
That forced us to lie on our bellies
Our manackled freedom imagined
The grave is far and near
But, we must not die with the story untold
So, I invite nature

To share our songs of sorrow

We summon the flowing, river that meanders
And relate our tales of woe to the lake
We request the wind to stop the Lianas from bumping
Into other trees
As the Parrot is restless over
Our songs of sorrow
The Pulprus and Mudskippers slither
To and fro in the depth of the sea
The Crickets in the undergrowths are sad
About the gender-power-impulse
We whisper the wind to bear a testimony
And convey the plights of the abhorrent women –
Eavesdropped
To those who care to listen

I am foredoomed
We are foredoomed
I, the EVE guilty from birth
Tried in vain to foil our Adamic sins
Which became my sole inheritance
The tormenting IMAGE of a beguiling serpent
Who first stripped me naked before the ALPHA and OMEGA
And Adam
My head forced below my kneels
Forced to stoop only to Adam

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Even if an imbecile from his looks

And SHE a genius by all definitions
She is weighed down under the programmed labour pain
of the original fall
That left me picarooned
I, the EVE
On a journey down the path untrodden
Wandering and meandering
Like a snake that crawls over a rock
But, see it so apparent now

My co-tenant in the garden of sin

How Adam is polished
And adorned in glory of riches
Despite a partaker in the first sin
His medals of leadership in
Gold and jamestone
Hung around his neck, ankles and wrists
His boots laced and polished
He sits on polished granites and
Survives on volcanic candles
Full of the fury of power
Ordering the sun to withdraw her illuminations
His mental space false propositions
Put to work against me
The order of ethical discourse betrayed
Sociosymbolic contacts halt
communications interdicted
To make Adam and Eve irreconcilables
And, I the Eve… a sex object, a sex machine
Programmemed to fotget the pain of child birth
For my anatomical difference

I am a the EVE
Battered to the exclusion of Adamic-ego
My soul bleeds like the West Indian slaves in chains
I am the Eve
My voice stolen
Caged and decreed to plead ‘guilty’ still
But not all pains attract tears
Sweet are some pains
The pain of the righteous
Despite the flailing horsewhip I endured, I have the courage
To see through the dark cloud
And into high heavens to
embrace the receeding laughter of freedom

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where lies my elusive strength and beauty

I can see the immense power in Him

Take the shape of a monster
As Adam invites the power in him
To take the shape of a monster
As power sits in a garment of fame
With blood shot eyes
I searched his eyeballs for a mote of conscience
But there was none
Only a terrifying figure terrifying the Eve in me
His power shines like the
Glaze of a thousand mirror
A hunter’s lamp of horror
Who dare move his heifers like
The gowns of virgin cirding
A sacred stone
Who unleashes his bride on me
Decked in radiant colours
Hail him! and wrap the city in
Sheeths of bone
Bait him and sweep away the
Grove of virgin trees
Crush the brick walls of cascading glory
Burningout the sand dunes in whirlwind
Ego boosted
- Ego boosting
- Ego brooding
And monosongs of bitterness
my heart bleeds as Adam insists
that my virtue must lie in wait
under his command
I spread my arms for Adam’s embrace
The arms he curiously ignored
To the photographic mockery I embrace
And, into the open arms of a green horse whip
Flailing my skin on all sides
And my weeping desires
Suffer naked setback
As the wings of tradition
Religion, and
the law
complete my
story of woe

And the trado-knife serating down my back to my buttocks

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My breasts saying “yes” to a trado knife

For a new scar that will tell a permanent story of me
My soul rebels against
The witch that I am speculated to be
Or the Abiku spirit imagined to live in me
My compulsory rites of widowhood
As horsewhips against my flesh spring high
As if to touch the ever blue sky
Miles innumerable above me
I ignored my pains and
Laughed with a wider amazement, realizing that
I am trapped and chastised for humanity
And for a dream of
When Eves will
Be let loose from their manacles
To acquire a new name
And sing a new song
I am a woman
And Eve is my name
My hope I hope is still green
In this dark cage of life
Wild cry for me unnecessary
In this razor blade edge of life
The cage which bars are too
Strong for me to break
I, overpowered by the half truths of men
But if my creator so approve
I choose to be a prisoner to this cage
The cage of life into which from the beginning
Acquittal dismembered
So I was informed that
When as infant I was lifted from the red blood
All eyes curious of what
Gender I was made
They asked
“Of what gender THIS ONE was made”?
And from the rear, they stared
Guessing and asking
“Is this anus purple?
Oval or crescent?
Pentagon or Hexagon?
Triangle or Square?
Cylinder or Pyramid?
Complex like a machine”?
But as cold congrats
From the women proclaimed ME

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“Eve” !
“She is EVE”!!
“She is EVE”!!!
“E-E-E-V-I-I-L”
All backs turned at me and my moment
of conspicuous femininity
My apparent indignity announced
That was how thick darkness
Overpowered the pride of the Earth into which I was born
So when I was lifted from the RED BLOOD
I wept violently
Violently in protest for a world that knows no love
But have all knowledge
But NOW
My strength lies on the new laughter of courage
The laughter that will set me free from my original sin
The priceless laughter nature deposits in me
That I may truly be happy for a moment
And be courageous
TO DENOUNCE THE FAILURE OF FEMINISM

Stanley-“Delodun Oriola

The theme of the Christian Epic is universal. “Eve” deals with the origin
of the suffering of man and woman (Adam and Eve), particularly of
women generally and how they lost the garden of Eden, and ran into
disfavour with God when satan, the serpent deceived Eve (them). The
epic poem is essentially about how the sin of disobedience of the tenants
in the garden of Eden became that of the woman for which every woman
suffers, and even gets oppressed by his man a co-tenant in the garden of
Eden. The fate of Eve in the poem became that of universal women and
Adam that of men generally.

The epic poem begins on an ironical note, predicting how the burden of
mother Eve became that of every woman. Adam who symbolizes the
universal man too is not exempted from the burden of the consequences
of the sin of disobedience. It seems that women bear the consequences
of disobedience in folds, first through God’s pronouncement, and then
she is condemned under the earthly ‘love’ and control of the man, “my
sorrow multiplied”, “my desires sentenced to Adam who must rule over
me till I return to the dust”.

The consequence of the Edenic disobedience, stripped men and women

off their dignity, and humanity. It was so serious that nature became
aware of their pain, but the sin of the age became a generational

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inheritance, and endemic nature, such that every society, including

African society still takes advantage of the “original fall” to treat women
as underdog despite other obvious pains such as labour pain for which
God sentenced her. Even the generation of Adam, man with whom they
committed, sin became women’s conscious oppressors, taking every
advantage of them, in culture, religion, politics, education inclusive.
Now, the post-Adamic contemporary woman feels excluded, caged,
enslaved, such that the society suffers inequality to a level that makes
woman feel unsafe; as neither law, tradition, nor religion can rescue her.
She is recognized as a gender who must be chastised, overpowered and
made to suffer glaring indignities in all fronts, yet women hope that the
society will outgrow the problem of gender inequality. The more
humanity becomes civilized, the more women will receive God’s mercy,
they will be free from the guilt of the original sin.

3.5 The Elegy

This is a poem that mourns the death of an individual or the death of a

number of people. The Elegy originated from the Greeco-Roman world
and is usually written in elevated language. It is usually on a serious
subject of war, death or love. This form of poetry deals with a definite
theme, especially of love or death, when the first phase of the pain or
misery of the sad event has passed. It reveals the philosophy of life or
circumstances that surround the dead. Example of an elegy in African
oral literature is the Odingboro Elegy of the Ebira-speaking people
of Kogi State in Nigeria.

3.5.1 The Odingboro Elegy of Ebira People in Nigeria

Odingboro o o, Odingboro
Odingboro o o, Odingboro
With destiny
And family friends and
relations on your burial
came calling to lead you, a warrior,
on the great path of your ancestors
But on your funeral came
the furious wind
the furious wind
the furious wind never before seen
came calling with venom of fire
of a million tongues setting houses
trees and your lovers ablaze
A taboo, this is
A taboo, is it
A taboo unheard of o o o, Odingboro

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A taboo unheard of o o o, Odingboro

A wind of a million tongue spitting embers
of fire-creating an infernal madness
abhorrent to history, o o, Odingboro
see your coffin held high in torrents
of fire, the infernality of all souls at your
burial ceremony set on fire.

Great warrior Odingboro

but it was a no taboo
That your people saw you off
The path of your ancestors
O, Odingboro see your coffin in flame
held high in the tongue of fire
And every head at your funeral
in flames of fire o, Odingboro
We the left over not at your funeral
Owe you no grudge o brave warrior
Odingboro.

Anonymous

The elegy discusses the theme of death, it is about an Ebira legendary

warrior named Odingboro who died. But, all those who attended his
funeral were burnt, including the coffin or casket of the deceased when a
mysterious wind of fire came from nowhere and consumed all who were
present at his funeral ceremony. Those who didn’t attend to the funeral
ceremony of Odingboro were not only left to mourn Odingboro but their
loved ones who had gone to attend the warrior’s funeral.

3.6 The Dirge

This is a song of lamentation chanted during or after the burial of a

loved one as in the example below.

The Dirge – Anonymous

Who says Trees don’t have premonition?

Trees have intuition; feelings and premonition
We heard from whistling Echo
of the Iroko Tree
That you have left on the lonely path
To your ancestors
The Mahogany bowed in obeisance
To announce your sudden departure
As the wall-gecko and lizards

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Engage in unusual amazing skills

Behind the wall of the house
Premonition tells us that
The Unusual has happened to you
Leaving your fame
And heroic exploits behind
Your kindness and
Your bag of humour are all
We have as testimony of your patriot-goodness
Adieu great one

Anonymous

The poem is a lamentation combined with the poet’s nostalgia about the
achievements of the deceased when he was alive. The poem begins with
how nature announces the departure of the hero, the reactions of the
Lizards and Wall-gecko are visible premonition that a soul known to the
poet has gone. He recounts the virtues of the dead such as humour,
patriotism and heroism.

3.7 Praise Poem

As the name implies, a praise poem is designed to eulogize the virtue of

a chief, king, a war hero, or anyone who has done something very
amazing and worthy of note. The subject could be a plant, tree, bird or
an animal. Usually, the correct recital of oriki makes the object strive to
greater heights and gladdens him. If a praise poem is in honour of a
progenitor, it gladdens him in the world of the spirits as he showers
blessings on his offsprings on earth, it makes ancestors proud of their
pedigree and can make one feel the sense of nostalgia or homesickess if
far from home.

3.7.1 Praise Poetry of Onikoyi

Onikoyi, the warrior who never

received an arrow in his breast
Child of the water lily. Child of the squirrel
The bird’s foot shall never
touch the water, the river shall never be at rest
Onikoyi the warrior
Who frightens death himself
Child of the vulture perching
on the baobab tree
child of the Eagle sitting on the
silk tree
child of the Hawk pounces down

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he will eat the eyes of a brave warrior

Onikoyi loves nothing but war
When others drink wine, he drinks blood
When others plant yam, he is planting heads
When others reap fruits, he is reaping dead
Warriors

Anonymous African Poem

The theme of the poem is war. It is a praise poem of Onikoyi, i.e. a war
hero and general, generalissimo who is skillful in the art of warfare,
hence compared to the water “lily”, “vulture”, “eagle”, “squirrel”. He is
himself a terror, so nothing frightens him, as he is capable of frightening
even death. Onikoyi is greater than every known warrior, and the sight
of blood excites him. He “drinks blood”, “plants heads”, and “reaps
dead warriors”. He is a clever warrior per excellence, unrivalled hero
who is valiant in battle.

3.7.2 Footprints of Witches and Wizards

Footprints of the invicible in the air?
Adulation for the wingless who floats in the air
Footprints unseen
Adroit in evil
Sadist
Adrift
Adrift you are
The colourful Python at noonday
Advanced guard
Adventurous
The Solomon black Angel
A genius-ubiquitous
Schooled in evil
The god and goddess of after effects
Aftershock
The ageless ageing
Who flies in and out of the moon and sun
With only a broom stick
Fuelling and refueling in the air
With human blood
Space meetings regular
You of a million eyes
Ageism
Aileron faster, airspeed, airtime
Airflow, airlink, airgun
King and queen of air spaces
Allied per excellence

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After age air rifle, air power,

Confidence trickster
You modernity denounced
But ancestors affirmed, confirmed
Existence justified
Encyclopedic cobweb
The cross contaminator
Crossbreed, air pressure
Conflagration
Air mile
The crusader
Your existence shroud in mysteries still
Controversial
The ill wind
In my culture, we dare
Not say “Witch or Wizard”
But the “AGED or ELDER”
Iba yin o, Eyin Agba
We hail thee the Elders
The crowned jewels of Lucifer
You of innumerable disciples
Sons and daughters of the morning star
The blood sucking gecko
The Chameleon of a million personage
Of a million rappa outfit
Who kills and sucks from the marrow bone
And swallow the intestine, liver and all in whole
The blood sucking demon
Of many parts
We hail thee!

Stanley – ‘Delodun Oriola

Translator, one million praise poetry of the Ilajes of Coastal Ondo State,
Nigeria

The oral praise poetry of Witches and Wizards discusses the

themes of power, invicibility, strength, craftry, diseases, adventure,
speed, transcience, doubts and unity. The poem begins with a rhetorical
question with almost every line praising and revealing the qualities and
activities of Witches and Wizards that believably exist in the African
culture. In the poem, emphasis is placed on the incomparable strength of
speed and adventures of the Witches and Wizards, using aeronautical
concepts, related to air transportation. Some examples from the poem
are “airspeed”, “airtime”, “air flow”, “air link”, “air gun”, “allied”, “air
rifle”, “air mile”. The combination of military related allusion
“advanced guard” adds to the aesthetics of the poem. The poet stresses

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the god like presence qualities of Witches and Wizards in his society,
“wingless who floats in the air”, “footprints unseen”, “a genius
ubiquitous”, “the ageless”, “you of a million eyes”,”allied per
excellence”, “encyclopedic”, “the crusader”. Though evil, the subject of
the poem is a “genius” with activities shroud in mystery, “refuels with
human blood” while travelling to the Moon or Sun with just a “broom
stick”. The speed at which the subject of the poet travels is amazing.
According to the poem, the existence of Witches and Wizards is
controversial, especially with the incursion of modernity. In the poet’s
culture, African orature belief they exist, hence the weird sisters and
brothers are treated with trepidation and respect. They are often referred
to as “Aged or Elder”, “The crowned jewels of Lucifer”. Such
Malapropisms and ironies that hide their actual identity are “sons and
daughters of the morning star”, “The blood sucking gecko”, “The
colourful Python at noonday, “Chaameleon of a million personage”,
“The blood sucking demon of many parts”. The poet concludes the
poem with Yoruba culture specific praises of Witches and Wizards “Iba
yin o, eyin agba We hail thee the elders!

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Discuss your impression of the African Oral praise poetry, “Footprints

of Witches and Wizards”.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed poetry not as an exclusive reserve of

Western education, but something that is also obtainable in African oral
literature, as well as oral poetry. Sample poems are also provided as
appropriate from different parts of Africa including the oral poetry of the
Zulu. Assagai people, Ekwulobia praise poem of yam of the Igbo-
speaking Anambra people of Eastern Nigeria, anonymous ballad of the
Pygmies of Congo, Eve, an Epic poem relating to how Adam and Eve
ran into disfavour with God and were banished from the garden of Eden,
Ebira heroic oral elegy of Odingboro, Yoruba praise poem of Onikoyi
and the praise poetry of Witches and Wizards.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• poetry is also an essential part of African oral literature

• what lyric poem is all about in African oral literature
• the meaning of the Ode
• the meaning of the Epic
• the meaning of a Dirge

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• the meaning of an Elegy

• the oral poetry of Witches and Wizards
• what ballad is all about in African oral poetry
• the different themes in the given oral poems
• thematic aesthetics of the dirge, elegy, as well as the praise poem

in the next unit, you will be introduced to Drama in African oral

literature

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) With the aid of adequate examples, explain the existence of

African oral poetry in preliterate societies.
2) With suitable examples from African oral literature discuss the
lyric, and Ode.
3) Discuss the themes in the ballad of your people.
4) What is an epic? Justify your answer with any poem of your
choice.
5) Return to the oral tradition of your people and translate an elegy
and a dirge.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akachi, A.E (2009). Heart Songs. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited

Akporobaro, F.B.O. (2008). Introduction to Poetry, Its Forms,

Functions, Language and Theories. Ikeja: Princeton Publishing
Co.
Baran, T. (2008). Forms of Poetry. Jos: Boken Books.

Benson, T. (2006). Igbo Praise Poetry. Uyo: Macmillan.

Chinedu C. (1979). The Tongue of my People Igbo Oral Poems. Enugu:

Macmillan.

Edwin, C. (1998). Beginning with Igbo Orature. Owerri: Heinemann.

Kojoku, O. (2009). Language and Forms in African oral Literature.

Osogbo: Kenleen Publishers.

Muhammed I. (1964). Oral Poetry of North Africa. Trabulus: Ahmed

Prints.
Olusegun, O. (1985). Yoruba Ijebu Orature and Poetry. Ibadan: Bet
Books.

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Oriola S.A. (2015). Footprints of Witches and Wizards. From a

translated one million praise poetry of the Ilajes of Coastal Ondo
State- back waters of the Niger Delta. An Unpublished
Manuscript.

Richard, B. (2000). The Dirge and Elegy of my People, the Tiv. Benue:
Macmillan.

Solipo, K. (1984). Singing in my Land. Ekiti: Macmillan Publishing.

William, L. (1989). Akan Native Voices. Accra: Heinemann.

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UNIT 4 DRAMA IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Drama
3.2 Elements of African oral Drama
3.2.1 Setting
3.2.2 Dramatic Personnae
3.2.3 Plot Structure
3.2.4 Stage
3.2.5 Dialogue
3.2.6 Songs
3.3 Adimu Orisa Play and Its Merits
3.3.1 Setting
3.3.2 Stage
3.3.3 Plot Structure
3.3.4 Dramatic Personnae
3.3.5 Dialogue
3.3.6 Songs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through another genre of African oral
literature which is drama. Its elements which we have discussed in
this unit include setting, dramatic personnae, plot structure, stage,
dialogue and songs.

It is important to note that almost everything about African oral

literature is dramatic, practical and demonstrative. You may think that it
is not necessary for you to study the aspect of drama of the African oral
literature, that is not true, as it is essentially a good part of your study
that will help your mastery of your discipline. In African oral literature,
you do not need to go in search of the stop-sign as you may come in
contact with situations that may require that you exercise your
knowledge of the dramatic genre of African oral literature. Should such
a situation truly occur, we expect that you demonstrate your already
acquired skills. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify and relate the oral drama of your people

• discuss the Adimu Orisa play
• outline the merits of any oral drama of your people
• list some elements of African oral drama
• relate the oral drama of your people with specific reference to
setting, dramatic personnae, language, plot structure and stage
• explain the aspect of drama of your village and indicate the
dramatic qualities seen in it.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Drama

Drama is one of the genres of African oral literature. Unlike the poetry
and prose genres of African oral literature, the dramatic aspect is the
type that explores the totality or more of dramaturgy in its narrative
pattern used by the oral Artist or narration in its enactment. All the oral
genres share various elements, such as chants or songs. However, there
are performances that exclusively belong to the dramatic genre with its
storytelling and poetic recital coupled with interactive and integrative
manner. The poetry form of orature uses songs and chants just as the
dramatic form. Oral dramatic narration is foregrounded by its dynamic
ritual form. An example of African oral dramatic performance is the
Adimu Orisa festival of Lagos; a ritual dramatic festival that celebrates
rite of passage and its existence relates to cultism, deities and spiritism
with all its paraphernalia.

3.2 The Adimu Orisa Ritual Drama

The Eyo and Awo Opa are similar ritual plays performed at the same
time, the Eyo originated from Iperu and Awo Opa was brought into
Lagos from Oyo town as the exclusive performance of the Royal family.
With the approval of Chief Apena Ajasa by King Dosumu of Lagos, the
cult became also a public affair, and it yielded to a more sociable
adaptation to marking funerals and house warming ceremonies, even
traditional marriages and lately political affairs. The Eyo play was first
staged for funeral purpose by King Dosumu of Lagos in April 13, 1875.

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3.3 Elements of the Adimu Orisa play as an African ritual drama

3.3.1 Setting

The setting is the scene of symbolic mourning of Adimu where the

traditional dialogue with the deceased takes place; Eyo pays homage to
the deceased.

The different Eyo groups are paraded around the Nnamdi Azikiwe
Street, Idumota area of Lagos. This marks the climax of the drama and
the grand finale of the festival and the audience watches the formal
encounter between Adimu Orisa and Eyo as the symbolic submission of
the Eyo, who pays homage to the Adimu Orisa.

By tradition, the Adimu Orisa play is a festival held in some designated

areas and streets of Lagos and the streets constitute the stage where the
play is enacted. There are also dramatic personae like Adimu Orisa and
Eyo, Mummy Oniko Ologede, Agere, Alaketepupa. The Adimu is the
tragic hero who represents the Orisa-nla who made the barren woman,
Olugbani bear children.

3.3.2 Stage

The stage is not limited to a location, but selected streets around and in
Lagos Island. Such places commonly used within the Island are Iga
Idungaran, Agodo, Idumota and Imoku. The performances on the stage
usually take a chronological ordering. First, there is the exchange of
formal homage, next is the display of ritual paraphernalia like Abebe,
hat, staff (opabata), mask, bata, glasses, white symbolic apparel, etc are
displayed. The body lie-in-state at the deceased’s private residence (if a
chief) or the popular Glover Hall, all these depend on the social status of
the deceased.

3.3.3 Plot Structure

It has a simple plot. Spiritually, the reincarnated Oris-nla, Adimu, is

summoned to connect man to the spirits through a rite of passage to
facilitate the crossing over of the deceased to the ancestors. Adimu is the
chief mourner, sacrifices are offered to the gods for the atonement of the
sins of the deceased through general cleaning and cleansing by the Eyo
group.

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3.3.4 Dramatic Personnae

The Eyo is a tall masquerade that represents the ancestral founder of

Lagos. He speaks in the guttural Awori dialect. It is a respected
masquerade who awaits spiritual elevation into the rank of the Yoruba
dialect. The costume is made of Raffia-mat. The masquerade is usually
urshered in with incantatory rituals, the materials for his costume are
usually damask clothes in place of banana leaves that were often used in
those days. Other dramatic personae are Agere, an entertainer
(witnessing masquerade), Olori Eyo or Olopa Eyo (The royal Police).

3.3.5 Dialogue

There is extensive use of dialogue, poetry, social incantation and songs.

The social dialogue merged in ethical-cultural communication and
greetings to pay homage to the Eyo masquerade’s greetings.

Ope ado Thanks be to Ado

Iba ado Worship be to Ado
Iba Akinsiku Worship be to Akinsiku

Below are other examples of the exchange of greetings between the

cultist and Eyo according to orature

Cultist
Ago oro Eyo Greetings to you imposing Eyo
Eyo mo yo fun o Eyo I rejoice with you
Mo yo fun ra mi I rejoice with myself
Emi agogoro Eyo! I am the imposing Eyo

Cultist Pan ti wa? Why have you come?

Eyo Panti se Reason is I have a duty
Cultist Opa asileka siko? Where is the staff on the shoulder?
Eyo Ti ehin loju It is the rear part which weighs more
in the
Ni mode iraye precinct of Iraiye
Cultist Ni ho lo pade Where did you meet the lone
sufferer?
anikanjiya?

3.3.6 Songs

Songs are important to the Adimu Orisa play; song connects the people
to their ancestral spirits through social re-ordering that eulogizes the
performers, such that whatever they could not have been able to do, they

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could do with ease. Below is a popular Adimu Orisa festival song of the
Yorubas

O ti f’abebe He has warded off death

Fe ‘ku lo With his magic fan
Oti f’abebe He has warded off death
Fe ‘ku lo With his magic fan
Adimu se ohunna lo sope Adimu has vowed to
On ti f’abebe Ward off death
Fe ku lo With his magic fan

The Adimu Orisa play is significant to the Yoruba and the society as a
religious ritual, and purification ritual during funerals and rite of
passage. It is also for the purpose of praising the deceased and
eulogizing his activities when he was in the world. It is also a
coordinating social ritual of the society. It is an avenue to appease the
ancestors to improve the people’s economy, health and grant longevity
to the individual. It is often used to ward off evil from the society and
shower blessings on the people. The Adimu Orisa encourage sense of
kingship, honour for the dead, inter-tribal and historical relationship
with, for instance, the Oyo, Ijebu Remo, Rini, Iperu that also have a
similar practice, even older than Lagos in some cases. It is also used as a
social and political rallying point among Lagos indigenes and non-
indigenes.

SELFT-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss two of the elements of African Oral drama treated in this unit.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed drama as a concept, elements of African

Oral drama as well as Adimu Orisa play and its merits.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt

• African oral drama shares similar qualities, elements with written

Western drama
• the elements of African oral drama
• about the Yoruba Adimu Orisa drama/play

In the next unit, you will be introduced to prose in African oral

literature.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below
1) What is drama?
2) Differentiate between setting and stage in African oral drama
3) Reproduce one of the ritual drama/plays of your community,
clearly indicating the elements seen in the drama
4) Chose a written African drama of your choice and the ritual drama
and compare using any two dramatic elements of your choice.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abun, M. S. (1983). “The Jaba (Haun) Dodo Masquerading, An

Ethnographic Survey, Nwanna Nzewunawa (Ed.) The Masquerade
in Nigerian History and Culture. Port Harcourt: University of Port
Harcourt Publication Committee.

Ade A. (Ed.) (1987). History of the Peoples of Lagos State. Lagos:

Lantern Books.

Adedeji, J. A. (1966). “The Place of Drama in Yoruba Religious

Observance”. Odu, Vol. 3, No. 1.

Adedeji, J. A. (1972). “Folklore and Yoruba Drama: Obatala as a Case

Study”. R. M. Durson (Ed.) African Folklore. New York:
Doubleday.

Adedeji, J. A. (1973). Adimu Orisa Play, Department of Theatre Arts

Occasional Publication, University of Ibadan. Ibadan: Joytal.

Armstrong, R. (1976). “Tragedy-Greek and Yoruba: A Cross-cultural

Perspective”. Research in African Literature. Ibadan: Heinemann.

Awodiya, M. (1993). Excursions in Drama and Literature: Interview

with Femi Osofisan. Lagos: Kraft Books.

Babayemi, S. O. (1980). Egungun among the Oyo Yoruba, Oyo Council

for Arts and Culture. Ibadan: Heinemann.

Beier, U. (1972). Orisa Liberates the Mind: Wole Soyinka in

Conversation with Ulli Beier on Yoruba Religions. Ibadan:
Macmillan.

Bjorkman, I. (1989). Mother Sings for Me: Peoples Theatre in Kenya.

London: Zed Books.
Clark, E. (1979). Hubert Ogunde: The Making of Nigerian Theatre.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Clark, J. P. (1968). Aspects of Nigerian Drama. Nigeria Magazine, No.

89.

Crow, B. (1983). Studying Drama. United Kingdom: Longman Group.

Darah, G. G. (1986). “Oral Literature” In T. Falola and A. Adediran

(Eds.) A New History of Nigeria for Colleges, Peoples, State and
Culture Before 1800. Ikeja: John West Publications.

Enekwe, O. E. (1987). “Igbo Masks: The Oneness of Ritual and

Theatre” Nigerian Magazine, Department of Culture, Federal
Ministry of Social Development Youth Sports and Culture, Lagos.

Etherton M. (1982). The Development of African Drama. London:

Hutchinson University Library..

Hall, S. (1997). “Cultural Identity and Diaspora” In Kathryn Woodward

(Ed.) Identity and Difference London: SAGE.

Irele, A. (1990). “Tradition and the Yoruba Writer: D. O. Fagunwa,

Amos Tutuola and Wole Soyinka”. In The African Experience in
Literature and Ideology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Losi, J. B. (1967). History of Lagos. Lagos: African Education Press.

Richard, D. (1976). Folklore. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

Soyinka, W. (1976). Myth, Literature and the African World.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ugonna, N. (1983). Mmonwu: A Dramatic Tradition of the Igbo. Lagos:

Lagos University Press.

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UNIT 5 PROSE IN AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Prose Form of Orature
3.1.1 Oral Prose (1) Mayeku
3.1.2 Oral Prose (2) Onokanselu
3.2 Elements of Prose Fiction in African oral Literature
3.2.1 Setting
3.2.2 Character
3.2.3 Theme
3.2.4 Points of View
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will be taught the prose aspect of African oral literature,
an aspect that completes the genre of African oral literature as we have
in written Literature. The previous, last two units in succession have
taken you through the poetry and dramatic forms of African oral
literature.

The prose genre of the African oral literature complements the poetry
and dramatic genres of indigenous African literature. In this unit, we
have also taken you through some of the elements of the prose genre of
African oral literature such as setting, points of view, themes,
characterization. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the indigenous prose fiction of your community

• list and explain the elements in any prose genre selected from the
pool of oral tradition of any parts of Africa
• itemize the moral lessons in any oral prose fiction chosen from any
part of Africa

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Prose Form of African Orature

The prose form is a genre in African oral literature, which shares the
characteristics of the poetry and dramatic forms. This means that the
prose genre uses songs, incantations, proverbs, poetic and dramatic
expressions to tell a story in a prosaic form. Though such stories, in the
age of writing have been reduced to the written form. Example of the
prose narrative of the African oral literature is the Mayeku tale
recorded and translated variously from oral tradition, but we have based
our comments on African oral prose Mayeku and Onokanselu as
recorded and translated by Stanley-‘Delodun Oriola performed by
Oranmaken-Ayese African oral cultural group. Mayeku was recorded in
the year 2000, duration of performance was about one hour. Onokanselu
was also recorded in 2014, duration of performance was about two
hours.

3.1.1 Oral Prose (I) Mayeku

(Performed by Oranmaken-Ayese African oral cultural group, Araromi

Ilaje-riverine area of Ondo State, Nigeria. Year of Recording 2000.
Duration of Performance, about one hour)

Recorded and translated by Stanley-’Delodun Oriola, director

Oranmaken Ayese African oral cultural Group, Araromi, Ilaje riverine,
Area, Ondo State.

Narrator: We welcome you to our tale from the land of tales.

Chorus: Fabulous
Narrator: Here is a great tale.
Chorus: A great tale indeed from the land of tales. We welcome
our tale bearer from the land of fantastic tales.

Episode 1:

Here is a tale of Mayeku, how and why death vowed to kill man,
animals, birds as well as sea mammals. Death was never addressed as
death but as mystery killer, “yeku”. In those days, it was common for
man, animals and everything that had breath to stop breathing and be left
to decay on the spot where they stopped breathing. After many years the
deceased were thrown in a place outskirt of the town called Mayegun, a
place of skulls. But when the mystery killer of man and animals
continued to kill and nothing could stop it, humanity thought of the need
to protect the dead by digging holes for corpses.

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But birds and animals left their dead to decay on the surface of the earth
and sea mammals left theirs to float or get sunk in the seabed. The
general effort to stop the mysterious killer continued. The birds who
could fly also flew high to far away trees and across great seas in the
Eastern, some to Northern and Southern parts of the kingdom to secure
freedom from the strange killer (death). Birds and animals by their
unique nature began to strategize, searching for defence mechanisms
that will secure their lives. The porcupine injected many arrows around
its environment to get it more secure, the monkeys hung on to the Iroko
trees to be far from the ill-wind. The Eagle flew high into the sky. The
Lion roared thunderously to create fear around its environment for
security reason.

The Elephant thread ponderously “proom”, “proom”, “proom” in the

forest. Perhaps, its mighty appearance, swinging tusks and ponderous
tread could secure it and the members of its family from the invisible
killer. Some Parrots decide not to live in their nests so as to avoid being
trapped by the danger loitering around. The partridge dug deep into the
earth, tried to hide itself in a hole, yet parts of its body was still exposed
to the evil of the day. But the invisible killer struck the Partridge from
behind and killed it. The Parrots that had flown far in search of security
from the unknown killer ran into and got trapped by a hunter’s snare, got
killed. The Elephant that had moved thunderously in the forest got
caught, entangled its foot in a thicket, struggled to be free, but lost its
breath in the struggle.

Likewise, the Eagle, Porcupine, some birds and animals got killed,
throwing the animal kingdom into frequent mourning daily. There was
no animal or bird that could unravel the mystery surrounding the
killings. But, after the third mourning among the animals, the
Chameleon came out and announced to the mournful gathering of the
birds and animals that since he had the natural ability to reflect the
colour of its environment, he would assume the colour of the mysterious
killer among the animals, confuse it to put an end to its killer-ego. So, it
assumed the colourless colour of the killer, endlessly and from that time
the Chameleon kept assuming the colour of its environment in the
attempt to entrap the killer of birds and animals in the kingdom.

In its last attempt, it assumed the colour of the cobra; the latter became
angry stung and killed it, and as usual, the animal and bird’s kingdom
were again thrown into mourning. Since the period was a time there was
unity, among birds and animals, whenever death occurred in the midst of
animals, or birds, mourning was done together, and their dead were
buried on a common ground. individual grave were forbidden because
the animals believed that there was only one heaven for all, hence, it was
needless to separate the graves of the deceased. Another reason that was

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given was that death, the mysterious killer, killed anywhere, anytime
and indiscriminately.

The invisible killer was the major problem confronting the whole world
as such, both animals and birds agreed that it was possible to search out
death so as to stop the killings. So a search party was made of to go in
search of death in the spirit world. The search party comprising of birds
and animals, as well as sea mammals, the mother Eagle, Mother Fox,
Mother Chameleon, Mother Sparrow, Mother Tortoise, Lion and
Lioness, Mother Peacock, Leopard, Jackal, Wolf, Tiger, Hawk. Sea
mammals were represented by the Whale, Pulprus and Mudskippers.
The elders had a night long deliberation with the search party. The
elders pleaded with the smaller birds and animals that the selection was
not based on favouritism, but on the qualities that included swiftness,
craftiness, strength, endurance, perseverance, discipline, hardwork,
cleverness, brilliance, magnificence, and must not give in to fright
easily, must be polished, graceful, heedful, and above all must be
willing and ready to die anytime death came calling. The search parties
then sang while the other birds and animals looked on.

Narrator Eyi ki rike? This is strange

Narrator Eyi ke kirii? This is strange
Narrator Eyi ki rike? This is strange
Narrator Ma ye ku I will be dead
Narrator Ma ye ku I will be dead
Narrator Ma ye ku I will be dead
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Chorus Ma ye gha I will stay alive

There are three routes to the domain of death, one is through the sky and
another through the water. The sea mammals will take the hungry path
of the sea to the abode of death while the birds will go through the
famished sky and the animals will travel through the famished road of
death to death’s abode. In view of this development, the search party
was regrouped into three with the Eagle leading those that followed the
hungry path of the air. The Lion was chosen to lead the second party
through death’s hungry land, while the whale led those of the sea
through water to death. The triangular journey began with each leaders

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in front of the party. As the parties began the mournful song that would
usher them onto the path of death, all the variegated birds on the trees
sang in unison, the animals too responded with determination and the
fishes in the nearby stream swam to and fro, propelling their fins, and
gills amazingly.

Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life

Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Narrator Aye hi eyiha What a kind of life
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange
Eyi kirike This is strange

Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead

Ma ye gha I will stay alive

Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive

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The search party going through the air was the first to embark on the
journey, the birds were air lifted by the wind which they had appealed to
help transport them to the abode of death, the ubiquitous killer spirit.

Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted

Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted
Kum, uuuuuuuuuum They were airlifted

Repeat earlier sequence

Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange

Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange
Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange
Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange
Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange
Eyi ke ki ri? This is strange

Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead
Ma ye ku I will be dead

Ma ye gha I will stay alive

Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive
Ma ye gha I will stay alive

Episode 2

After three days of traveling in the air, the search party including
Mayeku, a war general, man’s representative among them arrived the
land of the ubiquitous killer death and his household. Death appeared
with blood stained mouth, looking calm and unassuming, he was such a
friendly spirit. Human and animal skulls and beaks and carcasses of
birds and sea mammals were the interior décor of his abode. He stood at
a distance from the visitors who had flown in from the earth, offered
them seats made of skulls of birds, sea mammals and men. The earthly
visitors refused to take their seats for fear of being killed. Besides, they

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found it irritating to seat on the skulls and carcasses of their brothers and
sisters already killed by death. Their fairy host understood their reaction,
smiled and asked why they had come to visit him unannounced. “I hope
you have not come to kill me?”, he asked the party who looked askance,
but the Eagle was quick to answer his question, “As you can see, we are
not armed, only came to hold a meeting with you, and seek the
possibility of buying our freedom from you, the freedom of our yet
unborn generation so that we will all have no further cause to dig graves
for any of our relations and loved ones – so that you! death can stop
killing us”. Death hung his head in despair, then said, “If only you have
what it takes to beg me and my entire household. Every member of my
family has a duty to perform as ordained by the Almighty God, and non
among us dare disobey our creator as man, and animals. But I am not
happy that you refused to take your seats; nevertheless, I will introduce
my children and entire household to you after which we will then
continue our meeting”.

Death had not begun to introduce the members of his family when the
group that traveled by land led by the Lion arrived, and the sea
mammals as well. With the three groups in the home of death, they
approached the arena with a funeral song.

Narrator Maku maku nu le uku If death persists in the house of

death
Let death kill
Chorus Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let
me
Cheat death by any possible inch
that I may not die in Death’s abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

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Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s
abode

Oyeku yeku uku gbami nule uku And if it be possible let

me
Cheat death by any
possible inch
that I may not die in
Death’s

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abode
Episode 3:

Death then summoned the choristers in his abode to usher in his visitors
formally. “Kom, kom, kom, kom, kom, came the sound of drums in
solemn but rhythmical tone. This was immediately followed by a strange
mournful song by choristers who all dressed in black regalia, weeping as
they sang and filed out from a nearby grave. The coffin-bearing
choirmaster led the group while the assistant choirmaster followed
behind, swinging sideways. The third, a skeleton bearer was riding on
the wing of the wind in the midst of thick dark smoke all around
(Narrator resumes song).

Narrator

Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable

Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable
Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable
Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable
Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable
Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable
Iku e juye, iku e juye o ma se o o o It’s a pity death is unavoidable

Wo waso uku wo fe ye ku You wear the flaming garment

of death and wish to avoid
death
Wo gba ya uku wo feye ku You deprive death of his wife,
you want to avoid death
Wo reni bebe uku wo fe ye ku You thread the path of death,
and wish to avoid of death
Wo ja uja uku wo fe ye ku You fight the fight of death
you wish to avoid death
Wo wole uku wo fe ye ku You go into the abode of
death, but wish to avoid death
Wo se ti didi wo fe ye ku You are incorrigible, you wish
to avoid death

Chorus

aaa o o o ma se o o o o, uku e juye Unfortunately, death is

unavoidable
aaa o o o ma se o o o o, uku e juye Unfortunately, death is
unavoidable
aaa o o o ma se o o o o, uku e juye Unfortunately, death is
unavoidable

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aaa o o o ma se o o o o, uku e juye Unfortunately, death is

unavoidable

Episode 4

Death summoned every member of his household to the meeting. He

began by introducing them. “My first born, Lodge bodge is to kill every
erring firstborn in every household of man, animals, birds and sea
mammals,” concluded death. He introduced Booby, he makes it possible
for every disobedient creature to get entrapped in deadly snares.
Hoodwink only kill night crawlers, he pointed at another member of his
family he called Mishap which operates by killing careless men,
animals, birds and sea mammals, Typhoon kills sea fearers, Novel
creates the newest type of death, Hugger Mugger kills war mongers, and
fighters. Venerate kills the aged and very important personalities only,
Hoyden is death’s messenger that gives death notice to those suffering
from ill health. After he had introduced them, he then announced that
death is a special messenger appointed by the Almighty God and satan
to kill, but not for no reason. Then, the Tortoise spoke at length on
behalf of the animals on the need to spare every race of God’s creation
from being killed. He continued, “Please consider our plight, we do not
have time to do any other thing except to dig graves for members of our
families, and the delegate murmured in support of his oratory. But, when
it was time for death to speak, he said, “As you all know, I am
ubiquitous and that is my special God-given attribute. You will have to
go and seek permission first, from God; once God sets you free, you will
all be free indeed. Besides you all have my properties among all
generations. Some are quality of stealing, lie telling, fornication,
adultery, killing, covetousness, drunkenness, extortion, fighting,
lesbianism, smoking, night crawling, quarrelling, bribery, idolatory and
other forms of corruption which are my properties.

“I have a superior order to kill whoever possesses any of these

properties of mine even without prior notice. Let your generation do
away with them and they will forever be free”. He concluded, “so you
all can see that I death am right and correct to kill, and you are right to
die”. The meeting ended with the parties setting out on the journey back
to the earth (The narrator sings)

Narrator

Abe be, a bebe nowo We plead with death, but death

Iku, iku e de gbe be wa Insists he must kill

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Chorus

Iku joo, o iku jooo We plead with death, but death

O de saanu wa, gbo ebe wa Insists he must kill

Iku joo, o iku jooo We plead with death, but death

O de saanu wa, gbo ebe wa Insists he must kill

Iku joo, o iku jooo We plead with death, but death

O de saanu wa, gbo ebe wa Insists he must kill

Narrator

E ru e a kanda wa, jo iku Your property our

E ru e amuyangam wa, jo Nature please death
E rue a yesi wa Your property our
hobby please death
Your property our pride we plead
A be be, iku, a bebe, jo We plead, we plead
death we plead, we plead

Chorus

Please, please death lets not

Jo, jo, fopin si ekun wa mourn any more

Jooooooo Pleeeeaaase

Episode 5

And all the birds and animals set out on the return journey singing
dirges, and when they arrived home, they met the community mournful,
and joined the mournful trail. It was since then that both man, animals
and birds continue to mourn, as they have refused to return death’s
properties in their possession, and death continues to kill and has not
stopped up to now.

Narrator Hmnnnn our tale

Chorus Hmnnnn a great tale it is

Narrator Hmnnnn our tale

Chorus Hmnnnn a great tale it is

Narrator Hmnnnn our tale

Chorus Hmnnnn a great tale it is,

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3.1.2 Oral Prose

(Performed by Oranmaken-Ayese African Oral Cultural Group,

Araromi, Ilaje riverine area of Ondo State. Year of Recording 2014.
Duration of Performance, about two hours)

(Recorded and translated by Stanley-’Delodun Oriola), director

Oranmaken Ayese African Oral Cultural Group, Araromi, Ilaje riverine
area of Ondo State

Narrator: Here comes a marvelous tale

Chorus: Fabulous
Narrator: Here comes a marvelous tale
Chorus: Fantastic

Episode (1)

This is the story of Onokanselu, an Oba who doubled as a warrior and

kept a harem of women as wives and wanted more. His preferred choice
of women was the most beautiful who were right in everything. His
insatiable will to dominate made him keep women swarming around
him at all times. None in the village dared marry a beautiful woman
because, the Oba would kill the man, use his skull as a seat in his palace
and take his wife. The Oba’s continuous search for beautiful women
continued. This overbearing attitude of the Oba forced the beautiful
women in his village to go on self exile. And any woman he gave a
wand of restriction automatically became the Oba’s wife because the
wand restricted the woman and warded off other men from even
thinking of falling in love with such a wand bearer.

In those days, intermarriages between man and spirits were possible and
a regular occurrence because the gap between the world of man and
spirits was very thin. The overbearing nature and insatiability of Oba
Onokanselu traveled like wild wind on the dry season, rushing and
pumping trees against trees, hills and mountains and forcing sea waves
to rise high causing great disasters.

The damaging image of the Oba traveled beyond the frontiers of the
spirits, animals, birds and the mermaid worlds underneath the sea. The
chief mermaid who heard called for emergency meeting that involved all
animals, sea mammals, birds and other creatures. The meeting was
scheduled for the zero zero lunar moon. That was usually the Twelfth
month of the year in the spirit world. It was also a time that spirits
allowed strangers from other worlds to freely pass through the invisible

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divide that separated the spirit world from humans, animals and other
creatures.

It was also usually a time that vital decisions that would affect spirits
and other creatures were presented, read and considered in the council of
the spirits whenever the Chairman came visiting once in a year. The
chief mermaid promised to host all in the gold city of the mermaid
kingdom. The kingdom of animals was asked to send three
representatives to attend the meeting. They must all have the ability to
survive, both on land and water, those who must represent the birds too
must be able to survive on land and in water. Although, quite naturally
in those days, all birds animals could survive on land and water and
could even fly in the air. But, the chief mermaid, Itokun promised to
open the gate in the sea bed to enable his visitors walk through the
border gate that connected land and sea. The spirit was the first to arrive
the venue of the meeting. He had asked the furious wind to carry him on
its windy wing for quick and easy journey. “Vruuvummmmm,
Vruuuuummm, Vruuuummmm”, they arrived the venue in the seabed
gold city of mermaids.

Narrator (accompanied by instruments) as song sequence continues as

the narrator develops his tale with new facts)

Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?

Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Eyi ke ujoko? What a meeting?
Ujoko agbaye norun A meeting made in heaven
Ujoko agbaye norun A meeting made in heaven
Ujoko agbaye norun A meeting made in heaven
Ujoko agbaye norun A meeting made in heaven
Ujoko agbaye norun A meeting made in heaven
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting
Eyi Ujoko paja were What an emergency meeting

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Episode (2)

The meeting began, with the Chairman council of spirits, addressing the
assembly. The council chairman held the staff of office high in the air.
He began, “The reason we are gathered here this moon is to address the
allegation of the abuse of office, power and oppressive reports about
Oba Onokanselu in the human world; especially the issue of the
oppression of women by the Oba. What should we do?” he asked and
hung his head in despair. Huhuhnnnnnnnnnn, Huhuhmnnnn, Huhunnnnn
the spirits chorused in unity. The chairman held his staff of authority
high in the air and asked an influencial woman spirit in the gathering to
speak. She rose thunderously from her seat, while other spirits hummed,
in acknowledgement of her presence “Shall we hear in full the allegation
against the King?” As the list of the human king’s allegation is read by
the council chairman, other spirits hissed (accompanied by instruments).

Chorus

Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues

Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues
Huhuhumnnn grumbling continues

Episode (3) (narrator resumes)

The council chairman began to read out the allegation against the human
king based on the questions from the individual spirits and the already
existing allegation already leveled against the Oba.

First Allegation: The Oba consciously and deliberately seduced and

abducted the wives of other men like him and killed
the husbands.

In the spirit world, blood represents the soul of a man, then, one of the
spirits asked, “Are his hands really soiled with blood?” The chairman
looked intently into the mid air and answered “Huhuhumnn!”,
Huhuhmnnn!!, Huhuhummnn!!!?. All the spirits gave a very
disapproving response to the king’s action. And, another asked, “does
that include the men he killed in battle as a warrior?” Those were the
men he killed and then took their wives as his. As a valiant warrior, he
had over fifty thousand heads in his possession. Huhuhmnnn,

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Huhuhmnnn, Huhuhummnnn, Huhuhuhmmnn, the spirits again were

alarmed at the sinister record of the human king. At last, an honourable
multiple-headed spirit reminded the assembly that the woman spirit had

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A fo binrin jogun e wu the wicked inheritor of women

the awotele women you made underdog
of

A le o Onokanselu Well done Onokanselu, the

killer
A po lori ebi joye, of family heads,
A fo binrin jogun e wu the wicked inheritor of women
the awotele women you made underdog
of

A le o Onokanselu Well done Onokanselu, the

killer
A po lori ebi joye, of family heads,
A fo binrin jogun e wu the wicked inheritor of women
the awotele women you made underdog
of

Episode (4)

Igodo set off for the human world. She was accompanied by Itohun, a
male mermaid. Other spirits began to sing. In those days, it was
traditional for spirits to sing, dance and drum, especially whenever any
of them was sent on a dangerous errand that required crossing the spirit
to the human frontier. Such songs and druming accompanied them on
such journeys. The narrator sings.

Narrator Chorus

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo
ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty
bright sunny beauty

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo
ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty
bright sunny beauty

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo
ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty
bright sunny beauty

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo

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ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty

bright sunny beauty

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo
ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty
bright sunny beauty

Hee iye, Igodo wo ma Hee iye Igodo safe journey, Igodo the
Ku a jo o Igodo, Arewa obinrin, beauty bright safe journey Igodo
ewa bi oorun the beauty per excellence, beauty
bright sunny beauty

(The chorus continued the refrain for the rest of the song sequence)

Episode (5)

The enchanting (beautiful) Igodo appeared in the human world, moving

elegantly towards the palace of Oba Onokanselu. Immediately the Oba
saw her, he smiled broadly and moved towards Igodo with a swaggering
gait, with open arms saying, “My beauty per excellence, you’re
welcome to my great palace where the beauty of women define their
humanity. You are a beauty per excellence, the bright scorchless
nourishing morning star. I will marry you immediately. He beckoned to
his servants to put a magic wand around her left wrist. Suddenly, he
noticed Itohun, and asked, “please who is this?” Igodo replied, “he is my
younger brother. No No, No No”, he shook his head disapprovingly,
“I’ve never tolerated this in my palace, a man to accompany such a
beautiful lady? No!! No!!! my domain is a harem of power, a harem of
beautiful ladies per excellence, beauty only, not men”. Oba Onokanselu
ordered that Itohun be arrested and imprisoned for daring to accompany
his morning star to his palace. Igodo pleaded, yet he refused. Oba
Onokanselu asked his war general, the Lion to keep watch over the
prisoner and starve him.

The day that the Oba took in Igodo the enchantingly beautiful mermaid
into the very private part of his palace, her presence radiated ‘zoom-
zoom, zoom-zoom’ and neutralized all the charms in the palace, and the
king became powerless. Igodo let loose her brother, and all the women
living in bondage in the palace of Oba Onokanselu.

(the chorus continued, accompanied by drums)

Narrator Chorus
Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

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ile mi yo fi me don be cautions

the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu

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a man does not make a

town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Gbo, Oba Onokanselu be cautions

ile mi yo fi me don be cautions
the earth is slippery lot,
be warned
ile mi yo fime don, Onokanselu be cautions O King
Onakanselu
a man does not make a
town and that is
your name

Episode (6)

That was how Onokanselu was arrested by Igodo and taken to the spirit
world where he was fully disempowered and imprisoned. That marked
the beginning of the conflict between man and mermaid, the latter
vowed to always arrest man. As Igodo and Itohun were leading him
away handcuffed, the song resumes.

Narrator

O o o Onokanselu, aye re re O o o Onokanselu here comes

your end

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Alagbara ma mero baba ole Heee Onokanselu, at last the

slippery
earth threw you off
The mighty man of valour who
lost all

All Group Ah, Onokanselu!

Narrator Hip-Hip-Hip
Chorus Hurrah!
Narrator Hip-Hip-Hip
Chorus Hurrah!
Narrator Hip-Hip-Hip
Chorus Hurrah!
Narrator Hip-Hip-Hip
Chorus Hurrah!

3.2 Elements of Prose-Fiction in African oral literature

3.2.1 Setting

The setting for the oral narrative (1) Mayeku was in the forest, animal
kingdom, in the seabed world of mermaids as well as the spirit world.
Narrative (2) Onokanselu was also set in the spirit world, Animal
kingdom. The setting of the narratives make things happen, propel the
characters into action and force them to reveal their hidden thoughts and
bring them to realization. The locale of both stories includes wind space.
The stories are timeless, but the setting makes us appreciate the story.
The windy and dark gloomy nature of death’s environment in Mayeku
provokes the sensibilities of the audience so that they appreciate the
implications of visiting the domain of death for reconciliation,
particularly to put an end to the killings, the major attribute of death.
The setting and characters of the narratives reveal each other. The tense
and windy atmosphere that surrounds the abode of death depicts death’s
dreadful house in Mayeku. The house of death as seen in Mayeku may
be wrapped in mystery but the setting evokes an atmosphere of fear in
both stories. The setting compels us to feel whatever the storyteller
would have us feel. Mayeku reveals the inevitability of death, and that is
the point. Most African oral narratives usually begin by revealing the
setting of the story. The story and the setting and time are usually
combined and used as spring board to propel the story forward, but as
the story unfolds the oral narrative with its setting moves from one
locale to another as considered appropriate. The narrative may not be
arranged logically. For instance, in Mayeku, the narrative moved from
the Earth, the abode of man and the animal kingdom, including sea

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mammals in the seabed as well as the fictive setting of the spirits

governed by death. Also, Onokanselu had its setting in the human world,
Earth, and then the world of the spirits.

3.2.2 Character

Unlike popular fiction, including contemporary classics, where we are

acquainted with stereotyped characters, African oral narratives usually
create characters that are striking individuals with dominant virtues and
vices. The personages who inhabit Mayeku are the Eagle, Porcupine,
Elephant, Chamelon, Partridge, Peacock, Leopard, Tortoise, Sparrow,
Jackal, Mother Tortoise, Wolf, Whale, Pulprus, Mudskippers, Mother
Fox, Coffin and Skeleton bearer, Chief death and members of his family
like Mr. Lodge bodge, Mr. Booby, Mr. Hoodwink, Mrs. Typhoon, Mr.
Mishap, Mr. Hugger Mugger, Hoyden, War Monger, Venerate, Novel
death, as well as Mayeku (meaning death is inevitable). He is the only
man among the characters. Other characters in Onokanselu are
Onokanselu, Igodo, Itohun, Chairman of all spirits, Spirits and Wealthy
woman spirit.

In these imagined African oral narratives, Chief death played both the
protagonist and villain while in Onokanselu, he is the protagonist, while
the spirits played the villain. The personalities, human and non-human,
seemed familiar to us because of our closeness to the African oral pool
where the story was extracted from. All these make the stories seem true
to life. We find that all characters act in a reasonably consistent manner
and oral tradition has provided them with motivation, given them all
sufficient reasons to behave as they do, and those who behaved contrary
to our expectations gave reasons for behaving in such a manner. Both
stories, Mayeku and Onokanselu, reflect the naturally oral and
conventional African cultural source, with man and animal characters
engaged, with the spirit world, thus satisfying Africa’s cosmology which
is realistic in African’s total experience.

3.2.3 Theme

Irrespective of the narrative oral genre of literature, there is no oral

presentation in Africa that is not told with the full intention of realizing
some moral or thematic preoccupations. Mayeku, for instance, may be
said to discuss the themes of the inevitability of death or a transcient
nature of life, might, immorality, the call for discipline and orderliness,
the danger of immorality, adultery and fornication, stealing, and so on.
Onokanselu also discusses the themes of pride, arrogance,
dissatisfaction, inhumanity, journey, and so on. In every African oral
narrative, themes are like anchor with which a ship is controlled or
rooted, as themes connects the oral narrative from beginning to end

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technically connecting every part of the story, revealing the thoughts and
feelings of every character as the story progresses, making the audience
sympathise and empathize with the characters and in the process
revealing more than one theme, the way series of ocean waves combine
to make up a bigger force great enough to pull over a ship.

3.2.4 Points of View

The narrator of a story in African oral culture is usually an Artist, who

assumes the all knowing and all seeing, the Eye of God, omniscience
narrator, Editorial omniscient and everything in the narration, and
sometimes the oral Artist is assumed to be the author of a story. In
English novel/novel written in English, a writer or the author of a novel
can either assume one of these methods and not everything at once; but
in African oral narration, it is possible for the narrator to assume
everything because the concept of storytelling in African oral culture
only differentiates the oral Artist from the specific origin of the story he
narrates, as the story does not emanate from him but he only stands out
as the mouthpiece of the people’s culture; he passes the story on
ethically to other people as a fulfillment of the people’s cultural
mandate. In Mayeku and Onokanselu, a narrator each gives the full
account of the story.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Return to the oral tradition of your people and reproduce a prose

narrative and outline the moral implication of such a narrative.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have defined African oral prose genre, an aspect of the
African oral literature, and given two full examples of recorded and
translated oral praise genres, Mayeku and Onokanselu. We have also
identified the elements of the prose genre in the prose fiction of African
oral literature .

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• African oral prose genre can be defined

• African oral literature has prosaic genre as does the English
prose narrative
• it is important for you to familiarize yourself with the prosaic
aspect of the African oral literature

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• the elements of the oral prose genre in African oral literature are
exciting
• the elements in the contemporary novel are present in the
indigenous prose fiction

In unit 1 of Module 3, you will be introduced to chremasticism and

design in African oral literature

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) What is African oral prose?

2) Chose and translate an oral prose from your indigenous culture
3) Outline and discuss the elements of African oral prose fiction
4) Chose and outline the moral lessons in one of the oral prose
narrative provided in this unit.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akporobaro, F.B.O. (1994). Understanding Poetry. Lagos: Dimudus

Publishers.

Basqoz, I. (1986). “Digression in Oral Narrative: A Case Study of

Individual Remarks by Turkish Romance Tellers”. Journal of
American Folklore, 99:391.

Dauda, A. (1974). Singing Aloud in my Native Voice – A Collection of

Selected African oral Literature. Minna: Audu Press.

Enekwe, O. Ossie (1987). The Oneness of Ritual and Theatre (A

Nigerian Magazine Publication). Lagos: Department of Culture,
Federal Ministry of Information and Culture.

Gbotako, U. (1980). Orature in Conflict with Orature: Voicing Hausa

Praise Poetry to be Heard. Kaduna: Macmillan.

Hamilton, G. (1985). Oral Narrative in African oral Literature. Sokoto:

Sokoto State Press.

Isidore, O. (1982). Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Mphaphlele, E. (1986). Poetry and Humanism: Oral Beginnings.

Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

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Olusola, A. (1990). Singing for the Dead: In Defence of African oral

Literature. Ibadan: Kemu Publishers.

Oriola S.A. (2000). Mayeku. Unpublished Ilaje, Coastal Ondo State oral
story, recorded and translated by Oranmaken-Ayese African Oral
Cultural Group. Year of Recording 2000 – Duration of
Performance: About one hour.

Oriola S.A. (2014). Oba Onokanselu. Unpublished Ilaje, Coastal Ondo

State oral story, recorded and translated by Oranmaken-Ayese
African Oral Cultural Group. Year of Recording 2014 – Duration of
Performance: About two hours.

Oriola S.A. (2002). Songs of the Season. A novella in the same class of
thought as George Orwell’s Animal Farm. Lagos: Goldenpen
Books.

Thompson, L. A. (1991). Introduction, Culture and Civilization. Lloyd

Thompson. Ibadan: Afrika-Link Books.

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MODULE 3 DESIGNS AND FOCUS IN AFRICAN

ORATURE

Unit 1 ‘Chremasticism’ and ‘Design’ in African oral Literature

Unit 2 Functions of African oral literature (I)
Unit 3 Functions of African oral literature (II)
Unit 4 Functions of African oral literature (III)
Unit 5 Elements in African oral Folktales

UNIT 1 ‘CHREMASTICISM’ AND ‘DESIGN’ IN AFRICAN

ORAL LITERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 ‘Chremasticism’
3.1.1 Initiation as a Rule in African Orature
3.1.2 Communal Participation as a Rule
3.2 Disadvantages of ‘Cheremasticism’ and ‘Design’ to
African oral literature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit presents another novel phase of African oral literature by

taking you through an aspect that may seem baffling, yet realistic and
practicable within the purview of indigenous African literature. Thus, in
this unit, we wish to remind you of another interesting aspect of African
oral literature which is the guiding principles, or rules and patterning
that all combine to make oral performance real, practicable, an
aesthetically satisfying.

Indentifying the characteristic rubrics also addressed as ‘chremasticism’

will help project the aesthetic value of African oral literature.
Understanding the mode of composition of African oral literature
without a knowledge of the rules will demean the value of both aesthetic
and performance. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the concept of ‘chremasticism’ and ‘design’ in African oral

literature
• state the oral rules identifiable with the oral literature of some parts
of Africa and the conditions
• familiarize yourself with the deisgn of the orature of your people,
using a suitable oral narrative
• explain the conditions under which certain oral literary rules may be
applied to some oral practices in the culture of your people
• outline the disadvantages of chremasticism in African oral literature

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 ‘Chremasticism’

Like the lietratures of the classical world including the Romantic that are
all bound by formal rules, African oral literature is no exception. We
have discovered, like its Western conceptions such as John Milton’s
Paradise Lost which is strictly written in accordance with the classical
conception of the epic, the same way Samson Agonistes is patterned
along the Greek tragedy, Spencer and Sydneyean too, the Sonnets,
according to the Shakespearean and Italian styles the latter in strict
conformity to 14 lines rendition; African oral literature also operates
along known ‘Chremasticism’ or rules, though, such rules may not be
formal due to the oral nature of its composition across Africa, but it is
visible and correct.

Since the beginning of oral literature in pre-literate African societies,

whether in poetry, drama or prose, what look like designated rules were
based on the circumstances that surround the enactment of the oratory of
every genre of literature. Such ‘design’ is classified as ‘chremasticism’.
In the age of civilization, such rules were hardly conceive of as rules, as
a result of the unwritten nature of such design which become
indispensable because in many occasions, the practices of orality
without strict adherence to such rules will be meaningless, incomplete
and will lack aesthetics as a result of the absence of the conditions that
are necessary for such enactment or composition.

3.1.1 Initiation as a Rule in African Orature

Oral literary exponents will prefer that anyone who will conduct
investigations into the ritual existence of some gods, goddesses and
deities including Ogun the god of Iron, Sopono the god of poxes, Ifa
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divination, Osun goddess and so on be an intiate. This is because it is

believed that an initiate will understand the do’s and dont’s of the
deity(ies), will be more familiar with the language, and materials and the
general circumstances that surround such oral ‘figure’. For instance, he
who must practice the Eyo Adimu Orisa must necessarily have been
initiated into the cult where he will be taken through the specific
doctrines including the history and other concerns of the spirituality of
its practice. Among the Yorubas, anyone who must practice Ifa, will be
asked if he is Ifa initiate or else, he will not qualify to hold any ritual
office or even sit among the initiates. Also, among the Lithuli, any oral
Artist must be ready to go through formal initiation before he is
accepted into the ‘band’ this is because an oral Artist is seen as part of
the culture and cult, and any formal initiation thus becomes his greatest
credential.

Apart from the above, the rules differ in other parts of Africa, according
to tribes and other specific conditions. For instance, among, the Kajo
Kaji of the Bari-speaking people in the Kuku tribe of Southern Sudan,
an oral Artist must first be confined into an exclusive abode where he is
taken through the communal Verbal Arts, and to complete the ritual, he
must sit on a ritual mortar for a number of days in a sacred room. The
griot tradition of the Barbers of Western Sahara prefers their oral Artist
to endure a number of ritual knifecuts in a sacred room that is meant for
that purpose and he must be married to be considered mature for the oral
composition in any form. To them, the concept, ‘maturity’ denotes being
married and then an oral Artist becomes fully matured after he is able to
endure the ritual passage to full maturity. In what looks like a credential
or certificate to practice; a small garland is then tied to ritual traditional
beads and wrapped around his neck. The garland symbolizes a license to
practice among the people other than the other common Artists who may
not be under compulsion to practice such art, but are not seen as
‘professionals’ in the community. The situation is similar among the
Fulanis of Northern Nigeria, Senegal, Mali, Dakar, Somali and Niger.
Their nomadic nature gives them all the ample opportunity to practice
the flute and tambourine which are often their crafts. There are no strict
ritual observances, as their normadic nature gives them the opportunity
to be close to nature and the culture of the people as well as their
professions. Fulanis often engage in ‘monopractice’ of their Artistry
compared to organized social setting under moonlight. The latter is not
common among the Fulanis who are naturally oral performers, thus they
hardly secure any organized setting where an artist is invited to entertain
the audience. Apart from the above, in Nyansaland in Northern
Rhodesia, an oral Artist is first taken through the skills to fashion his
instruments like flute and weave his hand-made local fan, and carve
other things as the beginning of his initiation into the oral Art of
composition.

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3.1.2 Communal Participation as a Rule

Oral Artistry and general composition is more of a communal thing than

being individualistic; as can be seen among the Arabs in North Africa
countries like Morrocco, Egypt and Libya. To be more specific, at
Obare, Bar-ghat, Houn town and Sebha that are not fully developed as
Benghazi and Tripoli in Libya, full attention is given to the training of
the oral Artist. But theirs do not involve the very ritualistic and
sometimes the very difficult situations and initiation processes that are
considered indispensable among oral Artists from other parts of Africa.
A similar situation is obtainable in Tamaraset in Algeria.

Everywhere in Africa, there are the ‘designs’ and rules which, in some
occasions people tend to either overlook or pretend that it does not exist,
but they actually exist, though may be ‘unwritten’ as they are. However
such conditions that define the orality, oral performance in Africa cannot
be overlooked as they still exist and affect African oral literature in
every perspective.

Fig. 4

A1 A2

Design and Chremasticism

Oral tradition has African oral tradition

designs everywhere in operates with rubrics/
Africa but with relative codes
difference

African oral tradition A

Interpretation of figure 4

Usually, the African oral tradition (A) is below, as the bedrock from
which sprang the design (A1) and chremasticism (A2) (guiding rubrics)
of oral tradition. They are all interwoven, the interconnectivity is in the
evolving rules that are a precious part of every oral tradition anywhere
in Africa though with cultural and indigenous varieties.

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3.2 Disadvantages of ‘Chremasticism’ and ‘Design’ to African

oral literature

• Restricts the general development and growth of African oral

literature.
• Prevents inter-ethnic interactions.
• Limits the expansion and interethnic awareness of other cultures
and customs.
• It favours the spread of Western culture and education to the
detriment of African culture and education.
• Oral Artists are unconsciously wooed into and intiated into full
cults and cultism.
• It complicaates the practice of African oral literature and culture.
• It deters people from seeing the social and educative functions of
African oral literature , as it may be seen as a cult.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

What is the concept ‘chremasticism’ and ‘design’ in African oral

literature ?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed some of the things you need to know
about ‘chremasticism’ and design in indigenous African literature.
Detailed explanation as well as the disadvantages of ‘chremasticism and
design’ in African oral literature have been provided.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• about the concept ‘chremasticism and design’ in African oral

literature
• that ‘chremasticism’ has its own disadvantages

In unit 2, you will be introduced to the functions of African oral

literature (II)

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Define the concept, ‘chremasticism’ in African oral literature.

2) State the disadvantages of chremasticism to African oral literature.

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3) Present the oral narrative of your village and identify

chremasticism.

7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Ahmed, I. (2000). Songs of the Beginning in Ijaw Oral Narratives.

Bayelsa: Heinemann.

Aluokwu, K. (1969). Dancing

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UNIT 2 FUNCTIONS OF AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

(1)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Orature as a historical document
3.1.2 Orature as cultural theatre
3.1.3 Orature as autobiographical and record of personal
experience
3.1.4 Preservation of moral and religious experience
3.1.5 Orature and philosophy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit has been designed to take you through the functions of
African oral literature. In pre-literate societies’ orature, you will
remember began as a cultural practice, with almost a homogeneous view
of distinctive societal functions, which include upholding societal moral
standard, propagating the people’s cultural heritage and maintaining a
certain connection with the people’s ancestral lineage, thus, the need to
design this unit to teach you these essentials.

The knowledge of the functions of African oral literature should not be

trivialized, as it strengthens the value that is attached to oral Africal
literature, particularly in the contemporary age of science and
technology, where Western culture has taken a front seat in most
African homes, rendering African culture and norms almost irrelevant,
hence, the need to continually stress the functions of Africal oral
literature. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss orature as historical document

• explain African oral literature as a cultural theatre
• attempt a discussion of orature as autobiographical in nature

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3.1.2 Orature as a Cultural Theatre

The festivals in orature formed a cultural theatre where most of the rites
were often performed. Poetry too is performed, its creation and
recitation are part of the imaginative expression of the people. In
preliterate African societies, nearly everybody could recite something in
the indigenous culture and language. Africans have always had
traditional poets who emphasize the communal culture where they
belong and the physical and spiritual essence of their world. The cultural
traditions, are expressed in the monarchical rule, praise singers,
kingships and other forms of indigenous education that have survived
the changing times, the encroaching modern institutions
notwithstanding. The monarchical institution is the symbol of traditional
authority. The king in the African culture expressed in its orality is the
custodian of the authority on behalf of his people. He is the flavour of
the people’s cultural life.

An example is the myth of the Bagre which reveals the ritual processes
of the initiation of young men and women of the Lo Dagaa tribe of the
North Western region of Ghana. The initiation process was necessary to
lift the traditional restrictions on young men and women from eating
new fruits and crops before the crops are ritually harvested.

3.1.3 Orature as autobiographical and a record of personal

experience

Orature, from time immemorial to the present, has been an avenue to

express the individual’s life and experience that are very personal and
unique to the individual, his value, immediate and remote feelings, about
his community and nation, his fear, anxiety, family life, and other series
of encounters that are personal to him. The Owusua a poem of the Akan
speaking people in Ghana that recalls and celebrates the achievement of
the Akan lineage, woven around the metaphor of a deceased non-native
Ghanaian villager, celebrates the Ghanaian ancestors.

3.1.4 Preservation of moral and religious experiences

Moral and religious experiences are part of the roles of oral poetry.
Orature in all its forms is the avenue through which the culture and
traditional religion of the people are deeply expressed and practiced.
Traditional African religion is the rallying point, an avenue through
which succeeding generations are educated about the cultural nuances
and customs of the people, as religion in African oral culture contains
the seed of life which is an essential aspect of indigenous African
philosophy.

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Example is the Somali oral poetry, “As camels have become thirsty”.
This is a poem of lamentation in which a man abandoned by a lover
(woman) married another, became overwhelmed by grief, suffered
psychological and emotional torture. The longing for the lost love is
deeply expressed by the poet.

3.1.5 Orature and Philosophy

African oral literature is interested in man and his society, the way he
feels and thinks about life, and his time, his distinctive expression and
impression of the world around him, the material and spiritual bodies of
his universe and other planets that surround him, the sun, the stars and
moon. African oral literature is also interested in man’s hidden thoughts
about his being and existence, and total ideologies of his age in
comparison with the age ahead of him, his beliefs about certain material
things as well as bold questions and questioning about existentialities
that will go a long way to serve as lasting solutions to the shroud issues
of man’s failure, success, moral and immoral existence. Other issues that
go outside man’s philosophy like the afterlife of man’s universe, the
nature of gods, goddess and deities, possibilities and limits of human
knowledge or wisdom are of interest to oral literature. For instance, the
Ewe oral poem about death insists that death was a gentle and
accommodating being living among other creatures on Earth. But, the
day he was wronged by other deities he became angry, left them, the
world and preferred to live as vagabond. He became vengeanful and
began to kill and vowed never to spare even pregnant women. He vowed
never to bring down his life-killing club until, he has killed every
generation of man. Orality did not mention the nature of the wrongful
act against him before death became a killer mystery.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

List and discuss the functions of oral Africal literature.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed the functions of Africal oral literature.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• that it is possible for African oral literature to serve as a historical

document
• how African oral literature functions as a cultural theatre and is
autobiographical too
• the moral and religious experiences of oral Africal literature
• the relationship between orature and philosophy

In the next unit, you will read more about the functions of oral Africal
literature.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

• Discuss African oral literature as a historical document.

• Explain how African oral literature functions as a cultural theatre.
• Write your impression of the moral and religious experiences of
African oral literature.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aluokwu, K. (1969). Dancing with the Dane Gun – Igbo Orature.

Onitsha: Beta Prints.

Bode, K. (2006). Igbo Indigenous Orature. Enugu: Excell Prints.

Chechukwu, N. (2006). Igbo Oral Narratives. Anambra: Macmillan.

Dauda, A. (1974). Singing Aloud in my Native Voice – A Collection of

Selected African oral Literature. Minna: Audu Press.

Enekwe, O. (1987). The Oneness of Ritual and Theatre (A Nigerian

Magazine Publication). Lagos: Department of Culture, Federal
Ministry of Information and Culture.

Gbotako, U. (1980). Orature in Conflict with Orature: Voicing Hausa

Praise Poetry to be Heard. Kaduna: Macmillan.

Hamilton, G. (1985). Oral Narrative in African oral Literature. Sokoto:

Sokoto State Press.

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Isidore, O. (1982). Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Mphaphlele, E. (1986). Poetry and Humanism: Oral Beginnings.

Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

Olusola, A. (1990). Singing for the Dead: In Defence of African oral

Literature. Ibadan: Kemu Publishers.

Thompson, L. A. (1991). Introduction, Culture and Civilization. Lloyd

Thompson (Ed.). Ibadan: Afrika-Link Books.

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UNIT 3 FUNCTIONS OF AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

(II)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 The social function of orature
3.1.2 Orature as avenue for entertainment
3.1.3 Indigenous education
3.1.4 Comunal interaction and socialization
3.1.5 Learning field of African culture
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This Unit continues the functions that African oral literature performs in
the African society. This unit is another important stage at the level of
discussion of African oral literature. African Oral Literature is a ‘living’
literature, living in the sense that does not entertain any strict distinction
of its genres as poetry, drama and prose are all performative its genres
are active and call for the active involvement of not only the
professional Artist but the entire members of the African society,
present, the dead as well as succeeding generations of the African
community.

The aspect being introduced to you is important and necessary. Any

contrary view would mean that we are in the league of those who say
that African oral literature and culture do not exist. But if we agree that
they exist, then we must admit their functionality.

You may have been taught some of these things, but in our own
treatment of the various aspects of African oral literature, we have
included various examples that remind you of a need to be continually
close to your culture both in theory and in practice.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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• demonstrate your awareness of the functions of African oral

literature
• identify some of the functions during practical oral performance of
your people
• show a mastery of the knowledge of the culture of your people
• explain the social functions of African oral literature
• identify the functions of African oral literature to specific
aspects of your oral culture and education
• do a convincing discussion of African oral literature as agent of
communal socialization and productive interaction
• discuss orature as the ‘learning field of Africa’.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1.1 The Social Function of Orature

In the African cultural compound, it is cultural for people to gather

under moonlight and tell stories in the evenings. Through such avenue
the people socialize, engage each other in relevant communal and family
issues, and friendly gossips as they listen to and take part in the oral
performance as the aged or elderly in a family or community leads the
social gathering while serving as the oral Artist for the moment. Usually,
in African culture, the people take advantage of every occasion or
gathering to socialize and engage in relevant communal discussions. An
example is the Yoruba people of Nigeria’s hunter’s chant. Ijala Ode
though a chant, addresses the varied economic values of the Elephant,
his physical, enormous nature and wonderful frame which provide great
economic value to man. Trickstar tales of the Tortoise are often told in
such arenas.

3.1.2 Orature as Avenue for Entertainment

The different aspects of African oral literature by nature, be it poetry,

drama or prose, explore every avenue to entertain the community;
sometimes, singing, dancing and drumming are involved. For instance,
among the Igbo, the New Yam Festival that is celebrated periodically
among the Easterners is specifically indigenous and deeply cultural to
the Igbos, such that the Igbo from all works of life usually return to their
roots to take part in the New Yam festival. The cultural activity is both
performative, cultural and entertaining. Likewise, the Pgymies of the
Congo Basin in their poetry of the moon, a replica of moonlight play
from other parts of Africa, is also an avenue in which any virgin or man
who is ripe enough to have a husband or take a wife, as the case may be,
looks around for a husband and wife. The entertaining aspect of African
oral literature cannot go out of fashion, no matter African’s level of
civilization. The Adimu Orisa festival often celebrated among Oyo’s,
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Ijebus and people of Lagos began as a ritual thing, but became an

avenue for entertainment among Lagosians of the time of King Dosumu
of Lagos, and has flourished greatly in modern Lagos a sociable and
entertaining show that accommodates audiences of different age groups,
and people from all works of life. Another example is the anonymous
poem of the Igbo-speaking people of Eastern Nigeria, Breaking Colanut.
The poem depicts the philosophical, spiritual, social, economic and
cultural features/symbols of the people’s way of life.

3.1.3 Indigenous Education

African oral literature is generally known to be an avenue for the

exhibition of the people’s culture and promotion of indigenous
education. Ever before Western education was imported to Africa
alongside colonialism and Christianity, Africans had a way of educating
their people, though the system of education might not take place in the
four walls of a classroom or in a formal setting. Africans were gracefully
‘schooled’ in their ‘open air’, under trees, market square where the
people met to entertain themselves and discuss their culture, tell stories,
legendery tales about known and unknown mysteries of the world that
surrounded them, the wonders of their traditional existence. Of
importance in every African oral performance is the way stories and
tales are education-oriented, essentially towards building new ideas that
have moral basis into the life of the society as a duty to transmit sound
morals to succeeding generations thus fulfilling the educational function
of African oral literature.

3.1.4 Communal Interaction and Socialization

Most African oral practices are spiritual and physical exercises and are
not entirely an indoor affair. In fact, they are conducted in open spaces
that can accommodate a great number of people. There are some oral
performances that involve nearby communities as it is the culture in
African societies. For instance, the Ekwesi festival in Eastern Nigeria
where every participant by custom should dance to be seen by
neghbouring communities. Whenever such takes palce, social interaction
in all forms, become inevitable among the participants, and this gives
room for communal expansion, through intercultural, intercommunal
marriages. For instance, among the Assagai of Zulu land in South
Africa, tradition insists that when a virgin is to be given out in marriage,
immediately she leaves the fattening house, she must be accompanied by
Oral Artists who will sing the praise song of her lineage, accompanying
her to neighbouring community with pomp and peageantry. This is often
done in groups of virgins not less than five at a time while people will
shower the virgin with material gifts in preparation for her new home.

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3.1.5 ‘Learning Field’ of African Culture

There are different avenues for learning African culture, the first is
within the home where one lives with one’s parents, relations, extended
family members. Another is the immediate community as well as when
one comes in contact with an elder on a foot path. One can also learn
about the people’s culture where one undertakes a job as apprentice like
Ifa divination, hunting, weaving, pottery, farming, and in the process of
learning other forms of traditional occupation. In addition orature is like
a ‘learning field’ or school in which one has gone to learn the
underlining philosophy of the people’s culture in all areas, and these
include morals, religion and economy; how to drum, dance, show
courtesy to elders and so on. Example is the short anonymous Elegy of
the Bahama-speaking people of Uganda, “Lekhuem” that praises a war
hero who decorated his compound with the skulls and skeletons of those
he killed in the field of battle. He had a pot in which blood was also
stored. He was said to drink woman blood in preparation for a battle. His
exploits are still being discussed in Bahama-Ugandan culture in the
modern time.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Mention and discuss at least three functions of African oral literature.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed some of the functions of African oral

literature. We have also included the discussion of orature as Africa’s
agent of socialization.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• You need to be familiar with the oral aspect of the Literature of

your people.
• You should admit that since African oral literature and culture
exist, then it means that it has functions in the society.
In the next unit, you will be introduced to the functions of African
oral literature (iii)

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Discuss the social function of African oral literature.
2) With appropriate example, discuss the educational functions of
African oral literature.
3) African orature is synonymous to a ‘learning field’. Discuss
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING
Ayo, A. (2006). Folk Narratrives. Kaduna: Lens Books.

Bode, K. (2006). Igbo Indigenous Orature. Enugu: Excell Prints.

Uchechukwu, N. (2006). Igbo Oral Narratives. Anambra: Macmillan.

Dauda, A. (1974). Singing Aloud in my Native Voice – A Collection of

Selected African oral Literature. Minna: Audu Press.

Enekwe, O. (1987). The Oneness of Ritual and Theatre (A Nigerian

Magazine Publication). Lagos: Department of Culture, Federal
Ministry of Information and Culture.

Gbotako, U. (1980). Orature in Conflict with Orature: Voicing Hausa

Praise Poetry to be Heard. Kaduna: Macmillan.
Hamilton, G. (1985). Oral Narrative in African oral Literature. Sokoto:
Sokoto State Press.

Isidore, O. (1982). Myth in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Kettle, B. (2004). Seeing through the Dim Past of our Ancestors. Dakar:
Heinemann.

Kofi, A. (2000). Ewe Praise Poetry. Accra: Heinemann.

Letanus, M. (1980). Luthuli Sings, Dance, and Dance: South African

Orature. Cape Coast: Macmillan.

Mphaphlele, E. (1986). Poetry and Humanism: Oral Beginnings.

Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

Nzeugwu, N. (1989). Igbo Orature and the People. Ikeja: BPens.

Omotunde, B. (2012). Time and Timing in African oral Literature. Jos:

Toka Prints.

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UNIT 4 FUNCTIONS OF AFRICAN ORAL LITERATURE

(III)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Orature as a diary of Africa
3.1.2 Orature as a weapon of warfare
3.1.3 Orature as avenue for praises
3.1.4 Orature as song and song patterning
3.1.5 Orature as a pool of proverbs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have designed this unit to end our discussion on the functions of

African oral literature. Like those of the previous units, it is also tailored
towards making you a practical discussant and contributor to the culture
of your people. Adequate examples have been provided here from the
African oral culture so as to make the unit attractive, moreso as African
oral culture and literature is practical in nature and practicable too.

Realizing that a discussion of the functions of African oral literature

cannot be exhaustive, we have hit the nail on the head by narrowing
down our discussion to some significant and unavoidable functions that
lend weight to the culture and indigenous education of the African
peoples. We have also tried to inject a sense of humour into our
discussion as a way of trying to measure up and represent African
culture and tradition correctly. We will highlight the entertainment
dimension of African oral culture. For while the culture interprets some
strict societal functions, you still find traces of entertainment in it. The
whole idea is to make you realize that African oral culture is not a ‘dry
bone’.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss African oral literature as the diary of the continent

• explain how African oral literature serves as the weapon of warfare
• identify African oral literature as avenue for praises

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• familiarise yourself with the ‘songstar’ nature of African oral

literature
• assess the rich cultural proverbs of African oral literature

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The fourth unit, as indicated continues the functions of African oral

literature. Orature is the nucleaus of the existence of Africa peoples and
cultures. It is no exaggeration to say that its existence and relevance are
closely tied to the continent, her beginnings, that of her people and
continuity. Below are other functions of the African oral literature.

3.1.1 Orature as a Diary of Africa

Just as Western culture has the written tradition of keeping diaries,

African oral tradition also practices similar tradition, except that of
African oral tradition may not be written, but codified cognitively and
that is what makes it oral. Its dates, months and years may not be in
form of the Western numerals, but often in the remote and nameless and
timeless past. Mostly, when tales are narrated about some events,
African oral folktales begin with timeless time expected to be taken note
of by the human cognitive domain. Folktales often begin with “once
upon a time”, and sometime, timing in the concretized or made real by
attaching the oral timelessness to any natural object, mostly the sun or
moon or any geographical indices like the fourteen “luner moon”, night
or day and so on.

When that is done, the African audience that is recipient of the culture,
takes note of the timing, and begins to relay the folktale to the fictive
timing, days, months, years or timelessness that may be referred to in the
story. Such continuity in African culture may be an indication of the oral
diary in the African oral context.

An example is the commonly recited mythical Fulanic creation story

that explains the origin of the world. The account told orally explained
the process of creation, how traditional values and evil originated. The
account revealed the different stages which led to the creation of man
when Doondari descended the second time, then man became proud,
disobedient and lost paradise, and through that, difficulties and death
became man’s companion in the world. The poem ends with a hope of
eternal glory for man.

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3.1.2 Orature as a Weapon of Warfare

In moments of intertribal, interethnic, or local boundary warfare in

which incantations are used against enemies, the rich African oral
verbiage is known to have been used as a potent weapon against
enemies or rivals in the time of conflict. This has been demonstrated in
many great and historical interethnic battles among the Yorubas and
other African indigenes. Such oral incantations are known to possess
great venom such that it has immediate effect on the person, village,
town or community to whom/which it is directed. Sometimes objects
such as eggs, leaves, roots of plants, sand, pebbles are used in the
process of incantation. A situation can even warrant the person who is
making the incantation to face a particular direction, the East, West,
South, North, or the sun, moon, the sea, rock, mountain, a tree and one
can assume any posture during such a process.

There is also a blessing, as there is a curse in the power of the word.

Incantation is the spoken word, it is different from the ordinary word, it
is a verse or fomula believed to have magical effect in controlling
people or things. African peoples see it as a source of magical power
and the attainment of metaphysical manhood. When incantations are
used, the effect can be immediate, and almost always the result is instant
in an incantatory combat. Even when hunters come face to face with
animals that are carnivorous or spirits, the voicing power or incantatory
assertion of the word is often engaged as escape route to, either conquer
or escape danger.

3.1.3 Orature as Avenue for Praises

Generally in African culture an, avenue is provided for the rendition of

praise poetry, not just for the sake of it. Praise poetry has a significant
purpose in the life of the individual as much as his community. The
place of praise poetry in African culture and orature is considered
important such that African oral literature gives praises to everything in
nature, both human and non-human; including the sun, moon, sea
stones, rocks, mountains, trees as well as animals. Even gods, goddeses,
and deities all have their praise poems just, as towns and communities.
In African oral literature the correct recital of praise poem compels the
object to strive to greater heights, honours African progenitors, connects
man to his ancestral spirits, and makes one perform a feat, which,
otherwise, one may not be able to undertake, ordinarily. It is in view of
the value attached to praise poems that the pygmies have a praise poem
for the sun, the Yorubas for the Elephant, the Luthli for the moon, the
Akan for trees. Among the coastal riverine Ilaje dwellers in Ondo State
of Nigeria, orature of the coastal dwellers often invokes mermaids from
the river and sea to man’s habitat by reciting/ invoking the praise poem

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of Oranmaken, their forefather, in connection with his wife, Igodo, an

enchanting female mermaid that orature says Oranmaken overpowered
on the coastal Ilaje and married when he and his followers journeyed
coastward from Ile Ife, the Yoruba ancestral home, a journey that was
dictated by Ifa oracle at Ile Ife.

Another example is the Sundjata, also variously called “Diata”, “Djata”,

“Sogolon”, “Maghan” in oral literature which means Lion who was said
to be the son of a Buffalo mother – an ugly hunchback creature called
Sogolon who carried the pregnancy of the child for fourteen years, and
seven years after his birth, he did not walk. Then mysteriously, he was
said to uproot a baobab tree raised himself up from the ground, lifted up
the trunk of the tree took it home to the surprise of the people who all
sang his praises thus:

“Room, room, make room

The lion has walked
Hide antelopes
Get out of his way”.

3.1.4 Orature as Song and Song Patterning

Orature is an important source of songs of various types. Consciously or

unconsciously Africans sing; they draw materials for their oral
composition from traditional sources. These songs include festival
songs, political songs, folktale songs, ritual songs, songs during or after
the death of a loved one, coronations, birth ceremonies, occupational
songs, lullaby, and bridal songs, protest songs, songs in the times of
famine, war, hunger and happiness.

Songs, long or short in African oral literature are used in many contexts,
to express hope, fear, to demonstrate solidarity and positive action,
defeat, to show a sense of tragedy and resignation to fate. Songs keep
African oral literature and the society moving. Without the use of
songs, the glamour of African oral literature will be lost. In some
occasions, songs in orature can be used as invitation to cause trouble or
conflict, to ridicule, show opposition, to praise or abuse. Songs are used
to show happiness in orature. In fact, orature cannot exist without songs
that are used appropriately around every situation.

For example the death of Liyongo had existed as songs in Swahili before
the oral poet, Muhammed bin Abubakar bin Umar al-Bakari. The song
was a conflict between Daud Mringwari the Lord of Pate and his cousin,
Liyongo, which by extension was the conflict between Arab and African
strands in Swahili cultures up till today.

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3.1.5 Orature as a Pool of Proverbs

The moral impact of African oral literature reflects in the use of

proverbs. Everywhere around Africa, orature is marked by prescriptive
mode of metaphorical expressions to impact morals. African oral
literature is so much in love with proverbs and its appropriate use in
discussions is highly regarded. The African audience values proverbs, its
precise use of language more than the real story itself. This is where the
ingenuity of the oral Artist is praised. A clever manipulation of proverbs
is one of the aspects of language which the oral Artist uses to create
rapport with his audience.

African oral literary proverbs reflect in rhetorics with its spontaneity to

drive home the point of the oral Artist and to forge the beauty of the
language of the oral Artist who uses proverbs to sustain the attention and
interest of the audience.

African proverbs like poems everywhere in the world are short, witty
statements with implicit, moral truth. They are a distillation of the
wisdom of the people derived over the ages from the careful observation
of everyday socio-cultural and political issues involving human being,
nature and animals, as well as metaphysical, proverbs are a short,
repeated, witty statements or a set of statements of wisdom, truth and
experience which is used to further a social cultural end.

Proverbs give us as clear an idea as we can hope to get about the forces
that influence people and the ideas that they hold. Africans are so much
in love with proverbs that its appropriate use in discussions is held in
high esteem. Some examples of African proverbs and their meanings are
outlined below: our examples are selected across cultures in Africa,
including the antecedents, (meaning and purposes) of such proverbs
originally rendered by Yorubas, Igbos, Akans, Pygmies, Bankgos,
Assagais, Bantus, Tutsis, Tswanas and in many other cultures in Africa.

Woman can be the initiate of Egungun

Woman can be the intiate of Gelede
Woman is forbideen to partake ‘in or see oro’
Or else oro cult will consume her

Religion Antecedents

This is a proverb that is culture bound and woven around the religious
world view and concept of Egungun. In Yorubaland women are
exempted from certain cultural practices such as oro. Although, this
does not mean that there are no culture in Yoruba aspets in which
women are used to pacify the gods, but in this this traditional exemption

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of women from oro cult, we may say is not done out of love, but with
the intention to strengthen patriarchy. The oro cult is performed virtually
in all parts of Yoruba land. Traditional mythology has it that Egungun
and Oro went on an errand to a distant land to work. Egungun was more
focused, and hardworking; he kept all this proceeds and thus returned
home celebrated while, Oro lavished all he had and when it was time to
return home, he was ashamed to enter the town in the day, so he choose
the midnight as his arrival time. In order to cover his recklessness, he
entered nude at night, humming like the busy bee. For the simple act of
his being nude, women were advised to stay away from the scene and up
to now, Oro became a cult from which women are traditionally
exempted.

Sango has sixteen women but it is the tenderly

care of Oya that makes her the favourite wife

According to legend Sango, a once powerful ruler and much dreaded

fiery king lived and ruled in the old Oyo kingdom in the 18th century
where he had the power to spare life and to take it. As much as he was
dreaded, he was also respected in and beyond his kingdom. Quite
naturally, women swarmed around this powerful and much respected
king of war, but of them all, his most favoured was Oya. Oya here is a
symbol of womanhood who displayed virtues of compassion, care,
doggedness, respect fortitude, and love which surpassed all the virtues
and common sense of other women as well as the might of all men.
Women among Sango’s retinue of wives had approved the institution of
polygamy and this singular act had brought women under the perpetual
control of men and up to now, this tradition has come to stay. For
instance, the Akan speaking people in Ghana is of the view that;

If we do not stop a clitories from growing,

when it grows up, it will continue to receive
great sacrifice from the penis

Cultural Antecedents

Among the Akan-speaking people in Ghana and in most other cultures

in Africa, circumcision of females is as old as the existence of the
settlers. The practice in recent time has been roundly condemned
globally as a barbaric act, hence several global initiatives to which many
African countries including Ghana and Nigeria participated pronounced
it an indecent practice which must be stopped. Female circumcision in
whatever format be it the suna or fibula or clitocottiledon all which
involved the incision or actual cutting of the edge of the female clitoris
involves blood spillage and it is considered fettish, inhuman and very
dangerous. Despite all national and international initiatives to stop the

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act in the new millennium, the Akan proverb quoted above still glorifies
and encourage the practice, ignoring the fact that it is an infringement on
the rights of the female child and of womanhood.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss African oral literature as Africa’s diary of events.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed African oral literature as a diary of event.

We have also discussed its usefulness for praises, weapon of war, ,
songs and as rich culture of proverbs.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• African oral literature can function as a diary of events

• African oral literature can also serve as a weapon of warfare,
avenue for praises and source of proverbs

In unit 5, you will be introduced to the easthetic elements in African oral

folktales.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) How is diary related to African oral literature?

2) How potent is African oral literature as a weapon of warfare?
3) With the aid of an oral praise poem, discuss African oral literature
as an avenue for praises.
4) Explain African oral literature as a source of song and song
patterning.
5) How rich is Africa oral literature in the composition and use of
proverbs?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abraham, W. (1962). The Mind of Africa. London: Weidenfield and

Nicolson.

Afigbo, A. I. (1977). The Poverty of African Historiography. Nigeria:

Afrographica Publishers.

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Anyanwu, K. C. (1983). The African Experience in the American

Market Place. New York: Exposition Press.

Appiah, A. (1985). “Soyinka and the Philosophy of Culture” In P. O.

Bodunrin (Ed.) Philosophy in Africa – Trends and Perspectives.
Ife: University of Ife Press.

Asante, M. (1988). Afrocentricity. New York: African World Press Inc.

Kwesi, W. (1994). Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African

Perspective. Ibadan: Macmillan.

Nwala, T. U. (1980). Igbo Philosophy with Regard to Igbo Traditional

Thought. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.

Tsenay S. (1990). The Hermeneutics of African Philosophy: Horizon

and Discourse. Nairobi: Heinemann.

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UNIT 5 AESTHETIC ELEMENTS IN AFRICAN ORAL

FOLKTALES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Aesthetic elements in African oral folktales
3.1.2 A narrative trickster tale of the Yorubas of Nigeria
3.1.3 Story aesthetics – Tension
3.1.4 Tales and cultural codes
3.1.5 Image alignment perception
3.1.6 Suspense
3.1.7 Symbolic significance of characters
3.1.8 Surprise
3.1.9 Generation of emotion
3.1.10 Unexpected consequences
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have written and developed this unit to introduce you to the

aesthetic patterning and functioning of the African oral folktales. This
will help fire up your waning interest in the indigenous African
literature, realizing the obvious truth that there is not just remarkable in
orature, but that African oral literature is coloured with aesthetics.

Aesthetics is relevant and continually in the total concept, views and

representations of African oral literature. This view is important and we
must recognize it at all times so as not to keep ourselves in ignorance,
confusion or dilemma. It is an attempt to giving us a direction that will
enable us to appreciate and discharge our culture, achieve our culture
related responsibilities. Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• discuss the aesthetic value of African oral literature

• provide oral narrative from the culture of your people indicating its
aesthetic value
• explain the relevance of cultural codes to oral narratives

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• get familiar with some oral narratives of your people

• list the aesthetic values that are attached to a given oral narrative of
your people
• do a critical discussion of the oral narrative given in this unit
• differentiate among tension, image alignment and perception,
suspense, surprise and generation of emotion

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Aesthetic Elements in African oral Folktales

The issue of the aesthetic dimension of African oral folktales within the
general or overall aesthetic dimension of African oral literature has
never been in doubt since the beginning of orature in pre-literate African
societies. The concept of the beauty of African folktales can be
determined within the roles of both the Artist/storyteller or narrator and
the audience.

Folktale is an important oral verbiage in African oral culture, also

variously described according to different cultures in Africa, as in Alo
Apagbe, Alo Apamo in various Yoruba dialects, Zambo Kirari of the
Hausa, Udjebe of the Urhobo, Kienukumu of the Pgymies of the Congo,
Lukio among the Luthulis, Itopa of the Ebira speaking people of Kogi in
Nigeria and so on. The names are evident in the various dialectical
representations all over Africa. Among the Yoruba Folktales are a kind
of verbiage that constructs or reconstructs series of events, stories to
make a whole (inter and intra-story telling). The weaving theory of the
folktale is recognized among scholars and researchers of oral narratives.
In most of the African oral folktales, the Tortoise is a bony-shell-flat
black creature with a compactly built appearance often associated with
the terrestrial. The unique nature of the Tortoise is its ability to shut and
open its enclosed shell that houses its delicate organs. Its body is
covered by a seemingly impregnable shell from where its body can be
withdrawn or shut at will, especially whenever it senses danger in its
environment. The shell is its false house protective coverage. The
herbivore (green leafy, grasses, weed and insect eating type of Tortoise),
“Genus, melancochenus”, land-based type found commonly in Yoruba
land features commonly in folktales. It is the most famous among the
close to fifty species of land Tortoise that is said to exist in both tropical
and temperate regions of the world, especially Africa where it plays the
lead genius role (folkheroism) in African oral folktales. In oral Africa
literature, almost every common animals found in Africa plays one role
or another in its folktale; and oral tales often use them ‘code relevantly’
to justify the relevance and appropriateness of tales so as to realize
desirable aesthetics that are realizeable in African folktales. The
following constitute the aesthetic elements in African oral folktales.

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Tales have dialectial and emotional rewards and the audience is

involved in the trickster tale in which the Bat, Squirrel, Tortoise or other
figures may be involved, to realize aesthetics in folktales. We may
explore our focus through the narrative Yoruba trickstar tale
summarized below.

3.1.2 A Narrative Trickstar Tale of the Yorubas of Nigeria

There was a time that the chief mermaid sent word to all the animals on
Earth and to neighbouring communities that he requested an expert
incisor to give incisor to everyone of his children without exception. The
frog was the first to appear but was disqualified for lack of proper
comportment, then the serpent was also disqualified for his fiery and
swift nature. The Parrot was also disqualified because he might not
concentrate fully while undertaking such a delicate job of inserting an
incisor and might cause grevous harm on the children of the chief
mermaid, as he is loquacious and finally, the Bat was also disqualified
because it might work on the million children at night. For Bats of the
period could not see in the day or night. So, the Tortoise was the only
qualified expert incisor appointed for the great job on the innumerable
children of the chief mermaid. A day and night was appointed for the
great job and nobody must be around to watch Tortoise carry out the
assignment as a rule. And, he must be locked indoors with all the
children of the mermaid with him in a secret enclosure. After he had
done one and his job was certified good, he was asked to continue with
the rest.

That was how Tortoise ate up all the children of the mermaid while he,
locked the door of the room where the assignment was carried out. And
the next rule was the room must not be opened until he had gone out of
sight; the man who must paddle Tortoise across the sea back home must
be deaf, dumb and blind.

Tortoise had eaten all the children of the mermaid, locked the door, took
a few corpses along. And a, paddler who was deaf, dumb and blind was
brought to him. He had not gone half way, when they opened the incisor
room and they found all their children dead. The entire mermaid
community was thrown into mourning, and an expert swimmer was sent
after the Tortoise. Every effort to catch Tortoise failed. Even before the
community could dispatch their best swimmer to capture the killer
Tortoise, he threw some corpses overboard to lighten the boat. He
arrived safely in his gated town. Strangers could not go into the town
after 18 Lunar moon. That was how the Tortoise escaped justice after
the murderous act.

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3.1.3 Story Aesthetics – Tension

In the above story, aesthetics is achieved through the following

Tension

Folk narrative in African oral literature is synonymous to a house that its

architectural design begins from its foundation and then gradually rises
to the roof in a naturally given conventional order.

3.1.4 Tales and Cultural Codes

Folktales are programmemed through cultural ‘codes’, gradually

through some forms of cognitive connectivities and interconnectivities,
involving conflicts through its ‘plotted scope’ cum thematic dimensions
to get tension hightened with the story overlapping as it moves on. As
the tension of the folktale is built, so also that of the audience increases
as the narrative moves on but with the intention to discover or arrive at
the aesthetic ‘edge’ of the story or characteristically hightened pleasure,
beauty or experience, irrespective of whether the level of the story is
inter or intra in nature. The expectation of the audience is high, tension
is built up as their minds are geared towards a greater expectation in the
story.

For instance, in the given example above, tension is hightened when the
Tortoise leaves the mermaid community and an expert swimmer is
dispatched after him, though he was unable to bring back the boat in
which Tortoise was returning to his community because the paddler
could not hear or see him, but was sensitive only to paddling forward in
a monodirectional order.

3.1.5 Image Alignment and Perception

The narrator subjects the story to ‘image mixture’ to realize image

alignment and perception. The image of the trickster is juxtaposed or
compared both as winner and as a loser, in a story, but first as a winner
and then the Tortoise suffers losses and finally won in the story. For
instance, one watches the Tortoise as a winner, and in the confusion, the
audience watches the account of the wickedness, non-challant attitude of
the Tortoise. On seeing the expert swimmer after him, he had to offload
the corpses of some of the fish he took with him to lighten the boat in
which he was returning home so that the boat could move faster. This
created some confusion and tension in the mind of the audience.

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3.1.6 Suspense

In folktale, this is achieved or demonstrated when emotions are

generated in a story to reveal the device of a story. This often depends
on the ability of the narrator to manipulate the story level to highten
emotion to a level that the story is suspended on an ‘edge’ or suffers
what we may describe as ‘temporary edge suspension’ in a story. The
audience becomes expectant too at what will happen next in the story
but with the Artist keeping his audience off guard to achieve ‘meta-
communicative’ idea of the storytelling and through that create aesthetic
experience. The narrator deliberately manipulates the existing structure
of the familiar story already known to the audience; suspense is
achieved in the story when an expert swimmer was dispatched to bring
back the murderer Tortoise to the community of the mermaids in the
underworld.

3.1.7 Symbolic Significance of Characters

In oral narratives, coded characters are symbolic, within their code-

material existence as a reflection of the role expected of such a
character; for instance at the instance of the rejection of the earlier
chosen characters who competed with Tortoise but were not chosen for
the job. The characters were rejected based on their characteristic nature
within the African oral fabled characterization. At last the Tortoise
played the hero to justify his trickery in folk narratives trickster tale in
oral composition. Characters are designated for positions based on their
nature, what they are known for in the African pool of folktales, thus,
making every character in African oral narrative symbolically
significant to the oratorial aesthetics. We see how Tortoise puts his
trickster ability to the work in the story.

3.1.8 Surprise

African oral narrative uses the element of surprise to drive home its
functionality and relevance as moralizing tale. In the story of the
Tortoise as expert incisor above, the story introduces the element of
surprise when, in the incisor room against the prestigious assignment of
beautifying the children of the mermaids, he killed them all, left with
some of the already dead, and then chose the dumb, blind and deaf to
paddle him off the mermaid community back home.

3.1.9 Generation of Emotion

Storytelling in African oral literary experience is woven cleverly based

on aesthetics. But narratives are arranged by logic in such a manner that
tales will not only tell stories but will combine the quality of storytelling

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with skillful dispensation or teaching of morals. To achieve such,

narratives are made to generate emotions as their plots move
accordingly. In our story, emotional generating areas are, who will win
the choice of the competition for an expert incisor who will travel to the
land of the mermaid?, how the Tortoise will execute the assignment
successfully, his escape without being captured; on whether or not the
expert swimmer dispatched after him will bring him back or not.

3.10 Unexpected Consequences

Folk narratives usually have unusual or unexpected parts and

consequences. One would have expected that the Tortoise would be
caught and taken back to the mermaid community to suffer for his
murderous acts, but he escaped, and shut the entrance gate of his own
community against his paddler, because he already knew that by 18
Lumar Moon time, strangers were forbidden to enter the town.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

With the aid of the oral narrative of your people, justify the view that
African oral narrative is woven with aesthetics.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed aesthetics comprehensively giving an

example of an African oral narrative and methods through which
aesthetics is achieved in the folk narratives. The folk narrative will help
you think of a similar narrative in the orature of your people and identify
the methods by which you can achieve aesthetics. You may wish to go
over your work.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• African oral folktales are woven with aesthetics

• it is important for you to be familiar with the folk narratives of your
people
• there are aesthetic elements (indicators) in African oral folk
narratives

In unit 1 of module 4, you will be introduced to the methods of

characterizing aesthetics in African oral narratives through selected tales
(I).

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) (a) What is aesthetics?
(b) Align your answer with any oral narrative from any part of
Africa
2) Mention and explain at least two aesthetic elements known to you
in African oral folktales
3) Narrate two different oral tales from the oral tradition of your
people, clearly indicating the following aesthetic elements
(i) Tension (ii) Image alignment/perception (iii)
Suspense
(iv) Characters as symbol (v) Surprise (vi) generation of
emotion

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Oruka, O. (1978). Aesthetics and Aesthetism in African oral Folktales.

Ibadan: Heinemann.

Oruka, U. (1972). Folkheroism in African Orature. Nairobi: Heinemann.

Sanga, W. (1971). Folk-heroic Aesthetism and African oral Literature.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

Siegel, H. (1990). “Farewell to Feyeraband Inquiry” An

Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 32, No. 3, September.

Siegel, H. (1989). Farewell to Other Cultures: African oral

Perspectives. New York: Paragon House.

Wolf, R. P. (1976). About African oral literature and Philosophy.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

Wiredu, K. (1980). “Morality and Religion in Akan Thought” In H.

Masoto (Ed.) Philosophy and Cultures. Indiana: Indiana University
Press.

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MODULE 4 VERBIAGE AND CREATIVITY IN AFRICAN

ORATURE

Unit 1 Method of Characterising Aesthetics in African oral

Narratives through Selected Tales (I)
Unit 2 Methods of Characterising Aesthetics in African Oral
Narratives through Selected Tales (II)
Unit 3 ‘‘Parenthesis’ Creativity’ as the Moonlight of African
Verbal Arts (I)
Unit 4 ‘‘Parenthesis’ Creativity’ as the Moonlight of African
Verbal Arts (II)
Unit 5 Aesthetic Delimitation in African Verbal Narratives
Unit 6 Oral Literary Theories

UNIT 1 METHODS OF CHARACTERISING AESTHETICS

IN AFRICAN ORAL NARRATIVES THROUGH
SELECTED TALES (I)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Methods of Characterising Aesthetics in African oral
Narratives through Selected Tales (I)
3.1.1 Aesthetics as the Viewing Glass of African oral
Tales
3.1.1 Tale (I) How the Tortoise got a Shattered
Shell – Wheta, Volta Region in Ghana
3.1.2 Tale (II) Why the Frog Layes Multiple Eggs
– Berbers of the Western Shahara
3.2 Characterising Aesthetics Anthropomorphism
3.2.1 Merger of the Worlds – Cosmological
Reality
3.2.2 Time and Instance
3.2.3 Human Interest
3.2.4 Certainty and Uncertainty
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have designed this unit to introduce you to the aesthetic indicators in

African oral narratives by using selected tales from the productive pool
of African oral literature. The method indicated, once read and
understood becomes a measuring tool by which you can assess any
given oral tale from any part of Africa.

This unit is yet another statement on the wonderful nature of how you
can go into the aesthetic world of African oral narratives and feel
satisfied by its method and mode of direction and manner of education.
Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

• list and explain the methods by which aesthetics can be

characterized in African oral narratives using selected tales
• return to the pool of the oral tradition of your people and come
back with wonderful oral tales
• explain the concept of Anthropomorphism in relation to African
oral tradition
• discuss Africa’s cosmological reality
• attempt a discussion of the identity of African oral literature
• identify the human interest of any African oral narrative
• discuss the concept of certainty and uncertainty in African oral
narratives

3.1 Aesthetics as the Viewing Glass of African oral Tales

Oral literature is performance oriented. Appropriate and spontaneous

response from the audience is derived through the aesthetics that the
story offers. The question of audience response and aesthetics in orature
is similar to reading a bad play or novel, which for the reason of the lack
of aesthetics one gets disenchanted and drops it for a better one. In
African oral literature when the audiene is face to face with the narrative
Artist, his aim is not only to follow the oral narrative but to get
subsumed into the mysterious world of the narration, using the story as a
connecting link or trope into the ‘neucleus’ of the story. But, such
aesthetics in African oral literature can be characterized by using
selected tales across the rich pool of African oral literature; but not
strictly through the use of any formal categorizational paradigm, but by
simple observatory narrative methodology combined with the nature of
the narrative. Thus, it is possible to characterize aesthetics in African

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oral narratives by adhering to the ‘movement’ of selected tales in

African oral literature.

In this case, we shall rely on the tales extracted from the pools of the
African oral narrative tales of the Wheta, Volta region of Ghana and
Berbers of the Western Sahara.

3.1.1 Tale – (1) Wheta, Volta Region, Ghana “How the Tortoise got
a Shattered Shell”

Once upon a time, there was famine in the land of the animals, but all
the animals including Anan the Tortoise decided to travel to the land of
plenty in the sky. They all journeyed upward but when they arrived in
the king’s palace of the land of plenty in the sky, and were asked to
introduce themselves, the Tortoise introduced himself as “All of you”.
So, everything they were given, their host gave in the name of “all of
you”, thus naturally excluding others and the Tortoise took the whole
food stuff and consumed all and afterward grew robust while the Bat,
Dove and Hare grew lean. Anan the Tortoise pleaded with his friend, the
Dove to tell his wife, Anansewa to arrange the foam in the house, gather
them in front of the house so that when he jumped down with loaded
foodstuff, he would jump to safety. But angered by the greedy behaviour
of the Tortoise, the Bat, Hare Dove and Spider hung on to the only rope
that took them to the land of plenty and escaped back to the Earth. Then,
Tortoise’s best friend, Dove deliberately misinformed the wife of the
Tortoise to gather all the sticks, stones, metals she could find in front of
their house. Already deprived of the only string that took him to the land
of plenty, he mustered courage and jumped down, hit himself against the
metals and stones in front of his house, and got his hard protective shell
shattered. His wife, Anansewa tried in vain to reposition her husband’s
shattered shell to no avail, she wept bitterly, climbed to the top of an
Iroko tree, weeping and then threw herself against the same hard surface
she had been misinformed to place as platform for her husband and got
her own protective shell shattered too. From that period, they
continually gave birth to children with shattered shells in their lineage;
and enemity developed between generations of Tortoise and Dove.

3.1.2 Tale (2) Berbers of the Western Sahara, “Why Frogs Lay
Multiple Eggs”

In the olden days, it was common for competition to be organized

among Animals. A similar occurred happened in the time of the frogs,
mother and father frogs, who were only two at the time. All the animals
organized a competition to determine the best runner among them. The
king of the animals had promised that the animal who wins the race

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would take a prestigious seat among all the animals, particularly in the
king’s palace. At the time, there were only father and mother frogs and a
daughter of theirs who lived in a distant land. The time of the race was
fixed for the rainy season. The Tortoise had positioned his many
children in each of the locations out of the twenty-four locations. As the
race began, all the animals were clapping and hailing in
acknowledgment of the winning ability of the Tortoise, though the
strategy he adopted was not known to the animals. What was only clear
to all was that he was leading others in the popular race as the Antelope
known for swifness took ill and was unable to take part in the race. In
their determination to win, father and mother frogs ran but mother frog
slumped and died in the process of running, but the Tortoise won the
race at last and became the king’s adviser among other animals. When
the daughter of mother frog got wind of the fact that Tortoise was
fraudulent in the race, she vowed to have as many children as possible
throughout her stages in life. So her father became her husband to help
her quicken her decision. Thus, ever since, frogs are known to lay eggs
in abundance for the purpose of using their children too to their own
advantage in a future race like the Tortoise.

3.2 Characterising Aesthetics – Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism

In African oral tradition of storytelling, it is difficult or quite impossible

to make reference to African tales without a mention of animal
characters, including the Spider in Ghanaian tale, Tortoise that exists
generally in the African socio-cultural communal heroes as a means of
advancing socio-cultural unity among the people. Folktales are effective
traditional means of educating the people. They mirror the human
societies especially in Africa with the aim to expose the ills of the
society. Supernatural elements and the world of the spirits are also
merged with other worlds created by the storyteller or transmitted in the
story. For instance in story (1) of the Wheta, Volta region, the Ghanaian
orature characteristically incorporated the Tortoise, Bat, Dove, Hare and
Spider. In tale (2) of the Berbers of the Western Sahara the Frogs,
Antelope and other animals featured. The use of such characters
including spirits constitutes the anthropomorphic dimension of folktales.

3.2.1 Merger of Worlds (Cosmological Reality)

In the constituents of folklore in African oral literature , there is

usually the conscious merger of the different worlds of the living, the
dead (spirits) and the unborn in African oral compositions. Against the
different social and cultural backgrounds, the extent to which African

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cosmology influences the development of concepts, the existence of

ritual, magico-religious beliefs, riddles, proverbs are marks of African
cosmology. People are never dead in African culture, they only change
places to join the team of ancestors in another believably real world, the
world of the spirits, in a distant universe. Such worlds have relationships
with the African human world. This is evident in tale (1) where the
Tortoise, Spider, Dove and Hare journeyed to the world of the spirits.
Such twin circles of existence are notable identity of African oral
literature.

3.2.2 Time and Instance

Time and instance play aesthetic recognition as the folktales incorporate

a sense of situatedness which mark them as the creation of a specific
person, of informed sensibility and cultural, not monocultural but
multicultural, and identifiable items/factors in every oral cultural
expressions. Narratives are located in the distant past and presented in
the present (instant) to construct the condition of the African world to
complete the circles embranced in the people’s cultural enclave. For
instance, tale (1) referred to timelessness and tale (2) happened in the
distant past.

3.2.3 Human Interest

In somewhat similar perspective, to the Western tradition of storytelling

in literary genres, in African oral literature we may categorise aesthetics
with how oral narratives draw from the folkloric knowledge in a way to
depict us at our best, our worst potentials, to reflect our affairs, fate,
deposit the knowledge to bear upon our own situation, and other
influences weaving together, the universe of oneness expressed in our
communal cultural dictates; through the exploration of the folk
characters put into operation as in tales (1) and (2) above.

3.2.4 Certainty and Uncertainty

Like the traditional African mat or basket weaving, African oral

literature in its characteristic aesthetics is woven, with stories stretched
and stitched together. The length and volume of the oral narrative is
often determined and sometimes pre-determined through plot and
sometimes limitless plot by which the story is engraved through
certainty and uncertainty. The winding course of the narrative puts the
audience at a level of doubts and speculations of how the story will end
in spite of the fact that the story normally takes off from a definite and
concrete beginning through uncertain course to the end. In tale (1) the
story began from the animal kingdom, with the animals, including the
Tortoise setting out for the spirit world, leaving the audience to keep

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imagining and speculating the likely result of the journey of the animals
to the spirit world. Tale (2) leaves the audience speculating about what
will be the consequences of the competition among the animals.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Reproduce the oral narrative of your people and apply some of the tale
characterizing methods identified in this unit to its explanation.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have identified and discussed the methods of

characterizing aesthetics in African oral narratives using selected tales.
We have also given two examples of tales to help our explanation in this
unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• you can reproduce tales from the wealth of the oral narratives of
your people
• there are methods by which aesthetics can be characterized using
African oral narratives

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

In the next unit, you will be introduced to methods of characterizing

aesthetics in African narratives through selected tales (II)

Read and answer the questions below

1) Reproduce an interesting oral narrative of your people and

measure it against our methods of characterizing aesthetics.
2) How are time and instance used in African oral tale?
3) Discuss the concept of speculation in relation to any African oral
folktale.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Benedict, R. (1959). Zuwni Mythology. An Anthropologist at Work.

Writings of Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead (Eds.) Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

Bidney, D. (1973). “Myth, Symbolism and Truth”. In J. Vickery (Ed.)

Myth and Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht and Theatre. The Development of an

Aesthetic. London: Methuen.

Falola, T. and Adebayo, A. (2000). Culture, Politics and Money among

the Yoruba. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Julien, E. (1983). “Of Traditional Tales and Short Stories in African

Literature” In Presence Africaine, 125.

Obiechina, E. (1975). Culture, Tradition and Society in the West African

Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Parrinder, G. (1967). African Mythology. Middlesex: The Hamlyn

Publishers.

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UNIT 2 METHODS OF CHARACTERISING AESTHETICS

IN AFRICAN ORAL NARRATIVES THROUGH
SELECTED TALES (II)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Characterize to Colour Oral Continuity
3.1.1 Kojokaji of the Bari Speaking People of the
Southern Sudanese – Why the Lion remained the
King of the Forest
3.1.2 Assagai Zulu of South Africa – Why Birds and
Animals Kill each Other for Food
3.1.3 Methods of Characterising Aesthetics in Oral Tales
– Learning Log
3.1.3.1 Response – Reaction Shapes Cognition
3.1.3.2 Forging a Web of Communal Intervention
3.1.3.3 Naratology as Behavioural Indicator of
Stylistic Aesthetics
3.1.3.4 Corrective/Connective Feedback
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is a continuation of unit one of this module (4). It is designed

to prepare you to be more acquainted with the aesthetic value and
methods by which aesthetics can be categorised in African oral
narratives using selected tales from the pool of African oral narratives.
The last unit of our discussion of the subject matter explores the rich
cultural pool of the Kajokaji of the Bari speaking people of the Southern
Sudanese people and Assagai of the Zulu in South Africa to further
encourage you and assure you that it is also possible for you to turn to
the rich oral pool of your community for the exploration of tales for
aesthetic placement and measurement.

The first method of characterizing aesthetics in African oral narrative is

the will to be an encyclopedia of the various oral tales in Africa; from
the North, West, East to South Africa. We have thus explored the rich
and robust avenue of the orature of the peoples in the continent to satisfy
our desire to satisfy you in the various units, including our current unit.
Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

• reproduce some tales from the oral pool of your people

• measure the reproduced tales against our methods of characterizing
aesthetics
• explain the concept of learning log in relation to selected tales of
your people
• discuss how audience reactions shape cognition in orature
• do a critical discussion of forging a web of individual cum
communal interaction in African oral literature
• attempt a discussion of corrective feedback in African orature

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Characterise to Colour Oral Continuity

Africans draw extensively from the wealth of ideas present in oral

tradition to colour their past and present-day experiences. The
knowledge derived from such old values have over the years served as
the basis from which African beliefs and philosophies are projected, and
the success of such projections thrives with collective reciprocity, with a
considerable measure of influence, with beautiful folkloric rendition that
transcends generations. Even, Western ideology with its incursion into
the African value has not been able to have any significant setback on
the indigenous African oral tradition with its aesthetic assertion and
continuity in the modern time of science and technology. Tales selected
from the KajoKaji of the Bari speaking people of Southern Sudan and
Assagai of the Zulu in South Africa are given as examples in this unit.

3.1.1 Tale (1) KajoKaji of the Bari-Speaking People of Southern

Sudan “Why the Lion Remained the King of the Forest”

Once upon a time, all the animals in the forest with no exception sent
invitations round. The birds too were invited to the meeting that was
chaired by the Gorilla. The purpose of the meeting was an urgent need
to dethrone the self-imposed king of the forest. He was too powerful for
the animals and he killed them at will throwing the animal community
into mourning; they dug graves everywhere in the forest. The tyrannical
and cannibalistic attitude of the Lion was what led to the emergency
meeting of all the animals in the kingdom. Besides, the consistent
roaring of the Lion and Lioness in the forest, gives other animals
sleepless nights. The Tortoise was the town crier who went round all the
animals to choose a date for the meeting of all the animals. The main

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aim of the meeting was how to dethrone the Lion and his cannibalistic
reign so as to enthrone peace in the kingdom. The assembly was to hold
at fourteen lunar seconds. The Sparrow, Patridge, Cock, Lizard,
Porcupine, Monkeys, Eagle, Antelope, Zebra and many other animals
and birds were present at the meeting which was chaired by the Gorilla.
The Tortoise as the town crier stood to address the assembly. He had not
begun when the community received a petition from the community of
the Bats. They petitioned that the elders should quickly help them, as
they do not know why they were not accepted either in the community
of the Birds nor of the animals. The general complaints against the bats
are “they have wings like birds, heads like Rodents, they have four small
legs, hair like animals, and teeth like Cats”.

The Bats also denounced the town crier based on the responsibility
given to the Tortoise, and urged that his family be wiped out. Within
five seconds, the Ants asked that the Tortoise and Lizard be sent on
compulsory exile because of the genocidal role they had assumed to the
Ant’s community. The Gorilla confessed that he was also guilty of
genocide because whenever he felt the pang of hunger he often killed
birds, rodents and other animals for food. The Tortoise also confessed to
feeding on the family of the Ants. The Gorilla who chaired the meeting
then concluded that since other animals too were guilty of genocide, and
had failed to reach any agreement to put an end to any murderous act in
the community, the Lion should be left alone to continue his role, and
that every animal should be ready for self defence against the king of the
forest. That was how the disagreement among the animals earned the
Lion a life-long kingship of the forest till today.

3.1.2 Tale (2) Assagai Zulu of South Africa “Why birds and
animals kill each other for food”

Once upon a time, the whole earth was covered with drought and there
was severe famine everywhere. A meeting of all animals and birds was
called with the aim to discuss the problem and how to find a lasting
solution to the general problem of drought and famine. The meeting was
fully attended by all the birds and animals, the mountains and hills were
filled with birds of variegated feathers, insects and other animals. Fishes
also sent representatives to grace the occasion. The Mud Skippers,
Crocodiles, Frogs and Pulprus were sent to represent the sea mammals
and other reptiles. The assembly of the animals agreed that a bird as well
as a Vegetarian among the animals should be nominated to travel to a
distant land to arrange for food to cushion the effects of the famine in
the land. The Tortoise was asked by the animals to suggest the qualities
which must be possessed by the bird and animal that would embark on
the journey in search of food in the distant land. The Tortoise stood,
gazed at the sky, surveyed the assembly, sky, trees, forest and trees full

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of feathers, tusks, horns, beaks of birds and animals. Some birds perched
on each other as there were no spaces around and they wanted to hear
directly from the Tortoise. The Tortoise said, ‘The bird or animal, who
must travel to the distant land in search of food must possess the speed
of between 70 to 100 kilometres flight per hour. He must have the
ability to see the smallest Ant crawling on the ground if he is flying at
2½ to 4½ kilometers above the Earth, and must be the commonest in the
sky, swift and agile”. “He continued as for the animal, he must be very
powerful and courageous, he must not be too aggressive, but cool, calm
and calculating. He must have the ability to co-ordinate and adapt easily.
He must have the power of resistance in different situations. He must be
a Vegetarian. Above all, he must have the knowledge and love of the
kingdom, and of all of us at heart.

After the Tortoise spoke, the birds, and animals clapped; some of thr
birds flew into the front space to meet the Harion and Egrets who hade
just flown down from the Eastern Horizon to grace the occasion. At last,
the assembly appointed the Eagle and the Horse to embark on the
journey to the distant land of plenty, but both of them pleaded that a few
people be asked to accompany them so that they could bring back
enough food for the kingdom. The Elephant and Giraffe were nominated
at once, but they were rejected by the Cricket and Rabbit because both
animals were too big to notice them and that Elephant and Giraffe had
been treading on the field carelessly, killing some members of the
community.

At last the animals and birds could not agree on who should travel to the
distant land of plenty to get food for the kingdom. The animals went
their ways in search of food, and the bigger animals had to feed on the
smaller ones. The Horse ran endlessly into the forest. Up to now the
qualities for which the Horse and Eagle were chosen remained with
them ever since. Every animal individually had the responsibility to go
in search of food, but to enrich the kingdom with food could not be
accomplished.

3.1.3 Method of Characterising Aesthetics in Oral Tales –

Learning Log

Folktales in African oral literature are learning log. The essence of every
narration in oral tradition is to provide a beautiful atmosphere for moral
lessons among the members of the community. Orature, we must not
forget serves as the reservoire for wisdom which when acquired through
tales must be transmitted to other members of the community. From the
beginning, orature as the reservoir of folktales, has consistently served
as the encyclopedia or learning log where the people, young and old go
to acquire wisdom already backed up by examples and consequences as

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in tale (1) that warns against greed, and tale (II) that reveals the danger
of disunity.

3.1.3.1 Response – Reaction Shapes Cognition

Another noticeable method by which aesthetics is characterized is

through response-reaction, that places the oral performer or narrator and
his audience in a face-to-face kind of interactive response and cognito-
reaction that shapes the social awareness of the oral Artist about his
immediate community, and serves as a bridge between the audience and
storyteller. The immediate and spontaneous feedback the storyteller gets
reveals the success of his ‘wooing’ strategy, how much he gained
entrance into the heart of his listeners.

3.1.3.2 Forging a Web of Communal Interaction

Oral narrative by its nature is interactive and forges social-communal

relationships, interactive souls and body within identical cultural
oratoric practices among the people as a product of African oral cultural
heritage and culture. The oral narration is a body of African literature
that is participatory, coherent and tradition specific in behaviour with
such considered attributes to the African oral literature. Even, in the
present time, the state of folktale and folkheroism in a culture crisis-
ridden world, the forging of a web of consciousness is a recognizeable
aesthetic. This factor is present in the modus operandi of African oral
narrative.

3.1.3.3 Narratology as Behavioural Indicator of Stylistic Aesthetic

Folktales combine terms of behavioural ‘approximations’, co-operation,

collectivity, responsibility, and interdependence, performance
interaction combined to encourage the performer. African oral oriented
audience indicate attention by gestural reflection, laughter, consistent
eye contacts and engaging in motor habits like speaking in unison,
singing, speaking, laughing, carrying the burden of the story along with
the narrator, dancing and so on along with the narrator as appropriately
behavioural indicator, the carriage of aesthetics. Such actions are
normally carried out by the audience voluntarily or in most cases as the
narrator of a story may dictate or direct.

3.1.3.4 Corrective/ Connective Feedback

During oral narration, the oral Artist expects a ‘connective feedback’

from his audience and the audience from the storyteller too, and this
helps the audience to learn the new culture. The type of feedback
embedded in the story determines the audiences’ progress in mastering

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the mainstream culture. If an oral narrative contains negative tricks, the

learning process of the audience is interfered with negatively.
Disaproportionate negative to positive feedback discourages the
individual from the cultural socialization task. When a story is
overridden by negativity, negative feedback is generated to get the
audience disinterested, disenchanted, disacculturated and may result in
withdrawal from the task of acculturation. Thus, when moral positivity
outweighs the negative sensitivity, aesthetic moral code dominates.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Using a tale from the pool of oral literature of your people, discuss the
concept of learning log in African oral literature.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed the tale of the Kojikaji of the Bari-
speaking people of Southern Sudanese as well as the Assagai, Zulu of
South Africa. We have also discussed the methods of characterizing
aesthetics, using African oral narratives such as learning log, response
reaction, forging a web of interaction, narratology, as behaviour
indicator to aesthetics and corrective/ connective feedback.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• you can retrieve a tale from the wealth of the oral narratives of
your people
• there are methods by which we can characterize aesthetics using
tales selected from the oral tradition of your people
• how learning log and response reaction are aesthetic to orature in
Africa
• discuss the concept of narratology as behaviour indicator and
corrective/ connective feedback

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Reproduce any oral tale of your village or lineage and measure it

against learning log and human interest.

2) Discuss the concept of corrective/conenctive feedback.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Benedict, R. (1959). Zuwni Mythology. An Anthropologist at Work.

Writings of Ruth Benedict. Margaret Mead (Ed.) Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.

Bidney, D. (1973). “Myth, Symbolism and Truth”. In J. Vickery (Ed.)

Myth and Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht and Theatre. The Development of an

Aesthetic. London: Methuen.

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UNIT 3 ‘‘PARENTHESIS’ CREATIVITY’ AS THE

MOONLIGHT OF AFRICAN VERBAL ARTS (I)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Coinage
3.1.1 What is ‘Parenthesis’ Creativity?
3.1.2 Categories of ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.3 Conscious ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.4 Inherited ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.5 ‘Parenthesis’ Creativity in Figure
3.1.6 Audience Modelled ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.7 Politics Induced ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.8 Modenrity Induced ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.9 Advantages of ‘Parenthesis’
3.1.10 Disadvantages of ‘Parenthesis’
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this unit is to discuss the concept of ‘Parenthesis’ and its
types, relevance and disadvantages to African oral literature. We have
considered the inevitability of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity in African oral
literature, and the need to introduce postgraduate students to the art, if
we must help to complete their mastery of the discussion of African oral
literature. Such inclusions that are often ignored by oral literary
researchers and scholars have been discussed in this unit to widen your
scope of this novel inclusion and African oral literature generally.

We have included the novel concept of ‘Parenthesis creativity’ to

broaden your knowledge of African oral literature. You will now
understand that apart from the first African oral narrator of tales, the oral
narratives, in the process of telling and re-telling, suffer inclusion and
deduction in the process. If a story is exaggerated, lexical materials are
reduced in the process of narration and this somehow, will have both
aesthetic value and reduction to the story. Whichever way the story is
affected will also affect the audience. Below are some of the objectives
of this unit.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of ‘‘Parenthesis creativity”

• familiarize yourself to conscious ‘Parenthesis’
• understand the nature of unconscious ‘Parenthesis’
• discuss modernity induced ‘Parenthesis’
• assess audience modelled ‘Parenthesis’
• do a crical discussion of inherited ‘Parenthesis’
• compare the types of ‘Parenthesis’
• outline the advantages of ‘Parenthesis’
• state the disadvantages of ‘Parenthesis’

3.1 Coinages

In Western contemporary literary genres such as drama, prose and

poetry, writers are at liberty to coin and use language in the way they
consider suitable. Although such coinages and expressions may align
with writers of certain epoch,/ age or are classifiable under or with such
period and writer’s. The style of a writer may also conform to another
writer’s, yet a writer may have a distinctive ‘mark’ of identity. However,
quite differently, but within a line of distinction, a poet may use
coinages as he pleases, such as poetic license, and such coinages and
creativities in any of the genres of contemporary literature do not bring
such works into disrepute but add to the beauty of such works;
incidentally, writers of similar expressions are often praised for their
works and found to often win awards as such works may be categorized
as classics.

Similarly, in African oral literature in its genres or compositons, either

poetry, drama or prose, the action of the oral Artist often gives birth to
creativity but a form of creativity that we may classify as ‘‘Parenthesis’
creativity’ which often occurs in African verbal Arts, sometimes even
frequently. Though this may go unnoticed sometimes, but we cannot
deny the existence of ‘‘Parenthesis’’ creativity in African verbal Arts.
This has been the sense even from the beginning of or creation of myths
in preliterate societies up to our contemporary age of science and
technology.

3.1.1 What then is ‘Parenthesis’ Creativity?

We may state that ‘‘Parenthesis’ creativity’ is ‘accidental creativity’ or

‘incidental creativity’ or ‘inadvertent creativity’. When the oral Artist is
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performing his Art, he falls into sudden creations, patterning, finds

himself riding on the highway or different wave length of the story he is
narrating. Such inadvertent verbiage immediately ‘rewrites’ or changes
the original oral course of the story, giving the plot of such a narration a
different view, and this, in most cases results in the lengthening of such
a narration, but may not affect its aesthetics, but may affect its thematic
preoccupations. Many of the ‘‘Parenthesis’’ or ‘mistaken’ creativity in
African verbal Arts are the unconscious creation of the oral Artist,
perhaps due to the fact that he has forgotten the actual rendition of the
story yet, this is not to overlook the fact that many oral Artists may
consciously falsify, or re-create a narration with the intention to favour
his or a particular lineage, town or a community, and this indeed is
common in oral verbiage.

Unarguably, ‘‘Parenthesis’ creativity’ has been a part of African verbal

Arts since, the beginning of preliterate society. Such occurs mostly
during oral performance and ends up being transmitted across
generations.

But, recognizeably an aesthetic part of African oral literature may occur

consciously or unconsciously within the stream of the story telling in the
form of music, name calling, costumes, proverbs, incantations, songs or
praise songs, some of which often lead to the lengthening of narration.
Although, researchers into African oral verbiage hardly take time to
recognize the existence of ‘Parenthesis’, as they take everything to mean
oral creation, yet it revolves from orality though, it’s mode of evolving
is usually sudden, not often premeditated, but, mistakenly, near
erroneous; but it adds to the beauty of African oral tradition; hence we
may refer to ‘‘Parenthesis’’ as the ‘moonlight’, wonder, the glaze, of the
African verbal Arts. Our focus is on the different circumstances and
situations of its occurrence in African verbal Arts.

3.1.2 Categories of ‘Parenthesis’

We may categorize ‘‘Parenthesis’’ creativity in African oral literature

into the following:

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Fig. 5 Types of ‘Parenthesis’ Creativity in Figure

Conscious ‘Parenthesis’ (a)

‘Parenthesis’ Creativity Unconscious ‘Parenthesis’ (b)

in African oral literature
Inherited ‘Parenthesis’ (c)
re-generative factors
Generative pool of African oral in the process of oral
culture transmission (d)
a b
b a audience modelled ‘Parenthesis’ (d)

‘Parenthesis’ Creativity
in African oral literature politics induced ‘Parenthesis’ (e)

modernity induced ‘Parenthesis’ (f)

Key
ab generative pool of African oral culture
ba where tales evolve naturally
a-f - Re-generative factors in the process of
oral transmission by an artist
Interpretation of figure 5

The ab indicated in the figure represents the generative capacity of

ba
African oral culture where oral narrative evolves naturally and
generously. The a to f are the factors that regenerated, evolved or
formed in the process of oral transmission by the artist. Such factors
form the pattern of interference, but with patternings that contribute
more to the cultural aesthetics of the traditional African oral literature.
They are the factors that recreate, refashion the natural African
philosophy of the communal pool of narratives. Such regenerative
factors formed part of the aesthetics of oral tradition.

• conscious ‘‘Parenthesis’’ post-inherited

• unconscious ‘‘Parenthesis’’
• inherited ‘‘Parenthesis’’
• audience modelled ‘‘Parenthesis’’
• politics induced ‘‘Parenthesis’’
• modernity induced ‘‘Parenthesis’’

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3.1.3 Conscious ‘‘Parenthesis’’

During oral performance, the artist may deliberately create or recreate,

add facts to the story he is narrating or deliberately elongate a story or
mend it to achieve personal reasons or satisfy certain conditions
including the intention to satisfy the audience. This does not occur
commonly in orature.

Unconscious ‘Parenthesis’

This occurs inadvertently in the process of verbiage. The oral Artist

unconsciously elongates his inherited story; not premeditated as such
often occurs within the full action of the narration. Unconscious
‘Parenthesis’ occurs commonly in African oral Arts.

3.1.4 Inherited ‘Parenthesis’

This is the type of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity that the oral Artist inherited
from tradition or as transmitted orally. Any amendment that occurs in
the story is not the responsibility of the present Artist but he is merely
transmitting an inherited inadvertency to his audience.

3.15 Audience Modelled ‘Parenthesis’

This type of ‘Parenthesis’ is not the creation of the oral Artist but
created by the audience to whom the story is told. The audience receives
the story from the narrator but fails to recall the story exactly as told by
the Artist, thereby resulting in this form of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity.
3.1.6 Politics Induced ‘Parenthesis’

This type is common in contemporary period of oral narration in which

‘Parenthesis’ creativity occurs in an oral story with the aim to satisfy the
political will of a group, family, community or an individual. This
occurs frequently in our modern time, especially in myths and myth
related stories.

3.1.7 Modernity Induced ‘Parenthesis’

This tye of ‘Parenthesis’ occurs in modern time. It is often a result of the

pull and push of modernity, the attempt by the Artist to improvise in a
story, minimize time and timing. The involvement with socio-economic
conditions of modernity often leads to this form of ‘Parenthesis’.

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3.1.8 Advantages of ‘Parenthesis’

• It is a form of oral formulae identified with the promotion of oral

aesthetics.
• Minimizes time and timing as length of stories may be deliberately
reduced.
• It gives room for refashioning of oral narratives to suite desirable
personality, individual, group of people, town or community.
• It makes orature less occultic in nature.
• It makes stories less difficult for the present generation.
• It allows for communal participation.
• It makes African oral culture socially acceptable to the modern man.

3.1.9 Disadvantages of ‘Parenthesis’

• It gives room for personage and communal conflicts where stories

disfavour a group or individual.
• It gives room for lie telling.
• It allows the distortion of facts.
• It gives room for the corruption of orature.
• Story may be deliberately trusted to blackmail a particular ethnic
group or an individual.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed ‘Parenthesis’ creativity, its advantages

and disadvantages. We have also discussed types of ‘Parenthesis’
creativity.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• ‘Parenthesis’ creativity exists in the oral literature of your people

• You can identify ‘Parenthesis’ in the oral literature of your people.
• There are different types of ‘Parenthesis’.
• ‘Parenthesis’ creativity has a number of advantages and
disadvantages.

In the next unit, you will read Parenthesis creativity as the moonlight of
African Verbal Arts (II)

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Read and answer the questions below
1) Define ‘Parenthesis’ creativity.
2) Produce the same oral narratives of your ethnic group from three
different people who are also from your ethnic group and watch
for any ‘Parenthesis’ creativity in the presentations (you may write
or record all the presentations).
3) Explain at least three types of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Benedict, R. (1959). Zuwni Mythology. An Anthropologist at Work.

Writings of Ruth Benedict. Margaret Mead (Ed.) Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

Bidney, D. (1973). “Myth, Symbolism and Truth”. In J. Vickery (Ed.)

Myth and Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht and Theatre. The Development of an

Aesthetic. London: Methuen.

Falola, T. and Adebayo, A. (2000). Culture, Politics and Money among

the Yoruba. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Julien, E. (1983). “Of Traditional Tales and Short Stories in African

Literature” In presence Africanine, 125.

Obiechina, E. (1975). Culture, Tradition and Society in the West African

Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oruka, O. (1978). Aesthetics and Aesthetism in African oral Folktales.

Ibadan: Heinemann.

Oruka, U. (1972). Folkheroism in African Orature. Nairobi: Heinemann.

Parrinder, G. (1967). African Mythology. Middlesex: The Hamlyn

Publishers.

Sanga, W. (1971). Folk-heroic Aesthetism and African oral Literature.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

Siegel, H. (1989). Farewell to Other Cultures: African oral

Perspectives. New York: Paragon House.

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Wiredu, K. (1980). “Morality and Religion in Akan Thought” In H.

Masoto (Ed.) Philosophy and Cultures. Indiana: Indiana University
Press.

Wolf, R. Paul (1976). About African oral literature and Philosophy.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

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UNIT 4 ‘‘PARENTHESIS’ CREATIVITY’ AS THE

MOONLIGHT OF AFRICAN VERBAL ARTS (II)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 ‘Parenthesis’ as Cultural Re-invention
3.1.1 Paradigmn of ‘Parenthesis’ and Implications for
Cultural Aesthetics
3.1.2 Interpretation of Figure 6
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is a continuation of unit 3 of the module. It is designed to

further your interest in what really constitutes ‘Parenthesis’. Our pattern
here is a little different as we speak with you in figures in this unit.

We have introduced a format that is quite different from our focus in the
last unit. We make our discussion in this unit playlike by using a
detailed figure that is not only comprehensive but a more aesthetic
package of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity. The figure is explained with various
arrows and given a colourful and attractive interpretation.

Below are some of the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• create a self explanatory figure of the types of ‘Parenthesis’

creativity
• discuss how oral source or particularly authentic ‘Parenthesis’
differs from other types of creativity
• explain inherited ‘Parenthesis’
• differentiate between audience modelled and
• conscious ‘Parenthesis’
• do a critical discussion of politics induced ‘Parenthesis’
• attempt a discussion of modernity inducved ‘Parenthesis’

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 ‘Parenthesis’ as Cultural-reinvention

‘‘Parenthesis’’ creativity has potential for cross-cultural re-invention,

certain communicative cultural defects will have to be corrected while
clinically engaging in methodical research into the mastery of African
cultural conservation, breaking through performative cultural barrier in
inter and intra-cultural communicative discourses in African oral
literature. The figure below further reveals the nature of ‘‘Parenthesis’
creativity’.

Paradigm of ‘Parenthesis’ (types) and implications for cultural aesthetics

Fig. 6
Degree of authenticity
/depreciation of story

Politics
(sparsely authentic)
Politics changes induced (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-
narration ‘Parenthesis’

Story affected by Modernity (really authentic)

acts of modernity induced (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-
‘Parenthesis’
Narration affected (truely authentic)
deliberately Conscious ‘Parenthesis’ (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-

Narration affected (strongly authentic)

unconsciously unconscious ‘Parenthesis’ (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-

Oral sourced story

affected by action of (very authentic)
individual audience Audience-modelled ‘Parenthesis’ (+)-(+)-(+)-
Story sourced directly (authentic)
from the pool of Inherited ‘Parenthesis’ (+)-(+)-
African oral literature
Oral source story by 0+0+ constant
first transmitter is Oral Source (particularly authentic)
most authentic
highly original reliable

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Key

0+0+ constant - first-hand story from oral source is constant,

but subject to alteration yet more reliable
(+)-(+)- - oral source story still authentic, low level of
depreciation experienced
(+)-(+)-(+)- - oral source story very authentic, low level
of depreciation experienced
(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- - oral source story strongly authentic,
depreciation experienced
(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- - oral source story truly authentic,
depreciation experienced
(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- - oral source story really authentic,
depreciation experienced
(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- - oral source story sparcely authentic,
depreciation experienced

3.1.2 Interpretations of the Key, Figure (6)

0+0+ constant In the key provided against the pyramid above,

the underlined indicates that every narration chosen from the African
oral source, irrespective of its genre of discourse, (poetry, drama, prose)
is often conspicuously constant and transmitted from generation to
generation. As a result of firsthand orally transmitted story will not
suffer much serious depreciation, thus may be said to be particularly
authentic. Its degree of authenticity is usually very high.

(+)-(+)- This stage comes after the firsthand oral source story is still
authentic, and experienced a very low level degree of depreciation and
affectivity. This second stage after the oral source of a story is also
really authentic, but experiences very low level of depreciation ((+)-(+)-).

(+)-(+)-(+)- At the third stage the oral source story is likely to suffer
some duplication, elongation, displacement of facts, hence loses a level
of originality compared to its stage of originality, hence low level of
depreciation also experienced, hence story may be said to be very
authentic.

(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-, (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- and (+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)-(+)- are

topmost in the pyramid. They suffer more depreciation as orature
advances upward the pyramid. The icons represent the fifth to the
seventh cubicles of the ladder of depreciation.

It then means that the cultural context and aesthetic expressiveness of

oral stories are best preserved at a lower stage of rendition, when such

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stories are far from other possible incursions as indicated in the pyramid,
fig. (6). The higher the movement into the pyramid, the higher the
degree of depreciation of oral narratives as the stages it transits will
automatically devalue such story by either making unnecessary
additions to the story to create exaggerated effects or decreasing its level
of meaning, as the original value of words drawn from the pool of
tradition is conventionally constant and culturally unique to its source.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed ‘Parenthesis’ and its types, creating a

figure that attempts a logical and coherent order of the existence of
‘Parenthesis’ creativity.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• there are different types of ‘Parenthesis’

• the particularly authentic (oral source) is more reliable than other
types of ‘Parenthesis’
• politics induced type of ‘Parenthesis’ is not so reliable considering
that it is a creation of political motive
• other types of ‘Parenthesis’ are modernity, conscious, unconscious
• all ‘Parenthesis’ creativity types have individual attributes or
features
• ‘Parenthesis’ creativity types, beginning from audience modelled
suffer various damages as they advance up the pyramid
• every cubicle in the pyramid indicates a level of degree of
depreciation of story from the oral source
• a movement upward the pyramid is a generational distance from
oral source

in the next unit, you will read aesthetic delimitations in African verbal
narratives

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) List and explain the types of ‘Parenthesis’ creativity

2) Reproduce the figure that housed all the ‘Parenthesis’ types in this
unit.

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3) Present a similar story of different views from your oral source and
indicate the ‘Parenthesis’ creativity seen in the story.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Benedict, R. (1959). Zuwni Mythology. An Anthropologist at Work.

Writings of Ruth Benedict. Margaret Mead (Ed.) Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.

Bidney, D. (1973). “Myth, Symbolism and Truth”. In J. Vickery (Ed.)

Myth and Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht and Theatre. The Development of an

Aesthetic. London: Methuen.

Falola, T. and Adebayo, A. (2000). Culture, Politics and Money among

the Yorubas. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Julien, E. (1983). “Of Traditional Tales and Short Stories in African

Literature” In presence Africanine, 125.

Obiechina, E. (1975). Culture, Tradition and Society in West African

Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oruka, O. (1978). Aesthetics and Aesthetism in African oral Folktales.

Ibadan: Heinemann.

Oruka, U. (1972). Folkheroism in African Orature. Nairobi: Heinemann.

Parrinder, G. (1967). African Mythology. Middlesex: The Hamlyn

Publishers.

Sanga, W. (1971). Folk-heroic Aesthetism and African oral Literature.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

Siegel, Hawey (1989). Farewell to Other Cultures: African oral

Perspectives. New York: Paragon House.

Wiredu, K. (1980). “Morality and Religion in Akan Thought” In H.

Masoto (Ed.) Philosophy and Cultures. Indiana: Indiana
University Press.

Wolf, R. (1976). About African oral literature and Philosophy. Nairobi:

Macmillan.

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UNIT 5 AESTHETIC DELIMITATIONS IN AFRICAN

VERBAL NARRATIVES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Aesthetic Feature – Characterization
3.1.1 Narratives Conceptualised into Creativity
Aesthetics
3.1.2 Weaving Conflicts into Story Variants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have designed this unit to explain that African verbal narratives are
aesthetically delimited in nature. Thus, there is hardly any dull moment
in African creative verbal arts.

You are therefore encouraged to study this unit vis a vis the verbal
narratives of your indigenous culture to enable you get more familiar
with the reason we have said that verbal narratives are consciously
delimited.

It then means that since African verbal narratives are considered

delimited in aesthetics, you should be encouraged to take the path that
will always see you through and help its aesthetic patterning. Below are
the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• do a convincing explanation supported with examples on how the

African verbal narratives are delimited in aesthetics
• reproduce the verbal narrative of your people indicating evidence
of its aesthetic focus

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

The African oral literature with the employment of various relevant

constructional instruments yields itself to all the dynamic change and
interculturality of the oral practiced not only to make the African verbal
narrative aesthetically satisfying but also aesthetically delimited in all
spheres. This explains that the context of African Art serves aesthetic
functions unavoidably, primarily and this is not an invention of the
modern man but part of the mimetic instinct of man that was brought
into play in the various parts of preliterate Africa. Even in modern time,
African oral narratives have moved a little further from their old
ritualistic experiences such as ritual dance, drama, worships of deities,
for instance, the worship of Obatala the sculptor Oduduwa, the Yoruba
progenitor, Ogun, the god of iron and metallurgy, Sapono, the god of
poxes, Iroko tree and other sacred trees among the pygmies of the
Kongo Basin, Roads in traditional Kikuyu culture, worship of the sea
among the Kajokaji of the Bari speaking people in the Kuku tribe of
Southern Sudanese, and in varieties of other forms in Africa. Oral
narratives in modern time therefore have incorporated the use of music,
acrobatic display and social festivals, as evidences of the aesthetic
delimitation of oral verbal narratives.

3.1 Characterization

Characterization is an aesthetic feature of such oral forms as poetry,

prose and drama. Ritual personages, gods, goddesses, deities, are
represented in orature to characterize the creation and make a
convincing representation. The narrator presents the characters to the
audience sometimes through dramatic representation, symbolic
reenactment through the use of costume for instance the Yoruba deity,
Sango’s character, (red, yeri Sango’s skirt on which are flaps of leather
called Wabi, the special hairdo of Sango known as the Osu as well as
Sango’s girdle. Oja Sango on which the laba Sango-Sango’s bag across
the chgaracter’s chest. He holds a hand prop and Ose Sango’s dancing
wand, a deftly carved double-edged axe, and a gourd rattle, Seere). The
character who mirrors Sango in such a narrative must also dance to
bata’s music and perform some amazingly magical feats such as
emitting fire from his mouth, spitting fire, carrying a pot of fire with
bare hands, momentarily be, aggressive, restless, power-drunk, power-
driven as the audience chants his Sango praise song and other amazing
skills that are characteristic of the Sango character-impersonator as
understood in Yoruba myths and narratology. This characteristic feature
of Sango, a literary dramatic re-enactment, re-inventing the oral
aesthetics, is role play-evolving and is to further reflect the aesthetic
delimitation of oral narratives. Moreso, the one who characterizes the

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Yoruba god of Iron, Sango is a known person, one of them in the

community who must assume Sango in the ritualized drama and theatre.

The ritual is essentially a very good part of African oral narrative, and it
is a continuum as a cultural practice rich in spiritual ecstasy, music,
praise, chants, incantations, proverbs and drumming. The delimitation of
such ritual experiment is visible as members of the African oral
societies are turning to primitive forms of drama, introducing stages,
formal structures, improvising spaces to further the formal aesthetics of
orality and narratology.

3.1.1 African oral Narrative Conceptualized into Creative

Aesthetics

Everywhere in African culture and traditition, circularity (relational) and

linearity (analytic) are expressed in the people’s oral culture because the
people and their tradition and cultural expression are inextricably bound
to the way one conceptualizes the African oral universe, and
particularly, this is true of African oral culture as culture permeates the
African mind. And, every occasion in the African culture and tradition is
considered important and thus, calls for the making of ceremonies, and
such ceremonies in whichever dimension, and form call for the making
of music. Hence the importance placed upon musical activity as an
integral and function part of the African society is a feature that music
shares with other aesthetic aspects of culture in Africa and on which is
emphasized in almost all non-literate societies. In African oral
literature, almost nothing is compartmentalized or divorced from aspects
of everyday life, including the artist, and the commercial artist or
craftsman who have their roles and functions, but, all fused with societal
competence and the aesthetics activities which are closely related to the
overall functioning culture of the society.

3.1.2 Weaving of Conflicts into Story Variants

A survey of African oral narratives across cultures in Africa reveals that

no matter how little a situation may appear in African culture, its overall
purpose is to tell a story and provide aesthetics for the people. For
instance, the Kajokaji of the Bari speaking people of Kuku tribe of
Southern Sudanese are known to demonstrate their stories before the
audience practically, and where such stories require the character to
dress imitatively to assume a mythical character, it is done with all the
necessary costome with none or little improvisation. The Pygmies of the
Congo too, tradition reveals that whenever they are set to worship the
sun, the characters that are involved are required to paint their faces-
masked like the sun/in the appearance of the sun to promote aesthetics.

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In many African societies, oral narratives are woven into conflicts and
conflicts into the narratives, as in the Sundjata of the Mali people, that is
often a mixture of praises, singing, dancing and drumming combined
with men dressed in the tradition of the Mali Warriors, performing
acrobatic display and amazing skills with locally made spears. Usually,
the men are grouped into two as opposing warrior camps ready for
warfare combined with wrestling. They are dressed in Malian warrior
appearance, with spear in hand, holding locally made fan, with power
enhancing charm wrapped round their left wrists, Tambourine, heifer,
wands, girdle, short skirts. The entire participants dance, run to assume
Sundjata in reflective tone, dance to the flute and drum amidst praises,
chants, songs and incantations completing the aesthetic value of the
entire performance with delimitational functionality reciprocal of the
people’s indigenous culture and tradition.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

With respect to characterisation, discuss aesthetic delimitations in

African oral narratives

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed the aesthetic delimitation of African

verbal narratives showing evidence of its delimitation.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that

• you can reproduce the verbal narrative of your people and indicate
evidence of aesthetic delimitation
• African verbal narrative is ever aesthetically satisfying

In the last unit, you will be introduced to oral Literary Theories

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) Present two African verbal narratives indicating evidence of

aesthetic delimitation.
2) How are the following concepts related to aesthetic delimitation in
African verbal narratives
(i) characterization (ii) dramaturgy (iii) creativity
(iv) conflict as story (iv) use of drums and songs
(vi) relate issues with the terrestrial and celestial/ancestors

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adedeji A. (1973). “The Adimu Orisa Play”. Occassional Publications,

No. 1, Dept. of Theatre Arts, University of Ibadan.

Creighton L.(1965). ‘An Attempt to Define African Literature’ G.

Moore (Ed.) African Literature and Universities. England.

Dathorne O.R. (1976). African Literature in the 20th Century. Ibadan:

HEB.

Nkosi, L. (1981). Tasks and Mask: Themes and Styles of African

Literature. Ibadan: Longman.

Olatunde, O. (1980). Music in Yoruba Chants: Readings in Yoruba

Chants. Ibadan.

Olatunji, O. (1970). Characteristic Features of Yoruba Oral Poetry.

Ibadan: Macmillan University of Ibadan Press.

Olukoju, O. (1978). The Place of Chants in Yoruba Traditional Oral

Literature. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.

O0sanyin, B. (1983). “A Cross-road of History, Legend and Myth: The

Case of the Origin of Adimu Orisa”. Nwanna Nzewunwa (Ed.) The
Masquerade in Nigerian History and Culture. Port Harcourt:
University of Port-Harcourt Press.

Schechner, R. (1995). The Future of Ritual Writings on Culture and

Performance. London: Routledge.

Soyinka, W. (1975). Myth, Literature and the African World.

Cambridge: CUP.

Vincent, T. & Senanu, K. Eds. (1988). A Selection of African Poetry.

London: Longman.

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UNIT 6 ORAL LITERARY THEORIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Origin of Literary Theory
3.2 Origin of Oral Literary Tradition
3.3 Critical Debates on Oral Literary Theories
3.3.1 Theories of oral literature and critical debates
3.4 Other Thoughts-Theories
3.4.1 Mythological Criticism
3.4.2 Sociological Criticism
3.4.3 Cultural Criticism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through the oral literary theories – the
various ideological perspectives to oral literature will give you a solid
foundation or make you well grounded in the study and discussions of
oral literature.

The knowledge of theory, theories generally and particularly about the

oral tradition is an enterprising one. It is necessary that you have
adequate knowledge of theories that formulate, support, explain a
particularly knowledge based issue. This will make you to be more
authoritative and skillful in the discussion of African oral literature and
orature generally. Below are the objectives of this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define oral literary tradition

• discuss your understanding of oral literary theory
• explain mythological criticism
• give a review of sociological criticism
• compare cultural criticism with the evolutionary trend
• describe the different positions taken in the critical debates on the
theories of oral literature

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3.1 Origin of Literary Theories

The word theory is derived from the following Latin and Greek words,
“theorema” and “theoria” which means the general or abstract principles
of a body of facts, a science, art, belief, policy or procedure proposed or
followed as the basis of action, an ideal or hypothetical set of facts,
principles or circumstances. But the word, theorem, a derivative of Latin
origin (theorein) means to look at, or a formular, propositions or
statements in Mathematics, logic deduced or to be deduced from other
formulas or propostions, an idea accepted or porposed as a demonstrable
truth often as part of a general theory. The adoption of theory in our
discussion of this unit, aspect of this module, indicates that this work
lends itself to, but not necessarily all the aspects of literary theories. The
essence of our limitation in this unit is to give the course a definite
theoretical focus.

The reason is, every research across displines have critical and
comprehensive knowledge of related theoretical, philosophical
approaches or perspectives expressed by some famous critics over the
ages. In the case of oral literature, you need to be aware of what
constitutes the historical trends in literary theories and criticisms. The
ancient Greece devoted a great deal of theoretical reflections to the
form, place and value of literature, beginning with Plato and Artistotle.
The philosophical treatises of these classical scholars, up to date did not
only become the most important critical texts of literary theories but
have generated other useful theories in literature across ages. Although,
the form of critical learning had existed before the Greece of Plato and
Artistotle. If disputable, where do we put such great names and their
excellencies in the arts and sciences like Musaeus, Homer, Hesiod,
Orpheus and Linus? The early philosophers of Greece like Thales,
Empedodes, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Tyrateus, Solon, Phocylides threw
their weights behind leisured learning, and from their philosophical
enterprises emerged many of the literary theories we celebrate today.
Our business, therefore, is to apply the relevant theoretical models
which theorists over the ages have formulated to interprete the works of
literature. This is why literary theory and criticism should be concerned
with defining, describing, classifying, analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating a text or oral form of composition as the case may be.

3.2 Origin of Oral Literary Tradition

The theories of oral literature began with the British who propounded
the diffusionist and evolutionist theories. Every society must experience
the cultural and social evolutionary trend that is its necessary stage(s)
and experience through which the society is mirrored and understood its
very origin, essences of being, history, religion, economy, education as

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well as socialization, communal relationships and interactions.

However, the theories may be said to suffer some limitations especially
considering the fact that they discuss man’s beginning, religion,
geographical settlements locations, economy, politics, culture and other
significantly evolving aspects of the African peoples and general
existence, aesthetics, values, achievements, African traditional
philosophy, imagination, thoughts and arts

Indeed, the genesis of the early theories were the ideology of the West
that was interested in the search for the origin and nature of man,
perhaps with the hidden motive to determine which was the most
superior and most intelligent race of the human race. Moreso, the white
had already blackmailed Africa and other races of the world as inferior,
unproductive, without culture, religion and history. There was a need for
them to satisfy their raging inquisitiveness or curiosity about which race
is truly superior to the other. If man is subject to evolutionary trend, then
his culture and religion are bound to be evolutionary in
perspective/nature. Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) who propounded the
theory was of the belief that the oral or traditional aspect of one society
can compare favourably with that of another society. The diffusionist
school of thought contrary to the evolutionist is of the opinion that
where there is cultural similarities indicates that it is possible that
previously the two cultures had histori-geographical contact with one
another and such may be responsible for their cultural homogeneity,
perhaps, possibly as a result of cultural mingling and intermingling
resulting in unavoidable borrowings or loaning of cultural ideologies by
two or diverse cultures. Such cultural borrowings resulting from cultural
minglings reflect in the area of language difference and interaction,
styles of dressing, food types, and other cultural specifities like
communal habits like occupations and folklore, theorized by Franz
Boas, Radcliffe Brown.

3.3 Critical Debates on Oral Literary Theories

Interestingly, there are many scholars across the world who are
researching into the theory of oral composition and its related
methodology from diverse fields of learning. Such works as the
Traditional Oral Epic: The Odyssey, Beowulf and the Serbo-Croatian
Return-Song are provoking academic reactions around the world, such
conversations are expanding the interesting field of oral composition
and theory and generating, re-generating various novel traditions.

Folklore (literature and literacy) and philosophy (communication theory,

semiotics) proliferated to include expanding variety of languages and
ethnic differencies to include theology, cross cultural communication,
interpersonal communication, popular culture and film studies, post

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colonial studies, studies in rural and community development and

hermeneutics, the expansion continues.

3.3.1 Theories of Oral Literature and Critical Debates

The theory of oral tradition had problems with early scholars who were
of the opinion that it leaned on either the “Unitarians” or “analysts” in
the popular controversy of that nature. This refers to scholars who are of
the view that Homer was a single historical entity, and others who
viewed him as conceptual or at best oratorical, ‘‘Parenthesis’ figure’ or
oratoric figure, a perspective which ironically referred to the theory as
‘non-existing’, “author function”, or mere verbiage or of hypothetical
origin and hypothetically dead and cannot be proved. The controversial
view, originated from some scholars within and outside the theoretical
circle of orality declassifying for instance the Epic to mere children’s
social gatherings like birthday party and other amusement games
revealing messages against content through uncontextualised
transmission. The school of thought of Parry has argued that the theory
of oral tradition exposes how orality optimized the signal-to-noise ratio
to improve the quality, stability and integrity of content transmission.

Crowne’s hypothesis has been refuted on the basis that the “hero on the
Beach” formula was in generous use in old and Middle English poems
as well as in Greek and German poems and in Icelandic prose Saga. The
work of J. A. Dane in an article “polemics without rigour”argued that
the themes in the poetry of ancient Greek were independently Greek, but
oral without a tradition connected to the Germans.

The problems that are associated with oral fomulaic theory to

problematic texts are expressed in Lord’s Homeric Studies, The Singer
of Tales, such as The Iliad, Odyssey and Beowulf. In response to Lords,
Geoffrey Kirk wrote Songs of Homer, criticizing Lord’s extension of the
oral formulae of Serbian and Croatian Literature (the origin of the
theories) application to Homeric Epic. The argument of Kirk was hinged
on the premise that Homer’s poems differs from those traditions in their
metrical applicability and creative patterning.

Kirk maintained that the poems of Homer were recited under a free
system, that is, oral tradition that empowered the reciter to choose words
freely from the pool of oral rendition like the Serbo and Croatian poets
who merely reproduced past ages from the cultural pool of the people.
In a similar perspective, the reaction of Eric Havelock’s Preface to Plato
changed scholar’s perspectives on Homeric Epic, argued in support of
the oral nature of Homeric composition that the oral formulae was
Greece’s way of preserving her culture across generations. The 1996
theory of Adam Parry, Have We Homer’s Iliad? based his theory on the

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poetic license and willful freedom or discretion of the oral poet to create
unnamed characters based on the belief of the acceptability of its
traditional(ity) essence. He elevated the Greek model above the Serbo-
Croatian and other models. On this basis, Lord in 1968 described Parry
and Kirk’s essays with Homer as oral poetry. His position insists that
Yugoslav poetry is similar to Homer’s but scored low the reciters of
Homeric epic on the grounds of intellectuality and literary relevance.

The criticisms of the theory have been accommodated into the evolving
field for possible modifications. For instance, Larry Benson’s written
formulaic to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which in
its formula and themes contain evidence of oral influences; the concept
itself grew out of Folley’s “pivotal” contribution. Still, a number of
scholars doubted the applicability of the theory, even as scholars
continued to react in the face of the continual modifications of the
theory.

3.4 Other Thoughts – Theories

We have listed and explained some oral literary theories that will make
you more efficient in the discussion of African oral literature or orature
of other lands.

3.4.1 Mythological Criticism

This is an interdisciplinary approach that combines the behaviour of

history, psychology, comparative religion and the insights of
anthropology. The myth or mythological critic examines humanity from
its common ancestry, cultural epoch based on imaginative and symbolic
transcience. Archetypal mythology elicites universal response while
Carl Jung believes that the individual’s collective unconscious is primal
to all races of the world at the premodial phenomena such as night, fire,
moon, blood and the sun. The Swiss psychologist is of the opinion that
the archetype is less occult as a symbol or image but a vital element of
literary experience. The identification of the archtype is forged based on
situations and symbols in literary works. In discussing texts, a
mythological critic of Shakespeare’s Hamlet might relate the Danish
Prince in the text, for instance to other mythic children avenging the
death of their father like Orestes in Greek myth or Melebu in Ondo –
Nigeria an Africa myth. Such mythic characters occur in every culture
all over the world.

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3.4.2 Sociological Criticism

Sociological criticism takes essentially cultural, economic and political

perspectives to Literature. The relationships between the artist and his
society is examined. It evaluates the writer’s profession in relation to his
or particular milieu, sociological criticism analyses the social basis of
literary works, the economic, political and cultural values or worth that
are attached and how a particular text promotes such work. The role of
the audience or society in shaping the literature is paramount. For
instance, the sociological view of political oral praise poetry of the
Hausa might reflect the social cultural view of the period, the nature of
the communal origin of such poetry. Marxist view of the society is an
influential type of sociological criticism; it explains the economic,
political as well as the cultural elements of the society and art, the
ideological basis of literature. Marxist literature often judges the work of
Literature based on even a more general perception, accommodating
economic, political and cultural contents of a work of art based on
variety of critical approaches.

3.4.3 Cultural Criticism

This approach does not give a single approach to discussing a work of

literature. The methodology that is associated with cultural criticism is
not mono-directional. Though inter-disciplinary in approach, cultural
studies is not concerned with the interpretation of the literary texts only,
it leans on other disciplines to discuss the practice and products of
culture. Cultural criticism relies on historical, cultural and political
issues among other varieties. It has been argued that culture should not
be studied independent of evolutionary process that involves the entire
society. As much as literature and the arts are inseparable, cultural
materialism, dialectical materialism, explore the documentary technique
of historical criticism, combined with social class, gender and political
issues. The approach flourished in the United States as New Historicism.
It is antiformalist, is concerned with political complexities and the
merger of related aspects of politics, history and Literature. Clearly,
cultural criticism rejects the idea that literature exists in an aesthetic
realm different from political and ethical categories.

Cultural studies is central to investigating Literature and social power in

texts, the moral, political and psychological experiences in a work of art,
based on the aftermath of a ‘dissection’, or deconstruction for the benefit
of the members of the society. The overt and covert values in cultural
practice are identified across cultures, (oral or written experiences)
based on the structure of meaning that binds them together to given
them the appearance of objective representation. In brief, cultural
studies may borrow concepts from gender, and Marxist criticisms and

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deconstructionism, with each giving analytical tools that are useful to

the cultural critic. Traditional critical approaches often sought to
demonstrate the unity of a literary work, cultural studies seeks to portray
the psychological, and social political issues it reveals. Cultural criticism
often questions what social class created a work of art and who are its
audience. Cultural studies, also borrows from criticism and the race
theory, a textual analysis to the theorist is also a means of furthering
social justice. Cultural studies may be infamous for its habitual use of
literary concepts and complex intellectual analysis of far reaching
materials which may give a novel insight into social, political and
historical as well as cultural experiences.

Cultural criticism offers an interdisciplinary evaluative,

transdisciplinary, incorporative, studying culture in heterogeneous way,
and also maintains its institutional purity by disregarding disciplinary
identity and methodological identity and uniformity. It matches the
diversity of culture to shelter the true nature of culture from its formal
narrowness to an elevated institutionalization.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss either cultural or sociological criticism revealing the thesis of

the theory.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed oral literary theories including the

evolutionists and the diffusionists, mythodologica, sociological and
cultural criticisms. We also examined critical debates on oral literary
theories.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• the concept of theory or theoria

• explained the evolutionist and diffusionist theories
• the mythological, sociological and cultural criticisms

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

Read and answer the questions below

1) What is theory?
2) Outline how the evolutionist differs from the diffussionist school
of thought.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bidney, D. (1973). “Myth, Symbolism and Truth”. In J. Vickery (Ed.)

Myth and Literature. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Brecht, B. (1964). Brecht and Theatre. The Development of an

Aestehtic. London: Methuen.

Dathorne O.R. (1976). African Literature in the 20th Century. Ibadan:

HEB.

Falola, T. and Adebayo, A. (2000). Culture, Politics and Money among

the Yorubas. New Brunswick NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Irele, A. (1976). “Studying African Literature in African Perspectives

1977/71 Text and Cont. ed. M. Schipperde Lee UV The Netherland
Africa Studies Centrum.

Julien, E. (1983). “Of Traditional Tales and Short Stories in African

Literature” In presence Africanine, 125.

Nkosi, L. (1981). Tasks and Mask: Themes and Styles of African

Literature. Ibadan: Longman.

Obiechina, E. (1975). Culture, Tradition and Society in the West African

Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Olatunde, O. (1980). Music in Yoruba Chants: Readings in Yoruba

Chants.

Olatunji, O. (1970). Characteristic Features of Yoruba Oral Poetry.

Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.

Olukoju, O. (1978). The Place of Chants in Yoruba Traditional Oral

Literature. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.

Oruka, O. (1978). Aesthetics and Aesthetism in African oral Folktales.

Ibadan: Heinemann.

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Oruka, U. (1972). Folkheroism in African Orature. Nairobi: Heinemann.

Osanyin, B. (1983). “A Cross-road of History, Legend and Myth: The

Case of the Origin of Adimu Orisa”. Nwanna Nzewunwa (Ed.) The
Masquerade in Nigerian History and Culture. Port Harcourt:
University of Port-Harcourt Press.Parrinder, G. (1967). African
Mythology. Middlesex: The Hamlyn Publishers.

Sanga, W. (1971). Folk-heroic Aesthetism and African oral Literature.

Nairobi: Macmillan.

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