MENTORING AND COACHING FOR

PROFESSIONALS:
A STUDY OF THE RESEARCH EVIDENCE

Pippa Lord
Mary Atkinson
Holly Mitchell

Research conducted by the

National Foundation for Educational Research
Northern Office

October 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements i

Executive Summary ii
1 About this study ii
2 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models iii
3 Mentoring and coaching: impacts for teachers, schools, other
professionals and organisations iv
4 Mentoring and coaching: challenges and effective features v
5 Mentoring and coaching: promotion and support for teachers and
activity and awareness in schools vi
6 Conclusions and recommendations vii

1 About this study 1

1.1 Background 1
1.2 Focus of this study 2
1.3 Methodology in brief 2
1.4 About the selected sources 4
1.5 Structure of this report 9

2 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 10

2.1 Summary and key findings 10
2.2 What definitions are there for mentoring and coaching? 11
2.3 What approaches and models for mentoring and coaching are used?
14
2.4 Variations in approach by intervention 25
2.5 Variations by sector and by context 25

3 Mentoring and coaching: impacts 27

3.1 Summary and key findings 27
3.2 Impacts for mentees and coachees 31
3.3 Impacts for mentors and coaches 33
3.4 Impacts for organisations (schools and social care organisations) 34
3.5 Impacts for young people 37

4 Challenges and effectiveness 39

4.1 Summary and key findings 39
4.2 Challenges of mentoring and coaching 40
4.3 Effectiveness: organisation and management 45
4.4 Effectiveness: the mentoring/coaching relationship and
mentor/coach qualities and skills 52

5. Mentoring and coaching: promotion and support for teachers and

activity and awareness in schools 55
5.1 Summary and key findings 55
5.2 What is the extent of promotion of mentoring and coaching on local
authority websites? 56
 5.3 What definitions of mentoring and coaching are being used and
promoted by local authorities? 58
5.4 What approaches, models or frameworks for mentoring and
coaching are being used and promoted by local authorities? 59
5.5 What activity and awareness of mentoring and coaching is there
amongst teachers and in schools? 61
5.6 About the 30 local authorities 63
5.7 About the NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (June 2008) 64

6 Conclusions and recommendations 66

References 70

Appendix A: search strategy detail 75

Appendix B: literature audit 78

Appendix C: a template for reviewing sources 90

 Acknowledgements i

Acknowledgements
The research team would like to thank Jeff Cull and Angharad Jones at the
Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) for their advice and
support throughout the project. We are also grateful to all those who
responded to our request for further information and research about mentoring
and coaching.

We would like to thank Hilary Grayson from the NFER library and Amanda
Harper, library associate, for their expert support for the literature review. We
are also grateful to the NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey team for their
input to the project.

Pippa Lord
October 2008
 Executive Summary ii

Executive Summary
1 About this study
The Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) is an executive
non-departmental public body of the Department for Children, Schools and
Families (DCSF, formerly the DfES). As the DCSF’s delivery arm for the
people development aspects of its policies, the TDA plays a key part in raising
standards in schools and giving every child the opportunity to achieve their
potential. The TDA’s five-year strategic plan for 2008–13 includes coaching
and mentoring skills – key aspects of teachers’ continuing professional
development (CPD) and the revised professional standards for teachers.

The TDA inherited the National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching from
the DCSF (then DfES) in April 2005. This had been developed by the Centre
for the Use of Research and Evidence in Education (CUREE) at the request of
the DfES over an eighteen-month period involving extensive consultation and
research. This framework is a resource which schools and education bodies
can use to either develop mentoring and coaching practice or to compare with
other approaches. In 2006 the TDA launched a mentoring and coaching
extranet as a means of sharing effective practice, and this hosts the national
framework. This report reviews the evidence on approaches to mentoring and
coaching in schools, and includes some findings on mentoring and coaching in
social care.

Aims
In this study, we ask:

 what is the evidence base for mentoring and coaching in terms of:
 definitions of, models and approaches to mentoring and coaching?
 impacts for participants and organisations?
 challenges and effective features?
 what models of mentoring and coaching are being used, supported and
promoted by local authorities to their schools? To what extent is the
National Framework being used?

Research design
The research design involved:
 Executive Summary iii

 auditing the evidence identified from library database searches, an email

request to key organisations for details of relevant work, and website
searches (43 relevant sources were audited)
 reviewing the evidence in full from selected sources to illustrate a range of
approaches to mentoring and coaching, and a range of sectors (13 sources
were summarised)
 exploring the promotion of mentoring and coaching to schools by local
authorities, through a websearch of 30 local authority websites.

The study focuses on empirical and practice-based evidence on mentoring and

coaching from the last five years (i.e. since 2003) in England. The study is
complemented by NFER’s Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (NFER, 2008)
conducted in June 2008 which includes questions commissioned by the TDA
on mentoring and coaching.

2 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and

models
The 13 fully reviewed studies cover a range of definitions, approaches and
models relating to mentoring and coaching.

 Mentoring is defined as being concerned with ‘growing an individual’,

both professionally and personally. It is linked with professional and
career development, and is somewhat characterised by an ‘expert–novice’
relationship.
 Coaching is defined with a narrower remit than mentoring, and relates to
specific areas of performance and job outcomes.
 Various terms are used in association with mentoring and coaching,
including mutual learning, peer support, peer learning, co-mentoring,
coach mentoring, work discussion groups and supervision.
 Principles or typical ingredients in definitions of mentoring and
coaching include providing a sounding board, being a teaching-learning
process, posing challenge within a safe environment, problem solving,
being reflective, and providing ‘scaffolding’.
 Approaches and models of mentoring and coaching vary across three
different spectra: one-to-one versus group approaches, peer-to-peer
support versus ‘expert–novice’ support, and same-sector approaches
versus approaches where the two parties are from different sectors.
 Mentoring and coaching involving group support is somewhat less
apparent in education/schools compared with social care, with the
exception of specific schemes such as Leading from the Middle (which
 Executive Summary iv

involves both group support and individual coaching for middle managers
in the teaching profession).
 The expert–novice approach almost always takes place between staff
within the same sector. It is typified by experienced staff mentoring or
coaching less experienced or newly qualified staff within their profession.
 Cross-sector mentoring and coaching occurs with the express purpose of
learning from another professional’s experience and/or benefiting from the
independent viewpoint from another sector. The greater integration of
children’s services today, with multi-agency and partnership working,
lends itself to, and possibly demands, cross-sector mentoring and
coaching.
 Other variations in approaches and models by sector are not especially
apparent. Rather, variations in approaches and models appear to be
context specific. Coaching and mentoring both interact with the wider
process of learning within an organisation, and the organisational context
influences the coaching or mentoring process adopted. Mentoring and
coaching activities may be more influential when they ‘fit’ that wider
context, and/or when they are part of a wider programme of professional
development.

3 Mentoring and coaching: impacts for teachers, schools,

other professionals and organisations
A range of impacts is identified in the research for mentees/coachees,
mentors/coaches and for organisations (e.g. schools, social care organisations).

 Increased reflectivity is evident for mentees/coachees, mentors/coaches

and for organisations, as is the sharing of improved knowledge and
skills, and commitment to and a culture of professional development.
This may have important synergies with performance management and
professional standards for teachers.
 Cross-sector and group working approaches to mentoring and coaching
seem to have the potential to inflate some of these impacts to another level,
for example, the cross fertilisation of learning in an interagency coaching
and mentoring scheme, and wider impacts on relationships and sharing of
practice through work discussion groups.
 Impacts for mentors and coaches seem stronger for those professionals
new to the role of mentor or coach or new to a particular context. Given
that training was part of this new role, it is reasonable to suggest that this
has an effect on the extent and nature of impacts gained by mentors and
coaches. That is, trained mentors gain greater impact themselves.
 Impacts on an organisations’ culture are the most widely reported
organisational impacts. An array of cultures and ethos are engendered by
mentoring and coaching, the three most common being: a
research/learning culture, a reflective culture, and a collaborative
 Executive Summary v

culture. Both expert–novice and peer-to-peer approaches contribute to

these.
 Organisational impacts vary somewhat by sector.
 In schools, impacts include a culture of professionalism (in terms of a
recognition of professional and career development), not noted within
the studies on social care (where professionalism and recognition are
perhaps already entrenched within existing modes of clinical
supervision).
 Enhanced knowledge and skills are shared within educational
organisations. Again, this is not noted in the social care examples. As
found in a recent study, regular staff meetings in schools provide a
useful forum for such sharing.
 The positive impact of mentoring and coaching on recruitment and
retention relates to the social care sector in the literature studied here.
This may be an important finding for social care, and indeed for
education, given widely reported recruitment and retention issues
within both these sectors.
 Evidence of direct impact on young people from mentoring and
coaching within their organisation is rare. However, reports from
researchers and teachers suggest that a culture of mentoring and coaching
will, over time, have an impact on young people and their learning.

4 Mentoring and coaching: challenges and effective

features
A range of challenges and effective features of mentoring and coaching are
identified in the reviewed literature.

 The main challenges centre around time and workload pressures and the
demanding requirements of the mentor or coach role. Challenges
concerned with understanding and expectations, gaining the commitment
of the workforce, the profile of the workforce and the workplace culture
are also identified. Potential conflict between adviser and assessor roles is
highlighted.
 Whilst many of the overarching challenges appear to be issues regardless
of the type of mentoring and coaching or the sector involved, there is an
indication from the sources examined that understanding of mentoring
and coaching may be more limited within the education sector.
 Different challenges relating to workplace culture are noted for education
and social care. Whilst the structure of the school environment can
promote a culture of isolation for teaching professionals, the unsettled and
turbulent environment within social care can be problematic.
 Effective aspects of the organisation and management of mentoring and
coaching include: providing sufficient time, providing training and support
for mentors/coaches, establishing quality assurance and monitoring
 Executive Summary vi

systems, paying attention to the recruitment and allocation of

mentors/coaches, having a clear focus and understanding of
mentoring/coaching, and organisational culture and strategic planning.
 Whilst many of the effective features appear to apply regardless of the type
of mentoring and coaching or the sector involved, there is a suggestion that
organisational support and strategic planning may be particularly
important for the effectiveness of mentoring and coaching schemes in
schools.
 The mentoring or coaching relationship is critical for effectiveness. Key
aspects include the promotion of reflective practice and development of a
reciprocal collaborative learning relationship. It can be beneficial for the
mentor to be independent or even from a different sector.
 A wide range of qualities and skills are important for the effectiveness of
the mentor or coach. It is considered critical that the mentor/coach is
knowledgeable, experienced and a successful practitioner. Important
qualities include: trust, respect, approachability, empathy, flexibility and
self-awareness. Important skills include: listening skills, communication
skills and interpersonal skills.

5 Mentoring and coaching: promotion and support for

teachers and activity and awareness in schools
Reviewing a sample of 30 local authority websites reveals varied information,
reporting and documentation relating to mentoring and coaching for the school
workforce.

 A range of examples of approaches to mentoring and coaching can be

found across the local authority websites searched. However, in general,
the information available on mentoring and coaching is sparse and not
especially comprehensive.
 ‘Mentoring’ features more commonly on local authority websites (13
local authority websites) than ‘coaching’ (two local authority websites).
 Mentoring and coaching appear in a range of different guises including
mentoring, peer mentor, coaching and mentoring strategies. (The term
‘mentoring’ also features in relation to adults mentoring young people, and
young people peer mentoring schemes. Searches for ‘coaching’ tend to
return articles relating to bus and coach travel and sports coaching.)
 Reference to the TDA appears on some of the websites (16 websites)
usually in relation to teacher recruitment or CPD, and rarely in association
with any specific references to mentoring or coaching.
 The National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching is referred to on
only two of the 30 websites. In both cases the reference is brief with no
explanation of the Framework or links to further information.
 Executive Summary vii

 The Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) approach to mentoring

features on four local authority websites. The approach involves the use of
practitioners as mentors for colleagues.
 Some local authorities have developed their own mentoring and
coaching strategies and approaches (seven local authorities). Some have
created programmes aimed at supporting headteachers through mentoring
(three local authorities).
 Two local authority websites are promoting both accredited and non-
accredited courses, run by universities, specifically focusing on
mentoring and/or coaching.

The NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (NFER, 2008) highlights some
key findings relating to mentoring and coaching activity, the National
Framework, and other sources of support and guidance for mentoring and
coaching.

 The majority of the 1,440 teachers responding to the NFER Teacher

Voice Survey (June 2008) have been or are involved in mentoring or
coaching in some form – in this survey, most commonly as a mentor.
 Being trained in mentoring or coaching, however, is not as commonly
reported as either being a mentor/coach or being mentored/coached.
 Mentoring and coaching activities identified by survey respondents relate
commonly to classroom practice.
 A variety of sources of guidance to support mentoring and coaching
activity are noted. External sources are particularly used by primary
school staff (e.g. the local authority and the local HEI), and specific
internal sources are common in secondary schools (e.g. the school CPD
leader and line managers).
 Only a minority of respondents are aware of the National Framework
for Mentoring and Coaching. A small proportion has used the Framework
(just ten per cent of the 1,440 overall sample). However, the vast majority
of those who have used the Framework say they have found it useful.

6 Conclusions and recommendations

Looking across all of the areas we have considered for this review –
definitions, approaches, impacts, effective features, and promotion and
awareness of mentoring and coaching activities in schools – the following
conclusions and recommendations can be made.
 Executive Summary viii

For schools
 The reflection promoted by effective mentoring and coaching
approaches in turn encourages a collaborative learning culture in
organisations. For schools, this is particularly important, as it may alleviate
some of the sense of professional isolation (identified in the literature).
 Mentoring and coaching activities may be more influential when they ‘fit’
the wider context of an organisation, and/or when they are part of a
wider programme of professional development. School leaders should
consider their school’s CPD context and programme when developing
mentoring and/or coaching approaches within their setting.
 Organisational support and strategic planning should also be a priority
for school leaders when developing mentoring and coaching activities.
Promoting a learning and collaborative culture, providing a framework for
implementing mentoring and coaching, and training leaders in mentoring
and coaching seem to be important for the effectiveness of mentoring and
coaching schemes in schools. (See below for further implications around
training.)
 The finding in the Teacher Voice Survey that mentoring and coaching
activities relate commonly to classroom practice should be encouraging
for school leaders. This resonates with the new professional standards for
teachers, whereby mentoring and coaching are now an expected part of
teachers’ everyday skill set, and a key aspect of continuing professional
development and performance management.

For the TDA

… and its work around mentoring and coaching
 Given the array of impacts gained from mentoring and coaching, and,
where used, teachers’ positive views on the National Framework for
Mentoring and Coaching, the TDA should consider ways to further
promote understandings of mentoring and coaching, as well as the
Framework specifically (see below for recommendations related to the
Framework).
 Understanding of mentoring and coaching appears to be more limited
within the education sector compared with the social care sector. The TDA
may wish to target school leaders and those implementing
mentoring/coaching programmes to ensure that they have the relevant
knowledge and skills for mentoring and coaching, so that understanding of
mentoring/coaching practice in education is increased.
 The TDA should seek to promote mentoring and coaching through a
range of support areas, and should particularly ensure that local
authorities and school CPD leaders receive information about mentoring
and coaching. In the Teacher Voice Survey, primary school leaders report
receiving guidance on mentoring and coaching from their local authority.
Secondary school teachers more often report receiving guidance on
mentoring and coaching from their school CPD leader.
 Executive Summary ix

 A number of the impact areas identified in this review link implicitly with
the new professionalism in teaching. A commitment to recognising
professional and career development, for example, suggests that there may
be important synergies to be made with performance management and
professional standards. Likewise, the research culture that is engendered,
as well improved assessment procedures, may support the evaluation of
impact – a key activity now expected of schools and part of school
improvement. The TDA and other bodies working with schools should
consider developing mentoring and coaching as an effective collaborative
approach for schools’ improvement.
 The potential conflict between mentors exercising the role of adviser and
the role of assessor is raised in the literature (and also noted on the
National Framework). In developing its Masters in Teaching and Learning
(MTL), the TDA should consider further the role of a school-based
coach/mentor and whether any conflicting loyalties around assessment and
accreditation may be potentially problematic for this role.

… and its review of the National Framework

 According to the NFER Teacher Voice Survey (June 2008), the number of
teachers currently using the National Framework for Mentoring and
Coaching is limited. However, those that do use it, find it useful. It would
seem important therefore, to promote and raise awareness of the
Framework and increase its usage.
 It is clear from this literature review that the different understandings and
perspectives of mentoring and coaching need to be recognised as part of
continuing professional development. The Framework, supported by
resources on the extranet, sits within and links to other aspects of
collaborative professional development. The TDA should consider
strengthening these links. Further case studies on mentoring and coaching
(particularly mentoring and coaching that does not involve initial teacher
training) would enhance the extranet.
 The Framework is based on research, evidence and consultation, and (not
surprisingly) the effective features of mentoring and coaching set out in
the Framework very much resonate with the effective elements found in
this review. Elements that might be emphasised further are the two-way
learning process that can occur, and the reflective process and reflective
outcomes that can occur.
 Whilst there are conceptual differences between mentoring, coaching, co-
coaching, co-mentoring, peer support, peer learning, coach mentoring, and
the other concepts identified in this study and on the Framework, the
overall ingredients of mentoring and of coaching are reasonably
similar. This applies to the effective features, the overall skill-set required
for mentoring and coaching, and indeed, the types of outcomes that can be
gained. In reviewing its strategies around the Framework, the TDA may
wish to consider simplifying the framework. This could include providing
an overview sheet/clickable webpage for a) school leaders, b)
mentors/coaches, and c) mentees/coaches to see ‘at a glance’ the
 Executive Summary x

information relevant to their perspective, as well as, crucially, the

outcomes that might be gained.
 Indeed, promoting the potential outcomes and benefits of mentoring
and coaching for teachers and schools might be crucial to engaging school
leaders, so that mentoring and coaching becomes part and parcel of
schools’ professional development, performance management and school
improvement strategies. At present, the Framework promotes the impact of
continuing professional development on student learning. It would seem
important to also promote the potential impacts for staff and the
organisation as a whole.

For local authorities

 Whilst the National Framework is referenced on national organisations’
webpages (TDA, GTC, etc), it is rarely referenced on local authority
websites. Links could be made between local authority CPD webpages and
the webpages of the National Framework.
 Local authorities may also wish to explore how the approaches to
mentoring and coaching that they are promoting and offering map to the
National Framework.

For CPD and training providers

 The findings highlight the importance of training for mentors and
coaches. Trained mentors gain greater impact themselves. It seems
reasonable to suggest that mentees and coachees would also stand to
benefit more from having a trained mentor/coach.
 However, being trained in mentoring and/or coaching is not
commonplace, certainly in schools (according to the NFER Teacher Voice
Survey). CPD and training providers should consider developing
opportunities for mentoring and coaching training amongst the children’s
workforce (e.g. teachers, social care workers, etc).
 As noted above, where mentoring and coaching approaches fit with an
organisation’s context and ethos, impacts can be greater, especially around
a collaborative learning culture. Thus, training for school leaders in
mentoring and coaching may be particularly fruitful in influencing and
changing school cultures.
 Such training might be explored as part of a wider programme of CPD
leadership training (for example, CPD leadership training being
developed by the TDA and NCSL), in order to maximise the impacts
around collaboration and reflection – impacts from mentoring and
coaching, and elements of effective CPD more broadly.
 Executive Summary xi

For further research

 Group and cross-sector approaches may be particularly worth
investigating further, for the enhanced impacts they seem to encourage.
These approaches may be particularly relevant given the increasing multi-
agency and partnership working in children’s services today.
 Further research may also be required on a) whether the amount or
frequency of support or training influences impact (as suggested by the
Early Professional Development Scheme), and b) whether or not it makes
a difference who takes on mentor roles (e.g. their level of experience,
whether they are school based, etc). The relationship between these and
outcomes was somewhat of a gap in the literature.
 Further understanding is also needed around the selection of models and
approaches for particular circumstances and outcomes. The literature
reviewed here shows, retrospectively, how particular approaches suit the
intervention or purposes of the activity. However, greater understanding is
needed to be able to select approaches fit for purpose.
 About this study 1

1 About this study

1.1 Background
The Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) is an executive
non-departmental public body of the Department for Children, Schools and
Families (DCSF, formerly the DfES). As the DCSF’s delivery arm for the
people development aspects of its policies, the TDA plays a key part in raising
standards in schools and giving every child the opportunity to achieve their
potential. The Agency achieves this through:

 Securing the supply of the school workforce through the promotion of the
teaching profession and quality assurance for initial teacher training (ITT).
This helps schools to be able to recruit sufficient good quality teachers to
their workforce.
 Supporting the development of the school workforce through the creation
and promotion of professional and occupational standards, support of
performance management arrangements and stimulation of a sufficient
supply of high-quality in-service training. This helps schools to increase
the skill level of their workforce.
 Supporting the ongoing modernisation of the school workforce, the wider
education sector and children’s and young people’s services. This helps
schools to be proficient in managing the process of change required for
modernisation.

The changing contexts for teachers and schools means that mentoring and
coaching are now an expected part of schools’ workforce skills. Mentoring
and coaching are also key aspects of teachers’ continuing professional
development (CPD) and the revised professional standards for teachers. The
findings of research published by CUREE (2004–2005) indicate that effective
coaching and mentoring can help teachers to improve their practice, in turn
delivering high standards of education for children and young people. The
TDA’s first five-year strategic plan for 2008–13 includes plans to ensure that
the workforce is suitably skilled. This includes coaching and mentoring skills.

The TDA inherited the National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching from
the DCSF (then DfES) in April 2005. This had been developed by the Centre
for the Use of Research and Evidence in Education (CUREE) (in conjunction
with a range of partners1) at the request of the DfES over an eighteen-month

1
The partners involved were: the Department for Education and Skills (DfES), the General Teaching
Council for England (GTC), the National College for School Leadership (NCSL), the Primary and
 About this study 2

period involving extensive consultation and research. This framework is a

resource which schools and education bodies can use to either develop
mentoring and coaching practice or to compare with other approaches. In 2006
the TDA launched a mentoring and coaching extranet as a means of sharing
effective practice, and this hosts the national framework.

1.2 Focus of this study

The TDA commissioned the NFER to review the evidence on approaches to
mentoring and coaching in schools, and to highlight some headline findings on
mentoring and coaching in social care. This study asks:

 what is the evidence base for mentoring and coaching as it relates to

schools in terms of:
 definitions of, models and approaches to mentoring and coaching?
 impacts for participants and organisations?
 challenges and effective features?
 what findings are there for schools, and what headline findings are there
on approaches to mentoring and coaching in the social care sector?
 what models of mentoring and coaching are being used, supported and
promoted by local authorities to their schools? To what extent is the
National Framework being used?

The study focuses on empirical and practice-based evidence on mentoring and

coaching from the last five years (i.e. since 2003) in England. The study is
complemented by NFER’s Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey conducted in June
2008, which included questions commissioned by the TDA on mentoring and
coaching. Headline findings from this survey are incorporated into this report.
A full report on the survey is available from the TDA.

1.3 Methodology in brief

We have obtained evidence for this study through:

 auditing the evidence identified from:

 searches of library databases
 an email request to key organisations for details of relevant recently
published or current work

Secondary National Strategies, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), and the Training
and Development Agency for Schools (TDA).
 About this study 3

 website searches of relevant organisations and using the Google search

engine
 reviewing the evidence in full from 13 selected sources
 exploring the promotion of mentoring and coaching to schools by local
authorities, through a websearch of 30 local authority websites.

We used the following three-step process to identify research literature.

 Firstly, we scanned results from the library database searches, the e-mail
request and the website searches for relevant publications (appendix A
provides further details on the search strategy employed). We ordered full
sources of possible relevant items, for further inspection.
 Secondly, we audited the received items for possible inclusion in the
review against specific criteria (appendix B provides information on the
full audit of sources meeting these criteria). These included:
 date of publication (since 2003)
 country of research (England, UK)
 sector (education, social care)
 evidence of impact for teachers, schools and other professionals
 evidence of effectiveness and effective elements of mentoring and
coaching.
 Thirdly, in conjunction with the TDA, we selected 13 pertinent sources for
full review, to illustrate a range of approaches to mentoring and coaching,
and to include examples from both education and social care. We
summarised these sources to a standard template to extract further detail
(appendix C provides a copy of the standard template). In selecting these
sources, the chief criteria were that:
 the literature presented concrete evidence of impact on teachers,
schools and/or pupils, and/or on other professionals
 the literature reported the effectiveness of the approach and its
effective elements
 across the selected sources, a range of sectors and approaches to
mentoring and coaching were represented.

Table 1.1 summarises the number of applicable sources at each step in the
review process.
 About this study 4

Table 1.1 Number of applicable sources at each stage in the review process

Three step Review activity No. of

process applicable
sources
Step 1 Library database and website search relevant 140
hits
E-mail requests sent out 26
E-mail request returns 18
Sources identified as potentially relevant and 62
ordered for further inspection
Step 2 Sources audited for possible inclusion in 62
review
Sources meeting the criteria for full audit 43
Step 3 Illustrative sources fully reviewed 13

1.4 About the selected sources

Information about the 13 selected sources and the sectors and participants
involved is summarised below and in Table 1.2:

 seven of the 13 selected studies have a specific focus on mentoring, two

focus on coaching, two cover both mentoring and coaching more
generically within the context of CPD, one discusses ‘coach-mentoring’,
and one is based on clinical supervision
 seven of the studies relate solely to the education sector, and include
teachers, headteachers, trainee teachers and early career teachers amongst
the participants
 three involve social care, including a study of a peer mentoring partnership
across social care, health and housing, and a study on support mentoring
for childminders
 one focuses on mentoring and coaching in early years’ settings
 one involves co-mentoring between school teachers and creative and
cultural professionals
 one compares the mentoring role for teachers with that for a range of
health professionals (nurses, midwives and doctors).

Section 2 of this report provides further detail on the approaches and models
of mentoring and coaching used in these studies. Section 3 explores the
impacts for teachers, schools and other professionals and organisations evident
in these studies. Section 4 considers the challenges and effective features
identified in these studies.
 About this study 5

Table 1.2 Information about the 13 selected sources

Selected source About this study Sector Particip-

ants
1 Allan, P. (2007). Devon LA Headteacher An evaluation of a pilot coaching programme undertaken by four Schools Head-
Coaching Pilot 2007. Unpublished report. headteachers, identifying benefits and the extent to which it had an teachers
impact upon their leadership. The programme aimed to determine
whether coaching can be used as an alternative model of leadership
support for headteachers; and whether or not it provides a safe and
confidential means of enabling school leaders to review their
objectives.
2 Boyle, B., Lamprianou, I. and Boyle, T. The second year of a longitudinal study to investigate the influence of Schools Teachers
(2005). ‘A longitudinal study of teacher professional development on the effectiveness of primary and
change: what makes professional secondary teachers in England. It explores the models of professional
development effective? Report of the development for teachers in England, the impact of sustained and one-
second year of study’, School off interventions, the characteristics of professional development, and
Effectiveness and School Improvement, impact on standards and pupil achievement.
16, 1, 1-27.

3 Child, A. and Merrill, S. (2003). A survey into the use of mentoring in initial teacher training and how Schools Mentors of
‘Professional mentors' perceptions of the this affects the development of effective CPD within schools. The trainee
contribution of school/HEI partnerships to survey involved 55 professional mentors in secondary schools in North teachers
professional development and school West England.
improvement’, Journal of In-Service
Education, 29, 2, 315-324.

4 Cordingley, P. (2008). GTC Qualitative A study to investigate how and by whom decisions are made about Schools Teachers
 About this study 6

Study of School-Level Strategies for CPD needs and priorities in schools, the extent to which these (including
Teachers’ CPD. Coventry: CUREE decisions are strategic, and subsequent resource allocation and trainee
[online]. Available: evaluation. This study builds on some key reports on the CPD teachers
http://www.gtce.org.uk/shared/contentlibs/ evidence base and presents four case studies in support of its and senior
126795/93128/120213/curee_cpd_strateg investigations. leadership
ies.pdf [24 October, 2008]. teams)

5 Hafford-Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., A book chapter on coach mentoring in the social care workplace. The Social care, Social care,
Begum, N. and Chick, N.F. (2007). ‘Coach chapter describes an interagency model on coach mentoring (ICMS), health and health and
mentoring as a developmental tool in the involving a partnership between Social Services, Housing, NHS housing housing
workplace.’ In: Hafford-Letchfield, T., Primary Care Trust and a local voluntary social care organisation. The professiona
Leonard, K., Begum, N. and Chick, N.F. ICMS involves peer mentoring and supervision across agencies. ls
(Eds) Leadership and Management in
Social Care. London: Sage.

6 Hobson, A. and Sharp, C. (2005). ‘Head A systematic review of international research on the mentoring of new Schools Head-
to head: a systematic review of the headteachers and other leaders, commissioned by the NCSL. The teachers
research evidence on mentoring new review asked: what mentoring strategies are being used to assist the
head teachers’, School Leadership and development of new heads? And what does the research evidence tell
Management, 25, 1, 25-42. us about the effectiveness of such strategies? Twenty-four sources
were fully summarised for the review.
7 Jones, M., Nettleton, P., Smith, L., Brown, This study explores mentees’ and mentors’ perceptions of mentoring Education Teachers
J., Chapman, T. and Morgan, J. (2005). across four disciplines – teaching, nursing, midwifery and medicine. and health including
‘The mentoring chameleon - a critical The study considers perceptions of the mentoring role, including care trainee
analysis of mentors’ and mentees’ supporting, advising, supervising, teaching and modelling. The teachers,
perceptions of the mentoring role in research involved a survey with 1,200 mentors and mentees who were nurses,
professional education and training undertaking courses at Edge Hill College of Higher Education. midwives
 About this study 7

programmes for teachers, nurses, and doctors

midwives and doctors.’ Paper presented
at the
British Educational Research Association
Annual Conference, University of
Glamorgan, Pontypridd, 14-17 September
[online]. Available:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/
143672.doc [12 November, 2008].

8 Moor, H., Halsey, K., Jones, M., Martin, An evaluation of the DfES EPD (Early Professional Development) Schools Second
K., Stott, A., Brown, C. and Harland, J. scheme, which provided £700 per term to support the professional and third
(2005). Professional Development for development of second year teachers and £350 per term in their third year
Teachers Early in Their Careers: an year. All EPD teachers had a mentor. The research involved case teachers
Evaluation of the Early Professional studies in 36 schools, repeat surveys over three years for teachers and and
Development Pilot Scheme (DfES their mentors, and a comparative sample. mentors in
Research Report 613). London: DfES the EPD
[online]. Available: pilot
http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/research/data/uplo
adfiles/RR613.pdf [12 November, 2008].
9 National Institute for Economic and Social The National Childminding Association was contracted by SureStart to Social Child-
Research (2005). The Support run pathfinder support childminder projects in seven local authorities. care/early minders
Childminder Pathfinder Scheme: The scheme was developed to increase the support available to new years
Evaluation Report September 2003- childminders, through peer mentoring, and with the aim of increasing
November 2004 [online]. Available: rates of recruitment and retention. This study involved 49 interviews
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uplo with support childminders, coordinators and line managers, and a
adfiles/SurestartReportFR005.pdf [24 postal survey with 111 responses from childminders.
 About this study 8

October, 2008].

10 Renshaw, P. (2008). REFLECT: Creative Evaluation of Creative Partnerships’ REFLECT programme involving Schools Teachers
Partnerships National Co-mentoring co-mentoring and peer learning for emerging leaders from schools and and and
Programme. Executive Summary. creative and cultural organisations. The evaluation included 49 creative / creative
Gateshead: The Sage Gateshead. questionnaire respondents, 29 in-depth interviews, and interviews with cultural profession-
REFLECT and Creative Partnership team members. sector als
11 Robins, A. (Ed) (2006). Mentoring in the A book about mentoring in early years’ settings, offering practical Early years Early years
Early Years. London: Paul Chapman. guidance for professionals undertaking mentoring, illustrated with case practitioner
studies, questions for reflection and discussion, and suggested s
activities for professional development.

12 Simkins, T., Coldwell, M., Caillau, I., An evaluation of the first cohort of Leading from the Middle (LftM) – a Schools Middle
Finlayson, H. and Morgan, A. (2006). national leadership development programme embracing in-school managers/
‘Coaching as an in-school leadership coaching. The evaluation included telephone interviews with leaders in
development strategy: experiences from participants, coaches and tutors, exit surveys of all participants and schools
Leading from the Middle’, Journal of In- coaches, and case studies in 12 schools.
Service Education, 32, 3, 321-340.

13 Warman, A. and Jackson, E. (2007). Practice-based evidence on work discussion groups – a model of Social care Social care
‘Recruiting and retaining children and supervision developed for use within clinical training, and now being practition-
families’ social workers: the potential of exported to other community settings. Work discussion groups are a ers
work discussion groups’, Journal of Social forum for staff to share concerns and challenges. They are usually
Work Practice, 21 , 1, 35-48. facilitated by an external consultant with relevant professional
experience. This study includes findings from over 90 evaluation forms
at the Tavistock Clinic and Brent Centre for Young People.
 About this study 9

1.5 Structure of this report

This report is set out in the following sections:

 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models (section 2)

 Mentoring and coaching impacts: for mentees/coaches, for
mentors/coaches, for organisations (e.g. schools and social care
organisations), for young people (section 3)
 Mentoring and coaching: challenges and effectiveness (section 4)
 Mentoring and coaching: promotion and support for teachers, and activity
and awareness in schools (section 5)
 Conclusions and recommendations (section 6).

Appendices A, B and C include further details about the review methodology,

the full audit of sources, and a copy of the summarising template respectively.
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 10

2 Mentoring and coaching: definitions,

approaches and models
2.1 Summary and key findings
The 13 fully reviewed studies include useful definitions of mentoring and
coaching. They also cover a range of approaches and models to mentoring and
coaching, some of which are specifically investigated in the studies.

 Mentoring is defined as being concerned with ‘growing an individual’,

both professionally and personally. It is linked with professional and
career development, and is somewhat characterised by an ‘expert–novice’
relationship.
 Coaching is defined with a narrower remit than mentoring, and relates to
specific areas of performance and job outcomes.
 Various terms are used in association with mentoring and coaching,
including mutual learning, peer support, peer learning, co-mentoring,
coach mentoring, work discussion groups and supervision.
 Principles or typical ingredients in definitions of mentoring and
coaching include providing a sounding board, being a teaching-learning
process, posing challenge within a safe environment, problem solving,
being reflective, and providing ‘scaffolding’.
 Approaches and models of mentoring and coaching vary across three
different spectra: one-to-one versus group approaches, peer-to-peer
support versus ‘expert–novice’ support, and same-sector approaches
versus approaches where the two parties are from different sectors.
 Mentoring and coaching involving group support is somewhat less
apparent in education/schools compared with social care, with the
exception of specific schemes such as Leading from the Middle (which
involves both group support for middle managers in the teaching
profession, and individual coaching).
 The expert–novice approach almost always takes place between staff
within the same sector. It is typified by experienced staff mentoring or
coaching less experienced or newly qualified staff within their profession.
 Cross-sector mentoring and coaching occurs with the express purpose of
learning from another professional’s experience and/or benefiting from the
independent viewpoint from another sector. The greater integration of
children’s services today, with multi-agency and partnership working,
lends itself to, and possibly demands, cross-sector mentoring and
coaching.
 Other variations in approaches and models by sector are not especially
apparent. Rather, variations in approaches and models appear to be
context specific. Coaching and mentoring both interact with the wider
process of learning within an organisation, and the organisational context
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 11

influences the coaching or mentoring process adopted. Mentoring and

coaching activities may be more influential when they ‘fit’ that wider
context, and/or when they are part of a wider programme of professional
development.

This section sets out, according to the reviewed literature:

 definitions for mentoring and coaching (section 2.2)

 approaches and models for mentoring and coaching (section 2.3)
 variations in approach by intervention (section 2.4)
 variations by sector and context (section 2.5).

2.2 What definitions are there for mentoring and coaching?

2.2.1 What is mentoring?

Mentoring is concerned with ‘growing an individual’, both professionally and
personally. It is linked with professional and career development (rather than a
specific goal or area as in coaching, see 2.2.2). Some authors say it is
characterised by an ‘expert–novice’ relationship (e.g. van Kessel, 2006;
McDonnell and Zutshi, 2006a; Foster-Turner, 2006), and as such usually takes
place at the start of a professional’s career (e.g. in initial teacher training).
However, peer-to-peer mentoring approaches are also used (see section 2.3.2).
A mentor has a more personal and broader commitment to the individual
(including their wellbeing) compared to a coach (van Kessel, 2006).

[Mentoring is a process] to help and support people to manage their

own learning in order to maximise their potential, develop their skills,
improve their performance, and become the person they want to be
(Parsloe, 1992, cited in Simkins et al., 2006, p. 323).

Mentoring is a development process, including elements of coaching,

facilitating and counselling, aimed at sharing knowledge and
encouraging individual development. It has a longer-term focus [than
coaching] designed to foster personal growth and to help an individual
place their creative, personal and professional development in a wider
cultural, social and educational context (e.g. Why am I doing what I
do? How do I perceive my identity? In what ways does this impact on
my professional life and work? Where am I going? What determines
my long-term goals?) (Renshaw, 2008, p. 11).
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 12

Mentors may be informal – colleagues who provide advice, opinions or

support; or formal – in those cases where people are specifically
designated to perform this work, sometimes within the context of a
mentoring scheme (Hobson and Sharp, 2005, p. 25–6).

2.2.2 What is coaching?

Coaching seems to have a narrower remit than mentoring and relates to
specific areas of performance and job outcomes (e.g. Hafford-Letchfield et al.,
2007; Hobson and Sharp, 2005; Renshaw, 2008; Robins, 2006; McDonnell
and Zutshi, 2006a).

Coaching is seen as one of a number of (potential) aspects of

mentoring, and as having a narrower focus, notably relating to an
individual’s skill development (Hobson and Sharp, 2005, p. 26).

Coaching is typically conceived as a narrower concept than

mentoring, with an emphasis on the improvement of skills and
performance (Simkins et al., 2006, p. 323).

Coaching is an enabling process aimed at enhancing learning and

development with the intention of improving performance in a specific
aspect of practice. It has a short-term focus with an emphasis on
immediate micro issues (e.g. How can I improve my performance in
this particular area? How can I strengthen my workshop practice?
What are the most appropriate ways of making my team work together
more effectively?) (Renshaw, 2008, p. 11).

2.2.3 Other terms and typical ingredients

Across the full audit of literature various terms are used in association with
mentoring and coaching, including mutual learning, peer support, peer
learning, co-mentoring, coach mentoring, work discussion groups and
supervision. ‘Definitions’ for some of these are outlined below.

Co-mentoring is essentially about collaborative learning … a non-

judgemental co-mentoring relationship based on parity of respect
provides a strong basis for sharing values and exploring different
points of view (Renshaw, 2008, p. 7).

Coach mentoring techniques are used to develop congruence and

rapport. They pull on many techniques that are classically linked to
therapeutic relationships such as active listening, reflective feedback,
problem solving and empathy (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007, p. 171).
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 13

Clinical supervision – regular protected time for facilitated, in-depth

reflection on clinical practice (Bedward and Daniels, 2005, p. 54). …
line managers offering advice as well as opportunities to reflect on
practice and professional judgement (Warman and Jackson, 2007, p.
36).

Reciprocal peer coaching is a professional development trajectory in

which pairs of teachers work together to support each others’
professional growth. Reciprocal peer coaching allows two teachers to
regularly discuss their efforts to support student learning, and to
experiment with instructional methods. Teachers take turn in being a
teacher coached and a coach (Zwart et al., 2007, p. 167).

Group reflective supervision is a method of peer supervision which

provides an opportunity for colleagues to engage in enquiry with each
other to develop practice (Wimpenny et al., 2006).

Authors themselves state that there are no definitive definitions (e.g. van
Kessel, 2006; and Jones et al., 2005, p. 9 – ‘there is no single animal called
mentoring, rather a group of tasks associated with the role’). However,
mentoring and coaching processes can be characterised by a set of underlying
principles or ingredients, typically including:

 providing a sounding board and a critical friend (Allan, 2007; Hobson and
Sharp, 2005; Robins, 2006; Simkins et al., 2006)
 a teaching-learning process, that is learner-centred (Jones et al., 2005;
Renshaw, 2008; Simkins et al., 2006)
 providing information and support, rather than advice (NIESR, 2005;
Robins, 2006)
 posing challenge within a safe environment (Allan, 2007; Robins, 2006;
Chappell, 2007) (the mentor will ‘promote both nurture and challenge
within the boundaries of the relationship with the practitioner and
encourage sustained motivation in the work place’, Robins, 2006, p. 9)
 problem solving (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007; Hobson and Sharp,
2005, Robins, 2006)
 being reflective (including literally ‘providing a “mirror” to enable a
learner to explore their aims, objectives, hopes and fears’ Hafford-
Letchfield et al., 2007, p. 174; Robins, 2006)
 providing ‘scaffolding’ (Hobson and Sharp, 2005, Robins, 2006)
 creating a partnership, in which mentor/coach and mentee/coachee must
both be engaged and motivated (Simkins et al., 2006).
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 14

The following quotes illustrate the principles of learning and reflection

underlying mentoring and coaching:

Learning and development is fundamentally what both coaching and

mentoring are about, and perhaps the strongest philosophy behind
coaching and mentoring is that everyone has some potential to learn,
grow and develop (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007, p. 167).

Coaching and mentoring have strong links with action learning

because they are focused on problem solving and the continuous
process of learning and reflection. Reflective practice is important
because it encourages us to take responsibility for ourselves, our
learning and for our own actions. It encourages continuing personal
and professional development, discourages blame and encourages
creativity, problem solving and continuing aspirations to raise quality
and standards (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007, p. 171).

2.3 What approaches and models for mentoring and

coaching are used?
Seven of the 13 fully reviewed studies investigate specific models of
mentoring and/or coaching. The approaches vary across three different
spectra:

1) One-to-one versus group mentoring/coaching approaches

2) Peer-to-peer support (e.g. co-learning) versus ‘expert–novice’ support
(i.e. approaches facilitated by an expert, e.g. expert management coach, or
an experienced colleague)
3) Same-sector approaches (where the mentor/coach and mentee/coachee
are from the same sector, as in mentoring initial trainee teachers) versus
approaches where the two parties are from different sectors (e.g. cross-
sector or multi-disciplinary learning).

These three dimensions occur in different combinations in our selected

studies, as shown in Diagram 1. Other features that vary include whether the
mentor/coach is internal (from the same organisation) or external (from
another organisation, but for example within the same sector) (i.e. the extent to
which they are known by the mentee/coachee prior to the relationship); and
the way in which mentoring and/or coaching links with the organisations’
context in which it is located (Simkins et al., 2006) (see section 2.5).
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 15

The six other fully reviewed sources refer to a range of approaches and models
for mentoring and coaching, rather than investigating one specific model of
mentoring and coaching.
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 16

Diagram 1 Models and approaches to mentoring and coaching

Facilitated by expert support

(e.g. expert–novice
relationship)

 Allan (2007) I
Coaching

 Moor et al. (2005) S

Mentoring
 NIESR (2005) S Next steps
Mentoring

Warman and
One-to- Simkins et al. (2006) S Jackson
one Group
Coaching (2007) S
support support
Supervision

 Hafford-Letchfield
et al. (2008) I
Mentoring and
coaching

 Renshaw (2008) I
Co-mentoring

Facilitated by peer-to-peer
support (e.g. co-learning)

Key: I = interagency/cross sector/different sector support; S = same-sector support

 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 17

2.3.1 One-to-one support … group support

As Diagram 1 shows, approaches to mentoring and coaching include one-to-
one support:

 where each mentee is supported by a more experienced colleague from the

same sector (e.g. Moor et al., 2005, for teachers early in their careers)
 where each coachee is supported by an expert from another sector (e.g.
Allan, 2007, where the one-to-one relationship between the headteacher
and an external coach was adopted to provide a safe environment to
explore personal and professional issues)
 where each mentee is co-supported by a peer from another sector (e.g.
Renshaw, 2008, where a learning agreement and a shared focus were key
elements of creating a close and collaborative one-to-one relationship).

Mentoring and coaching approaches also involve group support:

 with participants supported by an external expert facilitator from a similar

field in a group situation, including support from their peers within the
group (e.g. Warman and Jackson, 2007)
 in a project where the next steps are to include group support, facilitated
by an experienced colleague in the early years/childminder sector (e.g.
NIESR, 2005).

Mentoring and coaching involving group support is somewhat less apparent

in education/schools compared with social care, with the exception of
specific schemes such as Leading from the Middle (LftM). This involves
group support for a specific target population (i.e. middle managers in the
teaching profession), as well as individual coaching support.

2.3.2 Peer-to-peer support … expert–novice support

Approaches involving peer-to-peer learning include:

 pairs of teachers trialling new approaches for a term when new initiatives
are introduced (see Ladygrove Primary School, Case Study in Cordingley,
2008)
 co-mentoring between teachers and creative/cultural professionals, where
each party is equal in the reciprocal peer learning partnership (e.g.
Renshaw, 2008, where both parties gain outcomes for themselves and their
organisations)
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 18

 cross-sector support from colleagues in an interagency coaching and

mentoring scheme, where, whilst peers of equal standing in their
respective professions, the coach received training to become a coach-
mentor, and the coachee was described as the ‘learner’ (Hafford-Letchfield
et al., 2007)
 peer mentoring between headteachers, with relatively equal standing of
both parties (Hobson and Sharp, 2005).

The expert–novice approach almost always takes place within the same
sector (according to our 13 selected sources, and indeed the full audit of 43
sources). It is typified by experienced staff mentoring or coaching less
experienced or newly qualified staff within their profession, for example:

 experienced teachers mentoring the professional development of teachers

early in their careers (Moor et al., 2005)
 experienced childminders supporting new or existing childminders
(NIESR, 2005)
 headteachers matched with more experienced headteachers within their
local authority (giving ‘help to newcomers by veterans’) such as in the
DfES Headteacher Mentoring Pilot Scheme of the early 1990s (note that
this is in contrast to the other headteacher peer mentoring approaches
identified in Hobson and Sharp’s 2005 review).

However, one of our sources promoted a quasi ‘expert–novice’ approach

across sectors, where four headteachers were each coached by a specialist in
leadership skills from outside education (Allan, 2007). The headteachers (not
necessarily ‘novices’, but nor were they peers within the relationship) greatly
valued the opportunity to discuss their leadership issues with a skilled coach
who was independent of the education system (see section 4.3 for further
details on effective features of mentoring/coaching, and section 2.3.3 on same-
sector versus cross-sector support).

2.3.3 Same-sector support … cross-sector support

As can be seen in sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2, same-sector support occurs in
one-to-one and group mentoring/coaching approaches, and in peer-to-peer and
expert–novice approaches.

Cross-sector mentoring and coaching appears to occur with the express

purpose of learning from another professional’s experience (including co-
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 19

learning, i.e. in both directions), and/or benefiting from the independent

viewpoint that another sector professional can bring. The greater integration of
children’s services today, with multi-agency and partnership working, lends
itself to, and possibly demands, cross-sector mentoring and coaching. This
includes the education sector, as Robins (2006) aptly highlights:

Developments in early education and the breadth of provision in the

early years sector have resulted in the use of mentoring across
conventional professional contexts – for example the use of visiting
teachers as practice mentors in community pre-schools and private
day nurseries, reflecting the integration of services and the multi-
disciplinary work within the field (Robins, 2006, p. 6).

An example of cross-sector mentoring and coaching within social care is given

in section 2.3.5.

2.3.4 Other aspects of approaches and models

Other aspects of the approaches and models we can consider include: the
support activities involved, frequency of support, the extent to which training
for mentors/coaches is involved, and some specific mentoring/coaching styles.
The different spectra identified within each of these areas according to our 13
sources are outlined below.

Support activities
Support activities for mentoring and coaching include one-to-one meetings,
observations, school visits and group meetings. Some support activities are
remote, for example, telephone conversations (Allan, 2007; NIESR, 2005).
Whilst most support between mentor/coach and mentee/coachee is discursive,
the REFLECT co-mentoring programme employed innovative non-verbal
modes of communication to encourage reflection and new ways of thinking
(Renshaw, 2008).

Frequency of support
The frequency of allocated support sessions in the selected studies varies. For
example, a headteacher coaching pilot involved four initial coaching sessions
of 45–60 minutes each, with three additional sessions, for each coachee
(Allan, 2007). The Leading from the Middle (LftM) coaching programme
involved five Development Days and seven sessions where coach and
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 20

participants met both individually and in groups called ‘learning sets’

(Simkins et al., 2006). In mentoring, support also happens outside of formal
allocated sessions, including on an ongoing basis, for example, wider pastoral
support for initial trainee teachers (Child and Merrill, 2003).

The studies do not state how the amount or frequency of support or training
(see below) is devised or allocated. However, it would seem that mentoring
and coaching involving newly qualified staff requires a commitment to
providing ongoing support (e.g. for initial trainee teachers, Child and Merrill,
2003; and for childminders going through the registration process, NIESR,
2005).

Training for mentors/coaches

Examples of training for mentors/coaches include: training for support
childminders (NIESR, 2005); nine training days as part of the REFLECT
programme (Renshaw, 2008); and the provision of mentoring training from
local authorities as part of the DfES Early Professional Development (EPD)
scheme (Moor et al., 2005).

Case studies of individual schools also show the importance attached to

training in mentoring and coaching as part of schools’ CPD strategies. For
example, a school senior leadership team has been trained in coaching as part
of the Manchester Coaching Network (see Piper Hill High School, Case Study
in Cordingley, 2008), and ‘training in mentoring and coaching is enshrined in
staff development policy’ at Ladygrove Primary School (see Case Study in
Cordingley, 2008, p. 21). Training is discussed further in section 4.3.2 as part
of the effective features of mentoring and coaching.

Some specific mentoring/coaching styles

Table 2.1 provides some descriptions of specific mentoring and coaching
models noted in the literature. Different perceptions of the mentor role, and
effective features of the role, are explored in further detail in sections 4.3 and
4.4.
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 21

Table 2.1 Descriptions of specific mentoring and coaching models

Model Description Reference

Apprenticeship model Mentor acts as the master teacher, Child and Merrill
conveying the rules and values, to be (2003); Jones et
emulated. al. (2005)
Competence model Mentor relates training and assessment to Child and Merrill
practice. Mentors perform the role of (2003); Jones et
trainer, assessor and gatekeeper of the al. (2005)
profession.
Reflective model Mentor adopts the role of critical friend who Child and Merrill
assists in the evaluation of teaching, to (2003); Jones et
develop a reflective practitioner. al. (2005)
Mentor as model To inspire and to demonstrate. Hobson and
Sharp (2005)
Mentor as acculturator To help the mentee become accustomed to Hobson and
the particular professional culture. Sharp (2005)
Mentor as sponsor To open doors and introduce the mentee to Hobson and
the right people. Power and control is not Sharp (2005);
shared; the mentor has primary Robins (2006).
responsibility for managing the process.
Directive styles such as coaching and
guiding are used.
Mentor as provider of To provide the mentee with a safe place to Hobson and
support release emotions or let off steam. Sharp (2005)
Mentor as educator To listen, to coach and to create Hobson and
appropriate opportunities for the mentee’s Sharp (2005)
professional learning.
Development model Non-directive styles such as counselling Robins (2006)
and facilitating are used. Balance of formal
and informal arrangements. Personal and
professional change through reflection.

2.3.5 Three case examples

To illustrate the range of approaches to mentoring and/or coaching and the
types of activities involved, three different examples from the reviewed
literature are presented below.
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 22

Moor, H., Halsey, K., Jones, M., Martin, K., Stott, A., Brown, C. and Harland, J. (2005).
Professional Development for Teachers Early in Their Careers: an Evaluation of the Early
Professional Development Pilot Scheme (DfES Research Report 613). London: DfES
[online]. Available: http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR613.pdf [12
November, 2008].
Education
Same sector The Early Professional Development (EPD) scheme provided £700 per
term to support the professional development of second year teachers,
One-to-one and £350 per term in their third year. The scheme required a
commitment to mentoring – all EPD teachers had a mentor. Mentoring
Expert– support was generally one-to-one support, where a more experienced
novice mentor supported new teachers.

Activities Mentor activities included facilitating teachers’ involvement in EPD and

CPD (e.g. formulating EPD activity and spending plans, booking onto
courses). Practical support for teachers’ professional roles was also
given (e.g. discussion, lesson observation, classroom management,
lesson planning and assessment), as well as encouragement and
emotional support.

Frequency of Support generally involved occasional formal meetings (on average one
support or two per term) between the EPD teacher and their mentor, and more
frequent (ongoing) informal discussions and support.

Training for Training for mentors was offered by the LEA (and in some cases by their
mentors own school) to assist them in their role on the EPD scheme. The focus
of the training included guidance on the EPD scheme, mentor skills (e.g.
evaluation, feedback, observation), EPD paperwork, and mentor
knowledge (e.g. teaching advice, career planning).

National Institute for Economic and Social Research (NIESR) (2005). The Support
Childminder Pathfinder Scheme: Evaluation Report September 2003–November 2004
[online]. Available:
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/SurestartReportFR005.pdf [24 October
2008].
Early years (social care)
Same sector The support childminder scheme was developed to increase the support
available to prospective and new childminders, through ‘peer’ mentoring,
with the aim of increasing rates of recruitment and retention.

One-to-one Local authority staff coordinated support childminders, who in turn

mentored five to ten childminders on a one-to-one basis. Support
Expert– childminders received an annual bursary of £500. Support childminders
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 23

novice were usually more experienced, supporting new or existing childminders.

Activities Support activities included telephone and face-to-face meetings,

providing information (e.g. on business matters) and referring to
appropriate agencies. Through the scheme, childminders were
supported through the registration process and for up to a year after
registration.

Training for Support childminders received training in business and legislation

support matters, making referrals, child protection, and on issues of
childminders confidentiality.

Hafford-Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., Begum, N. and Chick, N.F. (2007). ‘Coach mentoring
as a developmental tool in the workplace.’ In: Hafford-Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., Begum,
N. and Chick, N.F. (Eds) Leadership and Management in Social Care. London: Sage.
Social care and cross sector
The chapter describes an interagency model to coach mentoring
(ICMS). The ICMS pilot was launched in a London borough in 2002,
involving three organisations, to provide cross-sector coaching and
Cross sector mentoring to a cohort of aspiring managers. The scheme was re-
launched in 2004 with the objectives to:
 support staff in professional development and welfare
 encourage interagency partnership and best practice
 enable learning and create a learning organisation
 provide opportunities to develop a different perspective

Over time, the partnership has grown to include nine business partners,
three local authorities, three National Health Service Trusts, one private
and voluntary agency, a university and a consultancy group. The group
One-to-one of mentors and learners grew from nine coach mentors to 40, and 19
learners to 90 learners.

Peer-to-peer The scheme uses peer mentoring: ‘Peer group mentoring can be
successfully utilized as a blended learning method in an adult learning
programme’ (p.170). The coaching and mentoring sessions are
reciprocal, and free to the user at the point of delivery. ‘Blended
Activities learning’ resources include: an open learning pack, a coach mentors’
network, an online discussion forum, and a newsletter.

Training for The scheme has a steering group which is responsible for development
coach and coordination, recruitment, training, supervision of coach mentors,
mentors and matching of coach mentors and learners. The steering group is
coordinated by a volunteer coordinator. The scheme has quality
assurance measures in place to monitor and evaluate the mentoring
relationships and the learning outcomes.
Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 24

Agencies

Housing

Agencies Agencies
ICMS
Education Steering Social care
and learning group
Research
Coordination
Recruitment
Matching
Learning
Resources
Supervision
Evaluation

Agencies Agencies

Voluntary Health
sector

Model of an interagency mentoring scheme. Cited in Hafford-

Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., Begum, N. and Chick, N.F. (2008),
p.179, Figure 8.1.

Reproduced by permission of SAGE Publications, London, Los Angeles,

New Delhi and Singapore, from Hafford-Letchfield, T., Leonard, K.,

Begum, N. and Chick, N.F. Leadership and Management in Social Care.

(Copyright © London: SAGE, 2008).

 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 25

2.4 Variations in approach by intervention

Whilst explicit reasons for adopting a particular approach are not necessarily
advanced in these studies, the context of the intervention is clearly important
and specific models may be suitable for certain purposes. Some examples are
suggested below.

 The ‘leadership focus’ of Leading from the Middle (LftM) (reported in

Simkins et al., 2006) is intended to address aspects of school
development, as well as key personal leadership skills and qualities.
Thus, the coaching approach adopted includes, for example, sessions
where coaches can support their schools’ development through group
work, one-to-one sessions between the LftM teacher and their tutor, and
work in learning sets for peer support between LftM teachers. The LftM
support comes from within the education sector.
 In contrast, the headteacher pilot coaching programme reported in Allan
(2007) had the express purpose of providing leadership support for heads
through the use of a skilled coach who was external to the education
system. The aim was to explore whether this approach provides a safe and
confidential way of enabling school leaders to review their personal and
professional objectives.
 The group work and peer support approach adopted in work discussion
groups for social care professionals (reported in Warman and Jackson,
2007) is possibly a response to the challenges in providing on-going one-
to-one supervisory relationships from more experienced staff. The
authors state that high staff mobility, increased workload pressures for
permanent and more experienced staff, and the lack of an appropriate mix
of less and more experienced staff, means it is difficult to provide
individual practice tutor support for students and newly qualified team
members.
 Key to the one-to-one, peer mentoring approach adopted in the REFLECT
programme (reported in Renshaw, 2008) is that it is cross sector. The
initiative is set within the context of Creative Partnerships. The mentoring
approach is about strengthening the quality of partnership and
collaborative practice, which is central to the Government’s creativity
agenda. The co-mentoring approach (which is peer-to-peer, rather than
‘expert–novice’) would seem to be important to the programme’s
underlying principle of setting a shared agenda and developing creative
practice at the heart of both parties’ organisations.

2.5 Variations by sector and by context

In section 2 we have set out the range of definitions, approaches and models
relating to mentoring and coaching identified in the literature. Apart from
 Mentoring and coaching: definitions, approaches and models 26

terminology around ‘supervision’ within social care, other variations in

approaches and models by sector are not especially apparent. Rather,
variations in approaches and models appear to be intervention and context
specific. This is important, as it links with suggestions raised by researchers
that there is a two-way interaction between context and outcomes: coaching or
mentoring interacts with the wider process of action learning/organisational
change, and the organisational context influences the coaching or mentoring
process (Simkins et al., 2006). Ethos and ‘definitions’ of mentoring and
coaching will have an impact on the type of coaching or mentoring adopted.
‘Mentoring and coaching help to transfer learning within an organisation’
(McDonnell and Zutshi, 2006a), therefore this will have an impact on the
organisation’s culture. Thus, the fit, or otherwise, of the definitions,
approaches and models adopted with the culture into which they are applied,
could affect impact.

Section 3 explores the range of impacts from mentoring and coaching for
participants and their organisations.
 Mentoring and coaching: impacts 27

3 Mentoring and coaching: impacts

3.1 Summary and key findings
Diagram 2 shows the range of impacts identified in the research studied here
for mentees/coachees, mentors/coaches and for organisations (e.g. schools,
social care organisations).

 Increased reflectivity is evident for mentees/coachees, mentors/coaches

and for organisations, as is the sharing of improved knowledge and
skills, and commitment to and a culture of professional development.
This may have important synergies with performance management and
professional standards for teachers.
 Cross-sector and group working approaches to mentoring and coaching
seem to have the potential to inflate some of these impacts to another level,
for example, the cross fertilisation of learning in an interagency coaching
and mentoring scheme, and wider impacts on relationships and sharing of
practice through work discussion groups.
 Impacts for mentors and coaches seem stronger for those professionals
new to the role of mentor or coach or new to a particular context. Given
that training was part of this new role, it is reasonable to suggest that this
has an effect on the extent and nature of impacts gained by mentors and
coaches. That is, trained mentors gain greater impact themselves.
 Impacts on an organisations’ culture are the most widely reported
organisational impacts. An array of cultures and ethos are engendered by
mentoring and coaching, the three most common being: a
research/learning culture, a reflective culture, and a collaborative
culture. Both expert–novice and peer-to-peer approaches contribute to
these.
 Organisational impacts vary somewhat by sector.
 In schools, impacts include a culture of professionalism (in terms of a
recognition of professional and career development), not noted within
the studies on social care (where professionalism and recognition are
perhaps already entrenched within existing modes of clinical
supervision).
 Enhanced knowledge and skills are shared within educational
organisations. Again, this is not noted in the social care examples. As
found in a recent study, regular staff meetings in schools provide a
useful forum for such sharing.
 The positive impact of mentoring and coaching on recruitment and
retention relates to the social care sector in the literature studied here.
This may be an important finding for social care, and indeed for
education, given widely reported recruitment and retention issues
within both these sectors.
 Evidence of direct impact on young people from mentoring and
coaching within their organisation is rare. However, reports from
 Mentoring and coaching: impacts 28

researchers and teachers suggest that a culture of mentoring and coaching

will, over time, have an impact on young people and their learning.

In this section, we set out the impacts of mentoring and coaching, according to
the selected studies, for:

 mentees/coachees (section 3.2)

 mentors/coaches (section 3.3)
 organisations (e.g. schools, social care organisations) (section 3.4)
 young people (e.g. pupils) (section 3.5).
 Mentoring and coaching: impacts 27

Diagram 2 Impacts from mentoring and coaching2

Impacts for Impacts for

mentees/coachees + impact for organisations
mentors/coaches

Reflectivity & Organisations’

thinking skills + impact for culture (see detail
mentors/coaches in Diagram 3)

Psychological
wellbeing &
confidence + impact for Leadership
mentors/coaches

Problem-solving
& creativity + impact for Professional &
mentors/coaches career
development
Knowledge, skills
& practice
+ impact for
mentors/coaches
External links

Sharing practice
& contribution to
organisation + impact for
mentors/coaches Knowledge &
skills shared
Communication
& relationships

Recruitment &
Professional & retention
career
development + impact for
mentors/coaches
Policies,
Self-management systems &
& self-learning processes

2
The impact categories shown in Diagram 2 arise from the evidence in the reviewed sources. Impacts for mentors and
coaches cover similar areas to those for mentees and coachees. In the sources we reviewed however, there was no
specific evidence for impact on mentors/coaches communication skills or self-management skills, although such
impacts might reasonably occur.
 Mentoring and coaching: impacts 27

Diagram 3 Impacts for organisations’ culture: detail

Impacts on organisations’
culture break down into seven
areas

Learning
culture

Reflective
culture

Collaborative
culture

Culture of
professionalism
and recognition

Aspirational
culture

Pastoral
culture

Coaching and
mentoring
culture
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 31

3.2 Impacts for mentees and coachees

Impacts for mentees and coachees fall into the following eight categories,
presented in order of frequency according to the studies reviewed here.

 Increased reflectivity and clarity of thinking: Examples include

increased opportunity to reflect on a new or specific role, for example,
headteaching (Allan, 2007; Hobson and Sharp, 2005), where participants
now arrive at a considered rather than a precipitate action. Reflection,
dialogue and shared activities for teachers and creative professionals
involved in co-mentoring (Renshaw, 2008) have enabled them to ‘shift
their ways of seeing’ and have enriched their thinking. Work discussion
groups for social care workers are said to promote the development of
reflective practice (Warman and Jackson, 2007).
 Improved psychological wellbeing and confidence: Examples include
reduced work-related stress through work discussion groups (Warman and
Jackson, 2007), reduced feelings of isolation for coached headteachers
who particularly appreciate mentors who provide emotional support and
reassurance (Hobson and Sharp, 2005), and increased confidence for
mentored teachers early in their careers (Moor et al., 2005). Feeling
confident in their new professional identity and leaving behind previous
roles seems to be an important outcome for coached headteachers (Hobson
and Sharp, 2007). An example of cross-sector working takes these impacts
further, to include empowerment and being less anxious about revealing
areas of weakness (because of the trusting and confidential environment
that cross-sector working allows) (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007).
Headteachers with an external coach were also able to openly discuss
problems and challenges (Allan, 2007).
 Better problem-solving skills (including decision-making and in some
cases creativity and innovation): Examples include developed problem
analysis for headteachers (Allan, 2007; Hobson and Sharp, 2005), coached
headteachers being able to deal better with difficult, challenging and
highly sensitive situations (Allan, 2007), and finding solutions and more
effective decision-making by social care professionals (Warman and
Jackson, 2007). Linking back to reflectivity, ‘asking fundamental
questions’ led to personal growth, creativity and innovation for
participants in the REFLECT programme (Renshaw, 2008).
 Gains in practitioner knowledge and skills (leading in some cases to
changes in an individual’s practice): Examples include classroom
management skills for mentored early career teachers (Moor et al., 2005),
leadership skills for headteachers (Hobson and Sharp, 2005), and,
specifically for social workers, a deeper understanding of the client-worker
relationship and the impact clients can have on social workers (Warman
and Jackson, 2007). Where mentoring and coaching are perceived as
‘long-term professional development strategies’, changes in practice are
also evident (Boyle et al., 2005; Moor et al., 2005; Renshaw, 2008).
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 32

 Improved sharing of practice: This includes the ability to contribute to

the school community by early career teachers (Moor et al., 2005) – here,
mentees felt that ‘EPD had considerably affected their ability to contribute
to their colleagues and the school. Mentors ... concurred that EPD had had
a considerable effect on their mentees’ contribution to school life’ (p.iv).
As a result of being coached, headteachers have developed coaching for
use with their senior leadership teams (Allan, 2007). Going beyond
organisational boundaries, sharing and ‘cross fertilisation’ of learning is
evident in an example of cross-sector coaching and mentoring (Hafford-
Letchfield et al., 2007). According to Warman and Jackson (2007),
improvements in sharing of practice seem enhanced by a group approach
to peer support – ‘since work discussion groups involve several
practitioners working together over time, the capacity for peer consultation
between colleagues develops not only within the group but also outside of
the work discussion groups too’ (p. 44).
 Better communication and relationships: Examples include coached
headteachers having greater capacity to empower their staff through
improved relationships (Allan, 2007), improved personal communication
skills (Hobson and Sharp, 2006), and developed relationships with clients
as well as with peers through work discussion groups (Warman and
Jackson, 2007).
 More positive attitudes towards professional and career development:
This includes teachers’ recognition of their own professional development
needs (Moor et al., 2005), headteachers’ greater commitment to
professional development (Allan, 2007), and in some cases contributing to
career development and new roles (Moor et al., 2005).
 Self-management and self-learning skills: This includes self-regulation
by headteachers in writing action plans, using self-imposed deadlines, and
having an inner sense of accountability (Allan, 2007), being encouraged
towards self-learning through co-mentoring (Renshaw, 2008), and greater
self-awareness of one’s own abilities (Allan, 2007).

Differences in the types of impacts gained by mentees and coachees are more
subtle than simply by sector or by mentoring/coaching approach (e.g. one-to-
one, group, etc). For example, increased reflectivity occurs through peer-to-
peer and expert–novice approaches, as well as through one-to-one and group
approaches. However, cross-sector working does seem to have the potential to
inflate impacts to another level, for example, the cross fertilisation of learning
in an interagency coaching and mentoring scheme (Hafford-Letchfield et al.,
2007) and developing creativity and innovation through cross-sector co-
mentoring (Renshaw, 2008). Likewise, group working, as opposed to one-to-
one approaches, provides a wider route to impacts on relationships and sharing
of practice, as suggested in Warman and Jackson (2007).
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 33

Other impacts are context or participant specific – for example, the self-
management skills gained by headteacher coachees in Allan (2007), skills
required by such professionals, and interestingly, gained from expert
management coaches.

3.3 Impacts for mentors and coaches

Impacts for mentors and coaches fall into six categories, very similar to most
of those for mentees and coachees. The categories are presented in order of
frequency according to the studies reviewed here.

 Gains in knowledge and skills: Examples include coaching skills

(Simkins et al., 2006), greater knowledge of approaches to leadership and
current headship practice (Hobson and Sharp, 2005), greater understanding
of childminding including, for example, child protection and legal issues
(NIESR, 2005), and better management skills through an early years
mentoring programme in Robins (2006).
 Improved psychological wellbeing and confidence: This particularly
includes satisfaction from undertaking the role (Moor et al., 2005; NIESR,
2005), as well as improved self-esteem (Hobson and Sharp, 2005) and
improved morale and wellbeing (Moor et al., 2005). For support
childminders, there was a reduced feeling of isolation as they were able to
meet and support other childminders (NIESR, 2005).
 Increased reflectivity: There is strong evidence for this in a survey of 55
trainee teacher mentors, where ‘without exception, every single
professional mentor identified ITT as a profound source of practitioner
[mentor] reflection: in fact, they acknowledged that it encouraged
reflection’ (Child and Merrill, 2003, p. 321). There is also evidence for
increased reflectivity in cross-sector coaching, for example, where
employees (both coach and coachee) are engaged in reflecting on their
learning (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007).
 Professional and career development: This includes enhancement of
own professional development, greater willingness to undertake
professional development, and better knowledge of other teachers’
professional development needs (Moor et al., 2005). Other studies have
not necessarily explored specific attitudes and willingness to undertake
professional development as outcomes for mentors/coaches.
 Better problem-solving skills: These are cited as a benefit for mentors
carrying out headteacher mentoring support (Hobson and Sharp, 2005).
 Improved sharing of practice: For example, by support childminders,
who welcomed the opportunity to learn and develop their own practice
through mentoring qualifying childminders, as well to share their
experience with newer staff (NIESR, 2005).
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 34

Again, differences by sector or by mentoring/coaching approach are not

obvious. Rather, impact for mentors and coaches seems stronger both in terms
of skills gained and personal satisfaction for those professionals new to the
role of mentor or coach (as in the support childminders), or new to a particular
context (as in the EPD scheme). It is notable that in most of the cases
highlighted above, training for the mentoring/coaching role was part of the
activity. It is reasonable to suggest that training in the role has an effect on the
extent and nature of impacts gained by mentors and coaches (see section 4.3.2
for further discussion on training as an effective feature of mentoring and
coaching).

3.4 Impacts for organisations (schools and social care

organisations)
Impacts for schools and organisations involved in mentoring and coaching fall
into seven main categories, the first of which, impacts on organisations’
culture, breaks down into an array of areas (as shown in Diagram 3).

 Impacts on organisations’ culture were the most widely reported

organisational impacts. The cultures and ethos’ engendered by mentoring
and coaching include:
 a research and learning culture – including through mentoring
trainee teachers (Child and Merrill, 2003), work-based and action
learning (in Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007), and creating a ‘holistic
learning environment’ (Renshaw, 2008)
 a reflective culture – particularly engendered in the cross-sector
examples studied here (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007; Warman and
Jackson, 2007), and directly contributed to through coached
headteachers bringing this into the school as part of a new leadership
approach (Allan, 2007)
 a collaborative culture – building a sense of community and
relationships in a longitudinal study of teacher change (Boyle et al.,
2005), contributing to greater peer consultation amongst social care
professionals (Warman and Jackson, 2007), and encouraging team
work and staff involvement (Robins, 2006)
 increased sense of professionalism and a culture of recognition
around professional and career development – particularly amongst
teachers in relation to what they see as long-term professional
development activity including mentoring and coaching (Boyle et al.,
2005; Child and Merrill, 2003) (interestingly, this impact is not noted
in the studies on social care; it may be that professionalism and
recognition is more apparent through existing modes of clinical
supervision in this field)
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 35

 a culture of high aspirations and vitality – especially through

working with particular target professional groups, for example,
mentoring initial trainee teachers in the school (Child and Merrill,
2003), and coaching aspiring managers from black and minority ethnic
professionals and other minority groups in a pilot interagency coaching
and mentoring scheme (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007)
 a pastoral culture – evident in relation to schools in these studies, in
terms of both a pastoral culture for staff (Moor et al., 2005; Child and
Merrill, 2003) and for pupils (Moor et al., 2005)
 a coaching and mentoring culture – directly mentioned as an impact
on the organisations’ culture in one source (Allan, 2007), although
clearly coaching and mentoring continues as a practice in the
organisations involved in many of these studies. A coaching and
mentoring culture perhaps actually encompasses all of the other
cultures mentioned above.

A major benefit for schools involved in initial teacher training is the

transferability of mentoring skills to other aspects of school’s life and
work. A school staff enriched by the experience of mentoring, and
managed by those with high order mentoring skills was likely to
achieve change and improvement more readily because there would be
a culture of recognition, a mature approach to the analysis of
strengths and weaknesses, and collaborative cultures ... (Child and
Merrill, 2003, p. 321).

 Impacts on organisation leadership: Particularly improved school

leadership through headteachers’ new leadership skills (Allan, 2007;
Hobson and Sharp, 2005), as well as examples of creative leadership in
both education and creative and cultural organisations (Renshaw, 2008),
changes to management structures (Moor et al., 2005), and supporting
teams through change and supporting succession planning (Hafford-
Letchfield et al., 2007).
 Improved professional and career development: Examples include the
general growth of professional development within the setting (e.g.
schools, in Moor et al., 2005), as well as the specific development of
mentoring and coaching programmes within the setting or sector (e.g.
building on REFLECT, some schools are developing their own co-
mentoring programmes, Renshaw, 2008). Other impacts include providing
shadowing and secondment placements, and developing future leaders
(Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007), and increases in opportunities for
training such as that for all staff in child observation techniques (in
Robins, 2006) and increased take up of training by childminders (NIESR,
2005).
 Greater external links (i.e. impacts linking to other organisations and
between organisations): Examples include greater cross-fertilization of
ideas and understanding between social care, health and other sectors
(Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007), better links between schools and Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) through trainee teacher mentoring (Child and
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 36

Merrill, 2003), improved communication between childminders and other

related employer stakeholders (NIESR, 2005), and greater cross-sector
links and networks related to co-mentoring across sectors (Renshaw,
2008). In addition, increased parental involvement with early childhood
education settings is noted in Robins (2006).
 Enhanced knowledge and skills shared within the organisation: This
relates especially to organisation leaders having up-to-date knowledge of
relevant practice, either through having been mentors/mentees themselves
(e.g. headteachers in Allan, 2007), or through their staff feeding this back
to other personnel in the organisation (Robins, 2006; Moor et al., 2005).
 Recruitment and retention of personnel (linked with professional and
career development): Systematic mentoring and coaching within the social
care sector has been reported to impact on recruitment and retention. On
the support childminder scheme in particular, logistical support (for
example with fees, in translating documents into other languages, and
organising coffee mornings for childminders and job-seekers to meet
informally) is thought to have contributed to prevention of drop-out before
registration and to the recruitment of new childminders (NIESR, 2005).
For staff involved in work discussion groups, job absence and insecurities
were improved. In outreach projects to secondary schools run by the
Tavistock Clinic/Brent Centre for Young People’s, evidence from staff
attending the work discussion groups in one school showed that they had a
significantly lower rate of absence due to illness than the staff group as a
whole over a three year period (Warman and Jackson, 2007, p. 45). The
sense of ‘relief not to be alone’ in struggling with an issue, and,
furthermore to feel ‘much more positive about their work’ is reported as
supporting this absence record.
 Improved organisation policies, systems and processes: This is
particularly in relation to planning, assessment and record-keeping – both
examples relate to education, in the early years (Robins, 2006) and for
early careers teachers in schools (Moor et al., 2005).

A number of the impact areas discussed above link implicitly with the new
professionalism in teaching. A commitment to recognising professional and
career development, for example, suggests that there may be important
synergies to be made with performance management and professional
standards. Likewise, the research culture that is engendered, as well improved
assessment procedures, may support the evaluation of impact – a key activity
now expected of schools and part of school improvement.

Organisational impacts do seem to vary somewhat by sector. A culture of

professionalism (in terms of recognition of professional and career
development) can be generated by mentoring and coaching within schools, but
this is not noted within the studies here on the social care sector. As noted
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 37

above, professionalism and recognition are perhaps already entrenched within

existing modes of clinical supervision in this field. Again, enhanced
knowledge and skills shared within the organisation occurs in schools and
early years settings in these studies, but is not noted in the social care
examples. Perhaps regular staff meetings in schools provide a useful forum for
such sharing (a recent study by NFER for Creative Partnerships found that
staff meetings in schools were amongst the most frequent and useful ways of
‘cascading’ new knowledge, learning and practice within schools, Downing et
al., 2007). On the other hand, the impact of mentoring and coaching on
recruitment and retention relates to professionals in the social care sector
(according to the literature studied here). However, this may be an important
finding for both social care and education, given widely reported recruitment
and retention issues within both these sectors.

3.5 Impacts for young people

Evidence for impacts on young people as a result of mentoring and coaching
within their organisation (e.g. school, residential setting, clinical setting) is
rare, and, where reported, is generally perceptual or linked to descriptions
from teachers of new teaching and learning styles (rather than from the young
people themselves). As Cordingley (2008) states of collaborative learning and
professional development more broadly: ‘... each learning benefit experienced
by a teacher is immediately fed back into learning benefits for pupils – and
vice versa’ (p. 32). Likewise, Hobson and Sharp’s (2005) review on mentoring
for new headteachers, points towards school improvement outcomes (and
hence, implicitly, improved outcomes for pupils) through mentored
headteachers’ new management and leadership skills. But perceptions from
the young people themselves are not included.

In the EPD scheme, both teachers and mentors rated enhanced pupil learning
as the top ranked outcome of EPD: ‘ ... the majority of teachers believed that
the effects they enjoyed were being passed on to their pupils, and
enhancements to pupils’ learning registered the highest degree of effect, over
and above every other impact’ (Moor et al., 2005, p. v).

From co-mentoring between teachers and creative or cultural professionals,

teachers report strengthened creative and reflective learning with their school
curricula (Renshaw, 2008). Such new or changed curricula are also
described by teachers as putting creative practice back into their work with
 Mentoring and coaching impacts 38

young people. Again, impacts on young people are implicit, but not explicit, in
such evidence.

With so much other professional development occurring in schools, as well as

other initiatives, it is probably not sensible to try to tease out the precise
impacts of teachers’ mentoring and coaching on pupils. However, exploring
the impacts of mentoring and coaching between adults and young people,
older pupils and younger pupils, or in peer-mentoring schemes, might prove
useful in understanding the full range of impacts gained from mentoring and
coaching. For example, the extent to which these activities also contribute to
collaborative learning cultures within schools, and motivation for self-
learning, could have interesting ramifications. Certainly, peer mentoring
amongst young people is frequently promoted on local authority websites (see
section 5), and with the current Every Child Matters agenda is an increasing
activity within schools and wider children’s services.
 Challenges and effectiveness 39

4 Challenges and effectiveness

4.1 Summary and key findings
This chapter focuses on the challenges associated with mentoring and
coaching, together with the effective elements as identified by the literature.

 The main challenges centre around time and workload pressures and the
demanding requirements of the mentor or coach role. Challenges
concerned with understanding and expectations, gaining the commitment
of the workforce, the profile of the workforce and the workplace culture
are also identified. Potential conflict between adviser and assessor roles is
highlighted.
 Whilst many of the overarching challenges appear to be issues regardless
of the type of mentoring and coaching or the sector involved, there is an
indication from the sources examined that understanding of mentoring
and coaching may be more limited within the education sector.
 Different challenges relating to workplace culture are noted for education
and social care. Whilst the structure of the school environment can
promote a culture of isolation for teaching professionals, the unsettled and
turbulent environment within social care can be problematic.
 Effective aspects of the organisation and management of mentoring and
coaching include: providing sufficient time, providing training and support
for mentors/coaches, establishing quality assurance and monitoring
systems, paying attention to the recruitment and allocation of
mentors/coaches, having a clear focus and understanding of
mentoring/coaching, and organisational culture and strategic planning.
 Whilst many of the effective features appear to apply regardless of the type
of mentoring and coaching or the sector involved, there is a suggestion that
organisational support and strategic planning may be particularly
important for the effectiveness of mentoring and coaching schemes in
schools.
 The mentoring or coaching relationship is critical for effectiveness. Key
aspects include the promotion of reflective practice and development of a
reciprocal collaborative learning relationship. It can be beneficial for the
mentor to be independent or even from a different sector.
 A wide range of qualities and skills are important for the effectiveness of
the mentor or coach. It is considered critical that the mentor/coach is
knowledgeable, experienced and a successful practitioner. Important
qualities include: trust, respect, approachability, empathy, flexibility and
self-awareness. Important skills include: listening skills, communication
skills and interpersonal skills.
 Challenges and effectiveness 40

4.2 Challenges of mentoring and coaching

The challenges associated with mentoring and coaching identified within the
literature fall into six main areas (in rank order):

 time and workload pressures

 the requirements of the mentor/coach role
 understanding and expectations
 gaining the commitment of the workforce
 the profile of the workforce
 workplace culture.

A summary of the key challenges is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Summary of the challenges associated with mentoring and

coaching

Time and workload pressures

 sufficient time for knowledge and skills to be consolidated and shared
 manageability of the mentor/coach role: the need for time management skills
 unrealistic demands in terms of time
 reluctance of staff to take on a supervisory role

The requirements of the mentor/coach role

 giving appropriate feedback
 ensuring positive support and challenge
 evolution of the mentor/mentee relationship over time
 the skills and training required

Understanding and expectations

 potential for tensions and conflicting roles
 varying perceptions of the mentor role
 ensuring clarity, relevance and shared understandings

Gaining the commitment of the workforce

 lack of motivation and commitment
 reluctance of mentees to participate
 supporting those who do not appear to need help

The profile of the workforce

 mix of more and less experienced workers
 lack of permanent staff
 high staff mobility creates difficulties for ongoing relationship
 Challenges and effectiveness 41

 gender balance can affect the mentoring style

 ethnic and cross-racial mentoring

Workplace culture
 a culture of isolation
 an unsettled and turbulent environment
 the balance between informal and formal practice

4.2.1 Time and workload pressures

Seven sources identify challenges in relation to mentoring and coaching which
are associated with the time availability of staff, the contact time required and
their workload pressures. Time and workload pressures appear to be a
challenge regardless of the type of mentoring or coaching or the sector
involved.

 Time for knowledge and skills to be consolidated and shared: Schools

generally fail to allow enough time to support effective professional
development and to ensure that acquired knowledge and skills are
consolidated, implemented and shared with other teachers (Boyle et al.,
2005). When there is little time available, there is a danger that supervision
becomes concerned with ‘a narrow version of performance management’
(Warman and Jackson, 2007).
 Manageability of the mentor/coach role: In a report on the early findings
from the DfES Early Professional Development pilot scheme the
manageability of the role of mentor was said to be a central issue, with
seven out of ten mentors reporting experiencing some degree of difficulty
with the time or workload involved in undertaking the role (Moor et al.,
2005). Simkins et al. (2006), reporting on the Leading from the Middle
approach to coaching, identify the need for effective time management
skills as one of its three major challenges.
 Unrealistic demand in terms of time: Simkins et al. (2006) highlight that
three-quarters of participants met with their coach less than five times
(rather than the ideal seven times) and about half said they found the
programme guidance on how often to meet unrealistic in terms of the time
demands. Similarly, Hobson and Sharp (2005) identify finding sufficient
time to take part in the mentoring process as a major challenge facing
practitioners.
 Reluctance of staff to take on a supervisory role: With increased
workload pressures, permanent social care staff are reported to be less
willing to take on a supervisory role (Warman and Jackson, 2007).
 Challenges and effectiveness 42

4.2.2 The requirements of the mentor/coach role

Six sources cite factors to do with the requirements of the role of mentor or
coach as being a challenge. The demands of the role appear to be a challenge
regardless of the type of mentoring or coaching or the sector involved.

 Giving appropriate feedback: One of the most critical issues affecting

mentoring practice is reported to be to do with the mentor’s confidence in
undertaking the role (Robins, 2006). The mentor faces challenges in
relation to giving feedback which enables mentees to reflect on their job
role, whilst, at the same time, taking into account the personal features of
the mentee.
 Ensuring positive support and challenge: One of the three major
challenges associated with the Leading from the Middle approach to
coaching is developing the coach’s own attitudes and behaviours to ensure
that these positively support and challenge participants (Simkins et al.,
2006).
 Evolution of the mentor/mentee relationship over time: The mentor-
mentee relationship is said to be a dynamic relationship which evolves
over time as the relationship matures and as both the mentor’s and the
mentee’s experience and expertise develop (Hobson and Sharp, 2005). The
needs of childminders are reported to vary according to the stages they are
at, for example, they require different forms of support before and after
registration, thereby making varying demands of support childminders
(NIESR, 2005).
 The skills and training required: Warman and Jackson (2007) refer to
the ‘worrying’ lack of training or preparation for line managers who are
expected to take on a supervisory role and who may struggle with this
responsibility. The need for support childminders to have some knowledge
of support skills derived from counselling approaches is raised (NIESR,
2005). Similarly, Child and Merrill (2003) state that there is an urgent need
for the HEIs as senior partners and as quality assurance managers in initial
teacher training to offer their participating teacher mentors a more
sophisticated support package (see section 4.3.2 where training is
advocated as one of the effective features).

4.2.3 Understanding and expectations

Four sources highlight that gaining a shared understanding of
mentoring/coaching and its expectations is likely to be a challenge for its
implementation. All of the sources identifying this as an issue, bar one (which
referred to supervision), relate to the education sector, suggesting that
understanding of mentoring and coaching may be more limited within this
sector (this may be because it is a newer or more challenging concept for
educational professionals).
 Challenges and effectiveness 43

 Potential for tension and conflicting roles: According to Simkins et al.

(2006), there can be a mismatch between coaches’ and participants’ views
of the impact of coaching and a potential conflict between the expectations
of a non-hierarchical approach to coaching and the power inequalities
within schools. They stress the need to establish shared understandings of
the focus and purpose of the coaching process otherwise this can lead to
role ambiguity. They note that this can be more difficult when the
ownership of the process is shared between an external agent – the
programme – and the school. In addition, the standard assessment
frameworks within which the training of some professions (e.g. teachers,
nurses) is located requires mentors to exercise the role of assessor, which
is potentially problematic in terms of conflicting loyalties (Jones et al.,
2005).
 Varying perceptions of the mentor/coach role: Perceptions of the
mentor/coach role can vary across professionals (Jones et al., 2005).
Whilst teachers perceive their mentor role predominantly as an advisory
one, nurse mentors stress the importance of acting as a model, teacher and
supporter, and midwife mentors associate themselves more with the
process of facilitation and teaching.
 Ensuring clarity, relevance and understanding: Cordingley (2008)
states that the strategic use of coaching depends on the clarity and
relevance of the coaching focus. Cordingley goes on to say that the
challenges of introducing coaching can sometimes mean that the process
appears to be an end in itself and that it is only when coaching is fully
understood that its true strategic potential is realised.

4.2.4 Gaining the commitment of the workforce

Four sources refer to issues to do with gaining the commitment of the
workforce or the potential reluctance of mentees to participate as challenges.
This appears to be a challenge regardless of the type of mentoring or coaching
or the sector involved.

 Lack of motivation and commitment: The motivation of the mentor and

the mentee are said to be critical issues which influence mentor practice
(Robins, 2006). Some coaches involved in school-based coaching as part
of Leading from the Middle may not have been sufficiently committed
(Simkins et al., 2006).
 Reluctance of mentees to participate: Warman and Jackson (2007),
referring specifically to group supervision, state that those who feel
instructed to attend by managers are more likely to resist the process and
to perceive the instruction as to do with implicit criticism or concerns
about performance.
 Challenges and effectiveness 44

 Supporting those who do not appear to need help: Support

childminders, although reporting few difficulties with the support
childminder role, experienced problems trying to support people who did
not appear to need their help (NIESR, 2005).

4.2.5 The profile of the workforce

Four sources identify issues to do with the profile of the workforce which can
create challenges for those implementing mentoring and coaching. These
include sources from across sectors and involving different types of mentoring
and coaching. Six specific issues are raised:

 the need for an appropriate mix of more and less experienced workers in
order to support newly qualified workers (Warman and Jackson, 2007)
 the need for an appropriate mix of specialist and co-coaching skills to
support the strategic use of coaching (Cordingley, 2008)
 inability to recruit permanent social work staff and reliance on short-term
agency workers (Warman and Jackson, 2007)
 high staff mobility making it difficult to establish ongoing supervisory
relationships (Warman and Jackson, 2007)
 the influence of gender balance on the mentoring style (Robins, 2006)
 difficulties in ethnic and cross-racial mentoring relationships in
predominantly white organisations (Jones et al., 2005).

4.2.6 Workplace culture

Four sources identify issues to do with the culture of the workplace which can
create challenges for mentoring and coaching. These include sources from
across sectors and involving different types of mentoring and coaching.

 A culture of isolation: The workplace culture, including relationships,

hierarchies, the ethos, staff morale and team dynamics, are critical issues
influencing mentor practice (Robins, 2006). When comparing the use of
mentoring in education and health, Jones et al. (2005) note that the
structure of the school environment often promotes a culture of isolation
that can be pervasive in the teaching professionals.
 An unsettled and turbulent environment: Warman and Jackson (2007),
referring to the social work environment, state that the unsettled culture
and turbulent environment contributes to low staff morale and that, in
relation to the requirements for supervision, managing the tension between
needs and resources can be a challenge.
 Challenges and effectiveness 45

 The balance between informal and formal practice: One of the

challenges for establishing and maintaining coaching identified by Simkins
et al. (2006) includes the need for coaching to occur within a context
where it is seen as an active rather than a passive process, although an
informal coaching relationship may be more likely to achieve positive
outcomes.

4.3 Effectiveness: organisation and management

The literature identifies two key aspects to effective mentoring and coaching,
these include:

 the things that need to be in place for an effective mentoring/coaching

scheme, i.e. to do with organisation and management (section 4.3)
 the quality of the mentoring/coaching relationship and the qualities, skills
or characteristics of the mentor/coach (section 4.4).

The key elements of effective coaching and mentoring identified within the
literature with regard to organisation and management include (in rank
order):

 providing sufficient time

 training and support for mentors/coaches
 monitoring and quality assurance
 recruitment and allocation of mentors and coaches
 a clear focus and understanding
 organisational culture and strategic planning.

A summary of the key factors for the effectiveness of mentoring and coaching
is provided in Table 4.2.
 Challenges and effectiveness 46

Table 4.2 Summary of the key factors for effectiveness of mentoring and
coaching

ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT

Providing sufficient time
 Time for activities and for meaningful change in the classroom
 Provision of long term activities
 Provision of space as well as time
 Finding the time for regular, structured meetings
 Dedicated time and timetabled activities
 Non-contact time for mentors and mentees

Training and support for mentors or coaches

 Provision of training and informal support
 Reduces manageability issues and amplifies positive outcomes
 Sustains effective relationships
 The skills and qualities required

Monitoring and quality assurance

 Improved quality and effectiveness
 A common vehicle for recording and assessing development
 Creating a portfolio of evidence
 Writing action plans and reporting on progress
 Incorporation of review and evaluation into the learning contract

Recruitment and allocation of mentors and coaches

 Use of personal approaches for recruitment
 Publicise the benefits of being a mentor/coach
 Systems for the effective selection of mentors
 Matching of mentors/coaches with mentees/coaches
 Teacher involvement in the selection of their mentors
A clear focus and understanding
 Clarity of focus, aims and objectives
 Development of a learning contact
 A clear structure for the programme/scheme
 Clarity of processes and procedures
 Clarity in defining the mentor role
Organisational culture and strategic planning
 Promotion of a learning culture and community
 Fostering collaboration as part of the school culture
 Location within an overall strategic approach to CPD
 Challenges and effectiveness 47

 Training leaders in mentoring and coaching

 Providing a framework for implementation
THE MENTORING/COACHING RELATIONSHIP AND MENTOR/COACH
QUALITIES AND SKILLS
The mentoring/coaching relationship
 The promotion of a reflective approach
 A reciprocal, collaborative learning relationship
 The independence of mentors
Mentor/coach qualities and skills
 A wide range of qualities and skills are required by mentors/coaches
 Mentors should be knowledgeable, experienced and successful practitioners
 Qualities: trust, respect, approachable, empathy, self-awareness, flexibility
 Skills: listening; communication; interpersonal skills

4.3.1 Providing sufficient time

Eight sources in the review of literature identify the need to devote sufficient
time to mentoring and coaching for it to be effective, regardless of the type of
mentoring or coaching or the sector involved.

 Time for activities and for meaningful change in the classroom: Boyle
et al.’s (2005) study into teacher professional development reports that, for
professional development to be effective, teachers require sufficient time
to undertake the activities and content necessary to increase knowledge
and encourage meaningful changes in the classroom.
 Provision of long-term activities: Boyle et al. (2005) explain that
professional development activities which are more long term in nature
can develop practitioners who are more ‘reflective, critical and analytical’
in their teaching.
 Provision of space as well as time: Other authors suggest that mentoring
requires the provision of space, as well as time, in order to be effective
(Child and Merrill, 2003; Renshaw, 2008; Robins, 2006; Simkins et al.,
2006).
 Finding the time for regular, structured meetings: Hobson and Sharp
(2005) identify the importance of finding the time for regular, structured
meetings, especially in the early stages of headship.
 Dedicated time and timetabled activities: Cordingley (2008) identifies
the importance of establishing dedicated time in the form of ‘timetabled’
professional development opportunities and planning for ‘the creation of
physical and human resources’ required (p. 30).
 Non-contact time for mentors and mentees: Moor et al. (2005) stress the
importance of providing ‘non-contact time’ for the mentor to perform
 Challenges and effectiveness 48

duties and ‘non-contact time’ for teachers to pursue their development

activities in a mentoring relationship. Moor et al. go on to report that the
amount of contact and support provided by the mentor was found to
influence teachers’ perceived impact: ‘The number of dedicated meetings
that a teacher reported having with their mentor was significantly
associated with the extent to which they rated mentoring as helpful for
their professional development’ (Moor et al., 2005, p. 116).

4.3.2 Training and support for mentors/coaches

Seven studies highlight the importance of training and support in fostering
effective mentoring and coaching relationships. This is considered a key
element regardless of the type of mentoring or coaching or the sector involved.

 Provision of training and informal support: Hobson and Sharp (2005)

conclude that headteacher mentoring is more successful when mentors
have training for the role and they highlight the value of informal input in
the form of reassurance and emotional support. Similarly, the need for
training for support childminders was noted (NIESR, 2005). Others
maintain that training in mentoring and coaching is a fundamental element
of successful professional development within schools. This is evidenced,
for example, in the case studies reported in Cordingley.
 Sustaining effective relationships: The REFLECT co-mentoring
programme used more formal training and gathering days to support,
sustain and develop effective co-mentoring relationships. These days
allowed co-mentors to strengthen their relationships, share knowledge,
ideas and experiences through group discussion and practical problem-
solving exercises (Renshaw, 2008).
 Reducing manageability issues and amplifying positive outcomes:
Effective training for the role of mentor reduces manageability difficulties
and amplifies the positive outcomes gained from their involvement (Moor
et al., 2005): ‘Effective training clearly had important benefits for mentors,
both personally and in terms of enabling them to undertake the mentoring
role more efficiently’ (p.116).
 The skills and qualities required: Other authors point to the importance
of the skills and qualities required of mentors/coaches (see section 4.4 on
mentor/coach qualities/skills which follows), thereby making the need for
training implicit (e.g. Allan, 2007; Robins, 2006; Simkins, 2006).

4.3.3 Monitoring and quality assurance

Six literature sources identify that quality assurance and ongoing monitoring
are important elements of mentoring and coaching.
 Challenges and effectiveness 49

 Improved quality and effectiveness: Elements contributing to the

effectiveness of the REFLECT programme include ongoing monitoring
(Renshaw, 2008) and the NIESR report explains that increasing quality
assurance measures lead to an improvement in quality and status of
childminding as a form of day care (NIESR, 2005).
 A common vehicle for recording and assessing development: One of
the key principles in the design of an early years’ mentoring scheme
includes a common vehicle for promoting, recording and assessing
development (Robins, 2006). A case study of a secondary school in
Cordingley (2008) demonstrates the integral nature of monitoring to
professional development: ‘New practice is monitored and evaluated
through specialist coaching which includes joint planning,
observation/feedback episodes and formal and informal meetings’
(Cordingley, 2008, p. 14).
 Creating a portfolio of evidence: According to Robins (2006), a profile
or portfolio of evidence documenting a practitioner’s progression as they
develop both professionally and personally, is good practice.
 Writing action plans and reporting on progress: According to Allan
(2007), writing action plans, self-imposed deadlines and reporting back on
progress imposes a sense of ‘inner accountability’. Similarly, ensuring
participants’ progress through school-based coaching as part of Leading
from the Middle by keeping them motivated and monitoring their progress
was considered an important aspect (Simkins et al., 2006).
 Incorporation of review and evaluation into the learning contract:
Hafford-Letchfield et al. (2007) also point to the importance of regular
review and evaluation which should be incorporated as part of the learning
contract.

4.3.4 Recruitment and allocation of mentors and coaches

Five sources highlight elements to do with the recruitment and allocation of
mentors or coaches as elements of effective practice. This includes the
selection of mentors and the matching of mentors or coaches with mentees or
coachees. The five sources include those from social care as well as education.

 Use of personal approaches for recruitment: Evaluation of the Support

Childminder Scheme identifies that the number of support childminders
should be tailored to local needs, and that the methods of recruitment
should include personal approaches (NIESR, 2005).
 Publicise the benefits of being a mentor or coach: Evaluation of the
Support Childminder Scheme also identifies that schemes should publicise
the benefits of being a support childminder to encourage take up (NIESR,
2005).
 Challenges and effectiveness 50

 Systems for the effective selection of mentors: Programmes should

include systems for the effective selection of mentors and matching of
mentors and mentees. There should also be provision for mentees to
change mentors (Hobson and Sharp, 2005).
 Matching of mentors/coaches to mentees/coaches: Renshaw (2008)
considers the matching of mentors and mentees to be an effective element
in the management of mentoring relationships, and Hobson and Sharp
(2005) claim that ‘the match [between mentors and mentees] is reported in
some studies to be critical to the success of the mentoring process’ (p. 36).
 Teacher involvement in the selection of their mentors: The success and
effectiveness of mentoring is attributed by Moor et al. (2005) to the ability
of mentees to select their own mentors and the sense of ownership this
fosters in the participants: ‘Teachers’ perceptions of the value of
mentoring were very strongly associated with the extent to which they had
been involved in selecting their mentors’ (p. 116). This helps to support
teachers’ autonomy. Similarly, Robins (2006) cites one of the key
principles of the early years’ mentoring system as peer support in the
workplace through ‘a chosen critical friend’.

4.3.5 A clear focus and understanding

Five sources identify the importance of focus and clarity, together with an
understanding of mentoring and coaching, as effective elements. This includes
having a clear structure, and clarity of processes and procedures. Sources
include both mentoring and coaching, and the education and social care
sectors.

 Clarity of focus, aims and objectives: According to Cordingley (2008),

the strategic use of coaching depends on ‘the clarity and relevance of the
coaching focus … and the clarity of aims and objectives’ (p. 30). Having
clear goals, aims, expectations and understandings for both the
mentor/coach and mentee/coachee are agreed, is recommended by a
number of authors (e.g. Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007; Renshaw, 2008;
Robins, 2006)
 Development of a learning contract: Having a learning contract is
recommended by a number of authors. According to Hafford-Letchfield et
al. (2007) an effective mentoring or coaching session should be ‘focused,
challenging and empowering’ (p. 171) and a formal learning contract
should include: boundaries and parameters of the relationship, where, how
long to meet and over what duration. Similarly, Robins (2006) and
Renshaw (2008) stress the importance of having a mentoring contract
between the mentor and practitioner so that there are clear goals and
expectations.
 A clear structure for the programme/scheme: Having a clear structure
for a professional development programme is also identified as important
 Challenges and effectiveness 51

(e.g. Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007; Renshaw, 2008). Renshaw (2008), in

relation to REFLECT, refers to having a clear structure for the programme
as an element contributing to effectiveness. This includes clarity about the
range of activities and processes and a shared focus.
 Clarity of processes and procedures: Clearly understood procedures of
evaluation and communication among all participants must be agreed
(Child and Merrill, 2003)
 Clarity in defining the mentor role: Robins (2006) stresses the
importance of clarity in defining the mentor role.

4.3.6 Organisational culture and strategic planning

Organisational support and strategic planning of professional development,
including mentoring and coaching, is identified by four sources of literature to
influence effectiveness. This includes providing an appropriate learning
culture within the organisation, providing a framework for implementation and
locating mentoring and coaching within broader professional development
strategies. All sources are from the education sector, suggesting that
organisational support and strategic planning may be particularly important for
the effectiveness of mentoring and coaching schemes in schools.

 Promotion of a learning culture and community: The school culture,

ethos and approach to CPD are found to influence the effectiveness of
mentoring and coaching interventions. Key factors associated with
effective professional development, including mentoring and coaching, are
an enthusiasm for teachers’ interests and ideas and ‘a school ethos that
embraces professional development of its staff’ (Moor et al., 2005, p. 125).
One of the key principles of the early years’ mentoring system is the
promotion of a learning culture and community and providing a
framework for professional mentor support, dialogue and interaction
(Robins, 2006).
 Fostering collaboration as part of the school culture: The importance of
fostering collaboration (joint planning and curriculum development) as
part of the school culture is also noted by Cordingley (2008). Within one
case-study school, for example, it is reported that team leaders had been
trained in coaching and mentoring and that collaboration is regarded as the
key to effective CPD across the school.
 Location within an overall strategic approach to CPD: Simkins et al.
(2006), who focus on school-based coaching as part of Leading from the
Middle for school leaders, states that the effectiveness of coaching
depends on the place of coaching within broader school leadership
strategies. Similarly, Cordingley (2008) advocates a strategic approach to
CPD (including mentoring and coaching).
 Challenges and effectiveness 52

 Training leaders in mentoring and coaching: In Cordingley (2008), one

case-study school, for example, stresses that the senior leadership team, as
well as most of the staff, have training in coaching and that there is a
strong awareness of, and a commitment to effective adult learning. In this
school the senior leadership team has developed an approach to coaching
which aims to establish and build coaching capacity in the school, then
systematically withdrawing support in order to avoid creating a culture of
dependency. Similarly, in another case-study school, it is stated that
training in mentoring and coaching is ‘enshrined in staff development
policy’ and that the leadership team express a commitment to adult
professional learning which is ‘shared, negotiated and supported’
(Cordingley, 2008, p. 22).
 Providing a framework for implementation: Renshaw’s (2008) report
on the REFLECT co-mentoring initiative explains how the programme is
based around a framework which structures co-mentoring relationships,
the learning agreement, definitions of roles and processes. One of the key
principles of the early years’ mentoring system is providing a framework
for professional mentor support, dialogue and interaction (Robins, 2006).

Two further effective features, confidentiality (Allan, 2007; Robins, 2006)

and local agency or local authority support (Moor et al., 2005; NIESR,
2005) are highlighted within the literature examined (each within two
sources).

4.4 Effectiveness: the mentoring/coaching relationship and

mentor/coach qualities and skills
A number of sources cite the desired qualities, characteristics or skills of
mentors or coaches, whilst others refer to the requirements with regard to the
quality of the mentor-mentee relationship.

4.4.1 The mentoring relationship

Three key factors for effectiveness with regard to the mentoring relationship
emerged from the literature.

 The promotion of a reflective approach: The promotion of reflective

practice in both the mentor/coach and mentee/coachee is stressed by Allan
(2007). Renshaw (2008) identifies reflectivity as an important
characteristic of effective co-mentors, as the ability to be self-reflective
and self-aware can help to nurture these qualities in others.
 A reciprocal collaborative learning relationship: Teachers who get
involved in more collaborative professional development type activities
 Challenges and effectiveness 53

become more reflective, critical and analytical in the way in which they
think about their teaching style in the classroom (Boyle et al., 2005). It is
considered important that mentors work in an open and co-operative
manner and have an understanding of mentoring as a means by which the
meaning about practice can be shared (Robins, 2006). ‘All good mentoring
contracts/relationships … are reciprocal, based on trust and mutual respect
… The relationship and process will be characterised by a high degree of
mutual learning’ (Robins, 2006, p. 12). The reciprocal relationship is
evident in other studies, e.g. Cordingley (2008), where, in one case-study
school, it was noted that working with trainees prompts and encourages
staff to think about their own practices in a fresh and challenging way.
Ensuring that the experience of coaching and mentoring is a two-way
learning process is also emphasised by Hafford-Letchfield et al. (2007).
 The independence of mentors: Warman and Jackson (2007) suggest that
supervision should be facilitated by a professional who is not involved in
the day-to-day caseload management of social workers as facilitation by an
external consultant could provide the space that is needed to reflect on the
processes and feelings that the work inevitably evokes. According to Allan
(2007), reporting on business executive coaches from outside of education
for headteachers, it is beneficial for the coach and coachee to be from
different sectors. Headteachers greatly value the opportunity to discuss
their leadership issues with a skilled coach who is independent of the
educational system.

4.4.2 Mentor/coach qualities, skills and characteristics

A number of sources cite the desired qualities, characteristics or skills of
mentors or coaches. The most frequently identified are that mentors and
coaches should be knowledgeable, experienced and successful practitioners,
whilst also key are the qualities of trust and respect. Mentors or coaches
should be/have (in rank order):

 Supportive: Able to provide practical support and assist in problem

solving (Hobson and Sharp, 2005); ‘supporter’, providing emotional and
practical support, cited as the second most important role by all
professions (Jones et al., 2005); training for support childminders should
include support skills (NIESR, 2005).
 Knowledgeable and experienced: ‘As well as being approachable,
empathetic and flexible, mentors should be suitably experienced and able
to prioritise the mentoring relationship’ (Moor et al., 2005, p. 116);
competent in subject skills and practices: ‘mentors will be/have been
successful practitioners in their own right’ (Robins, 2006, p. 9).
 Trustworthy and respectful: Headteachers state that their experience of
coaching gives them access to ‘trusting, empowering space that provided
them with the strength to lead more effectively’ (Allan, 2007); all good
 Challenges and effectiveness 54

mentoring relationships are based on trust and mutual respect (Robins,

2006).
 Listening skills: The skills of an effective coach include active listening
skills (Hafford-Letchfield et al., 2007); the skills of listening are often
regarded as important in the mentoring role (NIESR, 2005).
 Friendly/approachable: Emotional support and reassurance in an
informal friendly relationship (Hobson and Sharp, 2005); the requirements
of a nurse mentor: a genuinely friendly, open-minded motivator who is
approachable and able to give constructive feedback (Jones et al., 2005).
 Flexible: According to Britnore Guest, 1999, cited in Hafford-Letchfield
et al. (2007), most coaches and mentors would probably agree that a good
coach is also a mentor and a good mentor is also a coach, as appropriate to
the situation and the relationship (p. 170).
 Empathetic: The skills of an effective coach include empathy (Hafford-
Letchfield et al., 2007); headteachers valued the opportunity to discuss
their leadership issues in a non-judgemental environment (Allan, 2007).
 Communication/interpersonal skills: Interpersonal relationships means
that mentors are able to broker linkages with resources and people
(Hobson and Sharp, 2005); good communication and interpersonal skills
(Robins, 2006).
 Self-aware/focused on their own learning: Hafford-Letchfield et al.
(2007) identify a commitment to their own learning as one of the most
important competencies of any coach mentor because this ensures that the
experience of coaching and mentoring is a two-way learning process.
 Accessible: Hobson and Sharp (2005) cite accessibility as a key feature;
teacher mentor: someone who is readily available and easy to contact
(Jones et al., 2005).
 Enthusiastic: Mentors should have enthusiasm for teachers’ interests and
ideas (Moor et al., 2005); mentors will need an enthusiasm for the
practicalities of training, they should be enthusiastic and inspiring (Robins,
2006).

Other individual sources noted that mentors/coaches should be empowering,

challenging, open and honest and credible.
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 55

5. Mentoring and coaching: promotion

and support for teachers and activity
and awareness in schools
5.1 Summary and key findings
Reviewing a sample of 30 local authority websites3 reveals varied information,
reporting and documentation relating to mentoring and coaching for the school
workforce.

 A range of examples of approaches to mentoring and coaching can be

found across the local authority websites searched. However, in general,
the information available on mentoring and coaching is sparse and not
especially comprehensive.
 ‘Mentoring’ features more commonly on local authority websites (13
local authority websites) than ‘coaching’ (two local authority websites).
 Mentoring and coaching appear in a range of different guises including
mentoring, peer mentor, coaching and mentoring strategies. (The term
‘mentoring’ also features in relation to adults mentoring young people, and
young people peer mentoring schemes. Searches for ‘coaching’ tend to
return articles relating to bus and coach travel and sports coaching.)
 Reference to the TDA appears on some of the websites (16 websites)
usually in relation to teacher recruitment or CPD, and rarely in association
with any specific references to mentoring or coaching.
 The National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching is referred to on
only two of the 30 websites. In both cases the reference is brief with no
explanation of the Framework or links to further information.
 The Early Years Professional Status (EYPS) approach to mentoring
features on four local authority websites. The approach involves the use of
practitioners as mentors for colleagues.
 Some local authorities have developed their own mentoring and
coaching strategies and approaches (seven local authorities). Some have
created programmes aimed at supporting headteachers through mentoring
(three local authorities).
 Two local authority websites are promoting both accredited and non-
accredited courses, run by universities, specifically focusing on
mentoring and/or coaching.

The NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (NFER, 2008) highlights some
key findings relating to mentoring and coaching activity, the National

3
The review of local authority websites was conducted on 29th and 30th July 2008. All data collected
and reported is based on the dates the searches were conducted.
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 56

Framework, and other sources of support and guidance for mentoring and
coaching.

 The majority of the 1,440 teachers responding to the NFER Teacher

Voice Survey (June 2008) have been or are involved in mentoring or
coaching in some form – in this survey, most commonly as a mentor.
 Being trained in mentoring or coaching, however, is not as commonly
reported as either being a mentor/coach or being mentored/coached.
 Mentoring and coaching activities identified by survey respondents relate
commonly to classroom practice.
 A variety of sources of guidance to support mentoring and coaching
activity are noted. External sources are particularly used by primary
school staff (e.g. the local authority and the local HEI), and specific
internal sources are common in secondary schools (e.g. the school CPD
leader and line managers).
 Only a minority of respondents are aware of the National Framework
for Mentoring and Coaching. A small proportion has used the Framework
(just ten per cent of the 1,440 overall sample). However, the vast majority
of those who have used the Framework say they have found it useful.

This section sets out:

 the extent of promotion of mentoring and coaching on local authority

websites (section 5.2)
 definitions of mentoring and coaching on local authority websites (section
5.3)
 approaches, models and frameworks for mentoring and coaching on local
authority websites (section 5.4)
 mentoring and coaching activity and awareness of the framework in
schools (section 5.5)
 about the 30 local authorities (section 5.6)
 about the NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (June 2008) (section 5.7).

5.2 What is the extent of promotion of mentoring and

coaching on local authority websites?
Thirty local authority websites were searched in a systematic manner to gain
an indication of the way in which mentoring and coaching is presented and
promoted by the local authority. The websites were searched for references to
mentoring and to coaching using the websites’ own search function. A number
of other key terms were also searched in order to gain a fuller picture of
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 57

provision in the local authority. The following keywords, and their variants,
were used:

 mentor (mentoring)
 coach (coaching)
 TDA
 extranet
 National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching.

The systematic searching of the sample of thirty local authority websites

produced the following number of ‘hits’:

 mentor (mentoring): 5,933 total hits (ranging from 2–2,490 hits per local
authority), of which 22 hits were relevant to mentoring in schools (across
16 local authority websites)
 coach (coaching): 11,231 total hits (ranging from 2–3,080 hits per local
authority), of which three hits were relevant to coaching in schools (across
two local authority websites)

Searching for ‘mentoring’ on the sample of 30 local authority websites

returned a significant number of hits (5,933 hits in total). From these, only a
small number of hits were actually relevant to ‘mentoring’ in a school context
for staff members (22 hits relevant: 16 local authority websites). The hits
returned on mentoring tended to be for ‘learning mentoring’ (where adults
mentor school pupils with the aim of bridging academic and pastoral support
roles to improve pupil achievement), ‘business mentoring’ (where members of
the business community mentor pupils), ‘youth mentors’ and ‘BME mentoring
schemes’.

Searching for ‘coaching’ returned a greater number of overall hits than for
mentoring (11,231 hits in total). However, from these, only three were
relevant to coaching in a school context (two websites in total). The
overwhelming majority of hits for ‘coach’ relate to coach/bus travel and sports
related coaching.

In order to gain a further picture of the nature of engagement with mentoring

and coaching, searches were also conducted for ‘TDA’, ‘extranet’ and
‘National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching’. These additional searches
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 58

were intended to capture any other areas relating to mentoring and coaching
that may have been missed by the initial searching.

From the 30 local authority websites searched, ‘TDA’ features in some

capacity on 16 of the websites. This is usually in terms of teacher recruitment
and training, and also in relation to funding and CPD. None of the websites
appeared to make any reference to the TDA extranet facility.

The ‘National Framework for Mentoring and Coaching’ features on two of the
local authority websites (City of Liverpool and West Sussex County Council).
In the case of Liverpool, the framework is mentioned on a PowerPoint in
relation to the implementation of lead teachers for gifted and talented pupils.
For West Sussex, the website features an e-newsletter produced by CUREE
(Centre for the Use of Research and Evidence in Education) which briefly
mentions the ‘National Framework’.

5.3 What definitions of mentoring and coaching are being

used and promoted by local authorities?
The local authorities included in the sample are using differing interpretations
of mentoring and coaching and promoting it in a range of ways. The local
authority websites which feature mentoring and coaching rarely provide or
state explicit definitions for either mentoring or coaching. The following
definitions are available on the Cumbria County Council website:

Mentoring
The role of the mentor is to oversee and guide the teacher’s professional
development but not to overtly monitor or evaluate performance, with the teacher’s
own professional needs lying at the heart of support provided.

Peer mentoring
Peer mentoring is an in-service approach to sharing good teaching practice and
involves a pair or small group of staff observing each other teach and using the
information from the observation to jointly improve their practice.
Cumbria County Council

Coaching features less commonly than mentoring on local authority websites

in relation to teaching. The occasions where it does feature are in relation to a
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 59

local authority coaching and mentoring strategy (Kent County Council) and
coaching courses (Kent County Council, North Yorkshire County Council).

5.4 What approaches, models or frameworks for mentoring

and coaching are being used and promoted by local
authorities?
The sample of local authorities includes a variety of approaches, models and
frameworks for mentoring and coaching. These have been grouped and
presented below by theme.

Bespoke mentoring and coaching

Local authorities such as Kent County Council have devised their own
coaching and mentoring strategy to help motivate and develop staff:

Coaching and mentoring strategy

Since the initial coaching and mentoring strategy was devised, many staff at Kent
County Council have undertaken the Professional Coaching and Mentoring
Diploma. The diploma aims to help staff develop and increase motivation. Staff
also have the opportunity to work across the organisation. The Introduction to
Coaching course enables professionals to understand how coaching can improve
performance and support individuals to develop themselves and their careers. Once
qualified, the staff join a group led by the Learning and Development Team which
offers free coaching and mentoring support.
Kent County Council

Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council is promoting a buddying course for

mentors designed to train staff to explore the needs, motivations, skills and
thought processes of others to assist them in becoming a mentor or coach.
Dudley also runs a scheme which provides mentors for childminders in its
borough.

Cumbria County Council’s website features information on good practice in

mentoring and peer mentoring. It also hosts various tools to support those
involved in mentoring, such as prompt questions and protocols which provide
guidance for mentoring.
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 60

Headteacher and leader mentoring and coaching

West Sussex County Council is running a mentoring scheme for headteachers:

Headteacher mentoring scheme

Newly appointed headteachers are offered the support of a headteacher mentor,
who has at least three years experience of headship and has undertaken training in
mentoring. The experienced head supports the newly appointed headteacher over
the course of a year. The mentors are committed to the mentoring process and
consider it to be a valuable part of their own CPD.
West Sussex County Council

London Borough of Southwark has created a corporate mentoring scheme and

a leadership development management programme. Both of these provide
mentoring support for new and up-and-coming headteachers as part of a
strategy for supporting cross-borough learning and building capacity around
school leadership.

The following extract from the North Yorkshire website details a coaching
course for headteachers:

Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) coaching course

This training course is for headteachers in CASE primary schools and primary
teachers trained in the use of the CASE approach. The focus of the course is on
strategies to support teachers in schools to become more competent in CASE
teaching. The main vehicle for support is through a coaching process where
participants observe other teachers and gives constructive coaching feedback on
how to improve CASE teaching.
North Yorkshire County Council

One local authority has created a ‘bank’ of over 90 accredited mentors to

provide support to all newly appointed headteachers: ‘Mentor support gives
the newly appointed headteacher immediate access to an experienced
headteacher who can offer both technical and emotional support’ (Lancashire
County Council).

Early Years
A model which emerged from the searching of local authority websites is the
use of mentoring as a method for supporting staff undertaking the Early Years
Professional Status (EYPS) (noted for example on the London Borough of
Sutton, City Of Liverpool, North Yorkshire County Council and Lincolnshire
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 61

County Council websites). The EYPS has different pathways to gaining the
status, which differ in duration depending on early years’ practitioners’
experience and existing knowledge: validation, short-, long- and full-time
pathways.

Early Years Professionals (EYPs) are key to raising the quality of early years
provision. They are change agents to improve practice. EYPs will lead practice
across the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS), support and mentor other
practitioners and model the skills and behaviours that safeguard and support
children.
Suffolk County Council

Suffolk County Council provides a service where a training mentor visits early
years’ settings to carry out a training needs analysis for early years’ staff to
help identify any gaps, and recommends specific CPD to help build and
develop skills.

Cross-sector mentoring
The Devon County Council website provides details and guidance for those
involved in community mentoring, which is mentoring across a range of
sectors and agencies including occupational therapists, adult educators,
teachers, community development workers and trainers.

Accredited and non-accredited mentoring and coaching courses

A number of other local authorities are either promoting courses or working in
collaboration with universities to provide training in mentoring and coaching.
Teachers in Bath and North East Somerset have access to a number of courses
run by Bath Spa University. Modules include primary coaching, which
develops teachers’ coaching skills, and school-based mentoring which is
designed to support the school-based mentor role. Teachers in the London
Borough of Haringey have been encouraged to undertake an MA module on
mentoring taught by Roehampton University.

5.5 What activity and awareness of mentoring and coaching

is there amongst teachers and in schools?
The NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (NFER, 2008) explored mentoring
and coaching activity in schools, teachers’ awareness and usage of the
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 62

National Framework, sources of guidance on mentoring and coaching, and the

relevance of mentoring and coaching to areas of work.

The majority of the 1,440 teachers responding to the NFER Teacher Voice
Survey (NFER, 2008) have been or are involved in mentoring or coaching
in some form. Three-fifths of the responding teachers have mentored a
colleague in the last year; one-quarter have been mentored. Senior colleagues
in particular report that they have been a mentor or coach, whilst classroom
teachers tend to report being mentored. Whilst this is not surprising, it may
interesting to explore whether, in a few years time, mentoring and coaching
roles are just as prevalent for all levels of staff, given the current drive for
mentoring and coaching to be part of the teacher workforce skill set.

Being trained in mentoring or coaching, however, is not as commonly

reported as either being a mentor/coach or being mentored/coached. About
one-sixth of responding teachers say they have been trained in mentoring, with
a similar proportion reporting having been trained in coaching.

A minority of respondents are aware of the National Framework for

Mentoring and Coaching (just over two-fifths of the sample). A small
proportion has used the Framework (ten per cent of the 1,440 overall sample).
However, the vast majority of those who have used the Framework say that
they have found if useful (either fairly or very useful).

A variety of sources of guidance to support mentoring and coaching activity

are highlighted by the survey respondents. Teachers from both phases of
schooling frequently mention the school leadership team as a source of
guidance. Secondary school staff particularly mention the school CPD leader
and line managers in this regard. Primary school staff also use external
sources, for example the local authority and the local HEI. Primary school
leaders in particular report receiving guidance on mentoring and coaching
from their local authority.

Mentoring and coaching activities identified by survey respondents commonly

relate to classroom practice (over two-thirds of respondents). Management
roles and subject specialisms are also reasonably frequently noted (not
surprisingly, subject specialism is cited more frequently in secondary schools
than in primary schools, and management roles are cited very commonly by
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 63

senior leaders). This resonates with the new professional standards for
teachers, whereby mentoring and coaching are now an expected part of
teachers’ everyday skill set, and a key aspect of continuing professional
development and performance management.

The proportion of respondents reporting mentoring or coaching relating to

personal development is smaller (about two-fifths). Interestingly, this figure
was higher for senior leaders compared with classroom teachers. This
resonates with some of the findings in the literature, which suggest that
coaching approaches amongst more senior colleagues do indeed entail
personal as well as professional development (see for example, Allan 2007 on
coaching for headteachers).

Results from the Teacher Voice Survey highlight some important areas for the
TDA to consider in its development of mentoring and coaching policy and
strategy. Conclusions and recommendations related to teachers’ mentoring and
coaching activity, and for the TDA’s development of mentoring and coaching
approaches and of the National Framework specifically, are discussed in
section 6.

5.6 About the 30 local authorities

A representative sample of 30 local authorities was selected from across
England for website searching. The sample was structured so that it included
proportionally more large4 local authorities (14) and a slight over sample from
both the North West (6) and South West (4) regions. (The weighting towards
large local authorities was to capture an influence, if any, of mentoring and
coaching and the framework on most teachers. The weighting towards the
North West was due to the roll out of the TDA Masters in Teaching and
Learning taking place in that region. The weighting towards the South West
was because of the geographic challenges faced by local authorities in that
region.)

The following table presents the characteristics for the thirty local authorities
included in the sample (presented by Government Office Region).

4
Local authorities were categorised as small, medium or large according to the number of schools in
the authority. Large local authorities had between 361 and 750 schools.
 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 64

Table 5.1 Characteristics of the local authority sample

Government Office LA
LA Name Region LA Type Size*
North Somerset Council South West English Unitary Authority Small
Bath & North East Somerset
Council South West English Unitary Authority Small
South Gloucestershire Council South West English Unitary Authority Medium
Devon County Council South West County Large
Kent County Council South East County Large
Surrey County Council South East County Large
West Sussex County Council South East County Large
London Borough of Southwark London London Borough Small
London Borough of Haringey London London Borough Small
London Borough of Sutton London London Borough Small
City of London London London Borough Small
London Borough of Camden London London Borough Small
Norfolk Children's Services Eastern County Large
Suffolk County Council Eastern County Large
Dudley Metropolitan Borough
Council West Midlands Metropolitan Authority Medium
Birmingham City Council West Midlands Metropolitan Authority Large
Staffordshire County Council West Midlands County Large
Nottinghamshire County Council East Midlands County Large
Lincolnshire County Council East Midlands County Large
City Of Liverpool North West/Merseyside Metropolitan Authority Medium
Oldham Metropolitan Borough
Council North West/Merseyside Metropolitan Authority Medium
Metropolitan Borough of Wigan North West/Merseyside Metropolitan Authority Medium
Cheshire County Council North West/Merseyside County Large
Lancashire County Council North West/Merseyside County Large
Cumbria County Council North West/Merseyside County Large
Calderdale Council Yorkshire and the Humber Metropolitan Authority Small
Education Bradford Yorkshire and the Humber Metropolitan Authority Medium
North Yorkshire County Council Yorkshire and the Humber County Large
Sunderland Borough Council North East Metropolitan Authority Medium
Durham County Council North East County Medium
*Local authority size is based on the number of schools:
Small local authority (0–120 schools)
Medium local authority (121–360 schools)
Large local authority (361–750 schools)

5.7 About the NFER Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (June

2008)
A set of questions was submitted by the TDA to NFER’s Teacher Voice
Omnibus Survey in June 2008. The questions included a set on mentoring and
coaching, covering the following topics:

 teachers’ mentoring and coaching experiences in the last year

 Mentoring and coaching promotion and support to schools 65

 teachers’ awareness of the National Framework for Mentoring and

Coaching
 teachers’ views on the useful of the National Framework
 sources of guidance received on mentoring and coaching
 teachers’ reports of the relevance of mentoring or coaching to areas of
work.

Questions on these topics, and other questions submitted by other

organisations, made up the Teacher Voice Omnibus Survey (NFER, 2008).
The survey was completed in June 2008 by a panel of 1,479 practising
teachers from the maintained sector in England. The survey was conducted
online and teachers were asked to complete the questionnaire within a period
lasting just over one week. The panel included teachers from the full range of
roles in primary and secondary schools, from headteachers to newly qualified
class teachers. With weightings applied to the data, the omnibus sample is
broadly representative of teachers nationally and provides a robust analysis of
teachers’ views.
 Concluding comments and recommendations 66

6 Conclusions and recommendations

Looking across all of the areas we have considered for this review –
definitions, approaches, impacts, effective features, and promotion and
awareness of mentoring and coaching activities in schools – the following
conclusions and recommendations can be made.

For schools
 The reflection promoted by effective mentoring and coaching
approaches in turn encourages a collaborative learning culture in
organisations. For schools, this is particularly important, as it may alleviate
some of the sense of professional isolation (identified in the literature).
 Mentoring and coaching activities may be more influential when they ‘fit’
the wider context of an organisation, and/or when they are part of a
wider programme of professional development. School leaders should
consider their school’s CPD context and programme when developing
mentoring and/or coaching approaches within their setting.
 Organisational support and strategic planning should also be a priority
for school leaders when developing mentoring and coaching activities.
Promoting a learning and collaborative culture, providing a framework for
implementing mentoring and coaching, and training leaders in mentoring
and coaching seem to be important for the effectiveness of mentoring and
coaching schemes in schools. (See below for further implications around
training.)
 The finding in the Teacher Voice Survey that mentoring and coaching
activities relate commonly to classroom practice should be encouraging
for school leaders. This resonates with the new professional standards for
teachers, whereby mentoring and coaching are now an expected part of
teachers’ everyday skill set, and a key aspect of continuing professional
development and performance management.

For the TDA

… and its work around mentoring and coaching
 Given the array of impacts gained from mentoring and coaching, and,
where used, teachers’ positive views on the National Framework for
Mentoring and Coaching, the TDA should consider ways to further
promote understandings of mentoring and coaching, as well as the
Framework specifically (see below for recommendations related to the
Framework).
 Understanding of mentoring and coaching appears to be more limited
within the education sector compared with the social care sector. The TDA
may wish to target school leaders and those implementing
 Concluding comments and recommendations 67

mentoring/coaching programmes to ensure that they have the relevant

knowledge and skills for mentoring and coaching, so that understanding of
mentoring/coaching practice in education is increased.
 The TDA should seek to promote mentoring and coaching through a
range of support areas, and should particularly ensure that local
authorities and school CPD leaders receive information about mentoring
and coaching. In the Teacher Voice Survey, primary school leaders report
receiving guidance on mentoring and coaching from their local authority.
Secondary school teachers more often report receiving guidance on
mentoring and coaching from their school CPD leader.
 A number of the impact areas identified in this review link implicitly with
the new professionalism in teaching. A commitment to recognising
professional and career development, for example, suggests that there may
be important synergies to be made with performance management and
professional standards. Likewise, the research culture that is engendered,
as well improved assessment procedures, may support the evaluation of
impact – a key activity now expected of schools and part of school
improvement. The TDA and other bodies working with schools should
consider developing mentoring and coaching as an effective collaborative
approach for schools’ improvement.
 The potential conflict between mentors exercising the role of adviser and
the role of assessor is raised in the literature (and also noted on the
National Framework). In developing its Masters in Teaching and Learning
(MTL), the TDA should consider further the role of a school-based
coach/mentor and whether any conflicting loyalties around assessment and
accreditation may be potentially problematic for this role.

… and its review of the National Framework

 According to the NFER Teacher Voice Survey (NFER, 2008), the number
of teachers currently using the National Framework for Mentoring and
Coaching is limited. However, those that do use it, find it useful. It would
seem important therefore, to promote and raise awareness of the
Framework and increase its usage.
 It is clear from this literature review that the different understandings and
perspectives of mentoring and coaching need to be recognised as part of
continuing professional development. The Framework, supported by
resources on the extranet, sits within and links to other aspects of
collaborative professional development. The TDA should consider
strengthening these links. Further case studies on mentoring and coaching
(particularly mentoring and coaching that does not involve initial teacher
training) would enhance the extranet.
 The Framework is based on research, evidence and consultation, and (not
surprisingly) the effective features of mentoring and coaching set out in
the Framework very much resonate with the effective elements found in
this review. Elements that might be emphasised further are the two-way
learning process that can occur, and the reflective process and reflective
outcomes that can occur.
 Concluding comments and recommendations 68

 Whilst there are conceptual differences between mentoring, coaching, co-

coaching, co-mentoring, peer support, peer learning, coach mentoring, and
the other concepts identified in this study and on the Framework, the
overall ingredients of mentoring and of coaching are reasonably
similar. This applies to the effective features, the overall skill-set required
for mentoring and coaching, and indeed, the types of outcomes that can be
gained. In reviewing its strategies around the Framework, the TDA may
wish to consider simplifying the framework. This could include providing
an overview sheet/clickable webpage for a) school leaders, b)
mentors/coaches, and c) mentees/coaches to see ‘at a glance’ the
information relevant to their perspective, as well as, crucially, the
outcomes that might be gained.
 Indeed, promoting the potential outcomes and benefits of mentoring
and coaching for teachers and schools might be crucial to engaging school
leaders, so that mentoring and coaching becomes part and parcel of
schools’ professional development, performance management and school
improvement strategies. At present, the Framework promotes the impact of
continuing professional development on student learning. It would seem
important to also promote the potential impacts for staff and the
organisation as a whole.

For local authorities

 Whilst the National Framework is referenced on national organisations’
webpages (TDA, GTC, etc), it is rarely referenced on local authority
websites. Links could be made between local authority CPD webpages and
the webpages of the National Framework.
 Local authorities may also wish to explore how the approaches to
mentoring and coaching that they are promoting and offering map to the
National Framework.

For CPD and training providers

 The findings highlight the importance of training for mentors and
coaches. Trained mentors gain greater impact themselves. It seems
reasonable to suggest that mentees and coachees would also stand to
benefit more from having a trained mentor/coach.
 However, being trained in mentoring and/or coaching is not
commonplace, certainly in schools (according to the NFER Teacher Voice
Survey) (NFER, 2008). CPD and training providers should consider
developing opportunities for mentoring and coaching training amongst the
children’s workforce (e.g. teachers, social care workers, etc).
 As noted above, where mentoring and coaching approaches fit with an
organisation’s context and ethos, impacts can be greater, especially around
a collaborative learning culture. Thus, training for school leaders in
mentoring and coaching may be particularly fruitful in influencing and
changing school cultures.
 Concluding comments and recommendations 69

 Such training might be explored as part of a wider programme of CPD

leadership training (for example, CPD leadership training being
developed by the TDA and NCSL), in order to maximise the impacts
around collaboration and reflection – impacts from mentoring and
coaching, and elements of effective CPD more broadly.

For further research

 Group and cross-sector approaches may be particularly worth
investigating further, for the enhanced impacts they seem to encourage.
These approaches may be particularly relevant given the increasing multi-
agency and partnership working in children’s services today.
 Further research may also be required on a) whether the amount or
frequency of support or training influences impact (as suggested by the
Early Professional Development Scheme), and b) whether or not it makes
a difference who takes on mentor roles (e.g. their level of experience,
whether they are school based, etc). The relationship between these and
outcomes was somewhat of a gap in the literature.
 Further understanding is also needed around the selection of models and
approaches for particular circumstances and outcomes. The literature
reviewed here shows, retrospectively, how particular approaches suit the
intervention or purposes of the activity. However, greater understanding is
needed to be able to select approaches fit for purpose.
 References 70

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Cordingley, P. and Bell, M. (2007). Transferring Learning and Taking Innovation to

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Cordingley, P., Bell, M., Rundell, B. and Evans, D. (2003). ‘The impact of
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 References 72

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 References 73

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Socijalnog Rada, 14, 2, 387-430.

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mentoring Programme Handbook. Gateshead: The Sage Gateshead.

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 Appendix A 75

Appendix A: search strategy detail

Search strategy
Search strategies for six key databases/web resources were developed using
agreed keywords (kw) from the relevant thesauri (where available) and/or
free-text search terms. Truncation of terms is indicted by * or $. The terms
used in the searches, together with a brief description of each of the databases
searched, are outlined below.

British Education Index (BEI)

BEI provides bibliographic references to 350 British and selected European
English-language periodicals in the field of education and training, plus
developing coverage of national report and conference literature.

#1 mentors (kw) AND teachers (kw)

#2 mentoring (ft) NOT mentors (kw)
#3 coaching (ft) OR coaches (ft)
#4 professional tutors (kw) OR induction tutors (kw)
#5 co-coaching (ft) OR co-mentoring (ft) OR National Framework for
Mentoring and Coaching (ft)
#6 extended schools (ft) OR extended services (ft)
#7 social work (kw)
#8 social services (kw)
#9 early professional development (ft)
#10 professional development (kw) AND teachers (kw)
#11 social work$ AND professional development (kw)
#12 multiagency learning (ft) OR multi-agency learning (ft)

Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA)

The Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA) database covers a
wide range of social science disciplines, including health, social services and
education.

#1 mentoring (kw) OR mentors (kw)

#2 coaching (kw)
#3 #1 or #2
 Appendix A 76

#4 coach* (ft) NOT #3

#5 mentor* (ft) NOT #3
# 6 teachers (kw) AND professional development (kw)
#7 social care (kw) AND professional development (kw)
#8 social workers (kw) AND professional development (kw)
#9 multi-agency learning (ft) OR multiagency learning (ft)
#10 extended services (ft) OR extended services (ft)
#11 co-coaching (ft) OR co-mentoring (ft)

Social Care Online

Social Care Online is a web-based resource providing a wide range of
information and research on all aspects of social care. Topic areas of relevance
to this literature search include education, health care, social care services and
social work and social workers.

#1 staff mentoring (kw)

#2 mentoring NOT staff mentoring (kw)
#3 mentors (ft) NOT mentoring (kw)
#4 coaching (ft) NOT mentoring (kw) OR staff mentoring
#5 co-coaching OR co-mentoring (ft)
#5 extended schools OR extended services (ft)
#6 multiagency (ft) OR multi-agency (ft)
#7 cross professional (ft)
#8 interprofessional relations (kw) AND schools (kw)
#9 social care professionals (kw) OR social care services (kw)
#10 professional development (ft)
#11 staff development (kw) NOT professional development (ft)

Social Policy and Practice

Social Policy and Practice is a bibliographic database which includes coverage
of topics such as social policy and social care. It includes a significant number
of references to grey literature and UK government publications.

#1 Mentor* (ft) or coach* (ft)

#2 Co-coaching (ft) OR co-mentoring (ft)
#3 multiagency learning (ft) OR multi-agency learning (ft)
 Appendix A 77

#4 social workers AND professional development (ft)

British Education Internet Resource Catalogue

The British Education Internet Resource Catalogue provides information about
professionally evaluated and described internet sites which support
educational research, policy and practice.

#1 mentoring (kw)
#2 coach$ (ft)
#3 mentor$ (ft)
#4 extended schools (ft) extended services
#5 social-work (kw) OR social-services (kw) OR social-workers (kw)
#6 professional development (kw)
# 7 multiagency learning (ft)

ChildData
ChildData is the database of the National Children’s Bureau containing
references to books, reports and journal articles about children and young
people as well as press and conference reports.

#1 mentor*
# 2 coach*
 Appendix B 78

Appendix B: literature audit

Forty-three research/literature sources were audited for the review, meeting
the following criteria:

 date of publication (since 2003)

 country of research (England, UK)
 sector (education, social care)
 evidence of impact of teachers, schools and other professionals
 evidence of effectiveness and effective elements of mentoring and
coaching.

Information about the 43 sources is summarised below.

 Most of the sources are from England and the UK. The audit includes a
few sources from the USA and elsewhere in the English speaking world,
and the Netherlands.
 Most of the evidence relates to the education sector, mainly schools, but
also early years’ settings. The audit also includes studies in the social care
sector, the creative and cultural sectors, and the health sector.
 Similarly, most of the studies involve classroom teachers as participants.
The audit also includes studies with school middle managers, headteachers
and trainee teachers, as well as studies involving social care professionals,
health care professionals and creative and cultural professionals.
 The audit includes some cross-sector studies, particularly between schools
and the creative and cultural sector, and a few studies across education and
health.
 Slightly more of the studies refer to mentoring than to coaching.
 More of the studies are about one-to-one mentoring and coaching
approaches than about group approaches.
 The audit includes models where mentor/coach and mentee/coachee are
from the same sector, as well as approaches where the two parties are from
different sectors.
 The audit includes peer-peer approaches, as well as ‘expert-novice’
approaches.

Table B.1 provides brief information about each audited source, including a
short overview about the study, and the sector/participants involved.
 Appendix B 79

Table B.1 Information about the 43 audited sources

Audited source About this study Sector/

participants
1 Ahern, G. (2003). ‘Designing and implementing The article examines the benefits of having self-assessed competencies for coaching. It explains the Generic
coaching/mentoring competencies: a case study’, processes of designing and implementing the competencies and how the competency level of each
Theory and Practice, 16, 4, 373-383. coach is agreed. It identifies critical factors for success.

2 Allan, P. (2007). Devon LA Headteacher Coaching An evaluation of a pilot coaching programme undertaken by four headteachers, identifying benefits Schools
Pilot 2007. Unpublished report. and the extent to which it had an impact upon their leadership. The programme aimed to determine (headteachers)
whether coaching can be used as an alternative model of leadership support for headteachers; and
whether or not it provides a safe and confidential means of enabling school leaders to review their
objectives.
3 Arts Inform (2007). East Midlands Mentoring In September 2005, Arts Council England, East Midlands and Creative Partnerships established and Teachers and
Programme: Evaluation and Outcomes for the Pilot funded a pilot creative and cultural mentoring programme for teachers in the East Midlands area in creative and
Phase [online]. Available: http://www.creative- collaboration with the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Arts Inform was commissioned to cultural
partnerships.com/resources/resourcefiles/190722?vi support the development and delivery of the programme and to carry out an independent evaluation. professionals
ew=Standard [24 October, 2008]. The pilot programme ran from September 2005 to July 2006. The approach involved one-to-one
mentoring of teachers by key players from creative and cultural organisations.
4 Bedward, J. and Daniels, H.R.J. (2005). This article reports on an evaluation of the implementation of clinical supervision for nurses in seven Health and social
‘Collaborative solutions - clinical supervision and pilot sites. It provides a detailed analysis of the development of clinical supervision within each pilot care
teacher support teams: reducing professional site.
isolation through effective peer support’, Learning in
Health and Social Care, 4, 2, 53-66.

5 Boyle, B., Lamprianou, I. and Boyle, T. (2005). ‘A The second year of a longitudinal study to investigate the influence of professional development on Schools (teachers)
longitudinal study of teacher change: what makes the effectiveness of primary and secondary teachers in England. It explores the models of
 Appendix B 80

professional development effective? Report of the professional development for teachers in England, the impact of sustained and one-off interventions,
second year of study’, School Effectiveness and the characteristics of professional development, and impact on standards and pupil achievement.
School Improvement, 16, 1, 1-27.

6 Brooks, T. (2006). Cultural Leadership Programme: The programme, implemented by the Arts Council England, aimed to: Cultural sector
Coaching and Mentoring Report. London: Cultural - obtain an overview of the extent of coaching and mentoring in the sector
Leadership Programme [online]. Available: - determine key elements of coaching and mentoring approaches currently in use
http://www.culturalleadership.org.uk/uploads/docum - consider how a coordinated approach (including quality assurance) to coaching and mentoring
ents/COACHING&MENTORING-Brooks_11_19.pdf could be developed
[7 November, 2008]. - determine what part coaching and mentoring might play in ensuring a legacy for the Cultural
Leadership Programme (i.e. how it might be supported beyond 2006/7).
7 Chappell, K. (2007). ‘Three’s a crowd - or is it? Self This paper mainly draws on the relationships between teacher, external partner and mentor found Creative arts and
study of the research mentor role within teacher- within the Creativity Action Research Awards 2 (CARA2). an initiative commissioned by Creative dance
external partner researching partnerships.’ Paper Partnerships. The three-way model of creative partnership is being used as a means of professional
presented at the British Educational Research development within the context creative learning. Three-way partnerships can be found bridging the
Annual Conference, Institute of Education, University formal and informal education sectors, drawing together the worlds of the teacher, artist and
of London, London, 5-8 September. education academic.

8 Child, A. and Merrill, S. (2003). ‘Professional A survey into the use of mentoring in initial teacher training and how this affects the development of Schools – mentors
mentors' perceptions of the contribution of effective CPD within schools. The survey involved 55 professional mentors in secondary schools in of trainee teachers
school/HEI partnerships to professional development North West England.
and school improvement’, Journal of In-Service
Education, 29, 2, 315-324.

9 Coombs, S. and Fletcher, S. (2005). ‘Mentoring, A study about the use of action research, and the role mentoring plays in this process. In order to Schools
action research and critical thinking scaffolds: assist work-based learning at Master’s level, a systematic approach towards mentoring was
promoting and sustaining practitioner research deployed to help support teachers engage in critical enquiry in schools. The approach used
 Appendix B 81

through reflective practice.’ Paper presented at the conversational templates to support mentoring. Mentors were recruited in the workplace to support
British Educational practice-based research by teacher colleagues. These in-house mentors are referred to as school-
Research Association Annual Conference, University based mentors and are engaged by the university to support teachers and also to ensure the quality
of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, 14-17 September assurance of franchising academic work within the community.
[online]. Available: .
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/144105.do
c [12 November, 2008].

10 Cordingley, P. (2008). GTC Qualitative Study of A study to investigate how and by whom decisions are made about CPD needs and priorities in Teachers
School-Level Strategies for Teachers’ CPD. schools, the extent to which these decisions are strategic, and subsequent resource allocation and (including trainee
Coventry: CUREE [online]. Available: evaluation. This study builds on some key reports on the CPD evidence base and presents four teachers and
http://www.gtce.org.uk/shared/contentlibs/126795/93 case studies in support of its investigations. senior leadership
128/120213/curee_cpd_strategies.pdf [24 October, teams)
2008].

11 Cordingley, P. and Bell, M. (2007). Transferring This booklet provides case studies of transferring learning and innovation across sectors. It is one of Education and
Learning and Taking Innovation to Scale [online]. The Innovation Unit’s series of ‘think pieces’. The booklet explores coaching, co-coaching and other sectors
Available: http://www.innovation-unit.co.uk/about- mentoring as part of educational change. It provides case studies, with different approaches to
us/publications/transferring-learning-and-taking- coaching and mentoring.
innovation-to-scale.html [24 October, 2008].

12 Cordingley, P., Bell, M., Rundell, B. and Evans, D. This is an EPPI Centre systematic review of CPD. All the studies reported in the review feature the Education
(2003). ‘The impact of collaborative CPD on use of specialist, external expertise in collaborative CPD, although the extent and nature of these
classroom teaching and learning.’ Research partnerships between ‘experts’ and teachers varied greatly. Most of the studies in this review
Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI- involved some form of coaching including observation and feedback. Models included:
Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of - experts working with teachers and coaches and/or consultants, coupled with:
Education, University of London [online]. Available: - teacher to teacher (peer) coaching
 Appendix B 82

http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Default.aspx?tabid=132 [24 - training mentor teachers who then provided mentoring in-house
October, 2008]. - HEI researchers working with teachers.

13 Creative Partnerships (2005). Creative Partnerships In January 2003, Arts Inform were commissioned by Creative Partnerships London East and South Creative and
Arts and Cultural Organisations Mentoring Scheme: to research the possibilities of developing a Mentoring Programme involving representatives from cultural sectors
London East and London South. Evaluation and the cultural and creative sector and teachers, to deliver the initiative across core schools in the two
Outcomes of the Second and Final Phase [online]. areas. The paper provides definitions of different forms of mentoring and coaching and an idea of
Available: http://www.creative- when they will be used, e.g. ITT, NQTs, developing classroom practice and developing leadership.
partnerships.com/resources/resourcefiles/190703?vi
ew=Standard [24 October, 2008].

14 Foster-Turner, J. (2006). Coaching and Mentoring in This is a book about coaching and mentoring in health and social care. It includes a ‘how to’ step by Mainly health and
Health and Social Care: the Essentials of Practice step guide to mentoring and coaching. Examples/case studies include: Oxfordshire NHS Trust social care, some
for Professionals and Organisations. Oxford: coaching scheme, Berkshire Council mentoring scheme, Acorn scheme, and coach-mentoring in examples from
Radcliffe Publishing. education. The book sets out the journey of a mentoring and coaching relationship, stage by stage: education
initiating the relationship, following through the coach-mentoring relationship, reviewing progress,
and concluding the relationship. It explains a number of models, for example: the GROW model
(goal, reality, options, will); reflective technique (STOP – step back, think, organise your thoughts
and proceed); and a 3D approach. It includes a chapter on tools and techniques that can be used in
coach-mentoring such as Work Values Assessment and Mapping Tool, lifelines, future mapping,
profiling competencies, and SWOT analyses (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats).
15 Glazer, E.M. and Hannafin, M.J. (2006). ‘The A theoretical article, drawing on other literature to put forward the collaborative apprenticeship Schools (USA)
collaborative apprenticeship model: situtated model. The collaborative apprenticeship approach aims to improve professional learning practices
professional development within school settings’, by cultivating teaching communities situated in school environments. An expert or mentor leads a
Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 179-193. community of teachers toward the development of learning activities. Interactions in this model
include: storytelling, back-scratching, discussing/resolving conflict, brainstorming, giving and seeking
advice, modelling, sharing ideas, motivating and reinforcing. Phases of the collaborative
 Appendix B 83

apprenticeship model include: introduction, developmental, proficient, and mastery.

16 General Teaching Council for England (2004). The GTC overview on the CPD EPPI review carried out by CUREE. It contains a short section on the Schools
Impact of Collaborative Continuing Professional application of coaching in the CPD process. Peer coaching in CPD is built around:
Development (CPD) on Classroom Teaching and - a baseline stage where teachers planned and implemented the programme strategies unaided
Learning: an Overview. [online]. Available: - peer coaching to help teachers introduce new strategies
http://www.gtce.org.uk/research/romtopics/rom_cpd/ - peer coaching to refine the strategies
collaborative_cpd_feb04/overview [24 October, - a maintenance phase to consolidate progress.
2008].

17 General Teaching Council for England (2005). The GTC Research of the Month team have summarised and synthesised the findings of two Schools
Continuing Professional Development: Research of systematic reviews concerned with CPD conducted by the same review group, which were
the Month [online]. Available: published online by the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information (EPPI) and Co-ordinating
PrFont34Bin0BinSub0Frac0Def1Margin0Margin0Jc1 Centre in summer 2005. The article includes a discussion of effective elements of collaborative CPD
Indent1440Lim0Lim1http://www.gtce.org.uk/research including teachers working to support one another, creating trust, commitment, safe space for
/romtopics/rom_cpd/cpd_dec05/ [24 October, 2008]. experimentation, usually involving observation and interpretation of shared experiences. It includes
reference to peer coaching.
18 Hafford-Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., Begum, N. and A book chapter on coach mentoring in the social care workplace. The chapter describes an Social care, health
Chick, N.F. (2007). ‘Coach mentoring as a interagency model on coach mentoring (ICMS), involving a partnership between Social Services, and housing
developmental tool in the workplace.’ In: Hafford- Housing, NHS Primary Care Trust and a local voluntary social care organisation. The ICMS involves
Letchfield, T., Leonard, K., Begum, N. and Chick, peer mentoring and supervision across agencies.
N.F. (Eds) Leadership and Management in Social
Care. London: Sage.

19 Hargreaves, E. (2008). Using Mentoring and This article sets out the Institute of Education’s approach to peer mentoring and coaching, which is Education
Coaching to Support Work Based Learning: an based on the concept of work-based learning. The study describes the learning achieved by both
Evaluation. London: Institute of Education, University mentor/coaches and clients of the service as situated learning, relating to self, behaviours and
of London [online]. Available: relationships in the workplace, and professional skills. For clients, the effectiveness of the
 Appendix B 84

http://www.wlecentre.ac.uk/cms/files/pr_hargreaves_ mentoring/coaching process depended on the coach’s skill in allowing the clients to take the active,
07.pdf [12 November, 2008]. responsible role in their learning. In this model, the mentor/coach had no professional power over
the client. The fact that the mentor/coach was not restricted to roles traditionally associated with
either mentor or coach meant that the mentor/coaches could address a range of work based issues,
in the way most appropriate for the particular client.
20 Hobson, A. (2003). Mentoring and Coaching for New A literature review on mentoring and coaching of new headteachers/school leaders. School leaders
Leaders: a Review of Literature Carried Out for
NCSL. Full Report Spring 2003 [online]. Available:
http://www.ncsl.org.uk/media/F7B/42/hobson-
mentoring-and-coaching-full.pdf [20 February, 2006].

21 Hobson, A. and Sharp, C. (2005). ‘Head to head: a A systematic review of international research on the mentoring of new headteachers and other Headteachers
systematic review of the research evidence on leaders, commissioned by the NCSL. The review asked: what mentoring strategies are being used
mentoring new head teachers’, School Leadership to assist the development of new heads? And what does the research evidence tell us about the
and Management, 25, 1, 25-42. effectiveness of such strategies? Twenty-four sources were fully summarised for the review.

22 Jones, M., Nettleton, P., Smith, L., Brown, J., This study explores mentees’ and mentors’ perceptions of mentoring across four disciplines – Teachers including
Chapman, T. and Morgan, J. (2005). ‘The mentoring teaching, nursing, midwifery and medicine. The study considers perceptions of the mentoring role, trainee teachers,
chameleon - a critical analysis of mentors’ and including supporting, advising, supervising, teaching and modelling. The research involved a survey nurses, midwives
mentees’ perceptions of the mentoring role in with 1,200 mentors and mentees who were undertaking courses at Edge Hill College of Higher and doctors
professional education and training programmes for Education.
teachers, nurses, midwives and doctors.’ Paper
presented at the
British Educational Research Association Annual
Conference, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd,
14-17 September [online]. Available:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/143672.do
 Appendix B 85

c [12 November, 2008].

23 Lofthouse, R. and Leat, D. (2006). ‘Coaching for A discussion article on feedback from teachers (including geography teachers) who have been Schools
geography teachers’, Teaching Geography, 31, 3, trained as coaches. It discusses that the aims of coaching include: 1) to assist the teacher being (geography
130-132. coached in lesson planning, 2) to set up a process of reflective lesson analysis, and 3) to create a teachers)
climate in which it is normal to take risks.
24 McDonnell, F. and Zutshi, H. (2006c). Continuing This book sets out the CPD strategy and framework designed for employers and workers in the Social care
Professional Development for the Social Care social care sector. The CPD framework is intended to support employers in social care to implement
Workforce:. The Framework. Leeds: Skills for the strategy by providing: a shared understanding of CPD within the current social care context, a
Care/CWDC. model for developing a consistent and coherent approach to CPD, systems and processes for
implementing CPD, and exemplars for career pathways.
25 McDonnell, F. and Zutshi, H. (2006b). Continuing This is the employers' guide that supports the above framework. Social care
Professional Development for the Social Care
Workforce. Employers’ Guide. Leeds: Skills for
Care/CWDC.

26 McDonnell, F. and Zutshi, H. (2006a). Continuing This is the report that supports the above framework. Social care
Professional Development Strategy for the Social
Care Workforce. Leeds: Skills for Care/CWDC.

27 Moor, H., Halsey, K., Jones, M., Martin, K., Stott, A., An evaluation of the DfES EPD (Early Professional Development) scheme, which provided £700 per Schools and early
Brown, C. and Harland, J. (2005). Professional term to support the professional development of second year teachers and £350 per term in their career teachers
Development for Teachers Early in Their Careers: an third year. All EPD teachers had a mentor. The research involved case studies in 36 schools, repeat
Evaluation of the Early Professional Development surveys over three years for teachers and their mentors, and a comparative sample.
Pilot Scheme (DfES Research Report 613). London:
DfES [online]. Available:
http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR
 Appendix B 86

613.pdf [12 November, 2008].

28 National Institute for Economic and Social Research The National Childminding Association was contracted by SureStart to run pathfinder support Social care/early
(2005). The Support Childminder Pathfinder childminder projects in seven local authorities. The scheme was developed to increase the support years/childminders
Scheme: Evaluation Report September 2003- available to new childminders, through peer mentoring, and with the aim of increasing rates of
November 2004 [online]. Available: recruitment and retention. This study involved 49 interviews with support childminders, coordinators
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/Sur and line managers, and a postal survey with 111 responses from childminders.
estartReportFR005.pdf [24 October, 2008].

29 Office for Standards in Education (2003). An This evaluation discusses the establishment of Training Schools, and their activities to develop and Schools
Evaluation of the Training Schools Programme disseminate good practice in initial teacher training (ITT), train mentors and undertake relevant
[online]. Available: research.
http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/assets/3435.pdf [24
October, 2008].

30 Office for Standards in Education (2006). The This is a report from OFSTED on the latest state of play regarding CPD in schools, including Schools
Logical Chain: Continuing Professional Development mentoring and coaching.
in Effective Schools (HMI Report 2639) [online].
Available:
http://www.villierspark.org.uk/v_p_/images/pdfs/CPD
%20report.pdf [24 October, 2008].

31 O’Reilly, S. (2008). ‘Pushing skills further’, Local A short discussion article about coaching in the context of management. It suggests that coaching is Management
Government Chronicle, 10 January, 28-29. about offering support to senior managers with the aim of improving their performance in terms of
outcomes and deliverables. It discusses that coaching is highly individualised.
 Appendix B 87

32 Passmore, J. (2006). ‘Coaching psychology: A theoretical and practical discussion on executive coaching, with a case study example of how this Management (and
applying integrative coaching within education’, The is applied to a school head. a school
British Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 2, 3, headteacher)
27-33.

33 Renshaw, P. (2008). REFLECT: Creative Evaluation of Creative Partnerships’ REFLECT programme involving co-mentoring and peer learning Schools and
Partnerships National Co-mentoring Programme. for emerging leaders from schools and creative and cultural organisations. The evaluation included creative / cultural
Executive Summary. Gateshead: The Sage 49 questionnaire respondents, 29 in-depth interviews, and interviews with REFLECT and Creative sector
Gateshead. Partnership team members.

34 Robins, A. (Ed) (2006). Mentoring in the Early Years. A book about mentoring in early years’ settings, offering practical guidance for professionals Early years
London: Paul Chapman. undertaking mentoring, illustrated with case studies, questions for reflection and discussion, and
suggested activities for professional development.
35 Social Care Institute for Excellence (2003). A This is a framework/guidance document. It mentions ‘long-arm’ mentoring. Social care
Framework for Supporting and Assessing Practice
(SCIE Position Paper No. 2). London: SCIE.

36 Simkins, T., Coldwell, M., Caillau, I., Finlayson, H. An evaluation of the first cohort of Leading from the Middle (LftM) – a national leadership Schools – middle
and Morgan, A. (2006). ‘Coaching as an in-school development programme embracing in-school coaching. The evaluation included telephone managers
leadership development strategy: experiences from interviews with participants, coaches and tutors, exit surveys of all participants and coaches, and
Leading from the Middle’, Journal of In-Service case studies in 12 schools.
Education, 32, 3, 321-340.

37 Quality Improvement Agency (2008). Welcome to The Subject Learning Coach website is a portal for managers, teachers and trainers throughout the Education
the Subject Learning Coach Website [online]. learning and skills sector to access National Teaching and Learning Change Programme
Available: http://www.subjectlearningcoach.net/ [12 information. It promotes an integrated support programme based on coaching, resources and
November, 2008]. networks. It draws on the work of Joyce and Showers, Kolb’s Cycle of Learning, and the GROW
 Appendix B 88

model.

38 van Kessel, L. (2006). ‘Coaching, a field for A review of coaching literature across many sectors (e.g. sports, health, working life, leadership, Many sectors,
professional supervisors?’, Ljetopis Socijalnog Rada, etc). It discusses a number of approaches to mentoring and coaching, including in schools, where including
14, 2, 387-430. coaching can be: education
- ‘Cognitive coaching’ – i.e. like clinical supervision, helps teachers to reflect on practice, self-
monitor, self-evaluate, etc.
- ‘Collegial’ or ‘peer coaching’ – i.e. like peer clinical supervision
- ‘Expert coaching’ – where the coach is specially trained and has expertise to observe colleagues
- ‘Reciprocal coaching – where teachers observe each other, give feedback and support
- ‘Content-focused coaching’ – used in training and professional development programmes for
teachers to reflect on specific lessons.
39 Warman, A. and Jackson, E. (2007). ‘Recruiting and Practice-based evidence on work discussion groups – a model of supervision developed for use Social care
retaining children and families’ social workers: the within clinical training, and now being exported to other community settings. Work discussion groups
potential of work discussion groups’, Journal of are a forum for staff to share concerns and challenges. They are usually facilitated by an external
Social Work Practice, 21 , 1, 35-48. consultant with relevant professional experience. This study includes findings from over 90
evaluation forms at the Tavistock Clinic and Brent Centre for Young People.
40 Webb, M., Pachler, N., Mitchell, H. and Herrington, This study focuses on ITT, but some of the ingredients of mentor development overlap with those for Schools – initial
N. (2007). ‘Towards a pedagogy of mentor mentoring and coaching more broadly in schools. teacher training
education’, Journal of In-Service Education, 33, 2,
171-188.

41 Williams, D. and Hogger, S. (2008). REFLECT: This handbook provides a detailed step-by-step guide for how the REFLECT mentoring Teachers and
Creative Partnerships National Co-mentoring programme/method is undertaken. creative and
Programme Handbook. Gateshead: The Sage cultural
Gateshead. professionals
 Appendix B 89

42 Wimpenny, K., Forsyth, K., Jones, C., Evans, E. and This study explores participatory action research, following three teams of occupational therapists Occupational
Colley, J. (2006). ‘Group reflective supervision: and an academic supervisor who met for group supervision for two hours once every four week for therapy
thinking with theory to develop practice’, British 12 months. The evaluation used individual interviews and service-wide workshops.
Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69, 9, 423-427.

43 Zwart, R.C., Wubbels, T., Bergen, T.C.M. and This was a one year study of four teachers undertaking reciprocal peer coaching in two secondary Schools (the
Bolhuis, S. (2007). ‘Experienced teacher learning schools in the Netherlands. Data sources included audio tapes of coaching conferences, audiotapes Netherlands)
within the context of reciprocal peer coaching’, of semi-structured interviews with the teachers, and digital diaries with teacher reports of learning.
Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 13, 2, Reciprocal peer coaching in this study included a two-day workshop, three follow-up meetings and
165-187. coaching activities within the classroom. Reciprocal peer coaching was also embedded within a
larger nation-wide initiative to support active and self-regulated student learning.
 Appendix C 90

Appendix C: a template for reviewing

sources
Reference:

Sector
Education, social care, other
CPD context
Mentoring, coaching, broader
context of CPD
About the study
Purpose
What are the main aims of the
study/activity?
Participants
Heads/teachers/NQTs/support
staff/social care workforce
Country, geographical region or
area in which the research/activity
was carried out
Duration of project
Timescale, ongoing, etc
Method(s)
Data collection methods, sample
sizes, etc.
Definitions, models and approaches
Definitions of mentoring and
coaching
Approaches/models of mentoring
and coaching
Reference to National Framework
for coaching and mentoring
Key findings from the project: impacts
Impacts for participants (mentees,
mentors, etc) (including teachers,
other professionals, etc)
Impacts for organisations
(schools/ social care organisations,
etc)
Impacts for young people (e.g.
pupils)
Other impacts

Key findings from the project: effectiveness / effective ingredients of mentoring and
coaching
Challenges
Effectiveness/Effective elements
Other
Researcher comments
Appendix C 91